FROM THE PAST WE CAME

STEPHEN and MATILDA ~ 1141 BATTLE FOR LINCOLN CASTLE

2020-12-03T11:30:00.000+00:00

Empress Maud and King Stephen

(9) During these wars, on the whole, the immediate sufferers were generally the men doing battle, nevertheless, on occasions, the citizens’ were the ones that suffered immensely. The rich town of Nottingham, which had been spared from harm in every preceding civil strife since the Conquest, was at the suggestion of Ralf Paganel, attacked and plundered by the Earl of Gloucester, the inhabitants fleeing to the churches for refuge from the slaughter. One of the wealthiest inhabitants was seized and led strongly bound to his dwelling, where he was compelled to hand over his treasures. Leading the plunderers into a vault, in which his wealth was deposited, he withdrew sharply, closing all the doors and then set fire to the dwelling. More than thirty people are said to have perished in the vault, it was even asserted that the fire spread from that house to every other house and soon the whole town was a burning inferno. The people who had not made it to the churches were soon rounded up and carried away as prisoners, those who had sought shelter within the sacred structures, men, women, and children, perished in the fires that had swept through the town.

The sense of feeling among the people, against Matilda, was growing, her followers showing no consideration as they plundered and burnt down the towns. They turned to their King, but to no avail, Stephen had problems of his own.

The court of Stephen was exhibiting a series of ever-increasing disagreements. Throughout which the King was allowing himself to be guided more by personal favour than by the desire for peace and quiet of his kingdom. The choosing of a new bishop of Salisbury gave way to some belligerent altercations between the Bishop of Winchester and the King. The Bishop demanded the vacant see for his nephew, Henry of Sully, but failing to obtain it, withdrew from the court absolutely outraged. Stephen strove to calm him, by bestowing on the nephew the rich abbey of Fecamp. Count Waleram of Meulan desired the bishopric for his chancellor, Philip of Harulfcour, Archdeacon of Bayeux. The legate and clergy offered so strong an opposition, that the see of Bayeux was at length bestowed on Philip, while that of Salisbury continued vacant for some years until it was given to Joscelyn of Bailleul. This action by Stephen alienated himself from the clergy and when he celebrated the festival of Whitsuntide in the Tower of London, only one prelate, the bishop of Seez appeared at his court.

A great war was now emerging between the King and Ranulf, Earl of Chester, resulting from a previous grievance over land.

THE BATTLE FOR LINCOLN CASTLE

King Stephen at the battle for Lincoln castle

Ranulf was married to Maud, daughter of Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester and inherited the Earldom of Chester in 1128. In 1136 David I of Scotland invaded England as far as Durham but was forced by Stephen to negotiate treaties that involved granting Ranulf's lands to Scotland. Stephen granted, along with Carlisle, much of Cumberland and the honour of Lancaster, lands that belonged to Ranulf’s father that had been surrendered by agreement to Henry I, in return for the Earldom of Chester. Ranulf claimed that his father had at that time, been disinherited. When he heard of the concessions made to the Scottish King, Ranulf left Stephen's court in a rage. In the second Treaty of Durham (1139), Stephen was even more generous to King David, granting the Earldom of Northumbria (Carlisle, Cumberland, Westmorland and Lancashire north of the Ribble) to David’s son Prince Henry. Ranulf was prepared to revolt in order to win back his lordship of the north.

Prince Henry was due to attend the English court, on Michaelmas (29th Sept), Ranulf put a plan together to overwhelm him on his return to Scotland. When word reached Queen Matilda (Stephen’s wife), of this plot, she persuaded Stephen to escort Henry back to Scotland. With his plan foiled, Ranulf and his brother William de Roumare, thought of a way to gain access to Lincoln Castle and lay siege. They tricked their way into the castle by sending their wives to visit the Constable’s wife.

The garrison at Lincoln had no reason to suspect the Countess of Chester nor her sister-in-law of any plots to seize the castle and were busy playing sports at the time of their arrival. The ladies were, ‘talking and joking’ with the unsuspecting Matron when the Earl of Chester came in, ‘without his armour or even his mantle’ (ordinary clothes), presumably to collect the ladies and was attended only by three soldiers. His men-at-arms then suddenly overpowered the unsuspecting guards and the gates were thrown open to Earl William and his numerous followers. They seized all the weapons in the castle and throw out the royal garrison.

The Earls held the castle against the King, who speedily marched to Lincoln, but Ranulf devised a way of escaping and went to round up more men from Chester and to confer with Earl Robert of Gloucester.

To Earl Robert and other supporters of Matilda, this was great news as Ranulf was a powerful and influential man. Without disclosing his intentions, Earl Robert swiftly raised an army. He called on the Welsh, the outlaws and the rebels from all sides to march to the Trent, which due to heavy rains, they crossed with great difficulty. Earl Robert joined up with Ranulf on the way to Lincoln and on the 2nd of February 1141 this huge, impending force appeared unexpectedly, in front of the King. The appearance of a large force of Welsh troops as far east as Lincoln was obviously a terrifying prospect. As described in the chronicles:

‘a dreadful and unendurable mass of Welsh’

Stephen held a council of war at which his barons advised that he should leave a force and depart to safety, but Stephen disregarded the odds and decided to fight. Waleram of Meulan and his brother, William of Warenne, plus William Earl of York, Gilbert of Clare and Earl Alan of Richmond, renounced, together with their followers, before the beginning of the battle, both the King and the contest. Only a few valiant knights, Baldwin Fitz-Gilbert, Richard Fitz-Urse, Engelram of Sai, and Ilbert of Lacy, stood without fear, at the side of the King.

The Royal force was divided into three divisions, the first of which consisted of the Flemings, under William of Ypres; and the Bretons, under Count Alan of Brittany. Opposite these stood the soldiers of Earl Ranulf and the Welsh foot soldiers, under two Princely brothers, Meredith and Cadwalader, who made up around a third of the Earls’ total force.

Before the battle started, speeches were made by the leaders of the two armies. Earl Robert’s speech was full of passion and anger for his sister’s cause. That of Baldwin Fitz-Gilbert’s, who had undertaken to speak for the Royal army, instead of the King, who was suffering from hoarseness, was spoken with dignity on the justice of Stephen’s cause.

Stephen immediately sent some of his troops ahead to prevent Earl Robert from crossing a nearby bridge, but the outlaws, in their numbers, charged his lines, seized the bridge and proceeded to engage in a fierce hand to hand battle with the main body of the Royal army. The Royals were outnumbered and soon overpowered, as almost instantaneously the line broke in many places and the most respected of the Royal soldiers, who were too closely packed together, were compelled to flee. Among them, after it became clear Stephen was in danger of losing, were Count Alan of Brittany and William of Ypres, who fled with such disgraceful precipitation and cowardice. The barons, to avoid committing themselves to the losing side, left a means of retreat open, by also securing themselves to Earl Robert. It was said:-

“In that battle treachery ran wild. Some of the magnates joined the king with only a handful of their men and sent the main body of their retainers to secure the victory for their adversaries.”

Stephen, however, battled on with a few faithful knights, Baldwin Fitz-Gilbert, Richard Fitz-Urse, Engelram of Sai, and Ilbert of Lacy, who fought courageously with him to the end. With a Norwegian battle-axe, given to him by a man from Lincoln, the King brought down every foe that approached him. He smashed the helmet of Earl Ranulf, but without killing him. On trying to retreat, the King was then struck by a stone which brought him to the ground. A valiant knight, William of Cahaines, seized the King by his helmet and with a loud voice announced the prize he had taken. Stephen now had no option, but to yield himself a prisoner to Earl Robert along with Baldwin Fitz-Gilbert and Richard Fitz-Urse. Earl Robert naturally handed over his valuable prize to his half-sister Matilda, who consigned Stephen to captivity in Bristol Castle.

STEPHEN IN CAPTIVITY

When the citizens of Lincoln heard of the King's defeat, many of them abandoned their homes and fled towards the nearby river and sought to escape by boat across the water, but many drowned when their boats capsized in the general panic to escape. As soon as the battle was over, Earl Ranulf and the other victors entered the city and sacked it like barbarians. They slaughtered like cattle, all the rest of the citizens they could find or capture, putting them to death in different ways without mercy or humanity.

The earls, Waleram of Meulan, William of Warenne, Simon of Northampton and William of Ypres, now hastened to the side of Queen Matilda (Stephen's wife) who had found refuge in Kent. Earl Ranulf was using his powers to gain possession of more castles, partly by treachery and partly by the threat of hunger and violence. Stephen had now lost control of Cornwall and the castle of Devizes which was surrendered to the Empress. The town of Nottingham was taken from William Peverel and given to William Paganel. From the knights that had been captured, vast ransoms were extorted without any goodwill towards the fact that Stephen had already taxed them greatly.

Matilda now turned her attention to Roger, bishop of Winchester, knowing he was one of the most powerful men in the land, she declared:-

'If he would attach himself to my party, honours should await him; if, on the other hand, he proved adverse and rebellious, the whole armed force of England should be directed against him.'

Bishop Roger's position was a difficult one; on the one hand, to defend the cause of the King seemed an almost hopeless task, while on the other, it was painful to him and must have appeared indecent and unnatural to others, to declare in favour of Matilda, while his brother was still alive. He avoided making a decision or committing himself in order to gain time. Outwardly he entered on terms of peace and friendship with the enemy, in the hope that when an opportunity presented itself, he could come forward in support of his brother.

Accompanied by the Bishop of Ely and other high ranking clergies, Matilda made her way to Winchester to meet with Bishop Roger where the most distinguished ecclesiastics, the nobles of her party, the mercenaries and others had assembled on this wet and foggy morning.

The meeting took place on the 2nd of March on an open plane near the city. Here Matilda swore to Bishop Roger;-

'that all the most important concerns of the realm, particularly the disposal of vacant bishoprics and abbacies, should be according to his will if he and the holy Church would receive her as their sovereign lady and ever observe fealty to her.'

Bishop Roger made no hesitation to acknowledge her as Queen of England as long as her word was pure, he would stay faithful to her.

QUEEN MATILDA

On the following day, attended by the Bishop and other clergies, Matilda went in procession to the cathedral, where the crown and the scanty treasure left there by Stephen was delivered to her, she was proclaimed Queen of England, the Bishop cursing those who cursed her, and blessing those who blessed her.

From Winchester she proceeded to Wilton, where the Archbishop Theobald swore allegiance to her, which he had till then withheld, deeming it derogatory to his office and character to take that step until he had consulted and obtained a release from the king. His example was followed by the majority of the clergy and some of the ordinary folks.

A few days after, on 7th of April, a council of the Archbishop Theobald and all the bishops of England, with many abbots and archdeacons, was held at Winchester, at which the Bishop Roger presided. With each of these legates and prelates the Bishop held a private conference, were he explained to them his views and intentions.

On the following day he addressed them in a speech, reminding them of the peaceful state of the country under the late King Henry; how some years before his death he had caused all the bishops and barons of England and Normandy to swear fealty to his sole surviving offspring, should no male successor be born to him by his second consort:

"This was not granted to him, and he died in Normandy without male issue. To await the coming of a lady, whose departure from Normandy was delayed from various causes, seemed tedious, and the peace of the country was provided for by allowing my brother to reign."

"Alas!" continued he, "although I became his surety before God, that he would honour and exalt the holy Church, maintain good laws, and abrogate bad ones, it grieves me to call to mind, I feel shame in uttering it, how he has conducted himself in the kingdom, how he has neglected to execute justice on the contumacious, how all peace, from the very beginning of his reign, has been at an end; bishops being held in captivity and compelled to deliver up their possessions, abbacies sold, churches despoiled of their treasures, the counsels of the wicked listened to, those of the good either delayed or treated with scorn. You know how often I have addressed him, both directly and through the medium of bishops; more particularly at the council lately held, and that I have thereby gained nothing but odium. To all who rightly think it will be manifest, that while it is my duty to love my brother, of far greater moment is the cause of our everlasting Father. Therefore, since God has pronounced judgement on my brother, and allowed him to fall into the hands of his adversaries, lest the realm is convulsed if it lacks a ruler, I have, in virtue of my legatine authority, summoned you all to meet me here. Yesterday the subject was discussed in private before a considerable number of the clergy of England, whose province it especially is to elect and ordain princes; therefore, in the first place, invoking the divine assistance, as is meet, we choose the daughter of our late glorious king for our sovereign lady, and promise her our fealty and support."

When all present had, either by acclamations testified their approval of the bishop's rant, or, by holding silence, not objected to it, he added:-

"The citizens of London — who are, as it were, nobles, by reason of the magnitude of the city — we have summoned by our messengers, and sent them a safe-conduct, and 1 trust they will not defer their coming beyond this day."

The Londoners arrived the following day. They announced that they were here for the first time not in the spirit of hostility, but to pray that their Lord the King might be released from his captivity. They also pleaded to the Bishop and Archbishop on behalf of the barons who had been captured, to obtain their liberty. Bishop Roger answered their petition in great length, repeating the substance of his speech of the preceding day, and adding:

'That it ill became the Londoners, who were regarded as nobles in England, to espouse the cause of those who had forsaken their lord in battle, at whose instigation, too, he had dishonoured the holy Church, and who made a show of favouring the Londoners, merely that they might wheedle them out of their money'.

When the Bishop had finished speaking, a certain clerk stood up, 'a chaplain,' it is said, of the Queen's, named Christian and presented a letter to the Bishop. Having read the letter in silence, the Bishop returned, saying aloud;

'that it was not genuine, nor ought it to be read before an assemblage of such exalted and religious persons; for, in addition to the objectionable matter contained in it, there was the name of a witness attached to it, who a year or two ago had, in the very chapter in which they were then sitting, applied the most opprobrious language to the venerable bishops.'

The clerk however, was not discouraged, but with admirable confidence read the letter to the council, the substance of which was:

"The Queen earnestly entreats the clergy assembled in general, and the Bishop of Winchester, the brother of her Lord, in particular, to restore her said Lord to his kingdom, whom wicked men, his own liege subjects, have cast into bonds."

To this letter the Bishop returned an answer similar to that which he had given to the Londoners, who, after having deliberated together, said they would communicate the decree of the council to their fellow citizens and as far as they were able, be answerable for their goodwill. Within a day, the council was dissolved, after it had excommunicated many followers to the royal cause, among whom was William Martel, who had formerly been cup-bearer to King Henry, but was then sewer (a medieval household officer often of high rank in charge of serving the dishes at table and sometimes of seating and tasting) to Stephen. Bishop Roger was bitterly incensed towards William, for having intercepted and plundering many of his private properties.

Matilda had celebrated Easter at Wilton, from there she proceeded to Reading on the 4th May, where she was received with great honour. Robert of Oilli agreed to deliver up the castle of Oxford, of which Stephen had appointed him constable. From Oxford, after receiving the homage of that city and the surrounding country, she directed her course with great joy and exultation to St. Alban's, where she was met by a deputation of the citizens of London, who entered into a compact with her for the delivery of the Capital. With a great military pomp at Westminster she was received with a solemn procession.

