BEAUTIFUL WORLD

2014-04-08T04:34:00.003-07:00

A LOOK INTO THE SLAYER SLAIN

The title of the novel is intriguing.This terse phase contains the essence of the story where the main antagonist KOSY CURIEN , who is guilty of unwittingly killing the grandson of his old slave POULOSA is redeemed by the love and forgiveness that the old slave shows to his master.

Poulosa's action of saving Kosy's daughter from a watery grave fills the latter with so much regret that he repents and thus the slayer is slain by the weapon of love.It is possible to discern several themes in the novel like the preponderance of the caste system , the desire to convert people to the christian faith particularly people of the upper caste like the old Brahman ,the difference in attitude and behavior of the Syrian Christians of the ancient eastern Christian faith as against those who have taken up the western Protestant faith.

The slayer slain deals predominantly with the evolution of the character of Mariam , the daughter of kosy curian . Mariam is a young women of nearly fourteen who has received a good education at the mission school run by the wives of the missionaries. The mission school in question is undoubtedly THE MISS BAKER'S SCHOOL, which had started functioning under the supervision of Mrs.Amelia Dorothea Baker in 1820.

The liberal education that mariam received at the mission school not only taught her the three R's it also gave a broad outlook on life , an ability to understand and analyze men and matters and to make her own decisions without fear. She did not totally reject established customs and practices but she did question attitudes that only serve to encourage such social evils like untouchability and casteism.She is the dutiful and obediant daughter of kosy but she has a will of her own which enables her to speak out her mind to her father.

She is not the militant and aggressive type but she is able to achieve her objective by her gentle and intelligent persuasiveness.When her father arranges to have her married to the son of the rich Syrian landowner Ummen Thoma ,she was able to convince him that marriage to a gross un educated widower would only serve to make to her unhappy and wicked.Her arguments were so intelligent and reasonable that her father breaks off the contract of marriage even though such a social solecism was unheard of at that time.

As the weather is not good i am stopping today's writing will continue tomorrow, here we have windy rain and what about there???????????????????????

2014-04-06T09:50:00.002-07:00

INTO THE SLAYER SLAIN

In my last blog i gave you a picture of the novelist and from today we are getting into the novel,"THE SLAYER SLAIN".

This short novel has the distinction of being the first of its kind in missionary literature.It has all the characteristics of typical novel in that it has a well defined plot and characters that grow in stature as the story progresses.The story line is one that fulfills the purpose for which it is crafted viz for the instruction of young . It adopts the style of the omniscient narrator who stands apart and watches the events unfolding.Set in the picturesque background of Kottayam and Meenachil river the chief characters are the Syrian Christians who consider themselves as belonging to the upper caste and their servants who belong to the lower caste and are considered untouchables.

The events that are described in the novel are imaginative renderings of real incidents that have taken place in central Travancore and which are described at length by the missionaries in their annual reports to the parent society .All these characteristics support the claim that The Slayer Slain is a typical novel .In fact it may even be considered that this novel is the first novel in English written and published in India by a colonial master about the colonized .Again it is indeed the first novel written by a women missionary even though she has to share this position with her husband but for whom this novel would not have been completed let alone published .As a matter of fact it was Rev.Collins who translated the novel into Malayalam and published it with title " Khadhaka Vadhom" .One hundred and fifty years have been elapsed since the publication of "Khadhaka Vadhom".

These are some features seen in this book that i would like to share with you from my next blog we will be entering deep into the novel so after reading this blog you feel like you have read the whole novel .

"READING A BOOK MAKES US A GREAT HUMAN BEING IN THIS BEAUTIFUL WORLD"

2014-04-04T08:45:00.003-07:00

SLAYER SLAIN'S AUTHOR

The slayer slain is a novel in serial form , was one of the articles that found place in the first issues of the vidhya sangrah (cms college magazine) .The novel was written by Frances Wright Collins , wife of Rev.Richard Collins.Very little is known about Frances Wright expect that she accompanied her young husband to tropical India in order to take her place as wife of a missionary.She was not of a robust constitution and the heat and rain of Travancore didn't agree with her.

Trough she tried to carry out her duties of teaching and managing the household to the best of her ability she could not hold out for long.She was taken to the relatively cooler area of Coonoor where she took her last breathe in 1862. A plaque to her memory was erected by a grateful people and is to be found in the chapel of the CMS college Kottayam, Kerala,India.Apart from this she remains a shadowy figure about whom nothing very substantial is known apart from the slim novel that she wrote The Slayer Slain.

The introductory note at the beginning of the novel speaks of it having come "from the pen of lady who has since gone to her rest". However the style of the novel in the last last chapters is different and so it can be safely concluded that the novel was completed by the Rev.Collins because death had claimed Frances before she could complete her work of art.

The slayer slain and its author Frances have long been wrapped up in the mists of oblivion , pushed into the margins of memory. Though published in serial form in the early sixties of the nineteenth century , neither the author nor her work has got the recognition they deserved. The missionaries of the church referred to Frances as merely as the wife of their missionary. Not a word of acclaim has been accorded to this lady for her crafting of this novel with its emphasis on the simple and the commonplace along with matters of weight and significance.

On the other hand merely referring to her as Mrs.Collins has created and perpetuated the mistaken belief that the novel was written by Frances Sarah Collins whom Rev.Collins married after the untimely demise of France Wright. It was her husband ,who no doubt ,encouraged her impressions of central Travancore into papers. He also had the tenderness to finish her novel and to publish it.Though their is a marked difference in the perception of husband and wife ,the fact remains that this work would never have been the light of day If Rev.Collins had ignored it.

See this is the beauty of love and respect that everyone need to show to everyone in their life.Love comes from care , respect, protection and dedication to one another which can be seen fading in today's world. I think you guyz have understood how important is the place of a special person especially women in our world without them the world won't go on.........................

2014-04-03T08:45:00.001-07:00

THE SLAYER SLAIN

Today i would like to introduce a book which influenced me a lot and brought a courage and proud in me that i am a GIRL.

This is the first work that has been made ready which took its shape in the beautiful campus of CMS college by the hand a-nd imagination of Mrs.Frances Wright Collins from 1856-1865.It is a matter of great gratification that the whole background of the campus has compelled her to write about the strength of the greatest potential in human kind-LOVE .The novel depicts the society of that time and vividly reports the scenes of those days.

The contribution of the missionaries who were keen to impart knowledge and wisdom in the lives of many who were unexposed to the arena of literacy.

The Slayer Slain has several unique features to its credit.It is a book on men and women who lived in Kottayam ,Kerala ,India and its environs.The setting is typically 19th century Kottayam and Thazhathagadi , the meenachil river which was clear and sparkling and in a sudden spate ,the paddy fields on either side of the river are green carpets for as long as the eye can see isn't this a beautiful sight which enriches our eyes. I wish i could see all these.......

Canoes were the chief means of transport ,cultivation is done chiefly by the slaves , the western Anglican faith which is slowly influencing the attitude of both Syrian Christain and the slaves.It was written by a white women who represents the colonizer even

though it shows the human side of colonialism that is seen. i think it is the fate of WOMEN either white \coloured ,the author has been hidden for years.

Education has been the means of liberating women from the strange hold of patriarchy as can be seen in the life of Mariam ,the heroine of the novel.The mission school established by the wives of the CMS missionaries was the first institution that gave young girls the rudiments of liberal education that would enable them to be responsible and capable women.It is also the first typical novel in missionary literature and it lays emphasis on the power of LOVE and forgiveness in Slaying the Slayer.

As literature holds a mirror to history it is hoped that this novel will shed light on the social conditions that prevailed in central Travancore in the 19th century.It is a record of the way women has been able to progress after receiving the benefit of education and also serves to unveil the figure of the women author who has remained on the margins of memory for more than a century and half .This is great and beautiful work which is to be read by every women and bring changes in life in a beautifull manner.