The greater part of England now acknowledged her authority, but while all things seemed to promise the speedy reduction of the whole kingdom to her rule, all became changed, a storm was ready to burst over her head.

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CAPTURING MATILDA

2020-12-02T06:00:00.097+00:00

MAJOR CASTLES BEING HELD AGAINST STEPHEN

(8) The King stood alone, unshaken amid all the wars and dissensions in which he was involved. Without a moment to lose, he gathered together a body of veterans and headed for Arundel. On arrival, Stephen received intelligence from his scouts that the Earl, along with his followers, had fled in the dead of night and was heading to Bristol. The Earl was to place himself at the head of ten thousand Welsh and other adversaries of the King. Matilda on the other hand was still in the castle, along with her Angevin followers. Stephen left part of his army guarding the castle, to prevent Matilda from escaping and directed his efforts to the capture of Earl Robert. However, Stephen soon became frustrated, as Robert, avoiding the beaten road, had followed a more devious course across the country and soon reached Bristol safely. Stephen returned to the castle of Arundel and resumed the siege.

The Bishop of Winchester on hearing of the arrival of the Earl gave the word for all the by-ways to be guarded by soldiers. He then met with Earl Robert in secret and entered into a pact to allow the Earl to depart without injury. The Bishop then, as if he had not met with the Earl, joined his brother, the King, accompanied by a large body of knights. On finding that the King was no nearer in resolving the siege at Arundel, the Bishop advised him that continuing with this would be futile and not good for the kingdom. For if he undertook to besiege Matilda in one part of England, her brother would only raise an insurrection in another. Consequently, it would be more advisable, both for himself and the realm, to permit her, unharmed, to join her brother, so that the forces of both could be confined in one spot. The King could more easily direct all his efforts to their destruction and would be better enabled to pursue them with his whole power. Stephen foolishly followed this advice and pledges being given and received, permitted Matilda to join her brother.

The Bishop accompanied Matilda until she was met by her brother with an armed force, who conducted her to Bristol. On reaching Bristol she gave notice of her arrival to all the Barons of the realm, imploring their aid, to the promise of gifts. To others, she promised lands. All those who had only pretended to support her course broke their oaths of homage to the King and hastened to her standard. After which, she withdraws to Gloucester castle, which was held under Earl Robert, by Miles, the constable.

Releasing Matilda to join her brother was a huge mistake on behalf of Stephen. What the Barons saw as weakness, Stephen saw as compassion. At a later date, that compassion would not be reciprocated, now the civil war was here to stay.

There are too many petty battles to account for in the chronicles, which continued until the end of Stephen’s reign. Among the leading Barons who declared in the favour of Matilda was Brian Fitz-Count. On hearing intelligence of her arrival, he immediately supplied his strong castle of Wallingford with a large garrison and openly rose up against the King. Miles of Gloucester, also, in violation of his oath to Stephen, rose in open rebellion against him and gave asylum to all the enemies of the King who flocked to him. They proceeded to desolate the surrounding counties.

Stephen, undeterred, collected his forces and headed to Wallingford. His first intention was to blockade the castle, but he was diverted from this action by his council, on the grounds of the vast strength of the place and its stores being full to sustain life within the walls, for a long period of time. Far more advisable, added his council, would it be to erect two forts in front of it, placing inside a number of men sufficient to continue the blockade and proceed immediately to the suppression of other adversaries. Following this counsel, Stephen ordered for two forts to be erected before the castle and then with speed proceeded to Trowbridge.

On his march there, the King was fortunate, to take by assault, the castle of Cerney, which Miles had erected against him. He also gained by surrender, the strong castle of Malmesbury. Miles, with a chosen band of men, made an attack by night on the forts erected by Stephen, at Wallingford and forced the garrisons to surrender. Miles now gathered at Gloucester, all those whose possession had been laid waste by the King, whereupon he committed the most horrible devastation over the surrounding country.

In the meantime, the King had arrived at Trowbridge, where he found a fort of the most formidable size and strength. He used vast and powerful machines for the capture of the place, but the garrison withstood everything thrown at it. While his Barons grew weary of the siege, they have to be on constant guard for the approach of the Earl. Stephen decided to return to London, leaving a military force at Devizes, to hold the garrison of Trowbridge in check.

Stephen next proceeded to Worcester, which had sustained considerable damage from Miles of Gloucester. There, he deprived Miles of the office of constable and bestowed it on William, the Sheriff of Worcester, son of Walter of Beauchamp. Miles responded to this, by capturing, with great might and main, Hereford, Winchcomb and Cerney castle.

About this time, Robert, Bishop of Salisbury died, which can only ease the pressure between King and church, as many causes for disagreements might be more easily removed and the favour of the clergy towards Stephen, rendered more available. Stephen had lost a lot of his fortune due to his feud with the Bishop. In the eyes of Roger of Salisbury, the King had committed unpardonable crimes in offering violence to members of the church, in defiance of the scriptural command:

‘Touch not mine anointed.’

Stephen’s defiant attitude angered the Bishop and the feud between King and Church rolled on. The clergy had finally acknowledged Matilda. However, Roger of Salisbury was not to live long enough to see himself avenged. Also, the Bishop’s wealth fell to Stephen, which consisted of 40,000 marks of silver and a large quantity of gold and ornaments.

From Worcester, the King proceeded to Oxford and then, with his court, to Salisbury, where he celebrated Christmas according to royal custom. Here, the Canons presented him with 2000 pounds of silver, in return for which he granted them an exemption from all taxes on their lands, besides 20 marks for their own use and 40 for the covering of their church. Moreover, the King promised them that, if he obtained peace, he would restore what they had given him.

When Nigel, Bishop of Ely received intelligence of his uncle’s death, he was determined to reap vengeance on the King for the injury inflicted on his uncle. He aided Matilda with the utmost of his power, in her struggle for the throne. Casting away, therefore, all his evangelical duties of self-control, hope and faith. He abandoned the pastoral discipline of the church and took up arms against the King. After hiring soldiers in Ely, he cruelly acted in deeds of violence and became the terror of all around him.

When informed of the rebellion of the Bishop, the King immediately headed towards Ely, at the head of a considerable force. When seeing the extraordinary natural strength of the place, the King held an anxious council with his followers, as to the best method of attack. It was finally resolved to join a number of boats together in a part where the water appeared shallow and form a bridge across to the Isle. The plan was executed and the army reached the edge of the Isle. They now found themselves in an area consisting of muddy bogs, the men needed to find some way of crossing, quickly. A monk of Ely pointed out a ford that could easily be crossed, who for that service was made Abbot of Ramsey. Stephen then advanced into the Isle. Of the Bishop's men, some were taken, together with many valuable possessions. The Bishop himself with difficulty escaped to Gloucester, but the monks were treated by Stephen with that unchangeable kindness of which, in the midst of all his troubles, he ever preserved. Hence, his contemporaries and even tradition have justly separated Stephen's individuality from the cruelties committed during his reign, which, moreover, were for the most part perpetrated by his enemies.

In February 1140, the King of France, Lois VII betrothed his sister, Constance to Stephen’s son Eustace. While the Queen, with numerous barons of both realms, was in France, enjoying the festivities on this occasion, Stephen unexpectedly arrived in Cornwall. William Fitz-Richard, who the King had discussed the government of that province with, had, in a traitorous violation of his oath, received into one of the royal castles Reginald of Dunstanvile, an illegitimate son of the late King Henry. William Fitz-Richard had given him his daughter in marriage and delivered the entire county into his hands, but as soon as Reginald found himself possessed of great power when he begins to bend things to his will. He strengthens the castles throughout the county and severely oppresses the followers of the King in the vicinity. Sparing neither churches nor church property, Reginald brought on himself the penalty of ex-communication by the Bishop of Exeter.

When apprised of this state of affairs in Cornwall, Stephen, as we have said, unexpectedly appeared, where, having recovered the castles that had been seized by Reginald, he impulsively committed them to the keeping of Count Alan of Brittany, a man notorious for extreme cruelty, ordering him to quash the rebellion and drive Reginald from the county.

On hearing that Stephen had entered Cornwall, Earl Robert and his followers were overjoyed at the situation presented to them. Stephen was now shut up in a remote county and separated from the main body of his army, it would not be difficult to attack and overcome him, thought the Earl. Having, therefore, collected a numerous body of soldiers, the Earl hastened towards Cornwall, when some unwelcome news reached him. The King had not only quelled the rebellion but was close at hand, on his return, at the head of a powerful force. The fact was that Stephen, apprised of Earl Robert’s movements, had summoned to his aid all the barons of Devonshire, and made preparations to join in battle with his adversary on that day. A battle would have definitely ensued, had not Earl Robert, conceding to the advice of his friends, made a speedy retreat towards Bristol. On his return from Cornwall, Stephen destroyed many lawless castles, completely clearing and calming those parts that had long suffered under the tyranny of their possessors.

In the March of 1140 Robert Fitz-Hebert, a mercenary of the Earl of Gloucester and a truly unscrupulous man, having with some of his followers secretly slipped away from the Earl’s army. With the aid of ladders made of leather, they made their way to the castle of Devizes, which the King had taken from the Bishop of Salisbury. After eluding the watch and surprising the sleeping garrison Robert Fitz-Herbert takes control of the castle. Robert then inflicts cruel deeds on his fellow Barons, by rubbing his prisoners with honey and exposing them, naked to the sun.

When word of this brave act reached Earl Robert, he sent his son, at the head of a large force, in support of Robert Fitz-Hebert’s daring enterprise. Robert, having now obtained Devizes, refused to allow the Earl’s son entry and drove him from the gate, back to his father, saying that he had won the castle, so he would hold it. From thereon, he commenced with the devastation of the neighbouring countryside. Robert Fitz-Herbert had now declared himself an independent force intending to seize everything from Winchester to London.

At this time, the neighbouring castle of Marlborough was being held against the King by another crafty baron, John Fitz-Gilbert, a man as unscrupulous as Robert himself. Robert Fitz-Herbert had a great desire to be Lord of that castle also, so in his quest, he sent messages to John Fitz-Gilbert proposing a friendly league between them. The proposal was accepted and Robert Fitz-Herbert was invited as a guest, to Marlborough. No sooner, however, had he entered the castle when the gates were closed behind him and Robert found himself a prisoner rather than a guest. He and his followers were immediately thrown into the dungeon, to perish from hunger and torture.

Upon this Earl Robert, accompanied by the ex-constable Miles, came in force for revenge against his treacherous ally, Robert Fitz-Herbert. A sum of five hundred marks was offered to John Fitz-Gilbert for the delivery of Robert, into his hands, promising to render him back within a fortnight. To this proposal John accepted and the Earl, with Robert in his custody, returned to Gloucester. When required to surrender the castle of Devizes, Robert Fitz-Herbert refused, on the plea of the oath he and his associates had sworn, never to deliver up the place, but on being threatened with the gallows, he promised compliance, provided his life was spared.

On the day fixed, Robert Fitz-Hebert was conducted back to Marlborough, where the Earl proposed to proceed with Robert to Devizes, promising that if the castle were surrendered, it would be placed under John's authority. To this proposal, John agreed, but secretly sent letters to Robert Fitz-Hebert's followers at Devizes, in which he swore that neither himself nor the Earl contemplated any injury to Robert and encouraged them to keep their oath by holding out to the last extremity. This ensured the end of Robert Fitz-Herbert, to the satisfaction of John Fitz-Gilbert.

Leaving Miles and others at Devizes, Earl Robert returned to Gloucester, but not before commanding them to hang Robert Fitz-Hebert, if he refused to surrender the castle. As was to be expected, Robert's followers refused and Robert was then, of course, hung outside the castle that he so strongly fought over. The associates of Robert, notwithstanding their oath, finally consented to deliver up the castle to the King, for a considerable sum of money, who then entrusted the custody of it to his son-in-law, Herve the Breton.

In May of 1140, a negotiation for peace was now set in motion, at Bath, conducted on the part of Matilda by her brother, the Earl of Gloucester, while Stephen was represented by his untrustworthy brother, the legate, with whom the Queen and Archbishop accompanied, for the sake probably of keeping a watch over him.

The legate, in the previous September, went to France, where he spent the months of October and November, with the object of gaining over to his views, King Louis VII, Theobald Count of Blois and a number of the clergy. The proposals he brought back were, as was to be expected, readily accepted by Matilda, but which the King could not, but totally reject.

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STEPHEN and MATILDA ~ 1139 - 1140 THE ARRIVAL OF MATILDA

2020-12-01T04:35:00.018+00:00

Empress Maud

(7) Matilda’s campaign for the English throne was starting to pick up speed, now that her brother Robert, Earl of Gloucester had joined her cause. Many of the barons who were supporting Stephen, were also plotting against him, paving the way for Matilda’s return to England.

Roger, Bishop of Salisbury was in secret correspondence with Matilda, on the expectation of her arrival in England, he never went abroad or attended court. As Henry’s chancellor, he had accumulated vast riches and although enjoying some of the highest offices bestowed on him, under King Stephen, he nevertheless supplied the castles of Devizes, Sherborne, Malmesbury, and Salisbury, with provisions, weapons, and ammunition, for the service of Matilda. His nephew Alexander, Bishop of Lincoln; and Nigel, Bishop of Ely followed the example of their uncle and never attended court without a body of armed men by their side. This dazzling display on the part of the three Bishops seriously angered the Count of Meulan and other friends of the King. They accused the Bishops of:

‘Enjoying their pre-eminence in the realm, their wealth and power for their own vain, glory and gratification, not for the honour of the sovereign, of raising splendid castles and towers, not to secure the kingdom to the king, but to deprive him of his royal dignity.’

They advised the King to order the arrest of the Bishops and compel them to surrender their castles. If the King would agree to deliver them into custody, as violators of his peace, he would himself be more secure and the realm more tranquil.

On the 24th of June 1139, an assembly of the magnates (VIPs, aristocrats) of the Kingdom was held at Oxford, which was attended by the three Bishops. A quarrel soon erupted between the retainers of the Bishops and those of Alan, Count of Brittany. Many of the Bishop’s men were wounded and at least one was killed, while the followers of Alan were quickly dispersed. The Bishops themselves, being aware of what had taken place, were contemplating their escape, when a band of armed satellites appeared, arrested the Bishops' of Salisbury and Lincoln, and marched them straight to the King. Nigel, Bishop of Ely, having intelligence of what was occurring, managed to escape and took refuge in his uncle’s castle of Devizes.

Church of St. John the Baptist Devizes

On hearing of Nigel’s escape, the King immediately adopted measures for gaining possession of the castles of the three Bishops. He took with him the other two Bishops and proceeded to the castle of Devizes, which is described as having extraordinary strength and beauty. They were built for ornamental purposes only, according to the Bishops, but in truth, these fortresses caused great injury to the Church. Some would say:

“They ought to be preachers of peace, not builders of structures that might serve as asylums to criminals.”