2014-03-30T02:43:00.000-07:00

DID YOU KNOW????????????????

Why do you yawn when you get sleepy??????????? To keep yourself up! A yawn is a show of deep breath that brings more oxygen to the brain.It's a little like splashing cold water on your face.The oxygen gives your brain cells a little wake-up call.

Thomas Edison , the inventor of light bulb was afraid of the dark

Alexander Graham bell never phoned his wife and mother because they were deaf.

In space ,astronauts can't cry properly because there is no gravity.So their tears can't flow down their faces.

Coffee was discovered by goats !

it was about 850 AD that coffee was first discovered . There is a legend that an Araba goat herd Kaldi who lived in Ethiopia first noticed the strange effect of coffee plant when his goats were fed on it .He made a beverage out of it which had a stimulating effect.

The shortest complete sentence in English language is "GO" !

Aegilops 8 letters song , is the longest word with its letter arranged in alphabetical order.

In 1883 , the explosion of the volcano Krakatoka , put so much dust into the earth's atmosphere that sunsets appeared green and the moon appeared blue around the world for almost two year.

How reindeer's survive in the extreme cold??????

By eating MOSS !

The moss contain a special chemical that help reindeer keep their body fluids warm when the reindeer make their yearly journey across the icy arctic region ,the chemical keep them from freezing !

2014-03-29T02:51:00.000-07:00

CUMULATIVE RECORD

AND GUIDANCE

The cumulative record is a confidential and systematic accumulation of significant factual information about an individual student while at school.It is a readily available permanent data about a child.

It is progressively developed and maintained over a sufficient period of time a give a summarized growth record indicating the direction and rate of development .The information written in cumulative record is collected from different sources over a period of time.It contain useful and reliable information about the student that may enable providing education ,vocational ,personal guidance and assistance to the student during the period of his stay in the school.

uses of cumulative record for a teacher as well as a guide

Helpful in student classification
Provides complete school history of the student
Helpful in making certificates
Helps in problem solving
Helps in proving personal guidance
Helps in providing vocational guidance
Helpful in self-assessment
Helpful for employers
Helpful for giving individual attention
Helps in preparing progress report

These are some of the benefits of saving a record for children but these thing does't happen in most of the schools' i think it's because both teacher and students have a tight schedule teacher won't get enough time to spend with every

child and other duties come in their way............ any way if teacher doesn't keep record is ok................ but she surely should find time to spend with students because its the beauty of teaching lies...

2014-03-28T09:01:00.000-07:00

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE (V.G)

The provision of VG in our educational has been necessitated by great changes in our society and this large world is becoming

more and more complex.Unemployment and underemployment are not necessarily due to lack of opportunities but i think it is due to the lack of information and support to find right job to right person. Students' are not been able to know what all opportunities are waiting for them because of their limited knowledge of occupations and of the narrow range of alternatives available to them.

This ignorance lead to unrealistic aspirations. Therefore i think we should assist our students to have more realistic career expectations through systematically organized VG programs in our schools and colleges.

NEED FOR VG

VG is needed to assist the students to choose the best career of their choice
To strengthen educational system by providing motivation and meaning to education
To help students understand problem and causes for unemployment
Needed to provide information about occupational opportunities
To help youngsters to prepare for and entering into desired profession
To explore different information sources
For vocational adjustment
To ensure efficient use of man power
To stop wastage and misutilization of time , money,labor and brings economic prosperity to individual as well as nation
To develop potentialities of youngsters to an optimum level

A country's economic stability depends on the working people and man power of nation for its development so if we raise our children with a correct value and definition for career we could be part our nations development.There will be a time when everyone will be satisfied with their jobs and life and thus prosperity runs through our life and we will be able to live a beautiful in peace , harmony and love for each others.

2014-03-27T07:32:00.000-07:00

INTERFERENCE OF MALAYALAM ON ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNING

The features of the first language find similarities and differences with the feature of second language,similarities facilitate and differences interfere second language learning.Malayalam ,as a first language ,exhibits these features of facilitation and interference when a Malayalee learns English after acquiring Malayalam.

Malayalam has major differences with English ,both languages belong to different families English belongs to In do-European where as Malayalam to Dravidian language. Unphonetic nature of English is heavily interfered by the phonetic nature of Malayalam.

Eg:-/o/ -on , one, won ,wolf

/k/ - kit , cat , school ,packet

The presence of silent letters in words is another reason ,malayalee have a tendency in the beginning to pronounce each and every letter they see in English words.

Eg:- r - girl

k -know

h - honest.

Malayalam is a syllable timed language where as English a stressed timed language.Malayalee have a tendency to t English wrongly as syllable timed language which is due to the influence of malayalam.

"t" is a alveolar plosive ,malayalees wrongly pronounce it as retroflex sound which not in English use .

Malayalees pronounce "s/es" as /s/ /z/ and /iz/

Eg:- looks - /luks/ ,pigs - /pigz/ ,cases -/ keisiz/.

Past tense marker d /ed is pronounced as /t/ /d/ and /id/

Eg :- looked - /lukt/ ,filled - /fild/ , lighted -/laitid/

they do so in English because it is their familiar way in malayalam in which they are correct.

These are some of the problems in using English for malayalee but theoretical knowledge of relevant areas and sufficient practice can help the learners a lot in overcoming these kinds of interference.The beauty of a language is in its beauty of communication because language is primarily speech.

2014-03-26T07:49:00.006-07:00

TEACHING OF ENGLISH IN KERALA

Kerala is known as god's own country all around the globe.Here teaching of English stars from standard one.Most of the students can't use English accurately in speech and writing even as they complete school education.The study of English for years and years doesn't equip them to use any of the skills in that language satisfactorily.

According to me we should give prior focus of teaching English in Kerala.It fails to bloom the flowers of talents and standards of pupils in English language.Causal factors of this predicament are many and their are many obstacles and impediments to overcome.

CHALLENGES OF TEACHING ENGLISH IN KERALA

Over crowded classes
Excess work load to teachers and students
Lack of refresher courses
Poor teacher education system
Wrong methods of teaching
Lack of good library facilities
Lack of good language lab
Limited exposure
Unsuitable curriculum
Inadequate number of periods
Defective system of evaluation
Unavailability of text books in time
Unavailability of learning aids
Changing policies of government
Over politicization of students and teachers unions
Lack of effective supervision and support

These deplorable conditions of English language teaching is not a peculiarity of Kerala alone.The same can be seen as the condition of English language teaching across the country.Any one who comes forward with new innovations are never given support but they are suppressed.Teaching is a profession which teaches all professions and it is the most beautiful and enjoyable profession seen in whole world .

2014-03-25T09:52:00.000-07:00

PERSONAL GUIDANCE

Personal guidance is an assistance given to an individual to solve his social , emotional , moral and health problems. The area of personal guidance is the personal adjustment of the individual in different spheres of life.Lack of guidance may precipitate personal problems which would affect their efficiency ,happiness and make them maladjusted.Personal problems are mostly emotional in nature and hence are difficult to handle.Moreover,there is wide individual variation regarding the nature of social and psychological problems.The complexity of the causes and that of the person make personal guidance inevitable for balanced development of personality and optimal social productivity.

It is required for the personal adjustment
Essential for developing personal and social competencies
Needed for avoiding the interpersonal tension and conflicts
Used for setting up a harmonious environment between family life and vocational life of an individual
Needed to minimize the gaps between personal aspirations and social demands
Helps in taking decisions with regard to personal problems
Brings happiness , peace and satisfaction in the life of an individual
It helps the person to develop integrated and balanced personality
To maximize personal and social success in life
Needed to make up a harmonious society where everybody gets opportunities to excel and all enjoy living to that society.

These are some of the need for personal guidance in this busy world and stress out time i recommend my readers to get or assure proper guidance to yourself and friends before it gets too late.

2014-03-24T08:37:00.001-07:00

NEED FOR GUIDANCE IN SCHOOLS

The increasing complexities and stress of modern day living , everyday reports of lack of interest in studies , low achievement ,truancy, aggression,behavioral problems, suicide, drug abuse and the like call for provision of guidance and counselling for children and youth in schools.There is a greater need for guidance services now than ever before due to the rapid advancement in technology, emerging of new world order, rapid social change and fast changing value systems.

The secret of good education consists in enabling the student to discover and develop his potentialities for his personal happiness and social usefulness , to realize what are his talents ,aptitudes and in what manner and to what extent he can develop his best so as to achieve proper social adjustment and seek right type of employment.

let's see how guidance help students :-

1.To help in the total development of the student.

2.To cater to individual differences among school going children.

3.To improve the quality of education.

4.To enable students to make proper choices at various stages of their educational career.

5.It helps the child to recognize and use his inner resources,to set goals,to make plans to work out his own problems of development.

6.To help the students choose,prepare for , enter upon and progress in a career.

7.To check wastage and stagnation .

8.To minimize the incidence of indiscipline

9.To improve vocational efficiency of students.

10.To minimize the mismatching between education and employment.

11.To help the exceptional children in their optimal development.

12.To develop healthy and balanced personality.

13.To tackle emotional problems

For this to realize, guidance should be an integral part of school system.They are the next generation who should lead our country so they should be stronger from inside and should have a good aesthetic sense.

2014-03-23T09:48:00.002-07:00

GUIDANCE IN OUR LIFE

Life of an individual goes through different phases or stages during his life time.Guidance is an assistance or help given to person in the time of his difficulty.It may not be done by any professionally train person even friends,parents or siblings can do.

Life become so stressed out when we become elder and elder ,seriously i have thought why are we keep on growing? how wonderful our childhood was with friends ,grand parents running around to catch us ohooooooo i feel so sorry to be have grown up but what to do it'z the magic of nature isn't?????

see these children all stressed out , childhood is the most beautiful time one gets in life and today's children poor guy's trapped inside books ,schools, parents what to do????? teachers and parents should be given some guidance ,children should be given importance than their work..... children of this age will do anything to get love and affection........... When it was joint family system grand parents took care of children played with them ,taught them through stories i really miss my grandpa he knows about everything i ask ,their was an answer for every question ..... but he passed away it'z been two years......

I happened to meet a person in a computer service center , there was a girl working next to him she was so shy and talked in very low sound ,i told that person when she was gone that ,she is a nice girl and should be little bold and to my wonder he asked me about whom i was talking ,he even didn't notice the girl next to him because of the heavy load of work he had.............. i told him this stress could bring him some disease and he should take some time for relaxing.......

See men and women at work go through difficulties and a good counselor could tell them how they could do their job efficiently....... without stress but with joy ..............

This is a wide topic to be discussed i think i will tell you about my views on my next blog....... soooolong guyz have a great and beautiful night

2014-03-22T02:05:00.001-07:00

FREEDOM

Freedom literally means no restriction in anything , but actually does every one enjoy this????? i doubt that...As i am an Indian i surely can say here in Indian everyone doesn't enjoy this... elections are ahead and all politician's ohoooo participates are getting ready for their next make over.....sometimes i think it was better to be ruled by a noble king then in other time in a democratic country....i am messed up. This year i am going to vote for the first time and i am excited....but i don't have an idea to whom should i vote for????

Yesterday my mom was telling me that i should support her person but i don't like to act to others mind i want your suggestion on this . This year'z election is going to be a real fight between the parties in India arise of a new party is giving the old parties some competition ..... let me see did the ruling party brought at least some of the promises they made on campaign during last time into action???? is the people of India fed up with them??????

Last year in Delhi a college girl have been brutally raped and what did the authorities do?? Being a women herself a famous personality asked the media why dis that girl got out of her house after six pm??? what do you think about this?????? is this the kind of freedom we want to enjoy??? This whole world is everyone's only god is the owner ...........

During a strike day a pregnant lady got labor-pain and her husband at some cost found an ambulance and started to hospital but on their way the strike people stopped them and they destroyed the vehicle for getting into road ,that lady gave birth to baby inside the ambulance........ what do they think of themselves???? if they are into something they shouldn't get into others life but do it in peaceful way.... where are the human values gone????do they love only parties??what do they get from their parties????? while i was studying their was parties in college and when they declare strikes my classmates went to participate , when i asked them why the strike was they did't know , they are going so that they get food and money for participating and to my surprise they did't go for one but in all parties strike isn't it wonderful??????

If an able police officer arrested any criminals or members of a party for an offence before they are put into jail phone calls from higher authorities will be there and poor officer have to leave them because he need to take care of his family otherwise may be gunda gang could kill him or anyone in his family........ is this freedom????

Our children , girl's , boy's , elder's not even our pets are safe to go outside.......children lost their freedom to play in rain , mud ,paint etc...girl's lost freedom to go anywhere ,choose their life,career.........boy's lost their freedom to mingle with friends no even boys because parents suspect that he may go into bad gang.........elder's lost freedom to walk on street , to enjoy their retirement as they want........... EVERYONE HAS LOST THEIR FREEDOM TO SOMETHING OR ANYTHING THEY LIKE TO DO MOST can't we change this??????? fear is the main reason ,give away your bad fear and bad dreams and built a world of colors and a land where dreams come true................

IT 'Z ALL ABOUT LOVE

2014-03-21T09:18:00.001-07:00

LOVE - The most beautiful feeling in the world

Guy'z what do you think love is all about ? I think it'z like a colorful rainbow , which forms after the rain and adds beauty to our colorful world and make our dreams. It is undefinable i think ,but i have heard people saying that love is blind ,care ,emotion and so on goes the list. I think it'z all about how one decides what it is to them.

For me it'z a special feeling to someone or anything in the world ,did you guy'z know when first heard the song from the film ashiqui HUM ...TERE....BINA..ABB...REHEENAHI SAKTHEEE... made my hair rise uppp my brother wondered and started making fun of me ,at that time i didn't understand anything but while their was a discussion about and they asked me and this came to me and i too narrated this to them my guide said it could be a different phase of love ,i remember while doing my bachelor read a poem in which the poet tells us that if a feeling really get into someone ,one's eyes dilates , he sweets , heartbeat rises and his hair rises up just like i have experienced.

I doubt in today'z world do we can see real love?????? as the stories we have heard in our childhood of prince and princess living happily ever after....... the feeling of trust on love has been vanished from our world......... no one trusts anyone they doesn't help the needy............why this has happened??? where'zz the goodness of human have vanished which god considered as next to him..........

Today even girl'z have started doing wrong thing'z and boy'z help them for there needs.i don't know where'z the world going everything nice and beautiful is being destroyed....... i don't know what will last in this world........... i want

all the good people to sustain their goodness by doing good and if we all try hand in hand we could bring back the goodness and beauty to this world as the world was when it formed...................

BEAUTY OF MALAYALAM LITERATURE

2014-03-17T08:54:00.000-07:00

BEAUTY OF MALAYALAM LITERATURE

Malayalam literature (മലയാള സാഹിത്യം) comprises those literary texts written in Malayalam, a South-Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala.