By the King’s order, the captive Bishops were kept apart from each other in abominable conditions. One was contained in the stall of a cow-house, the other in a vile hovel, they were also kept from obtaining any food. He ordered for Chancellor Robert of Salisbury to be brought forward, with a halter round his neck, threatening to hang him before the gates of the castle, unless the Bishop of Ely surrendered forthwith. After three days Nigel finally surrendered the castle. All three Bishops then submitted and surrendered their secular offices and castles. They were, however, allowed to retain their dioceses.

This bold move on the part of Stephen was viewed in very opposite lights. By some, it was said that the Bishops were justly deprived of the castles, which they had erected in defiance of the Prohibition of the Canons. This was the firm belief of Stephen’s closest friend, Hugh, Archbishop of Rouen. Others believed, among who was the King’s brother, Henry, Bishop of Winchester, that if bishops swerved from the path of right, judgement on them, was not of the King, but of the Canons. Without a public ecclesiastical council, they should not be deprived of any possessions. It was said that the King had not acted from any love of right, but solely for his own advantage, by not restoring the castles to the churches, at whose cost and on whose lands they were erected. This had caused a huge divide between King and Church. Henry, Bishop of Winchester, given that his words made little impact on the King, summoned him to answer for his conduct before a council, which he appointed to be held on the 29th of August at Winchester.

On that day, Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury and almost all the Bishops, assembled at Winchester, were, after reading the decree of Pope Innocent II, conferring on him the legitimate authority, the Bishop of Winchester addressed the meeting in a Latin speech. He expressed his indignation at the seizure of the Bishops' of Salisbury and Lincoln. On finishing his speech, the Bishop of Winchester concluded by informing the Bishops that Stephen, after repeated warnings to atone for his outrage, had displayed no objection to the summoning of a council. He, therefore, called on the Archbishop and others to deliberate as to the steps necessary to be taken, adding that, although brother to the King and running the risk of losing his possessions or even his life, he would not fail in the execution of their decree.

While the Bishop was speaking the King sent some of his Earls into the assembly, to inquire why he had been cited? They were answered by the Bishop that it was unsuitable of anyone, who remembered he was a follower of the faith of Christ, to be aggrieved if summoned by the ministers of Christ to atone for a crime such as the one witnessed. The King should now act wisely and either justify his deed or submit to a canonical sentence and that it was his duty to show favour to the Church, by supporting it and not with the aid of an army. The Earls departed, but returned shortly, accompanied by Aubrey of Vere, a man well skilled in legal knowledge.

Aubrey reported the King’s answer and with his utmost power, while abstaining from the use of violent language, aggravated the cause of Bishop, Roger of Salisbury.

The king, he said, had suffered numerous insults at the hands of that bishop, who rarely came to court, but his followers, taking for granted the power of that bishop, caused an altercation, as recently as Oxford. They had assailed men and the nephew of Count Alan of Brittany, also the retainers of Herve of Leon, a man of very high nobility and pride on the account of an old grudge that the Bishop of Lincoln had against count Alan of Brittany.

He reported on the fact that the Bishop of Salisbury was secretly favouring the King’s enemies, though for a time he had succeeded in disguising his treachery. It was widely known that as soon as Matilda landed, he and his nephews, with their castles, would be at her disposal. Aubrey also claimed that Roger of Salisbury was not arrested as a bishop, but as a servant of the King, who had the administration of his affairs and received his pay. He explains that the King had not seized the castles by violence, but that both Bishops had gladly surrendered them, to escape from the consequences of having excited a riot in the Kings court. The money that was found by the King in the castles, it was said, was lawfully his, Roger of Salisbury, in the time of King Henry, had amassed it from the returns of the royal revenue. Both the monies and the castles had been delivered up from fear of the consequences of their acts against the King.

In response to these words of Aubrey, Roger of Salisbury loudly exclaimed that he had never been an official of King Stephen nor received any wages. Moreover, he threatened that if justice was not done for him, with respect to what had been taken from him, he would seek it in a higher court. Aubrey observed the fact that Roger of Salisbury seemed more concerned about his possessions rather than trying to prove that he and the other Bishops have acted appropriately in the eyes of the church.

Aubrey concluded by saying: It had reached the ears of the King that the Bishops were holding out threats and preparing to send some of their numbers to Rome, to plead against him.

“And this,” added he, “the king advisers you not to do because if anyone, contrary to his will and the dignity of the realm, departs from England, he may, perhaps, find it difficult to return. Moreover, the king feeling himself aggrieved, spontaneously appeals against you to Rome.”

The meeting went on for a few days, with Stephen constantly making excuses as to why he could not attend. The council was finally dismissed on the 1st of September without deciding anything. The King refused to submit to the Canons and the Bishops made the sensible decision not to pronounce any judgement on him, either because they thought it dangerous to excommunicate a King without the sanction of the Pope, or because they could see and hear swords being drawn around them. Part of the problem facing the Bishops was that Stephen had not removed Roger of Salisbury’s family from their ecclesiastical offices, only their secular ones. Nevertheless, the Bishop of Winchester and Archbishop Theobald making a last effort to fulfil their duty, threw themselves at the King’s mercy, pleading with him to show pity on the church and on his own soul and reputation. Their attempt at this proved futile. The King stood his ground against the Church, which can be a dangerous thing to do in medieval England, but before long the King would have more important things to worry about.

William of Mohun had erected the castle of Dunster, on the coast of the Bristol channel, in Somersetshire. He had assembled a considerable body of knights and soldiers to oppose Stephen’s authority. From the stronghold of the castle, they laid waste and plundered the surrounding country, putting to the sword and burning all who shown any resistance. He inflicted hideous torture on those suspecting on having wealth, renewing the horrors that these lands have already suffered.

Dunster Castle

Stephen, on hearing of these enormities, quickly raised a large army to repress William of Mohun, but on arriving at the castle, he soon realised that this was not going to be so easy. Dunster Castle was a huge structure, washed by the sea on one side and its walls strongly guarded, on the other sides. The castle was also surrounded by many outworks and deep trenches. On listening to the advice of others, Stephen ordered a fort to be erected in front of the castle, where he could keep watch and give greater security to the surrounding areas.

Before long, Stephen was needed elsewhere, so he delegated his authority to Henry of Tracy, an experienced and valiant soldier and ordered him to vigorously come down on the enemy at whatever cost. From his hometown of Barnstaple, Henry of Tracy carried out his orders with such energy, not only did he repress the garrison at Dunster, but on one occasion captured a hundred and four knights, in an encounter of cavalry and reduced William of Muhun to humble himself and cease from any further hostilities against the King. Thereupon, the surrounding land was restored to a comparative degree of tranquillity and immune from all causes of unrest.

However, William of Mohun was not the only one who Tracy forced into obedience, William Fitz-Odo was also forced to submit to the King’s authority after being weakened by various conflicts with Tracy. One-night, Tracy received intelligence from his spies that the castle of William Fitz-Odo was deserted by its defenders, who had gone on a plundering expedition. In the dead of night, Tracy made his way to the castle and having eluded the watch, he ordered for lighted torches to be thrown through the windows of a tower, whereby the interior was soon engulfed in flames. The Lord of the castle was badly burnt and eventually, he was carried off by Tracy, together with all his treasures. Henry of Tracy made it quite clear that his loyalties lie with the King and anybody who rose up against him would feel his wrath.

During this state of unrest, Baldwin of Redvers, who Stephen had exiled from Exeter back in 1136, had fled to Anjou and jointed forces with Matilda. At the beginning of August 1139, he landed in England with a considerable body of men. His orders were, to establish a maritime base for Matilda’s planned invasion. On arriving at Wareham and being unable to take it, he soon headed for Corfe Castle, where the garrison turned traitor and allowed him and his men to enter. The news of this soon reached the ears of other supporters of Matilda, and they too rose up in revolt.

Baldwin prepared to oppose Stephen, who was fast approaching the castle. It is unknown how many men arrived at Corfe with Stephen, but Stephen was fully aware of the castle’s massive fortified strength and its superb defensive positioning. He ordered his troops to construct a ‘counter-castle’, just 320 yards west of Corfe castle and settled in for a long siege. After a considerable time passed, the King had expected to overcome his enemy, either by means of military engines or by hunger, but Baldwin held out. Stephen then received some very worrying intelligence. He eventually conceded to the advice of his followers and allowed Baldwin to withdraw unharmed.

The intelligence that Stephen had received was to have dire consequences on the country. Empress Matilda and her brother Earl of Gloucester were on the eve of invading England. Stephen had ordered for all the ports to be closely watched, day and night before his march on Corfe, but this did not prevent the Empress from landing at Arundel on the 30th of September 1139 (arguable).

Matilda landed on the coast of Sussex with a small body of knights, accompanied by Guy of Sableuil. She found safety in the castle of Arundel which belonged to William of Aubigny, who had married Adela, the Queen dowager, and step-mother of Matilda.

Arundel Castle

Matilda’s supporters were ‘alert and eager’ to rise up against the King, while Stephen’s supporters felt ‘depressed and thunder-stricken’, the Earl of Gloucester was a powerful man and they knew it. This was the major beginnings of the civil war, some would say.

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KING DAVID I of SCOTLAND - BATTLE OF THE STANDARD

2020-11-30T00:36:00.004+00:00

KING DAVID I OF SCOTLAND

Our gallant stand by all congest,
Be this the Standard's fight,
Where death or victory the test,
That proved the warriors' might.

From the Chronicle of Richard of Hexham

(6) In 1127 it is said in the Anglo-Saxon chronicles that King Henry I, held his court at Christmas, in Windsor. There was David King of the Scots and all the headmen that were in England, learned and lewd. There, he engaged the archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, and all the thegns (Norman Knights and free men) that were there to swear England and Normandy, after his death, into the hands of his daughter Matilda.

By 1135, Henry I had died. The chronicles talk about the anarchy that followed the death of King Henry between his nephew Stephen, Count of Blois, and Matilda's supporters. The English throne had been seized by Stephen, under the willingness of the barons, while Matilda was in Normandy, pregnant with her third child. King David, who had sworn an oath to support Matilda's claim, now prepared to wage war on England, in the name of his niece Matilda.

ANARCHY AT THE BORDER

David Canmore was the last of the four sons of King Malcolm III of Scotland and Queen Margaret. At the tender age of nine, he and his sister Matilda were sent to the Norman-English court of William II. They spent over 30 years in England, David being raised as a Norman Knight and Matilda later marrying Henry I of England.

In 1107, after the death of his brother Edgar, David, effectively, became King of Southern Scotland. His elder brother, Alexander was to be King and rule over the rest of Scotland. Alexander was extremely unhappy with this arrangement, but David had more knights than his brother so was capable of defending his inheritance. An agreement was eventually reached, whereupon: Alexander was to be given the final say on the affairs of Scotland, and the title of 'King', was not to be given to David. Instead, Henry I, made him Prince of Cumbria and gave him the 'Honour of Huntingdon', which included Manors in eleven counties. David married a widowed heiress named Matilda, the daughter of Waltheof, Earl of Huntingdon.

Upon the death of Alexander I, in 1124, David sets off for Scotland along with many knights and courtiers from Norman England, including Bruce, Balliol, and Fitz-Alan, who later became the future aristocrats and kings of Scotland. He was crowned David I of Scotland, on the Stone of Destiny at Scone Palace, in Scotland.

When Henry I, died, some will say that David took advantage of this time of anarchy in England, to push the Scottish border further south. David would have it known that he was honouring the oath that was taken to recognize Matilda, the daughter of Henry I, David's niece, to be Queen of England. In 1136 David invaded the north of England, but Stephen forced him to submit. To keep some sort of peace with the King of Scots, Stephen grants him, Carlisle.

By January 1138 David again assembles an army and invades England with a much greater force. The Balliols and Bruces, along with the Archbishop of York, now opposed him and his son, Prince Henry.

The earls and nobles of England quickly assembled at Newcastle to oppose the King of Scotland. Turstin, the Archbishop of York, although greatly debilitated by old age, conferred with King David at Roxburgh and managed to obtain a truce, at least until the return of King Stephen from Normandy. David's ambassadors demanded that Northumberland should be given to his son Henry, which Stephen utterly refused.

On the 10th of January 1138 William, the son of Duncan, nephew of King David, decided to attack the town of Wark. Just before dawn he boldly stationed, the part of the army that he commanded, around the town of Wark and attempted to storm it. David arrived with catapults and many more engines of war and surrounded the town vigorously, for three weeks.

The commander of the garrison, Jordan de Bussey, and his brave men did not give up without a fight. They killed the King's standard-bearer and many others. This was holding up David's plans on heading to Northumberland, so he decided to appoint William, the son of Duncan, to take some Scots with him and make their way to Northumberland.

On the 25th of January William landed in a village called Warden, which is in the district of Hexham. He set up camp with his forces and proceeded to wait for King David to arrive. One Scot, a powerful and wealthy Scot, having advanced with the troops, decided to leave the camp with a band of his own followers. They marched along the river Tyne to the church of Hexham, with every intent to plunder, but the men from Hexham ran out and attacked them. It was a fierce and bloody fight and soon, the Scot's men fled leaving the Scot to his fate. The men from Hexham held him down and hacked the Scot to death. When word of this slaughter reached the Scottish army, anger soon swept through it. They wanted to attack the church of Hexham and utterly destroy it and all its inhabitants. William though, anxious to preserve the church, ordered his men back to camp.

ATTACK ON WARK CARSTLE

David soon followed with his son Henry, stopping at Corbridge and devastating it. The wicked acts and blasphemous doings of the Scots against God and humanity, it is said, prevailed in every town. They had no mercy on the children or the old, they spared neither sex, age, or rank. They cut down pregnant women and women in childbirth. Once all the men of the villages were slain they bound and tied any females left and took them as slaves, back to Scotland.

In the wake of this, the King of Scots, cunning as he was, decided to let it be known that he was returning to his homeland with his forces. Instead, he stayed close to Roxburgh where he lies in wait for the English. . . King Stephen was coming with a military force to Wark. On hearing of the savagery from the Scots on the citizens of Northumberland, the English King now ordered for his men to cross the border into Scotland. There, they proceeded to wreak slaughter and havoc on the poor, unsuspecting people of Lothian.

David, having placed himself and his men at no great distance, ordered the citizens of Roxburgh to allow the English King into the town on his return. His plan was to watch for an opportunity to attack by night. He was confident that he would have the back up from his allies in this plot, as many of the nobles in the English army were stirring him up to this contest. Notice of the trap soon reached Stephen as he prepared to head back into England. Upon which, he was able to take a different route, narrowly avoiding a confrontation with the Scottish King.

BAMBURGH CASTLE

En route back into England, Stephen made the decision to head for Bamburgh castle, another major stronghold of Matilda's supporters. Situated high above the Northumberland coastline, overlooking the religious holy island of Lindisfarne, it was strategically the best-positioned fortress in the country.