The earliest known extant literary work in Malayalam is Ramacharitam, an epic poem written in the late 13th or early 13th century. In the subsequent centuries, besides a popular pattu ("song") literature, the manipravalam poetry also flourished. Manipravalam (translates "ruby coral") style mainly consisted of erotic poetry in an admixture of Malayalam and Sanskrit.^[1] Then came works such as champus and sandeshakavyas in which prose and poetry were interspersed. Later, poets like Cherusseriintroduced poems on devotional themes. Ezhuthachan, a strong proponent of Bhakti movement, is known as the father of Malayalam. His poems are classified under the genre of kilippattu.^[2]

Modern literary movements in Malayalam literature began in the late 19th century with the rise of the famous Modern Triumvirate consisting of Kumaran Asan, Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer and Vallathol Narayana Menon. Kumaran Asan was temperamentally a pessimist—a disposition reinforced by his metaphysics—yet all his life was active in promoting his downtrodden Hindu-Ezhava community. Ullor wrote in the classical tradition, on the basis of which he appealed for universal love, while Vallathol responded to the human significance of social progress. Contemporary Malayalam poetry records the encounter with problems of social, political, and economic life. The tendency of the modern poetry is often regarded as toward political radicalism.

vaikom muhammed basheer

Early literature

Indian literature
Assamese Bengali Bhojpuri English Gujarati Hindi Kannada Kashmiri Malayalam Manipuri Marathi Mizo Nepali Oriya Punjabi Rajasthani Sanskrit Sindhi Tamil Telugu Urdu
v t e

For the first 600 years of the Malayalam calendar, Malayalam literature remained in a preliminary stage. During this time, Malayalam literature consisted mainly of various genres of songs. The most prominent among these were songs praising the goddesses of the land, ballads of brave warriors, songs related to the work of a particular caste and songs intended just for entertainment. Bhadrakali pattu, thottam pattu, mavaratham pattu, sasthanga pattu, nizhalkoothu pattu, sarpa pattu, sastham pattu, thiyyattu pattu, pulluvar pattu, mannar pattu, panar pattu, krishi pattu, thamburan pattu, pada pattu, villadichan pattu, onappattu, kummi and lullaby were some of the major sub-genres. These names were not used historically, but are used in modern times to describe the song genres of that time.

Ramacharitham

Ramacharitham is a collection of poems written at the end of the preliminary stage in Malayalam literature's evolution. It is the oldest Malayalam book available. The collection has 1,814 poems in it. Ramacharitham mainly consists of stories from the Yuddha Kanda the of Ramayana. It was written by a poet with the pen nameCheeramakavi who, according to poet Ulloor S Parameswara Iyer, was Sree Veerarama Varman, a king of Travancore from AD 1195 to 1208.^[4] Other experts, like Dr. K.M. George and P.V. Krishnan Nair, claim that the origins of the book can be found in north Kerala. They cite the use of certain words in the book and also the fact that the manuscript of the book was recovered from Neeleshwaram in north Kerala.^[5] Some experts consider it a Tamil literary piece. A. R. Rajaraja Varma, who heavily contributed to the development of Malayalam grammar, is of the opinion that Malayalam originated from ancient Tamil. Ramacharitham is considered a book written during the formative years of Malayalam. According to Rev. Dr. Hermann Gundert, who compiled the first dictionary of the Malayalam language, Ramacharitham shows the ancient style of the Malayalam language.

Early prose literature[edit]

List of early prose literature in 19th century.^[7]

Allegories[edit]

Title	Author	Year	Make	Other notes
Sanchariyude Prayanam (സഞ്ചാരിയുടെ പ്രയാണം - Sañcāriyuṭe Pṟayāṇaṁ)	Rev. C. Muller Rev. P. Chandran	1846	Translation	More[show]
Paradeshi Mokshayathra (പരദേശി മോക്ഷയാത്ര - Paradēśi Mōkṣayātṟa)	Rev. K. Koshy Rev. Joseph Peet	1844	Translation	More[show]
Thirupporattam (തിരുപ്പോരാട്ടം - Tiruppōrāṭṭaṁ)	Archdeacon. K. Koshy	1868	Translation	More[show]

Plays[edit]

Title	Author	Year	Make	Other notes
Bashashankunthalam (ഭാഷാശാകുന്തളം - Bhaṣāśākuntaḷaṁ)	Ayilyam Thirunal Rama Varma	1850-1860	Translation	More[show]
Almarattam (ആൾമാറാട്ടം - Āḷmāṟāṭṭaṁ)	Kalloor Umman Philipose	1866	Translation	More[show]
Kamakshee Charitham (കാമാക്ഷീചരിതം - Kāmākṣīcaritaṁ)	K. Chidambara Wadhyar	1880-1885	Translation	More[show]
Varshakala Katha (വൎഷകാലകഥ - Varṣakāla Katha)	K. Chidambara Wadhyar	1880-1885	Translation	More[show]

Stories[edit]

Title	Author	Year	Make	Other notes
Oru Kuttiyude Maranam (ഒരു കുട്ടിയുടെ മരണം - Oru Kuṭṭiyuṭe Maraṇaṁ)	<Anonymous Writer>	1847	Original	More[show]
Vishathinu Marunnu (വിഷത്തിന് മരുന്ന് - Viṣattinŭ Marunnŭ)	<Anonymous Writer>	1848	Original	More[show]
Anayum Thunnanum (ആനയും തുന്നനും - Āṉayuṁ Tunnaṉuṁ)	<Anonymous Writer>	1849	Original	More[show]
Meenakethanan or Meenakethana Charitham (മീനകേതനൻ or മീനകേതനചരിതം - Mīṉakētaṉan orMīṉakētaṉacaritaṁ )	Ayilyam Thirunal Rama Varma	1850-1860	Inspiration	More[show]
Jathibetham (ജാതിഭേദം - Jātibēdaṁ)	Archdeacon. K. Koshy	1860	Original	More[show]
Aayalkarane Konnavante Katha (അയൽക്കാരനെ കൊന്നവന്റെ കഥ - Ayalkārane Konnavanṯe Katha)	<Anonymous Writer>	1873	Original	More[show]
Kallan (കല്ലൻ - Kallan)	<Anonymous Writer>	1881	Adaptation	More[show]
Pullelikunchu (പുല്ലേലിക്കുഞ്ചു - Pullēlikkuñcu)	Archdeacon. K. Koshy	1882	Original	More[show]
Vasanavikrithi (വാസനാവികൃതി - Vāsanāvikr̥ti)	Vengayil Kunjiraman Nayanar	1891	Original	More[show]

Novels[edit]

Title	Author	Year	Make	Other notes
Fulmoni Ennum Koruna Ennum Peraya Randu Sthreekalude Katha (ഫുൽമോനി എന്നും കോരുണ എന്നും പേരായ രണ്ടു സ്ത്രീകളുടെ കഥ - Phulmōni ennuṁ kōruṇa ennuṁ pērāya ranṭu strīkaḷuṭe katha)	Rev. Joseph Peet	1858	Translation	More[show]
Ghathakawadham (ഘാതകവധം - Ghātakavadhaṁ)	Rev. Richard Collins^[8]	1877	Translation	More[show]
Pathminiyum Karunayum (പത്മിനിയും കരുണയും - Patmiṉiyuṁ karuṇayuṁ)	<Anonymous Writer>	1884	Translation	More[show]
Kundalatha (കുന്ദലത - Kundalata)	Appu Nedungadi	1887	Original	More[show]
Indulekha (ഇന്ദുലേഖ - Indulēkha)	O. Chandumenon	1889	Original	More[show]
Indumathee Swayamvaram (ഇന്ദുമതീസ്വയംവരം - Indumatīsvayaṁvaraṁ)	Padinjare Kovilakathu Ammaman Raja	1890	Original	More[show]
Meenakshi (മീനാക്ഷി - Mīṉākṣi)	C. Chathu Nair	1890	Original	More[show]
Marthandavarma (മാർ‍ത്താണ്ഡവർ‍മ്മ - Māṟttāṇḍavaṟmma)	C. V. Raman Pillai	1891	Original	More[show]
Saraswatheevijayam (സരസ്വതീവിജയം - Sarasvatīvijayaṁ)	Potheri Kunjanbu	1892	Original	More[show]
Parishkarapathi (പരിഷ്ക്കാരപ്പാതി - Pariṣkārappāti)	Kochuthomman Appothikari	1892	Original	More[show]
Parangodee Parinayam (പറങ്ങോടീപരിണയം - Paṟaṅṅōṭīpariṇayaṁ)	Kizhakepattu Raman Menon	1892	Original	More[show]
Sarada (ശാരദ - Śārada)	O. Chandumenon	1892	Original	More[show]
Lakshmeekeshavam (ലക്ഷ്മീകേശവം - Lakṣmīkēśavaṁ)	Komattil Padu Menon	1892	Original	More[show]
Naluperiloruthan (നാലുപേരിലൊരുത്തൻ - Nālupēriloruttan)	C. Anthapayi	1893	Original	More[show]
Chandrahasan (ചന്ദ്രഹാസൻ - Candrahāsan)	P. Krishnan Menon T. K. Krishnan Menon C. Govindan Eledam	1893	Translation	More[show]
Akbar (അക്ബർ - Akbaṟ)	Kerala Varma Valiya Koi Thampuran	1894	Translation	More[show]
Kalyani (കല്യാണി - Kalyāṇi)	<Anonymous Writer>	1896	Original	More[show]
Sukumari (സുകുമാരി - Sukumāri)	Joseph Mooliyil	1897	Original	More[show]
Saguna (സഗുണ - Saguṇa)	Joseph Mooliyil	1898-1899	Translation	More[show]
Kamala (കമല - Kamala)	C. Krishnan Nair	1899	Translation	More[show]