The castle was held by Eustace Fitz-John, who had initially paid homage to Stephen in 1136. In doing so he was able to keep the honours and positions he had held under Henry I. Eustace was a very powerful man in the north of England and was great friends with King David, but now he found himself in an impossible situation. When David decided to invade northern England, Eustace needed to protect his own territories. The barbarous acts of the Scots saw no mercy on friend or foe. He quickly changed alliances to support David and his niece Matilda, in their campaign for the English throne.

Stephen's forces now surrounded the strongly fortified castle at Bamburgh. Eustace Fitz-John had managed to escape. With great might and main Stephen took control of the castle and immediately filled it with Royal forces.

Stephen now hastily marched on into England, while David returned to Scotland. The Knights had retired to their respective abodes for the period of lent. It was a time of fasting and penitence for most, but the King of Scots would soon return with a mightier force.

After Easter, the Scots again invaded Northumberland and destroyed all the towns at the coast which had escaped their previous onslaught. David sent his troops to Durham to commit yet more cruelties and hostilities on the people there. The King of Scots made his way to Durham castle at Norham and surrounded it, the townsmen soon surrendered and the King ordered for it to be destroyed. The Scottish King had managed to advance into England as far as Newcastle.

Meanwhile, over in Clitheroe, William, son of Duncan was slaying and ravaging when he encountered an English soldiery. William was a strong warrior and soon the English fled from the voracity of the attack. William and his men speedily gave chase, once captured, the English soldiers were put to the sword. Without delay, William took any goods that were to be had and fled. Immediately following this, the soldiers from Wark made an attack on King David's servants and carriages. After seizing all the provisions on board, they hastily drove the carriages into the town of Wark. Following this, they then proceeded to attack the King's son, Henry, killing a few of his escorts and wounding some others, the rest they took for ransom. David was furious at this, he punished the citizens of Wark by renewing his siege and destroying their crops in the fields.

Eustace Fitz-John, who had surrendered his castle at Bamburgh to King Stephen, joined forces with the Scottish king at Durham. He had temporally surrendered his castles at Alnwick and Malton to David and was now marching on towards Newcastle with the army of Scots, Picts, and other English nobles who were also against the English king. On passing Bamburgh, the stripling men inside the fortress, thinking they were safe behind the wall they had built, taunted the Scots as they passed by. This provoked the Scots into pure anger and they set about destroying the wall. Once inside they systematically killed everyone they laid hands-on but failed to get inside the castle.

David, who had advanced into the county of Durham, was joined by men from Galloway, Cumberland, and Carlisle. It is reported that the Scottish army now exceeded 26,000 men, but this has since been disputed. Stephen, being pressed by rebellions in the south of England, sent a body of cavalry up to the north, commanded by the Yorkshire baron, Bernard de Baliol. Baliol was a man who was well skilled in military tactics.

Archbishop Turstin who presided over the church of York, called a meeting of the nobles of Yorkshire which included Robert de Bruce and Bernard de Baliol. It was decided that Bruce and Baliol should try again to reason with the Scottish King by offering his son Henry, the earldom of Northumberland. The King now refused this proposal as he had not just taken up arms on his own account, but also in support of the right of his niece, Matilda. Moreover, it would have been difficult to restrain the barons and his army, who were all fired up for this contest. Archbishop Turstin, who was too old to attend the meeting with the King of Scotland, sent in his stead the Bishop of Orkney. The bishop had taken confessions from the barons and their declarations of contrition which gave them absolution.

The English now marched to Northallerton, arriving at a plane belonging to the franchise of St Cuthbert, in the county of Durham.

FLAGS OF NORTHALLERTON

On Cutton Moor, near Northallerton, on the 22nd of August 1138, the English standard was erected. It was a pole as tall as a ship, fitted into a high four-wheeled carriage. On the top of the pole was a cross containing a consecrated host enclosed in a silver pyxis. Below waved the banners of St Peter of York, St John of Beverley and St Wilfred of Rippon.

Walter L'Espec, a judicious and experienced warrior was, by unanimous consent, appointed Commander in Chief of the English army. The other Chiefs present were William de Albemarle, Earl Walter de Gant, Robert de Bruce, Roger de Mowbray, William de Percy, Bernard de Baliol, Richard de Courccy, William Fossard, Robert de Stuthaville, Ilbert de Lacy along with his father, Robert de Lacy and Geoffrey Halsalin. William Peverel from the county of Nottingham and Robert de Ferrers from Derbyshire also arrived with their troops.

The whole of the English army now surrounded the standard. The horses were sent some distance away so as not to be frightened from the cries of the fallen. It also prevented anyone who had any ideas of fleeing the battle. The English had one impulse, the determination to die or conquer for their country.

David tried to surprise the English under the concealment of a thick mist. He approached close to the plane without being discovered, but the alarm was soon raised. To gain time, Robert de Bruce was again dispatched to the King of Scots to bring about an adjustment without any bloodshed.

Bruce spoke with eloquence as he urged the Scottish King to think about his own interests by securing the friendship of the barons, who could be more depended on than many of his own rebellious subjects. He pricked his conscience with the knowledge that he will be shedding innocent blood. Finally, bursting into tears, Bruce declared his heart was broken to think of it being necessary to raise his arm against his dear master and patron, by whose side he used to fight, whom he had spent his youth with and the hours of festivities they have had together. To have to now see his benefactor and friend exposed to the dangers of war or the dishonour of having to flee, broke him. The King also wept, but his army was impatient to engage a fierce and bloody battle with the English. Suddenly, William, the son of Duncan bellowed;-

"Thou art a false traitor, Bruce!"

'these half-naked Glaswegians'

The King, startled by this sudden outburst, quickly came back to his original way of thinking. He stopped weeping and shrugged off Bruce's pleas. As Robert de Bruce left, he once again renounced his homage to the Scottish king.

David now advanced with his troops in a battle array, across the plane on Cutton Moor. Leading the formation, were the Glaswegian leaders, Ulgeric and Donald. The Scots had demanded, by right, to be on the front line, although David felt apprehensive about this decision. Knowing what the Scots were going to be up against, he had intended for his men at arms and archers to be on the front line.

"Why, King," said the Scots, "do you dread those iron tunics which you see yonder? We have sides of iron, breasts of brass, minds void of fear, whose feet know not what it is to flee, or backs to feel a wound. Of what good to the French at Clithero were their mail corselets!"

Seeing the King was inclined to follow the advice of his nobles, Malise, Earl of Strathem, explained strongly;-

"Why, King, do you yield to the wishes of these Frenchmen, not one of whom, with their armour, will go beyond me, though named, in the battle today!"

Irritated by these words, Alan of Perci, a valiant soldier, turning to the Earl, replied;-

"You have spoken bold words, which, for your life you cannot make good!"

To end the altercation, David granted the place of honour to the men of Galloway. He knew, the English army with their armour, would be no match for these half-naked Glaswegians, but after the battle at Clitherow, the confidence of the Scots had risen greatly. With a much heavy heart, David eventually agreed.

The second line consisted of the men at arms, the archers and the men of Cumberland and Teviotdale, who were led by the intrepid Prince Henry. Henry was aided by Eustace Fitz-John from the north of England. The third division was composed of the troops of Lothian with the Islanders and volunteers. The King himself commanded the reserves, composed of selected Scots and men from Moray. His bodyguards were a band of English and French knights.

THE BATTLE OF THE STANDARD

RAISING THE STANDARD

With the English army now formed in one solid mass around the standard, the Scots needed to take a deep breath at the sight laid out in front of them. The English knights had dismounted and mingled in with the archers on the front line. It was now or never for the Scots.

Instantaneously, shouting their war-cry, 'Albaneigh', the Glaswegians valiantly, rushed across the plane towards the enemy. The onslaught was tremendous, taking a few of the English by surprise. Swords clashed against the English shields as the Scots tried to break through the enemy lines. The English, who were well organised in military tactics, locked their shields and moved in one solid unit. This gave them strength as one, in order to fend off their attackers.

The Scots and Picts resisted the English for the first two hours of the battle, even though the English arrows were piercing their bodies with ease. Urgeric and Donald tragically fell. After the death of their Chieftains, the troops on the front line were thrown into panic. Prince Henry quickly stepped in and charged at the head of the English cavalry, he pierced through the English squadron and scattered the troops who were guarding the horses. The Glaswegians followed his course and now started to press the enemy hard, but in that momentous moment, when victory seemed close for the Scottish army, an English soldier cut off the head from one of the slain and raising it high, shouted;-

"The head of the King of the Scots!"

This report elevated the English but spread despair through the Scots. The Glaswegians threw away their arms and fled the field. The third line fled without attacking their enemy at all. The King, attempting to stop the panic, leapt from his horse and brought up the reserves, but it was too late. The battle was lost. In conclusion, the nobles begged for King David to bring in the horses so they could march off with their ranks unbroken.

CARLISLE CASTLE

The King of Scots now headed for Carlisle with the remains of his tattered army. The stragglers from the battle tried to flee back to their homeland but got caught out by the fierce anger of the local villagers in the surrounding areas. They sought revenge for all the violence that had been inflicted on them and massacred the stragglers wherever they were found. Moreover, the Scots and the Picts, when they encountered each other while trying to retreat, fought together and ultimately destroyed themselves.

David, being extremely anxious for the safety of his son, was relieved when Prince Henry finally arrived at Carlisle, three days later. He had beaten a hasty retreat from the battlefield, narrowly escaping the pursuit of his enemies. The King, at once, summoned all the men who fled the field, to his presence. Great fines were imposed on them and oaths were taken that in every conflict and danger they would faithfully stand by him and for him. From thereon, he subsequently sent them to Wark where the siege of Wark castle was still being fought.

SURRENDER OF WARK CASTLE

King Stephen, on hearing of his victory at the Battle of the Standard, was elated by the news. He rewarded William de Albemarle to an Earl in Yorkshire, and Robert de Ferrers to an Earl in Derbyshire.

After several months had passed, winter had arrived, the people of Wark were starving and weak. They finally surrendered after some negotiations. On entering the town, there was found to be nothing in it to eat except one live horse and a salted horse. The King agreed to give the inhabitants 24 horses and dismissed them with their arms, but he utterly destroyed the town.

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On hearing of the inhumanities and barbaric behaviours, from both sides of the border, Pope Innocent II immediately sent a papal legate called Albericus, the Bishop of Ostia, to England. Albericus was a very clever and virtuous man, he observed the reprehensible actions of the two Kings and was deeply saddened by what he had witnessed across these lands.

En route to Scotland, he took with him two assistants, Robert, Bishop of Hereford and Richard, the first abbot of Fountains. They arrived at Hexham only to find that three days earlier the place had been raided by Edgar, son of Earl Cospatric of Dunbar, with a band of followers. They raided the once used camp of the King of Scotland and seized the plunder from a village in Hexham. They had also attacked a village belonging to the Brethren of Hexham. Having killed three of their men and seizing all the wares, they dishonoured the Prior with insults and mockery, who only happened to be there that night, by chance.

The legate pleaded with King David, at Carlisle and managed to persuade him to make amends for this violence. Then, for three days, with the bishops and nobles of Scotland, who by the King's order, had met the legate, he set about correcting what needed correction and decreed what needed to be decreed. He also made the Scots and Picts surrender all their prisoners to Carlisle and give them their freedom. None of them should again dare to violate churches or commit slaughter on the female sex, on boys or old men. Throwing himself at the feet of the King, Albericus forced him to cease from hostility until the feast of St Martin. The King agreed to the terms, the castle at Wark had been reduced to famine so the King of Scotland returned to his country more like a conqueror rather than one whose army had been so quickly defeated. Albericus, having disposed of these matters, returned to the church of Hexham and on to the south of England.

The whole of Northumberland had been reduced to an empty desert. It is said that a man could wander around for days and not see a single soul. The ones who had survived had either sought asylum in the monasteries or were lurking in the wild. The stronger folks had shut themselves up within the towns. So, by the authority of the apostolic order, on 6th Dec 1138, the Bishops, Abbots and Nobles of the kingdom met the legate, Albericus, in London, at Westminster.

Through the mediation of Queen Matilda, the wife of King Stephen, who was also a niece of King David, a peace was concluded, at Durham, between the two kings. By this treaty, Stephen surrendered to Henry, besides what he already possessed in England, the whole Earldom of Northumberland, except for the fortresses of Newcastle and Bamborough, which Stephen was to retain. To compensate for these, Prince Henry received more lands in the south of England. It was also made clear to Henry that the laws established in Northumberland should be preserved.

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STEPHEN and MATILDA - A Cruel Civil War 1135-1138 KING STEPHEN

2020-11-29T01:03:00.000+00:00

(5) In 1127 it is said in the Anglo-Saxon chronicles that King Henry I, held his court at Christmas, in Windsor. There was David King of the Scots and all the headmen that were in England, learned and lewd. There, he engaged the archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, and all the thegns (Norman Knights and free men) that were there to swear England and Normandy, after his death, into the hands of his daughter Matilda (Athelicia).

Afterward, Matilda, who was formerly the wife of the Emperor of Saxony, was sent by Henry, to Normandy. With her went, her brother Robert, Earl of Gloucester, and Brian, son of the Earl, Alan Fergan. Henry had arranged for her to wed the son of the Earl of Anjou, named Geoffrey Martel. All the French and English however, disapproved of this, but the King needed to forge an alliance with the Earl of Anjou, in order to have help, against his nephew, William Clito, who was the son of his brother Robert, the former Earl of Normandy.

After the tragedy of the White Ship in 1120, which took the life of Henry's son, the obvious male heir to England and Normandy was now, William Clito. Henry had been successful in writing his brother out of the succession, so he was not about to hand over the 'keys to the kingdom', to his brother's son. Henry needed to secure the throne and his only option was his daughter. But a woman on the throne of England. . .? Nevertheless, the barons swore an oath to recognize Henry's daughter, Matilda, as heir to her father's kingdom.

Within a year, William Clito was involved in the siege of Aalst, in the province of East Flanders. During a fracas with a foot soldier, he sustained an injury to his arm. The wound became severely infected and he subsequently died from gangrene. Thereafter, the succession to the throne of England to favour Matilda seemed in little doubt.

By 1135, the year Henry died, there is no mention of Matilda in the Anglo-Saxon chronicles. That may hardly be surprising, as she was not a very liked woman. She is described as being very bad-tempered and having a disagreeable nature. The chronicles do talk about the anarchy that followed the death of King Henry between his nephew Stephen, Count of Blois, and Matilda's supporters. The throne had been seized by Stephen, under the willingness of the barons, while Matilda was in Normandy, pregnant with her third child. The first mention of Matilda is in 1140, but it is worth pointing out that the dates in the chronicles are not always correct. Some years have been missed out while others have been duplicated. It says that in 1135:-'...the day darkened over all lands, and the sun was all as it were a three-night old moon,...'
We know there was a solar eclipse in 1132, so Henry may have died in 1132.