Apologues[edit]

Title	Author	Year	Make	Other notes
Rasselas (റാസലസ് - Ṟāsalas)	Pilo Paul^[9]	1895	Translation	More[show]
Nandipa Deepika (നന്ദിപദീപിക - Nandipadīpika)	Kunji Kelu Nair	1895	Translation	More[show]
Rasalelika (രസലേലിക - Rasalēlika)	Thatha Kanaran	1898	Translation	More[show]

Malayalam novel[edit]

Main article: Malayalam novel

Notable Malayalam writers[edit]

The field of Malayalam writers include the following people, from various disciplines and periods.

This is an incomplete list, which may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by expanding it with reliably sourced entries.

Art criticism[edit]

Guru Māni Mādhava Chākyār, author of the Nātyakalpadrumam theatrical study

Poetry[edit]

Manipravalam
Champukkal
Niranam poets
Cherusseri Namboothiri
Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan
Poonthanam Namboothiri
Arnos Paathiri (1681–1732)
Unnayi Warrier
Kunchan Nambiar (1705–1770)
Irayimman Thampi
Kerala Varma Valiya Koyithampuran
Kattakayam Cherian Mappillai (1859–1936)
K. C. Kesava Pillai (1868–1914)
Kumaran Asan (1873–1924)
Ulloor S Parameswara Iyer (1877–1949)
Vallathol Narayana Menon (1878–1958)

Modern Romantics[edit]

Other modern poets[edit]

G. Shankara Kurup (1900–1978)

Vyloppilli Sreedhara Menon (1911–1985)

Edasseri Govindan Nair

N. V. Krishna Warrier

Thirunalloor Karunakaran

Olappamanna Subramanian Namboothirippad

Sugathakumari

M. Govindan

K. Ayyappa Panicker

Kadammanitta Ramakrishnan

Attoor Ravi Varma

Satchidanandan

Lalitha Lenin

Vishnunarayanan Namboothiri

D. Vinayachandran

Kureepuzha Sreekumar

Balachandran Chullikkadu

A. Ayyappan

Nellikkal Muraleedharan

V Madhusoodanan Nair

Attoor Ravi Varma

Chandiroor Divakaran

Post-modern poets[edit]

Fiction[edit]

Nineteenth century[edit]

Modern Asian literature
Arabic literature Bengali literature Chinese literature Indian literature Japanese literature Korean literature Nepalese literature Pakistani literature Vietnamese literature
v t e

Modern[edit]

Karur Neelakanta Pillai (1898–1974)
P. Kesava Dev (1904–1983)
Vaikom Muhammad Basheer (1908–1994)
Ponkunnam Varkey (1908–2004)
S. K. Pottekkatt (1913–1982)
Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai (1914–1999)
Uroob (1915–1979)
Lalithambika Antharjanam (1909–1987)
Malayatoor Ramakrishnan (1927–1997)
K. Saraswathi Amma (1919–1974)
P. K. Balakrishnan (1926–1991)
V. K. N. (1932–2004)
O. V. Vijayan (1930–2005)
Parappurath (K.E. Mathai)
Vaikom Chandrasekharan Nair
K.Surendran
Pattathuvila Karunakaran
M. Mukundan
Anand
P. Padmarajan (1945–1991)
Paul Zacharia
M. T. Vasudevan Nair
T. Padmanabhan
P. M. Taj (1956–1990)
Kamala Surayya (Madhavikkutti, Kamala Das)
P. Sachidanandan
N. S. Madhavan
N. P. Mohammed
Kovilan
M. P. Narayana Pillai
George Onakkur
P.F. Mathews
Subhash Chandran
E. Harikumar
C. Radhakrishnan
Joy J. Kaimaparamban
Benyamin
Chandramathi

Post-modern fiction[edit]

Children's literature[edit]

Sumangala

Nandanar a.k.a P C Gopalan

Shebaly

Sippy Pallippuram

Essayists[edit]

Literary criticism[edit]

Joseph Mundasseri (1901–1977)

Kesari Balakrishna Pillai (1889–1960)

Kuttikrishna Marar (1900–1973)

M. P. Paul (1904–1952)

K.Damodaran (1912–1976)

S. Guptan Nair ((1919–2006)

M. Krishnan Nair

M. N. Vijayan (1930–2007)

K. M. Daniel (1920–1988)

Sukumar Azhikode (1926–2012)

M. K. Sanu

K. P. Appan (1936–2008)

Narendra Prasad (1946–2003)

M. Leelavathy

V. C. Sreejan

S. Rajasekharan

Film criticism[edit]

Translation[edit]

Others

THE BEAUTY OF WASTE MANAGEMENT

2014-03-16T08:41:00.000-07:00

WASTE MANAGEMENT

Waste management is the "generation, prevention, characterization, monitoring, treatment, handling, reuse and residual disposition of solid wastes".^[1]There are various types of solid waste including municipal (residential, institutional, commercial), agricultural, and special (health care, household hazardous wastes, sewage sludge).^[1] The term usually relates to materials produced by human activity, and the process is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, the environment or aesthetics.

There is a wide array of issues relating to waste management and those areas include:

Generation of waste
Waste minimization
Recycling and reuse
Storage, collection, transport, and transfer
Treatment
Landfill disposal
Environmental considerations
Financial and marketing aspects
Policy and regulations
Education and training
Planning and implementation.

Waste management practices are not uniform among: countries (developed and developing nations); regions (urban and rural area), and sectors (residential and industrial).

History

Main article: History of waste management

Throughout most of history, the amount of waste generated by humans was insignificant due to low population density and low societal levels of the exploitation of natural resources. Common waste produced during pre-modern times was mainly ashes and human biodegradable waste, and these were released back into the ground locally, with minimum environmental impact. Tools made out of wood or metal were generally reused or passed down through the generations.

However, some civilizations do seem to have been more profligate in their waste output than others. In particular, the Maya of Central America had a fixed monthly ritual, in which the people of the village would gather together and burn their rubbish in large dumps.

Modern era

Sir Edwin Chadwick's 1842 reportThe Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population was influential in securing the passage of the first legislation aimed at waste clearance and disposal.