When Henry named his daughter as heir, he knew that under Norman Law all property and rights belonged to men. For medieval times, being ruled by a woman was inconceivable to most men. A woman could not defend herself on a battlefield, therefore, could not have the makings to be a strong King. Knowing this, Henry still hoped he had won the loyalty of his nobles to recognize his daughter as his chosen heir. He of course had not. This decision by Henry proved to be catastrophic for the people of England. Furthermore, what made Matilda's position even more precarious was her marriage to the Frenchman, Count Geoffrey of Anjou.

NORMAN TREE SHOWING STEPHEN'S LINE

The House of Anjou was referred to as the 'Angevins', one of the most powerful families that ruled in France. The Normans regarded the Angevins with contempt and had little desire to be ruled by one. Stephen was probably already in the minds of the nobles as a better option. Moreover, Stephen did have a claim to the throne of England, being the son of Henry's sister. For the barons, this was a legitimate claim.

KING STEPHEN 1135

CROWING OF KING STEPHEN

Stephen, on hearing of the death of his uncle, King Henry, enlisted the help of his brother, Henry of Blois, the Bishop of Winchester, to seize the throne of England. He took control of the treasury with support from Roger of Salisbury, who at the time, much preferred Stephen to Matilda.

On the 26th of December, 1135, the Archbishop of Canterbury, William Curboil, was persuaded to crown Stephen, at Westminster Abbey. The oath that had been taken to support Matilda's claim, was argued to be invalid as it had been taken by force. Rumours also circulated around the court that Henry had changed his mind about the succession on his deathbed, to favour Stephen. This was untrue of course.

Soon after Stephen had been crowned, some of the barons started to have serious doubts about his ability to be a strong king. He was found to be soft and made bad decisions. Although his supporters describe him as a likable, friendly man, who always tried, through adversity, to remain upbeat.

STEPHEN'S COAT OF
ARMS

From 1136 the country was heading towards civil war, with the barons changing alliance, to favour Matilda. Stephen captured Bampton and exiled Robert of Bampton. Next, he laid siege to Exeter and exiled Baldwin of Redvers. At a later date, Stephen would seize the Chancellor, Bishop Roger of Salisbury, and his two nephews Alexander, Bishop of Lincoln, and Nigel, bishop of Ely. This would prove to be a serious mistake on behalf of Stephen.

The king threw many barons into the tower until they gave up their castles, but once the 'traitors' realized that Stephen was soft and that no punishment was being imposed, they got to thinking..... They decided to pay homage to Stephen in order to secure their release. Once released, they returned to their castles and set about the task of reinforcing them. Soon the land filled with fortified castles, ready to be held against the King.

Walkelin Maminot was stationed at Dover Castle, which was soon taken possession of by the Queen's forces (Stephen's wife). Walkelin also held Oakham castle; Robert, the son of Alured of Lincoln, held the castles of Wareham and Morguan; Ralf Paganel held Ludlow; and Eustace Fitz-John held Alnwick, Bamburgh, and Malton; William of Mohun held Dunster castle in Somersetshire; William Louvel held Cary castle in Somersetshire; and William Fitz-John held Harptree, also in Somersetshire; William Fitz-Alan had garrisoned the castle of Shrewsbury; while William Peverel was in possession of the towns of Brunam, Ellesmere, Overton, and Wintenton.

BRISTOL CASTLE

In 1138 Robert, Earl of Gloucester, Matilda's illegitimate brother, who had supported Stephen at first, formally renounced his friendship and homage to Stephen. One-night a Norman herald appeared in Stephen's camp and announced that the Earl had declared void the oath of homage to the King as Stephen had violated all of his earlier oaths that had been taken in the court of Henry I, to favour his sister as Queen. Stephen was not surprised at this and tried to remove the Earl through the murderous hand of William of Ypres, his chief lieutenant. Earl Robert had to forfeit all his possessions in England. Consequently, many of the Earl's castles were demolished, except Bristol and Slede as they could not be taken.

The castle at Bristol had been strongly fortified by Earl Robert and stored with plenty of provisions. It later became the main headquarters for Matilda's supporters. From Bristol, the barons would make frequent inroads to the inhabitants in the towns and with barbarous violence and torture, took all their money and properties. A kinsman of Earl Robert, named Phillip de Gai, invented engines of torture and in a short time, all the castles of these barons held his engines.

The barons forced labour on the people and when the castles were built, they filled them with;-

'devils and evil men'

Poor wretched men were thrown into prison for their gold and silver and inflicted with unimaginable pains and suffering. The chronicles say;-

'for never were any martyrs so tortured as they were.'

Men were suspended by their feet for hours on end, while malodorous smoke washed over them. Others hanged by the thumbs or by their head, with coats of mail draped across their feet. The knotted string would be tied around the head and twisted until the pain went to their brains. Some people were placed in, what was called, a 'crucet-house', which was a short, narrow chest containing razor-sharp stones. The unfortunate soul would be placed inside the chest, thereupon forcing the stones straight through the body, breaking all his limbs. A truly horrific ordeal!

Many forms of torture were being used in these castles. Another one most feared was called the 'Sachenteges'. The sachenteges was an instrument of torture that no man could bear. The device consisted of a sharp, spiked, iron collar, which was suspended from a beam so the wearer could not sit or lie down to sleep, but at all times bear the weight of the iron around his neck.

'This is what it must be like to live in hell', it must have been said.

For these poor, tortured souls their ordeal didn't end there;- finally thrown into dungeons, they were left for the Adders, snakes, and toads to devour. - 'The Dark Ages' - and so it was, it was dark, dark times indeed.

Many thousands died across the land from hunger. Their towns burnt-out once they had no more goods to give. Anarchy shortly followed. This went on for 19 years, during the whole of Stephen's reign and it got worse and worse.

Some folk had 'recourse to alms', charity, which for a while made them rich men and some folks fled the country. Neither church nor churchyard was spared, once the church was emptied, it was burnt to the ground. Every man robbed another. If two or three men came to town, all the people ran for them, deciding that they must be robbers. A fear of strangers had gripped the land. The bishops and learned men cursed them, but with little effect. To the people, they had been abandoned. The fields grow no corn, the land was all a waste. It was said openly that 'Christ and his saints slept'.

REBELLIONS IN THE SOUTH

Matilda had spent two years trying to raise an army to fight her cousin Stephen. Once Earl Robert joined her cause, she had a base from which to operate, in England. Earl Robert was an influential man and had plenty of supporters. The barons now had a strong, male leader to follow and very quickly joined his campaign against Stephen.

In March 1138 Geoffrey Talbot, who was a cousin of Ilbet de Lacy, seized the castle at Hereford and held the town for Matilda. Stephen marched against Talbot and surrounded the castle intensely, for many weeks. By May of that year, the castle had surrendered. Geoffrey Talbot managed to escape capture and fled to Weobley Castle in Herefordshire, which belonged to the de Lacy family. Stephen ordered for Hereford's castle to be destroyed. Weobley Castle, like Hereford, soon fell to Stephen also and before long both castles were strongly garrisoned with royal forces. Talbot, yet again, escaped the clutches of Stephen and fled to Bristol, the main headquarters of Matilda's supporters.

Site of Weobley Castle Only earthworks now remain of Weobley Castle, they suggest that at its prime it was a substantial castle.

Before long, Talbot and de Lacy launched an attack on the town of Bath, but while out scouting, they were attacked by the forces from the city. Talbot was immediately captured by soldiers under the control of the bishop of Bath, Robert of Lewes, and thrown into dungeons. After which, Matilda's forces promptly arranged a meeting with the bishop and offered him a safe-conduct, but when the bishop arrived, he was threatened with hanging unless Talbot was released. The bishop, having no option, released Talbot, but Stephen later accused the bishop of supporting Matilda and was only with difficulty, persuaded to accept the bishop's explanation. Wherefore, Stephen hastily gathered his forces and headed for Bristol, but the castle had been strongly fortified by Earl Robert. Stephen soon abandoned the siege, but not before plundering and devastating the surrounding country. He decided to direct his course towards Cary castle and Harptree instead, which were held by Ralf Louvel and William Fitz-John. Both these barons were united to Earl Robert by ties of friendship and by the oath of vassalage, which was an oath of homage to a lord of another domain. In return for this pledge the barons would receive land and protection from the lord, in this case, Earl Robert, Matilda's half brother.

In the belief that the King was engaged in a tedious siege at Bristol, Ralf Louvel and William Fitz-John laid waste and plundered all the neighbouring country in Somersetshire, but Stephen soon appeared in front of Cary castle, to which he laid siege. He showered the castle day and night with fire and stones until the castle finally compelled to surrender.

From Cary castle, Stephen proceeded to Harptree, where he erected a fort which was manned from the garrison at Bath. Sometime after, when Stephen was passing by Harptree castle, the garrison came out and attacked the rear of Stephen's army. Stephen made a rapid retrograde movement with his cavalry but found the place nearly deserted. The King commanded fire to be applied to the gates and scaling ladders and other engines to the walls. He soon reduced the remainder of the garrison to deliver up the castle. Stephen now proceeded to Dudley castle, but Ralf Paganel had strongly fortified it. After failing to take the castle, Stephen laid waste to the surrounding area and people, before marching on to Shrewsbury.

Shrewsbury Castle was being held by William Fitz-Alan. On hearing of Stephen’s approach, he secretly fled with his wife and children, leaving behind those who had bound themselves by oath not to surrender. Having failed to capture the castle for many days, Stephen ordered huge amounts of wood to be piled in the ditch and set on fire. The men on the wall either fell or fled from the billowing smoke that now filled the castle, but were hastily pursued and put to the sword. William Fitz-Alan’s uncle, Amulf of Hesdin, and four other noblemen were hanged by the king’s order.

Over at Dover castle, which was being held by Walkelin Maminot, the Queen’s forces had besieged it in vain, while her troops from Boulogne endeavoured to cut off all supplies by sea. On hearing what had taken place at Shrewsbury, Walkelin made the decision to surrender this part of England.

While King Stephen was engaged in rebellions in the south and the invasion of the north from King David, the Danish king, Eric Lamb, landed. He had been inspired with the belief that he had legal rights to the crown of England as it had been worn by Cnut and his sons. He believed he had more rights than those 'Frenchified Normans.' He himself must have regarded this as weak when he deemed it necessary to support his claim by the extraordinary and unheard-of argument that the common washing, of his own and the English coast by the German ocean, gave him the preferable right. Stephen did not instantly attack the Danes who had landed but allowed them to disperse in search of booty. Then, Stephen attacked their isolated camps and succeeded in breaking their power and driving them back.

To be continued in forthcoming posts.

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THE GREAT KING HENRY I

2020-11-28T12:48:00.001+00:00

(4) Henry Beauclerc, youngest son of William the Conqueror, seized the throne of England just three days after the death of his brother, William Rufus, who had been killed whilst out hunting in the New Forest on 2nd August 1100.

On the day of William's death, Henry arrived at Winchester before the body of his brother arrived. Winchester was where the Royal Treasure was kept. He demanded the keys for the Royal Treasure from the guards, but the guards refused to hand them over, saying that Henry's eldest brother, Robert, was the rightful heir. Henry drew his sword and demanded that no one shall stand between him and his father's sceptre. Resistance soon collapsed and when the peasants arrived with Rufus on a cart, the Lords were already electing Henry as the new King. The first elected King since Harold Godwinson. Henry's brother, Robert, was fighting abroad in the First Crusade. With no time to waste, Henry was crowned King at Westminster Abbey on the 5th of August 1100.

Henry's succession was unstable as Robert had a number of Barons supporting him. Henry acted quickly and bought the support of the Barons by granting favours. He abolished abuses of royal power that his brother, William Rufus, engaged in, especially the over-taxation of the barons, the abuse of vacant sees (the official seat of a bishop), and the practices of simony, which is the act of paying for sacraments. Which in consequence paid for holy offices or positions in the hierarchy of a church. Henry made wide-ranging concessions in his Charter of Liberties.

THE CHARTER OF LIBERTIES

This charter was important in two ways: firstly, Henry formally bound himself to the laws, setting the stage for the rule of law that parliaments and parliamentarians of later years would cry out for. Secondly, it reads almost exactly like the Magna Carta and served as the model for the Great Charter in 1215.

* * * *

Here is a summary of the Charter.

Summary of Charter of Henry I, 1100

Henry, king of the English, to Bishop Samson and Urso de Abetot and all his barons and faithful, both French and English, of Worcestershire, [copies were sent to all the shires] greeting.

I, Henry, by the grace of God having been crowned the King of England, shall not take or sell any property from a Church upon the death of a bishop or abbot, until a successor has been named to that Church property. I shall end all the oppressive practises which have been an evil presence in England.
If any baron or earl of mine shall die, his heirs shall not be forced to purchase their inheritance, but shall retrieve it through force of law and custom.
Any baron or earl who wishes to betroth his daughter or other women kinsfolk in marriage should consult me first, but I will not stand in the way of any prudent marriage. Any widow who wishes to remarry should consult with me, but I shall abide by the wishes of her close relatives, the other barons, and earls. I will not allow her to marry one of my enemies.
Any wife of my barons, who becomes a widow shall not be denied her dowry. She should be allowed to remarry according to her wishes, so long as she maintains the integrity of her body, in a lawful manner. Barons overseeing the children of a dead baron shall maintain their land and interest in a lawful manner.
Common seigniorage taken in the cities and counties, not in the time of Edward I (Edward the Confessor) shall henceforth be forbidden.
I shall remit all debts and pleas which were owing to my brother, except those which were lawfully made through an inheritance.
If any of my barons should grow feeble, and give away money or other possessions, these shall be honoured, so long as the heirs are properly remembered. Gifts given by feeble barons under the force of arms shall not be enforced.
If any of my barons commit a crime, he shall not bind himself to the crown with payment as was done in the time of my father and brother, but shall stand for the crime as was custom and law before the time of my father, and make amends as are appropriate. Anyone guilty of treachery or other heinous crime shall make proper amends.
I forgive all murders committed before I was crowned. Subsequent murders shall stand before the justice of the Crown.
With the common consent of my barons, I shall maintain all the forests as was done in the time of my father.
Those knights who render military service and horses shall not be required to give grain or other farm goods to me.
I impose a strict peace on the land and command it be maintained.
I restore the law of King Edward and the amendments which my father introduced upon the advice of his barons.
Anything taken from me after the death of my father shall be returned immediately, without fine. If it is not returned, a heavy fine shall be enforced.

Witnesses Maurice bishop of London, and William bishop-elect of Winchester, and Gerard bishop of Hereford, and earl Henry, and earl Simon, and Walter Giffard, and Robert de Montfort, and Roger Bigot, and Eudo the steward, and Robert son of Hamo, and Robert Malet. At London when I was crowned. Farewell.

* * * *

By the November of 1100, Henry had married Edith, daughter of Malcolm Canmore, King of Scotland, at Westminster Abbey. This was in order to secure the northern border, but this did not please some of the barons. Edith's mother, Margaret was the sister of Edgar Atheling, the last royal Saxon descendant. The marriage, therefore, represented the union of the Norman and Saxon royal lines. Edith adopted the name Matilda because it was thought that the Norman barons might not respect a Queen with a Saxon name.