Following the onset of industrialisation and the sustained urban growth of large population centres in England, the buildup of waste in the cities caused a rapid deterioration in levels of sanitation and the general quality of urban life. The streets became choked with filth due to the lack of waste clearance regulations.^[4] Calls for the establishment of a municipal authority with waste removal powers were mooted as early as 1751 by Corbyn Morris in London, who proposed that "...as the preservation of the health of the people is of great importance, it is proposed that the cleaning of this city, should be put under one uniform public management, and all the filth be...conveyed by the Thames to proper distance in the country".^[5]

However, it was not until the mid-19th century, spurred by increasingly devastating cholera outbreaks and the emergence of a public health debate that the first legislation on the issue emerged. Highly influential in this new focus was the report The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population in 1842^[6] of thesocial reformer, Edwin Chadwick, in which he argued for the importance of adequate waste removal and management facilities to improve the health and wellbeing of the city's population.

In the UK, the Nuisance Removal and Disease Prevention Act of 1846 began what was to be a steadily evolving process of the provision of regulated waste management in London. The Metropolitan Board of Works was the first city-wide authority that centralized sanitation regulation for the rapidly expanding city and the Public Health Act 1875 made it compulsory for every household to deposit their weekly waste in "moveable receptacles: for disposal—the first concept for a dust-bin.^[7]

Manlove, Alliott & Co. Ltd. 1894 destructor furnace. The use of incineratorsfor waste disposal became popular in the late 19th century.

The dramatic increase in waste for disposal led to the creation of the first incineration plants, or, as they were then called, "destructors". In 1874, the first incinerator was built in Nottingham by Manlove, Alliott & Co. Ltd. to the design of Albert Fryer.^[5] However, these were met with opposition on account of the large amounts of ash they produced and which wafted over the neighbouring areas.^[8]

Similar municipal systems of waste disposal sprung up at the turn of the 20th century in other large cities ofEurope and North America. In 1895, New York City became the first U.S. city with public-sector garbage management.^[7]

Early garbage removal trucks were simply open bodied dump trucks pulled by a team of horses. They became motorized in the early part of the 20th century and the first close body trucks to eliminate odours with a dumping lever mechanism were introduced in the 1920s in Britain.^[9] These were soon equipped with 'hopper mechanisms' where the scooper was loaded at floor level and then hoisted mechanically to deposit the waste in the truck. TheGarwood Load Packer was the first truck in 1938, to incorporate a hydraulic compactor.

Methods of disposal

Landfill

Main article: Landfill

A landfill compaction vehicle in action.

Spittelau incineration plant in Vienna

Disposal of waste in a landfill involves burying the waste and this remains a common practice in most countries. Landfills were often established in abandoned or unused quarries, mining voids or borrow pits. A properly designed and well-managed landfill can be a hygienic and relatively inexpensive method of disposing of waste materials. Older, poorly designed or poorly managed landfills can create a number of adverse environmental impacts such as wind-blown litter, attraction of vermin, and generation of liquid leachate. Another common product of landfills is gas (mostly composed of methaneand carbon dioxide), which is produced from anaerobic breakdown of organic waste. This gas can create odor problems, kill surface vegetation and is agreenhouse gas.

Design characteristics of a modern landfill include methods to contain leachate such as clay or plastic lining material. Deposited waste is normally compacted to increase its density and stability and covered to prevent attracting vermin (such as mice or rats). Many landfills also have landfill gas extraction systems installed to extract the landfill gas. Gas is pumped out of the landfill using perforated pipes and flared off or burnt in a gas engine to generate electricity.

Incineration

Main article: Incineration

Incineration is a disposal method in which solid organic wastes are subjected to combustion so as to convert them into residue and gaseous products. This method is useful for disposal of residue of both solid waste management and solid residue from waste water management. This process reduces the volumes of solid waste to 20 to 30 percent of the original volume. Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as "thermal treatment". Incinerators convert waste materials into heat, gas, steam and ash.

Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid and gaseous waste. It is recognized as a practical method of disposing of certain hazardous waste materials (such as biological medical waste). Incineration is a controversial method of waste disposal, due to issues such as emission of gaseous pollutants.

Incineration is common in countries such as Japan where land is more scarce, as these facilities generally do not require as much area as landfills.Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste (EfW) are broad terms for facilities that burn waste in a furnace or boiler to generate heat, steam or electricity. Combustion in an incinerator is not always perfect and there have been concerns about pollutants in gaseous emissions from incinerator stacks. Particular concern has focused on some very persistent organic compounds such as dioxins, furans, and PAHs, which may be created and which may have serious environmental consequences.

Recycling

Main article: Recycling

Steel crushed and baled for recycling

Recycling is a resource recovery practice that refers to the collection and reuse of waste materials such as empty beverage containers. The materials from which the items are made can be reprocessed into new products. Material for recycling may be collected separately from general waste using dedicated bins and collection vehicles, a procedure called kerbside collection. In some communities, the owner of the waste is required to separate the materials into various different bins (e.g. for paper, plastics, metals) prior to its collection. In other communities, all recyclable materials are placed in a single bin for collection, and the sorting is handled later at a central facility. The latter method is known as "single-stream recycling."^[10]^[11]

The most common consumer products recycled include aluminium such as beverage cans, copper such as wire, steel from food and aerosol cans, old steel furnishings or equipment, polyethylene and PET bottles, glass bottles and jars, paperboard cartons, newspapers, magazines and light paper, andcorrugated fiberboard boxes.

PVC, LDPE, PP, and PS (see resin identification code) are also recyclable. These items are usually composed of a single type of material, making them relatively easy to recycle into new products. The recycling of complex products (such as computers and electronic equipment) is more difficult, due to the additional dismantling and separation required.

The type of material accepted for recycling varies by city and country. Each city and country has different recycling programs in place that can handle the various types of recyclable materials. However, certain variation in acceptance is reflected in the resale value of the material once it is reprocessed.

Sustainability

The management of waste is a key component in a business' ability to maintaining ISO14001 accreditation. Companies are encouraged to improve their environmental efficiencies each year by eliminating waste through resource recovery practices, which are sustainability-related activities. One way to do this is by shifting away from waste management to resource recovery practices likerecycling materials such as glass, food scraps, paper and cardboard, plastic bottles and metal.

Biological reprocessing

Main articles: Composting, Home composting, Anaerobic digestion, and Microbial fuel cell

An active compost heap.

Recoverable materials that are organic in nature, such as plant material, food scraps, and paper products, can be recovered through composting and digestion processes to decompose the organic matter. The resulting organic material is then recycled as mulch or compost for agricultural or landscaping purposes. In addition, waste gas from the process (such as methane) can be captured and used for generating electricity and heat (CHP/cogeneration) maximising efficiencies. The intention of biological processing in waste management is to control and accelerate the natural process of decomposition of organic matter. (See resource recovery).

Energy recovery

Main article: Waste-to-energy

Anaerobic digestion component ofLübeck mechanical biological treatment plant in Germany, 2007

The energy content of waste products can be harnessed directly by using them as a direct combustion fuel, or indirectly by processing them into another type of fuel. Thermal treatment ranges from using waste as a fuel source for cooking or heating and the use of the gas fuel (see above), to fuel for boilers to generate steam and electricity in a turbine. Pyrolysis and gasification are two related forms of thermal treatment where waste materials are heated to high temperatures with limited oxygen availability. The process usually occurs in a sealed vessel under high pressure. Pyrolysis of solid waste converts the material into solid, liquid and gas products. The liquid and gas can be burnt to produce energy or refined into other chemical products (chemical refinery). The solid residue (char) can be further refined into products such as activated carbon. Gasification and advanced Plasma arc gasification are used to convert organic materials directly into a synthetic gas (syngas) composed of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The gas is then burnt to produce electricity and steam. An alternative to pyrolysis is high temperature and pressure supercritical water decomposition (hydrothermal monophasic oxidation).

Resource recovery

Resource recovery (as opposed to waste management) uses LCA (life cycle analysis) attempts to offer alternatives to waste management. For mixed MSW (Municipal Solid Waste) a number of broad studies have indicated that administration, source separation and collection followed by reuse and recycling of the non-organic fraction and energy and compost/fertilizer production of the organic material via anaerobic digestion to be the favoured path.