Henry encouraged other Norman barons to marry English women, but the great barons regarded this with contempt and regarded the King and Queen as no better than commoners. The barons also didn't appreciate that the King was literate in three languages, his nickname was, 'Henri Beauclerc' meaning 'Henry the Swat'.

Map showing England territories in 1106

In 1101 Robert invaded England, which proved unsuccessful as Henry had a lot of support by this time. The two brothers came to an agreed, amicable settlement. Robert had to relinquish his claim to the throne of England in return for Henry's territories in Normandy. By 1106 Henry was incensed by the way Robert was handling things in Normandy and decided to invade. He defeated Robert's army at Tinchebrai, capturing Robert and imprisoning him for life. It is quite ironic as Henry was King of England because his Norman father invaded England, now an English King has invaded Normandy and gained Norman territories for England.

Henry supervised his Kingdom by moving his court from one place to another. It was a great traveling performance with no permanent home. The language of the court was Norman French. The schools, the law, and the aristocracy were also Norman French. It was not until the loss of Normandy in 1204 that the Normans began to learn English and a moulding of the two languages began.

THE EXCHEQUER SYSTEM

Henry spent half of his time in Normandy, while he was away, he left Roger the Bishop of Salisbury, also known as the 'Justiciar', to rule in his absence. Roger was a Norman medieval Bishop and the seventh Lord Chancellor and Lord Keeper of England. By 1110 Roger had created the exchequer system, which was managed by him and his family for more than a century, and he used his position very wisely to create power and riches for himself.

Henry was managing to keep the treasury well stocked with money by selling charters to towns. Charters were a special grant that enabled towns to build walls, raise local taxes, and elect their own local administrators. This meant he could buy loyalty whenever he wanted. His way of keeping abreast of monies was by checking his income The Sheriffs would come from all over the country, twice a year, at Easter and Michaelmas (a festival celebrated on 29th of September in honour of the archangel Michael), to have their money counted. It was shunted around, in piles, on a chequered cloth like a chessboard, 'Checked'. The Dialogue Concerning the Exchequer, an early medieval work describing the practice of the Exchequer, describes the Exchequer itself referred to the cloth that would be lain over a large table, 10 feet by 5 feet, with a lip on the edge of four fingers, on which counters were placed representing various values. The term "Exchequer" then came to refer to the twice-yearly meetings at which government financial business was transacted and an audit held of the Sheriffs returns.

The procedure adopted for the audit would involve the Treasurer, drawing up a summons sent to each Sheriff, which they would be required to answer. The Treasurer would call on each Sheriff to give an account of the income in their shire, due from royal lands and from the county farm. The Chancellor of the Exchequer would then, question them concerning debts owed by private individuals. The results of the audit were recorded in a series of records known as the Pipe Rolls. Up until the 19th century, the records of the Exchequer were kept in the 'Pell Office', next to Westminster Hall. The office was named after the skins from which the rolls were made.

The idea of government by a system rather than by a man was beginning to take shape. Judges were sent on their own tours of the country and the laws of the Land were enforced, harshly. Henry had an idea that a man was guilty until proven innocent. Although there wasn't much of a chance to prove your innocence, the people seemed to embrace the harsh laws. England's streets were full of blind beggars muttering, 'firm but fair.'

On the 7th of January, 1114, Henry's daughter, Adelaide, married the Emperor of Germany, Henry V at Mainz, Germany. Her name was changed to Matilda on the same day. She was crowned Empress of Germany as part of the Wedding ceremony.

King Henry had one other legitimate child, his heir, Prince William. He was a very lively child and Henry adored him. William married the daughter of the powerful Count of Anjou which put an end to the challenges in Normandy of his brother Robert's son, William Clito. By 1120, the barons had submitted. Henry had been obliged to repel two assaults by Clito's supporters and Norman barons who resented Henry's officials and high taxes. Louis VI of France was defeated in battle, he agreed to terms for peace and that the Duchy of Normandy was to pass to Henry's son, William, after his death. Within hours Henry's life would be shattered.

THE WHITE SHIP

A painting of the White Ship from 1120

On the night of the 25th of November 1120, disaster struck on the high seas of the English Channel. It was late and the weather was stormy. Henry's court had been celebrating their victory over Normandy in the port of Barfleur in France. Henry was eager to return to England so had left about half an hour before his son William. William was returning on a ship called La Blanche Nef (The White Ship). The White Ship was a state of the art, high tech vessel. It was owned and commanded by Thomas Fitz Stephen who was only too happy to accommodate the Prince.

The story goes that the Prince and his entourage had been partying all night so by the time they set sail it was dark. The passengers' list consisted of about 300 passengers, 160 English and French noblemen, and women of the highest Norman families. The Prince, being only 17 years old and in very high spirits, decided he wanted to arrive in Portsmouth before his father so he ordered Captain Fitz Stephen to take a different route. The Captain, being drunk himself agreed, but very soon after they set sail they ran into trouble. The normal route across the channel that was always taken by the Norman royals would have headed south, then northwest in order to sail safely to Portsmouth. The Captain decided to head north in order to overtake the royal fleet. The White Ship crashed into a submerged rock, the Quilleboeff, the timbers on the port side of the ship cracked open revealing a gaping hole in the side of the ship, soon after, the ship capsized.

All onboard perished in the icy waters apart from one man, a butcher from Rouen, called Berold, who apparently was only on board to collect a debt owed to him. The Norman nobles in their finery of silk and satin dress would not have stood a chance. The butcher on the other hand had worn warm autumn-like clothing. He was said to have been a well-fed man and was also sober, which no doubt helped him survive. He clung to a piece of wood for dear life for more than 10 hours.

The butcher's account of the disaster, which is the only account that we have, reports that the Prince had been put into a lifeboat by his bodyguard, but he could hear the cries of his family and friends begging for him not to leave them. William persuaded his bodyguard to go back. The White Ship was going down fast and more and more passengers were jumping into the cold waters of the channel. The Royal lifeboat was swamped with people trying desperately to save themselves. It was hopeless and soon the lifeboat overturned and sank along with the Prince, his bodyguard, his half-brother Richard, his half-sister Matilda the Countess of Perche, his cousins Stephen and Matilda of Blois, the nephew of the German Emperor Henry V, the young Earl of Chester and most of the heirs to the great estates of England and Normandy. It is said the screams of the stricken passengers could be heard on the shore at Barfleur and on the boats of the King's fleet up ahead, but it was just thought that the noise was of the drunken party having a good time. As a result, no one went out to sea in order to look for any of the passengers. The sinking of The White Ship remains one of the biggest tragedies in Royal history.

On hearing the news, Henry was said to have never smiled again. Henry only had three legitimate children, William, Robert, and Matilda. Robert had died before Henry's death. He had over 20 illegitimate children, four of which were on the White Ship.

The succession to the throne was now at critical point with no male heir. Henry decided to name Matilda as his heir before he died, but the barons were not yet ready for a woman to rule over them. This led to the civil war between Matilda and Stephen, upon his death. The King died from overeating of the fish called lamprey. His physician had warned him not to eat it, but he took no notice. He died in Saint-Denis-en-Lyons (now Lyons-la-Forêt) in Normandy on the 2nd of December 1135 and was buried in Reading Abbey. The barons who had vowed to support the accession of Matilda to the throne reneged and Stephen, Matilda's cousin, seized the throne.

WILLIAM RUFUS - THE RED KING

2020-11-27T11:22:00.000+00:00

WILLIAM II KING OF ENGLAND

(3) The year is now 1087 and England is on its 2nd Norman king. William II was crowned King on the 9th of September 1087 and ruled until his death in 1100. William was the 3rd son of William I. He was a cruel and selfish king who scorned the English and their culture. He was nicknamed 'The Red King' because of his reddish complexion and rosy cheeks.

William had powers over Normandy and influences in Scotland but was not so successful in controlling Wales.

William the Conqueror, on his deathbed, had split the lands into two parts, he gave England to William Rufus and gave Normandy to his other son Robert Curthose. This proved to be a dilemma for the nobles who owned land on both sides of the Channel.

William and his brother Robert were arch-rivals which worried the nobles, they could not please both of their lords and ran the risk of offending one or the other. There was only one solution and that was to unite England and Normandy again, under one rule. This led the nobles to revolt against William, in favour of Robert, in the rebellion of 1088, under the leadership of the powerful Bishop Odo of Bayeux, half-brother of William the Conqueror. William won the backing of the English by promising them silver and a better government. In 1091 William invaded Normandy and crushed Robert's army, forcing Robert to cede a portion of his lands. The two brothers eventually put their differences aside and William agreed to help Robert recover lands lost to France. This plan was later squashed, but William continued with his pursuit of France until his death in 1100.

Less than two years after becoming king, William II lost his father's adviser and confidant, the Italian-Norman Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury. After Lanfranc's death, the King delayed appointing a new archbishop for many years, allocating pastoral revenues in the meantime. In 1093 William became seriously ill and in panic nominated another Norman-Italian, Saint Anselm of Canterbury as archbishop. He was considered the greatest clergyman of his time, but this led to a long period of animosity between Church and State. Anselm was a stronger supporter of the Gregorian reforms in the Church than Lanfranc. William and Anselm disagreed on a range of orthodox issues, in the course of which the King declared of Anselm that;

"Yesterday I hated him with great hatred, today I hate him with yet greater hatred and he can be certain that tomorrow and thereafter I shall hate him continually with ever fiercer and more bitter hatred".

The English clergy, beholden to the King for their advancements and livings, was unable to support Anselm publicly. In 1095 William called a council at Rockingham to bring Anselm to heel, but the archbishop remained firm. In October 1097 Anselm went into exile, taking his case to the Pope. The diplomatic and flexible Urban II, a new pope, was involved in a major conflict with the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV, who supported an anti-pope. Reluctant to make another enemy, Urban came to an agreement with William Rufus, whereby William recognized Urban as pope and Urban gave sanction to the Anglo-Norman church's current situation. Anselm remained in exile and William was able to claim the revenues of the archbishop of Canterbury to the end of his reign.

King Malcolm III of Scotland

In 1091 William fought off an invasion by King Malcolm III of Scotland, forcing Malcolm to pay homage. Then, in 1092 he built Carlisle Castle, taking control of Cumberland and Westmoreland, which had previously been claimed by the Scots. Consequently, the two kings were at odds over Malcolm's estates in England and Malcolm again invaded, capturing Northumbria. At the Battle of Alnwick, on 13th of November 1093, Malcolm was ambushed by the Normans, led by Robert de Mowbray, the Earl of Northumbria. Malcolm was killed along with his son Edward. Malcolm III's brother Donald took the throne of Scotland. William supported Malcolm's son Duncan II, who held power for a short time, then another of Malcolm's sons, Edgar. Edgar conquered Lothian in 1094 and eventually removed Donald in 1097 with William's aid in a campaign, led by Edgar Ætheling. Edgar recognized William's authority over Lothian and attended William's court.

Carlisle Castle built in 1092

In 1095 Robert de Mowbray, the Earl of Northumbria, took part in a rebellion to depose William and transfer the crown from the sons of the Conqueror to Stephen of Aumale. The Earl refused to attend the Curia Regis, the court where the King announced his governmental decisions to the great lords, which was held three times a year. William led an army against Robert and defeated him. Robert was dispossessed and imprisoned, and another Norman noble William of Eu, accused of treachery, was cruelly blinded and castrated.

Pope Urban II

The First Crusade began on the 27th of November 1095 with a proclamation from Pope Urban II, delivered to clergy and lay folk who had gathered in a field in Clermont, Central France. Urban said he had received an appeal for help from the Byzantine Emperor, Alexius I Comnenus. He then described in great detail the attacks of the Turks on the Christian Byzantine Empire and begged the soldiers present to travel to the east to attack the Muslims, rather than their fellow Christians. By 1096 William's brother Robert Curthose had joined the First Crusade. He needed money to fund this venture and pledged his Duchy of Normandy to William in return for a payment of 10,000 marks, a sum equal to about a quarter of William's annual revenue. William raised the money by imposing a large tax on the whole of England. William then ruled Normandy as regent in Robert's absence.

As regent, William campaigned in France from 1097 to 1099. He gained hold of northern Maine but failed to capture the French-controlled part of the Vexin region. At the time of his death, William was planning to invade Aquitaine, in south-western France.

One night in August, in the year 1100, William had a dream that:-

'he was let blood by a surgeon and that the stream was reaching up to heaven, it clouded the light and intercepted the day.'

He suddenly awoke, commanded a light to be brought, and forbade his attendants to leave him. After dinner the following day, he went into the forest, attended by a few people. The King was alone, but Walter Tirel had remained with him, while the others who were involved in the chase, were off hunting their kill. The sun was now setting when the King, drawing his bow and letting fly an arrow, had slightly wounded a stag which passed before him. He followed it with his eyes, still running, for a long time, holding up his hand to keep off the sun's rays. At that moment, Walter attempted to shoot another stag, but without realizing it, he had pierced the King's chest with an arrow. He had no way of stopping the fatal arrow in mid-flight.

The King fell to his knees in silence, he broke off the shaft of the arrow where it had protruded from his body and then fell on the wound which brought on his death quicker. Walter immediately ran up to the King, but he found him making no sense and without speech. He jumped upon his horse and fled quickly, he had just killed the King. There was no one to pursue him. Some people were conspiring to help him flee, others were pitying him. Some began to fortify their dwellings, others to plunder and the rest to lookout for a new king.

The local countrymen picked up the King's body, placed it on a cart, and took it to the Cathedral at Winchester, with blood dripping from it all the way. William was committed to the ground within the tower, where many of the nobility attended. The following year the tower fell. William died on the 2nd of August 1100, aged about forty years. He was a man much to be pitied by the clergy for throwing away the soul they had worked so hard to save.

A stone known as the Rufus Stone marks the spot where he supposedly fell. The inscription on the Rufus Stone reads:

Here stood the oak tree, on which an arrow shot by Sir Walter Tyrrell at a stag, glanced and struck King William the Second, surnamed Rufus, on the breast, of which he instantly died, on the second day of August, anno 1100. King William the Second, surnamed Rufus, being slain, as before related, was laid in a cart, belonging to one Purkis, and drawn from hence, to Winchester, and buried in the Cathedral Church, of that city.

THE RUFUS STONE

William was succeeded by his brother, Henry I, William the Conqueror's 4th son.

WILLIAM I and his DOOMSDAY BOOK

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WILLIAM I

(2) England now had a new King, but not everyone was prepared to submit to Norman rule. The north of England continued for six years to try to free England from this foreign invader and in 1068 Harold's sons attempted an invasion of the southwestern peninsula, but William managed to defeat them.

William moved north from London, to squash resistance in the Midlands and Northern England. He ordered for many castles to be built throughout the land, although he spent much of his time in Normandy. Winchester Castle was built in 1067, within a year of the Norman Conquest. At the time, it was one of the greatest strongholds in England, and for over a century it served as the seat of government before that position was taken by London.

In 1068 William constructed Lincoln Castle, two years after the battle of Hastings. The castle occupied what was the site of a former Roman fortress. According to the Domesday Book, 166 Saxon homes were cleared to make way for the castle. Until the construction of Lincoln Cathedral, the castle dominated the Lincoln skyline. Lincoln was one of the most important cities in the country. It had a mint. The size of the Norman castle reflects its importance.

Windsor Castle was built around 1070. The original wooden castle stood on the site of the present Round Tower. The wooden structure was replaced by stone from 1165 to 1179 by Henry II, who also constructed the prominent Round Tower. Since the time of Henry I, it has been used by a succession of monarchs and is the longest-occupied palace in Europe. It was designed to protect Norman's dominance around the outskirts of London and to oversee a strategically important part of the River Thames. Windsor Castle was built as a motte and bailey, with three wards surrounding a central mound.

William also built a number of other castles including Warwick and Nottingham. The castle at Warwick was built in 1086. There was a castle at Rochester by the time the Domesday Book was compiled in 1086, but no trace of this structure now survives. The bailey wall that exists today was built in 1088 for William II, by Gundulf, the bishop of Rochester.

Rochester Castle

William put his greedy Normans in charge of the lands around England. So the once owned lands of the Saxons were now owned by the Norman Barons who taxed the English heavily.

After the rebellion in the north of England, the Norman rule became far harsher. William embarked on the "Harrying of the North" as the English had betrayed him and his so-called 'generosity'. The rule imposed on England became more brutal. New laws were introduced to the English people, these laws were part of William's way of controlling the English

Here is a modern translation of what they introduced.

Only one God will be worshiped throughout the whole of England and there will be only one faith. This will preserve peace between the English and the Normans.
All freemen will swear an oath that they will be loyal to the king. All freemen will swear to defend William against all of his enemies.
All those men who came to England with William in 1066 and after, shall be guaranteed their safety. If any of these men are killed, his murderer must be caught within five days if possible. His lord is responsible for this. If that lord fails to do this, that lord must pay me 46 marks of silver. If he cannot afford to pay this fine, those who live under his control must pay up to a total of 46 marks of silver.
All Frenchmen who shared in the customs of the English when Edward the Confessor was king shall pay what is called "scot and lot".
No live cattle can be sold outside of cities. When cattle are sold in cities, there must be three witnesses to the sale. If this law is ignored, the person responsible shall be fined the same sum of money as was made in the sale.
If a Frenchman accuses an Englishman of murder, theft, or perjury, that Englishman shall be allowed to defend himself either by the ordeal through combat or by ordeal by a hot iron. If that Englishman is too ill to do this, he will find another Englishman to do this in his place. If an Englishman accuses a Frenchman of a crime and is unwilling to prove his case against the Frenchman by the ordeal of combat or hot iron, the Frenchman will be acquitted if he swears an oath of innocence.
All the laws regarding land ownership introduced under Edward the Confessor, shall be kept alongside those land laws William has introduced.
Anybody who wants to be considered a freeman must swear an oath of loyalty. This oath must be guaranteed by others. If this man who has sworn an oath, breaks the law, those who have guaranteed his oath must pay any fine that is set against this man. Any problems should be sorted out in a court of law. If anybody who is summoned to court refuses to attend, he shall receive one warning; if he refuses to attend a second time, he shall have one ox taken from him. If he fails to attend a third time, he shall have another ox taken from him. If he fails to attend a fourth time, he shall pay a fine to the king and shall have taken from him goods to the value of the original charge against the accused.
No man is allowed to sell another man. Anyone breaking this law will pay a fine to the king.
No one shall be executed for crimes they have committed; but if they are guilty of a crime, they will be blinded and castrated. This law is not to be challenged.

These laws made living in England, very bleak. An everyday Englishman could not possibly go up against a Norman Baron in single combat. The only option left open to him was hot irons, not very pleasant, or to find someone who could go up against a Norman. The simplest way of having a quiet life was to never accuse a Norman of a crime, but he would still run the risk of being accused of a crime, by a Norman. The Englishman would still suffer the same fate.

By 1085 William had been on the throne for 20 years. With the need to defend England from possible invasion threats from Scandinavia, and costly campaigns being fought in northern France, the vast army William amassed required substantial funding. A decision was then taken at William's Christmas court in Gloucester to comply with a record of everything in England, that means everything. It would clarify what rights and dues were owed to the King. It was only possible because England already had a sophisticated administrative system, built up by the Anglo-Saxons, with shire counties, whose boundaries survived with little change until 1974, and a well-functioning tax system. The view was that all major landowners had to send in lists of their Manors and tenants, which were compared to existing tax records. Commissioners were then sent out to assess the situation on the ground, questioning local juries in detail. Each was assigned circuits containing two or more counties. The juries were made up of both Normans and Anglo-Saxons. William wanted everything to follow a legal form to legitimize his title that he claimed, not simply by right of conquest, but as King Edward the Confessor's legitimate heir.

The records were named by the English as England's Doomsday Book. It took less than a year to comply. A local historian at the time wrote . . .

'all over England into every shire [to] find out how many hides there were in the shire, what land and cattle the king had himself in the shire, what dues he ought to have in twelve months from the shire. Also, he had a record made of how much land his archbishops had, his bishops and his abbots and his earls, and what or how much everyone who was in England had... So very narrowly did he have it investigated that there was no single hide nor yard of land, nor indeed ... one ox or cow or pig which was left out and not put down in his record, and these records were brought to him afterwards'.

DOOMSDAY BOOK

The questions asked were as follows:

What the manor was called?
Who held it at the time of King Edward?
Who holds it now?
How many hides there are (measurement of land for taxation purposes, between 60 and 120 acres)?
How many ploughs held by the lord and how many belonging to the peasants?
How many villeins (the wealthiest of the unfree peasants who had to pay his lord labour service and rent)?
How many cottars (an unfree peasant with a holding of land up to 5 acres)?
How many slaves (unfree man or woman)?
How many freemen?
How many sokemen (equivalent to a freeman, but owing dues to his lord for his holding)?
How much woodland?
How much meadow?
How much pasture?
How many mills?
How many fisheries?
How much had been added to or taken away from the estate?
What it used to be worth altogether?
What it is worth now?

Norman officials checked the answers and the punishments for giving false information were severe. The reeve from a Manor and six peasants were questioned for every Manor visited. A reeve was a type of farm manager. The questions were designed to find out how much each Manor owed the king in tax. It also told William who owned which land and how much it was worth. Providing definitive proof of rights to land and obligations to tax and military service. The book lists each Manor, its owner, the value of that Manor and has three values in it for each Manor:

How much it was worth before the invasion of 1066
How much it was worth during the invasion and
How much it was worth after the invasion

It was also to be noted whether more tax revenue could be taken than is being taken now. It also gives the names of some of the jurors showing the Norman and English mix.

Most of the names that appear are those of landowners. The King and his family held about 17% of land, Bishops, and Abbots about 26%, and around 190 Tenants-in-Chief held about 54%. Some holdings were huge, with some twelve Barons controlling nearly a quarter of the country, but it is not always easy to distinguish between individuals with the same names who may have held lands in the same county or across a number of counties.

Anglo-Saxon names appear mainly as under-tenants of Norman lords. Some four to 5,000 entries relate to Anglo-Saxon lords, such as Aelfric, the pre-Conquest lord of March Gibbon in Buckinghamshire, who, Domesday records say, he paid his rent:-

'miserably and with a heavy heart'

Just a year after the Doomsday book was completed, in 1087, William died in France, falling off his horse. He suffered fatal abdominal injuries from the saddle pommel. On his deathbed, William divided his succession for his sons, causing a rift between them. Despite William's reluctance, his eldest son Robert received the Duchy of Normandy, as Robert II. William Rufus, his third son, was the next English king, as William II. William's youngest son Henry received 5,000 silver pounds, which would be earmarked to buy land. He later became King Henry I of England after William II died without an heir. William had another son called Richard, Duke of Bernay, 2nd born, who died in a hunting accident in 1081. While on his deathbed, William pardoned many of his political adversaries.

The numbering system of the English Crown regards William as the Founder of the State of England. His son became William II of England. In 1272 when Edward Longshanks became King, he was known as Edward I of England, even though England had already had three Edwards as their king.

THE NORMAN INVASION

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(1) 1066 was a very important year for Anglo-Saxon England. There were 3 Kings, 2 Battles, and a comet. There hasn't been another year quite like it. By the end of 1066, England would never be the same again.

Firstly, let's see how Anglo-Saxon England originally came about. The name "Anglo" comes from one of the Germanic tribes from Angeln, a district in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. The Angles were one of the main groups that settled in Britain during the 5th and 6th centuries, in the post-Roman period. Ultimately, they set up many of the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England. England also takes its name from the Angles, which is the root of the name "England."

The Saxons, who were closely linked to the Angles tribe, took part in the Germanic settlement of Britain, at about the same time, which gives us the Anglo-Saxon. They subsequently participated in the Celtic ways of life in the southern and central parts of England, thereupon, contributing to the creation of Anglo-Saxon England and the use of the Old English language.

In 927 AD England became united at the Treaty of Eamont Bridge under the rule of King Athelstan, who was the son of King Edward the Elder, grandson of Alfred the Great, and nephew of Æthelflæd of Mercia. Although during the next few decades Northumbria repeatedly changed hands between the English kings and the Norwegian invaders but was finally brought under English control by King Edred in 954 AD, thus completing the unification of England. At about this time, Lothian, the northern part of Northumbria, was relinquished to the Kingdom of Scotland. England has remained in political unity ever since.

Edward the Confessor was, of course, the last accredited Saxon king. He ruled from 1042 to 1066 and in 1161 was regarded as one of the national saints of England until Edward III adopted Saint George as our patron saint in 1350. Edward died on the 5th of January 1066. Soon after his death, Halley's Comet appeared in the skies over England but was not known at the time to be a comet. The beginning of the Bayeux Tapestry shows Halley as a fiery star, which shone so bright that millions of people were terrified and for that reason, it was considered a bad omen.

The Bayeux Tapestry showing Halley as a fiery star

After Edward died, there was no clear successor to the throne, which caused a lot of problems in 1066.

Harold Godwinson claimed that Edward, on his deathbed, had named him, his successor. Witnesses present, claim to have heard Edward say to Harold, "I commend this woman (Edith, Edward's wife and Harold's sister) with all the kingdom to your protection."

Harold could not just become King on the word of Edward. What he needed was to be declared King by the Witan, who was the decision-making body on who would be king, in Anglo-Saxon England. According to English law, the final appointment nullifies all the others. Harold quickly gained the support of the Witan and was crowned at Westminster Abbey, on the 6th of January 1066. The succession rules are different in Normandy. It is the first appointment that remains valid. Harold had to now prepare to defend his throne.

A number of people tried to claim the throne of England including Harold Hardrada, the Viking King of Norway. Harold Hardrada believed that an agreement made between the previous kings of England and Denmark gave him the rightful claim. The Viking King was a fierce warrior and strove to take England by force. In a time to come, the Vikings would be defeated at Stamford Bridge by King Harold, who had marched his army up north, unaware that William Duke of Normandy was landing in the south.

There were also a couple of Scandinavian Kings named Sweyn Estrithsson, King of Denmark, and Magnus of Norway. Magnus of Norway died in 1047. Sweyn continued his pursuit of the English throne but was overshadowed by the Viking King, Harold Hardrada. In 1069 Sweyn sent a large fleet that sacked York. William, who was King of England by this time, accepted the defeat and decided to buy him off. Sweyn died in 1074.

There was one more claimant to the throne, Edgar Aetheling, grandson of Edmund Ironside, who was the half-brother of Edward the Confessor. Edgar's father, Edward the Exile had died in 1057 under suspicious circumstances, which left Edgar, who was too young to enforce his claim.

William Duke of Normandy claims he was promised the throne in 1051 by Edward, as Normandy had helped to look after his family. Edward was aware that Harold was against a Norman taking the throne of England, as Harold wanted the throne himself.

There are now two different accounts of what happened next: the Normans claim that Edward forced Harold to go to Normandy in 1064 and swear an oath to support William's claim.

The Saxons’ version of events differs from this: they claim that Harold had been sent to Normandy to rescue hostages, but was shipwrecked and captured. Harold was then forced to meet William, to swear an oath to support his claim.

We do not know which account is correct, but we do know Harold swore an oath to William in 1064. The Bayeux Tapestry shows Harold swearing loyalty on holy relics. It was considered that breaking an oath sworn in this way was breaking an oath with God. As far as William was concerned, Harold had broken that oath, which gave him the reason to invade.

The Bayeux Tapestry showing Harold swear on Holy Relics

Harold was one of the most powerful men in England, aside from the King. After becoming the Earl of Wessex, in 1053, he now ruled the majority of the south-east. He was considered a brave warrior and men who followed him would lay down their lives for him. William ruled Europe with an iron fist. These were two formidable characters that would come together to fight one of the bloodiest battles ever fought on English soil, for the greatest prize in Europe, the throne of England.

When word reached William in Normandy that Harold had been crowned King, he assembled his troops and built around 700 ships. Harold, who had his spies closely watching William, immediately assembled his own troops and fleet. Harold's base was on the Isle of Wight as he believed that is where William would invade. Harold also sent ships to patrol the south-coast and stationed his land forces and scouts at vital points to raise the alarm of an invasion fleet.

Housecarl

The English army was partly made up of professional soldiers called Housecarls, who were well trained and paid for their services. They wore a pointed helmet which helped to deflect blows from sword attacks. Their main weapon was the battle-ax, the heavy, curved blade and long handle meant that it had to be held with both hands. Housecarls also used a long double-edged sword, with a shallow groove running along the blade on both sides to make it lighter, while carrying a long, kite-shaped shield. They were by far, the best in Europe.

The majority of the Saxon army was made up of part-time soldiers, called the Fyrd. They were working men who would be called up to fight for the King in times of danger. The leaders of the Fyrd, the Thegns (Noblemen) had swords, bows, and spears, but the rest of the men were inexperienced fighters and carried weapons such as iron clubs, slings, axes, scythes, sickles, and haymaking forks. The Fyrds were recruited from every village around. Harold had no problem recruiting men as the English were very patriotic and wanted to protect their land from anyone who tried to invade.

Thousands of soldiers assembled on the south coast of England and prepared for battle. They had to master the art of locking their shields to form a wall. This was the Saxons' main defense tactic. Their lives would depend on it.

By the summer of 1066, Harold had assembled the biggest army in living memory, along the south coast. The months passed, but there was no sign of the huge Norman fleet coming to invade that everyone had expected. The part-time soldiers needed to get back to their villages to harvest. The men grew restless and started to fight with each other. Harold was running out of supplies, he took one last look across the empty sea, dismantled his army, and headed back to London.