Avoidance and reduction method

Main article: Waste minimization

An important method of waste management is the prevention of waste material being created, also known as waste reduction. Methods of avoidance include reuse of second-hand products, repairing broken items instead of buying new, designing products to be refillable or reusable (such as cotton instead of plastic shopping bags), encouraging consumers to avoid using disposable products (such as disposable cutlery), removing any food/liquid remains from cans and packaging,^[12] and designing products that use less material to achieve the same purpose (for example, lightweighting of beverage cans).^[13]

Waste handling and transport

Main articles: Waste collection vehicle, Dustbin, and Waste sorting

Molded plastic, wheeled waste bin inBerkshire, England

Waste collection methods vary widely among different countries and regions. Domestic waste collection services are often provided by local government authorities, or by private companies in the industry. Some areas, especially those in less developed countries, do not have a formal waste-collection system. Examples of waste handling systems include:

In Europe and a few other places around the world, a few communities use a proprietary collection system known as Envac, which conveys refuse via underground conduits using a vacuum system. Other vacuum-based solutions include the MetroTaifun® ^[14] single-line and ring-line automatic waste collection system, where the waste is automatically collected through relatively small diameter flexible pipes from waste collection points spread out up to a distance of four kilometres from the waste collections stations.
In Canadian urban centres curbside collection is the most common method of disposal, whereby the city collects waste and/or recyclables and/or organics on a scheduled basis. In rural areas people often dispose of their waste by hauling it to a transfer station. Waste collected is then transported to a regional landfill.
In China, Plastic pyrolysis or Tire pyrolysis is: the process of converting waste plastic/tires into industrial fuels like pyrolysis oil, carbon black and hydrocarbon gas.End products are used as industrial fuels for producing heat, steam or electricity. Pyrolysis plant is also known as: pyrolysis unit, plastic to fuel industry, tire to fuel industry, plastic and tire recycling unit etc.The system is used in USA, California, Australia, Greece, Mexico, the United Kingdom and in Israel.For example, RESEM pyrolysis plant that has been operational at Texas USA since December 2011, and processes up to 60 tons per day.^[15]
In Taipei, the city government charges its households and industries for the volume of rubbish they produce. Waste will only be collected by the city council if waste is disposed in government issued rubbish bags. This policy has successfully reduced the amount of waste the city produces and increased the recycling rate.
In Israel, the Arrow Ecology company has developed the ArrowBio system, which takes trash directly from collection trucks and separates organic and inorganic materials through gravitational settling, screening, and hydro-mechanical shredding. The system is capable of sorting huge volumes of solid waste, salvaging recyclables, and turning the rest into biogas and rich agricultural compost. The system is used in California, Australia, Greece, Mexico, the United Kingdom and in Israel. For example, an ArrowBio plant that has been operational at the Hiriya landfill site since December 2003 serves the Tel Aviv area, and processes up to 150 tons of garbage a day.^[16]
In Saudi Arabia there is the world’s largest AWCS now being built in the vicinity of Islam’s holiest mosque (Mecca). During the Ramadan and Hajj 600,000 kilos, or 4,500 cubic meters, of waste is generated each day, which puts a heavy demand on those responsible for collecting the waste and litter. In the ^[14] MetroTaifun Automatic Waste Collection System, the waste is automatically collected from 74 waste feeding points spread out across the area and then transferred via a 20-kilometre pipe network to a central collection point, keeping all the waste collecting activities out of sight and below ground with the central collection point well away from the public areas.
In San Francisco, the local government established its Mandatory Recycling and Composting Ordinance in support of its goal of zero waste by 2020, requiring everyone in the city to keep recyclables and compostables out of the landfill. The three streams are collected with the curbside "Fantastic 3" bin system - blue for recyclables, green for compostables, and black for landfill-bound materials - provided to residents and businesses and serviced by San Francisco's sole refuse hauler, Recology. The City's "Pay-As-You-Throw" system charges customers by the volume of landfill-bound materials, which provides a financial incentive to separate recyclables and compostables from other discards. The City's Department of the Environment's Zero Waste Program has led the City to achieve 80% diversion, the highest diversion rate in North America.^[17]

While waste transport within a given country falls under national regulations, trans-boundary movement of waste is often subject to international treaties. A major concern to many countries in the world has been hazardous waste. The Basel Convention, ratified by 172 countries, deprecates movement of hazardous waste from developed to less developed countries. The provisions of the Basel convention have been integrated into the EU waste shipment regulation. Nuclear waste, although considered hazardous, does not fall under the jurisdiction of the Basel Convention.

Benefits

Waste is not something that should be discarded or disposed of with no regard for future use. It can be a valuable resource if addressed correctly, through policy and practice. With rational and consistent waste management practices there is an opportunity to reap a range of benefits. Those benefits include:

Economic - Improving economic efficiency through the means of resource use, treatment and disposal and creating markets for recycles can lead to efficient practices in the production and consumption of products and materials resulting in valuable materials being recovered for reuse and the potential for new jobs and new business opportunities.
Social - By reducing adverse impacts on health by proper waste management practices, the resulting consequences are more appealing settlements. Better social advantages can lead to new sources of employment and potentially lifting communities out of poverty especially in some of the developing poorer countries and cities.
Environmental - Reducing or eliminating adverse impacts on the environmental through reducing, reusing and recycling, and minimizing resource extraction can provide improved air and water quality and help in the reduction of greenhouse emissions.
Inter-generational Equity - Following effective waste management practices can provide subsequent generations a more robust economy, a fairer and more inclusive society and a cleaner environment.^[18]

Challenges in developing countries

Waste management in cities with developing economies and economies in transition experience exhausted waste collection services, inadequately managed and uncontrolled dumpsites and the problems are worsening.^[18] Problems with governance also complicate the situation. Waste management, in these countries and cities, is an ongoing challenge and many struggle due to weak institutions, chronic under-resourcing and rapid urbanization.^[18] All of these challenges along with the lack of understanding of different factors that contribute to the hierarchy of waste management, affect the treatment of waste.^[19]

Technologies

Traditionally the waste management industry has been slow to adopt new technologies such as RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) tags, GPS and integrated software packages which enable better quality data to be collected without the use of estimation or manual data entry.

Technologies like RFID tags are now being used to collect data on presentation rates for curb-side pick-ups.
Benefits of GPS tracking is particularly evident when considering the efficiency of ad hoc pick-ups (like skip bins or dumpsters) where the collection is done on a consumer request basis.
Integrated software packages are useful in aggregating this data for use in optimisation of operations for waste collection operations.
Rear vision cameras are commonly used for OH&S (Occupational Health & Safety) reasons and video recording devices are becoming more widely used, particularly concerning residential services.

Central principles of waste management

Diagram of the waste hierarchy

There are a number of concepts about waste management which vary in their usage between countries or regions. Some of the most general, widely used concepts include:

1. Waste hierarchy - The waste hierarchy refers to the "3 Rs" reduce, reuse and recycle, which classify waste management strategies according to their desirability in terms of waste minimization. The waste hierarchy remains the cornerstone of most waste minimization strategies. The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of waste see: resource recovery.The waste hierarchy is represented as a pyramid because the basic premise is for policy to take action first and prevent the generation of waste. The next step or preferred action is to reduce the generation of waste i.e. by re-use. The next is recycling which would include composting. Following this step is material recovery and waste-to-energy. Energy can be recovered from processes i.e. landfill and combustion, at this level of the hierarchy. The final action is disposal, in landfills or through incineration without energy recovery. This last step is the final resort for waste which has not been prevented, diverted or recovered.^[18] The waste hierarchy represents the progression of a product or material through the sequential stages of the pyramid of waste management. The hierarchy represents the latter parts of the life-cycle for each product.^[18]

2. Life-cycle of a Product - The life-cycle begins with design, then proceeds through manufacture, distribution, use and then follows through the waste hierarchy's stages of reuse, recovery, recycling and disposal. Each of the above stages of the life-cycle offers opportunities for policy intervention, to rethink the need for the product, to redesign to minimize waste potential, to extend its use.^[18] The key behind the life-cycle of a product is to optimize the use of the world's limited resources by avoiding the unnecessary generation of waste.