THE MARCH NORTH

A Viking

A few days later, Harold received news that an army had invaded England, but not by the Normans in the south, by the Vikings in the north. The Vikings was a fierce army and were rampaging through the villages of Yorkshire, capturing the city of York. The news hit Harold, like a bolt from the blue. He had to act quickly and he did so with speed. He reassembled his army and marched north, gathering his part-time soldiers on the way. Everyone was committed to ridding the threat of the Vikings from England, forever.

By the time Harold reached Stamford Bridge, in the north-east, his army had swollen to several thousand men. They had marched more than 180 miles in five days but were still ready to fight a long and bloody battle.

The Vikings were completely unprepared when the Saxons arrived. Thinking it would be another couple of days, they had spent their time lazing in the sun. The Viking army was also split into two, on each side of the river. Their main force was on the east and the rest were on the west. Joining the two was just a narrow wooden bridge, unlike what is there today.

As the Saxons moved along the west side of the river, the Vikings were trapped in a lethal bottleneck. Some Vikings resisted but were heavily outnumbered and slaughtered without mercy. Others tried desperately to escape over the bridge and join the rest of their force on the other side, but the Saxons were relentless and brutally hacked their way through the invading army. A Viking, without his armour, was no match for a Saxon battle-ax. Their hacked and mutilated bodies were strewn all over the west side of the river. It was absolute carnage, with nowhere to run.

By now every Viking, who had been on the west side was either dead or had fled across to the east. All except for one, a GIANT Norseman. He held up the entire Saxon army by blocking the narrow, wooden bridge and single handily cut down over forty Saxon warriors. Upon which, one cunning Saxon, drifted under the bridge in a barrel and proceeded to stab his spear up through the slats of the bridge and brought down the Norseman. The Saxons then poured over the bridge in their thousands, the panic-stricken Vikings fled up a slope to the east.

At the top of the slope, the Vikings could only lock their shields to form a defensive wall. The Saxons did the same. The two armies stood poised, ready to launch themselves at each other. This would be a fight to the death, the first to break through their opponent's wall, would be the winner.

The Saxons moved forward at a fast pace and clashed heavily with the Vikings. The noise of steel on steel, the roars from the Saxons, and blood-curdling cries from the Vikings were piercing. The Vikings were so badly protected that the Saxon swords cut through them, with ease. The Saxons put all the strength they had at breaking the shield wall and it was working, the wall began to break. Harold's men streamed through a got behind their enemy. The Saxons now had the advantage.

The battle raged on for hours. The Viking King, Harold Hardrada, was killed, along with King Harold's brother, Tostig, who had joined forces with the Viking King, against his brother. The Viking army was annihilated. The Saxons had won and Harold was still King of England, but within days, things would change dramatically. Harold would be fighting an even fiercer battle for his country's survival.

THE MARCH SOUTH

When William decided to invade England, he needed a bigger and stronger army in order to take on the Saxons. He summoned all the Noblemen and mercenaries of Europe and told them that this was a religious war, backed by the Pope. The Nobles signed up in their droves, thinking they would have a better place in the afterlife.

William's fleet was ready by the end of August. The only thing that was keeping the Duke from his 'crusade' was the lack of wind. He had to wait. His men grew bored, but William was strict, he forbade anyone from looting or committing violence on the local people. That was saved for the English, to entice Harold into battle.

On the 27th of September, the wind changed. William and his mighty fleet, carrying 2000 cavalry, 800 archers, and 3000 infantry, set sail. The Duke of Normandy was coming to claim the English throne, one of the largest invasion fleets in British history.

William landed in East Sussex on the 28th of September 1066. First off the ships were the archers, with arrows ready in their bows. They were expecting fierce resistance, but the beaches were empty. They had no idea the English army was fighting in the north. They couldn't believe their luck.

The news of William's landing took a couple of days to reach Harold, who was still celebrating with his men at York. It was a devastating blow, but worse was yet to come. William was burning and pillaging the villages in the south. He was deliberately trying to provoke Harold into an early battle.

It worked. Harold had no choice but to move his weary army south. The morale of the men was so low. Having just fought the battle at Stamford Bridge, only then to be told that they had to march, with speed, back-down south to fight the Normans, was crushing. Just five days after the victory over the Vikings, Harold's men had to march a staggering 250 miles to fend off an even bigger invasion. Over 7000 Saxon soldiers now started on the road, headed south.

Harold was a man on a mission. He was marching at such a pace that many of his men couldn't keep up. He arrived in London on the 5th of October and waited for the local Fyrd to assemble and troops from the Earl of Mercia and the Earl of Northumbria, to arrive from the north. Meanwhile, William had moved his army to Hastings, a few miles to the east, where he built a wooden castle for a base and waited for Harold to arrive.

Harold was growing extremely impatient while waiting for troops from the north. He decided to continue south against the strong advice of his brother, Earl Gyrth, who tried to persuade Harold not to engage in battle with William. He even offered to lead the English into battle himself, so as not to break the oath that Harold had made to William. Harold ignored this advice; he was determined to show his people he could defend his new Kingdom against every invader. Harold departed from London on the 12th of October and headed to the south-coast, picking up more men on the way.

On the 13th of October Harold arrived at Caldbec Hill, six miles inland from Hastings, and set up camp. Pre-battle negotiations between the Saxons and the Normans hadn't gone too well. William demanded that Harold either: renounces his claim as King, in favour of William; refers it to the arbitration of the Pope; or for it to be decided by single combat between Harold and himself. Harold declined all these offers, he was not about to renounce anything, apart from William's demands. The scene had now been set. The battle for England was to commence.

On the morning of the 14th October, Harold moved his troops to what is now referred to as Battle Hill, about 200 yards from Caldbec Hill, which blocked the road from Hastings to London. This gave the Saxons a great advantage over the Normans. It has always been believed that the battle took place at Senlac Hill, but some historians now believe the battle took place on the edge of the town of Hastings on Battle Hill, strategically a better position for Harold to block the road to London.

William had assembled his troops at Hastings, a few miles from the harbour, where his ships had been anchored. On hearing Harold was stationed at Caldbec Hill, he ordered his men the short distance up the road. Just a few hours after dawn, the Normans arrived at Battle Hill but could go no further.

A Norman Knight

The Norman army was a mighty force. William had a formidable weapon that Harold didn't have, the horse. The Normans regarded their horses as soldiers in their own right. They trained them to kick, head-butt and bite their enemy. William's 2000 mounted knights gave him an incredible fighting machine. The Saxons only ever fought on foot; they had never come up against a cavalry before. The horses, however, were not armoured, which made them especially vulnerable when attacking a shield wall. The rider was forced to turn his horse side on, to be able to use his sword effectively. As a result, the body of the horse was open to attack by his opponent, a role for which the Saxon ax was well suited. If his horse was cut from under him, a Norman knight, in his heavy armour, was defenseless until he could regain his footing.

The cavalry was the élite of the Norman army, like the infantry, their main weapon was the spear (a lighter version) and the sword for close combat. Similar to the Viking sword, it was made for cutting rather than thrusting. Blunt instruments such as the battle mace were also used. Both infantry and cavalry alike used the kite-shaped shield.

William had about the same number of men as Harold, but he split them up into three separate divisions. William stayed with his Normans in the center, on the left, where the forces of Brittany and on the right, was a mixture of troops from France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and other low countries.

William's battle plan was to put his archers in front. He hoped that their arrows would weaken the Saxon shield wall so that his infantry and 2000 knights could breakthrough.

Harold's plan had been to wait on the ridge to allow for reinforcements to arrive that were coming in all the time, but William wasn't going to give Harold any time to gather strength.

THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS

At 9 am on the 14th of October 1066, the battle began. There were massive roars of defiance from both sides. The Saxons on the hill, bellowing and beating their shields must have left the Normans looking up, knowing that this was going to be a long and bloody day.

Harold's men held their ground, their shield wall defiantly blocking the road to London. The Normans had to make the first move. William's jester, Taillefer, decided he would sacrifice himself for God and ride out to Battle Hill, where he sang the Song of Roland while juggling a sword. He then attacked and killed a Saxon warrior, before being killed. Following the jester, came the archers, but their arrows made little impact on the Saxons as they were shooting uphill. The arrows either went straight into the Saxons' shields or went straight over their heads. William was not going to win this battle with his archers alone. He would have to get in closer if he was going to dent the Saxon wall.

William gave the order for his whole army to move forward. There was a huge cry from the Norman soldiers. The Norman infantry began to advance up the hill. The Saxons stood rooted to the ground behind their shield wall, waiting for the impending crash. The men on the front line were all fired up, ready for it to come. As the Normans grew closer, the Saxons started hurtling spears and rocks down the hill, but this would not put off their determined attackers.

The Normans threw themselves at the wall, they knew they had to break it, in order to get at the main army behind, but the infantry could not breakthrough. William then ordered in his cavalry. The Norman Knights charged up the hill towards the Saxons. The Saxons held their ground and thrust their swords and spears through the shield wall. Many of the horses shied away and if they did get too close they were cut down by the Saxon battle-axes. They just could not breakthrough. The ferocity of the hand to hand combat was so savage that one side had to give.

The first sign of weakness came after about an hour of fighting, on the Normans left-side. Suddenly the Bretons panicked, turned around, and ran for their lives. Foot-soldiers and horsemen fleeing headlong down the hill, but as they ran they didn't realize they were running slightly to the left from where they came up.

Seeing the backs of their terrified enemy scattering away down the hill was too much of a temptation for the Saxons. Harold's brothers, Leofwyne and Gyrth, along with some less experienced troops on Harold's right side, smelt victory, broke ranks, and chased the Bretons down the hill. Harold despaired at the sight. He knew that his only chance of victory was to keep the shield wall solid. True to Saxon tradition, Harold was on foot- standing shoulder to shoulder with his men, ready to fight. Harold didn’t have a horse to run up and down his ranks, to keep his men in line. What he gained in morale, he lost in mobility. This was one major flaw in Saxon tactics. Harold had no way of stopping his men from pursuing the fleeing Bretons. He remained fighting with his army, retaining the strength of the shield wall.

By now the Saxons who had given chase to the Bretons, found themselves in a small marshy area, behind the Norman line. They were cut off from the rest of their army and had unwittingly run into a death-trap. This was now a pivotal moment in the battle. Harold could have made the decision to charge down the hill with his men and attack the entire Norman line, but he decided to stay on the ridge. William then took the initiative and galloped over to the marshy area, with his Knights. Soon the Saxons were surrounded. They didn’t stand a chance. They were cut down one by one. It was a terrible slaughter. After the carnage of that attack, the Normans pulled back and both sides drew breath.

William's quick thinking changed the course of the battle. Seeing the Saxons break the shield wall, chasing after the Bretons, gave him an idea. He decided to change tactics and stage fake retreats to tempt more Saxons down the hill. Once the Saxons were at the bottom of the hill, they would be totally exposed and at the mercy of the Norman Knights.

The Saxons fell for it and over the next few hours, a series of Norman attacks and retreats took place. Away from the protection of the wall, the Saxons were caught out and cut down by Norman knights and infantry. The lack of discipline was costing the Saxons dearly. Their casualties were mounting up and time was marching on.

In medieval times, battles rarely lasted more than a couple of hours before one side would see the other off the field. This battle was different- this was proving to be the longest and close-fought battles in medieval history. It went on for nine hours. Both sides were exhausted. The Saxons, despite the constant onslaught, was still managing to hold the shield wall. If they could keep it together until nightfall, it could win them enough time for reinforcements to arrive. As the day drew to a close, the relentless pounding from the Normans began to thin the Saxon ranks and the less experienced men were being forced to serve on the front line. They were so tightly packed that the dead couldn’t even fall to the ground; they remained upright, pressed against the living.

William's strategy was grinding down the Saxon wall, but he wanted victory before nightfall. Battles of the day normally ended at sunset, regardless of who was winning, and resumed again at sunrise. William didn't want Harold to receive fresh reinforcements. He had to try something new and quick.

He changed tactics completely, he decided to put every man who could still walk or ride, into one solid mass. Behind them, he placed his archers and gave them new orders to raise their bows and shoot up into the air. This way the arrows would fall on the more exposed Saxons, behind the wall.

What followed is one of the most famous moments in British history. King Harold was shot in the eye by a Norman arrow. As he laid there wounded, a hail of arrows caused chaos among the Saxon army. The Normans charged at the wall, the one last time. The exhausted Saxons could no longer hold their shields together. Gaps in the wall began to appear, the Normans were starting to overpower the English and flood through the shield wall. One group of Norman knights sought out the English King and went straight for him. They literally took him apart. They hacked off his right leg, half of his left leg, then finally his head.

The Bayeux Tapestry showing Harold with an arrow in his eye

The faithful Housecarls fought to the end over Harold's body, but the news of the King's death spread and broke the morale of the English army. Once they saw the King's banner go down they lost heart and started to slip away. Most of the men were in shock, they were Saxons, a force to be reckoned with and they had just been beaten.

Thousands died that day at Hastings. The field by morning was covered with hacked and mutilated bodies, stripped of their armour by looters. More than that though, the bodies that were lying there, marked the death of Saxon England and somewhere amongst them, laid the body of, 'Its last King'. Harold's body was never recovered, rumours at the time suggested William had ordered for it to be thrown into the sea. It was one of the darkest moments in Medieval England.

THE MARCH ON LONDON

William may have won the battle and defeated his enemy, Harold Godwinson, but if he was thinking England would just roll-over for a Norman overlord, he was very much mistaken. William and his army waited at Hastings for the English Lords to come and submit to him, but no one came.

The remains of the English government had quickly elected Edgar Atheling as King. He was young and weak, but a weak king was better than no king at all, they thought. After Edgar had been elected, the Northern Earls, Edwin, and Morcar, left the city and returned with their forces to their respective Earldoms.

William marched his army along the south coast of England and captured the ports which he needed to control. In time, more men and supplies would be arriving from Normandy. He then went on and advanced through Kent, devastating Romney and on to Dover, all of which eventually had to submit to him. William and his army rested in Dover for about a week and on the 29th of October received the submission of Canterbury. From there, the Normans advanced to Southwark towards the river Thames. After being prevented from crossing London Bridge, they destroyed the town and moved to Wallingford. There the Normans crossed the Thames and advanced into London, from the north-west.

The Normans eventually reached Berkhampstead in late November 1066. William's army had been dramatically reduced since the battle, due to dysentery, but still managed to destroy the Counties of London. Eventually, an agreement was made between William and the Lords that the city of London would be spared any more atrocities if Edgar abdicated and William was recognized as king.

In early December, Ansgar, the Sheriff of Middlesex, the Archbishops of York and Canterbury, and the deposed Edgar Atheling, came out and submitted to the Norman invader. William was crowned King on Christmas Day 1066, at Westminster Abbey. He became known, in polite terms, as William the Conqueror, in not so polite terms he was known as William the Bastard due to his illegitimacy at birth, but whatever he was, he was now WILLIAM I, King of England.