3. Resource efficiency - the current, global, economic growth and development can not be sustained with the current production and consumption patterns. Globally, we are extracting more resources to produce goods than the planet can replenish.^[18] Resource efficiency is the reduction of the environmental impact from the production and consumption of these goods, from final raw material extraction to last use and disposal. This process of resource efficiency can address sustainability.

Polluter pays principle - the Polluter Pays Principle is a principle where the polluting party pays for the impact caused to the environment. With respect to waste management, this generally refers to the requirement for a waste generator to pay for appropriate disposal of the unrecoverable material.

Scientific journals

See also: Category:Waste management journals

Related scientific journals in this area include:

THE BEAUTY OF WASTE MANAGEMENT

2014-03-16T08:25:00.003-07:00

WASTE MANAGEMENT

Waste management is the "generation, prevention, characterization, monitoring, treatment, handling, reuse and residual disposition of solid wastes".^[1]There are various types of solid waste including municipal (residential, institutional, commercial), agricultural, and special (health care, household hazardous wastes, sewage sludge).^[1] The term usually relates to materials produced by human activity, and the process is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, the environment or aesthetics.

BEAUTY OF CHIPKO MOVEMENT

2014-03-15T09:04:00.001-07:00

Chipko movement

The Chipko movement or Chipko Andolan is a movement that practiced the Gandhian methods of satyagraha and non-violent resistance, through the act of hugging trees to protect them from being felled. The modern Chipko movement started in the early 1970s in the Garhwal Himalayas of Uttarakhand, then in Uttar Pradesh with growing awareness towards rapid deforestation. The landmark event in this struggle took place on March 26, 1974, when a group of peasant women in Reni village, Hemwalghati, in Chamoli district, Uttarakhand, India, acted to prevent the cutting of trees and reclaim their traditional forest rights that were threatened by the contractors assigned by the state Forest Department. Their actions inspired hundreds of such actions at the grassroots level throughout the region. By the 1980s the movement had spread throughout India and led to the formulation of people-sensitive forest policies, which put a stop to the open felling of trees in regions as far reaching as Vindhyas and the Western Ghats.^[1] Today, it is seen as an inspiration and a precursor for Chipko movement of Garhwal.^[2]^[3] Its leader was Sunderlal Bahuguna.

History[edit]

The Chipko movement, though primarily a livelihood protection movement rather than a forest conservation movement, went on to become a rallying point for many future environmentalists, environmental protests and movements all over the world and created a precedent for non-violent protest.^[4]^[5] It occurred at a time when there was hardly any environmental movement in the developing world, and its success meant that the world immediately took notice of this non-violent movement, which was to inspire in time many such eco-groups by helping to slow down the rapid deforestation, expose vested interests, increase ecological awareness, and demonstrate the viability of people power. Above all, it stirred up the existing civil society in India, which began to address the issues of tribal and marginalized people. So much so that, a quarter of a century later, India Today mentioned the people behind the "forest satyagraha" of the Chipko movement as amongst "100 people who shaped India".^[6] Today, beyond the eco-socialism hue, it is being seen increasingly as an ecofeminism movement. Although many of its leaders were men, women were not only its backbone, but also its mainstay, because they were the ones most affected by the rampant deforestation,^{[citation needed]}, which led to a lack of firewood and fodder as well as water for drinking and irrigation. Over the years they also became primary stakeholders in a majority of the afforestation work that happened under the Chipko movement.^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10]

In 1987 the Chipko Movement was awarded the Right Livelihood Award .

Beginnings[edit]

“	"Maatu hamru, paani hamru, hamra hi chhan yi baun bhi... Pitron na lagai baun, hamunahi ta bachon bhi" Soil ours, water ours, ours are these forests. Our forefathers raised them, it’s we who must protect them. -- Old Chipko Song (Garhwali language)^[12]	”

In India the forest cover started deteriorating at an alarming rate, resulting in hardships for those involved in labour-intensive fodder and firewood collection.^[when?] This also led to a deterioration in the soil conditions, and soil erosion in the area as the water sources dried up in the hills. Water shortages became widespread. Subsequently, communities gave up raising livestock, which added to the problems of malnutrition in the region. This crisis was heightened by the fact that forest conservation policies, like the Indian Forest Act, 1927, traditionally restricted the access of local communities to the forests, resulting in scarce farmlands in an over- populated and extremely poor area, despite all of its natural wealth. Thus the sharp decline in the local agrarian economy lead to a migration of people into the plains in search of jobs, leaving behind several de-populated villages in the 1960s.^[4]^[13]^[14]

Gradually a rising awareness of the ecological crisis, which came from an immediate loss of livelihood caused by it, resulted in the growth of political activism in the region. The year 1964 saw the establishment of Dasholi Gram Swarajya Sangh (DGSS) (“Dasholi Society for Village Self-Rule” ), set up by Gandhian social worker, Chandi Prasad Bhatt in Gopeshwar, and inspired byJayaprakash Narayan and the Sarvodaya movement, with an aim to set up small industries using the resources of the forest. Their first project was a small workshop making farm tools for local use. Its name was later changed to Dasholi Gram Swarajya Sangh (DGSS) from the original Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal (DGSM) in the 1980s. Here they had to face restrictive forest policies, a hangover of colonial era still prevalent, as well as the "contractor system", in which these pieces of forest land were commodified and auctioned to big contractors, usually from the plains, who brought along their own skilled and semi-skilled laborers, leaving only the menial jobs like hauling rocks for the hill people, and paying them next to nothing. On the other hand, the hill regions saw an influx of more people from the outside, which only added to the already strained ecological balance.^[14]

Hastened by increasing hardships, the Garhwal Himalayas soon became the centre for a rising ecological awareness of how reckless deforestation had denuded much of the forest cover, resulting in the devastating Alaknanda River floods of July 1970, when a major landslide blocked the river and affected an area starting from Hanumanchatti, near Badrinath to 350 km downstream tillHaridwar, further numerous villages, bridges and roads were washed away. Thereafter, incidences of landslides and land subsidence became common in an area which was experiencing a rapid increase in civil engineering projects.

Organization[edit]

Soon villagers, especially women, started organizing themselves under several smaller groups, taking up local causes with the authorities, and standing up against commercial logging operations that threatened their livelihoods. In October 1971, the Sangh workers held a demonstration in Gopeshwar to protest against the policies of the Forest Department. More rallies and marches were held in late 1972, but to little effect, until a decision to take direct action was taken. The first such occasion occurred when the Forest Department turned down the Sangh’s annual request for tenash trees for its farm tools workshop, and instead awarded a contract for 300 trees to Simon Company, a sporting goods manufacturer in distant Allahabad, to make tennis rackets. In March, 1973, the lumbermen arrived at Gopeshwar, and after a couple of weeks, they were confronted at village Mandal on April 24, 1973, where about hundred villagers and DGSS workers were beating drums and shouting slogans, thus forcing the contractors and their lumbermen to retreat. This was the first confrontation of the movement, The contract was eventually cancelled and awarded to the Sangh instead. By now, the issue had grown beyond the mere procurement of an annual quota of three ash trees, and encompassed a growing concern over commercial logging and the government's forest policy, which the villagers saw as unfavourable towards them. The Sangh also decided to resort to tree-hugging, or Chipko, as a means of non-violent protest.

But the struggle was far from over, as the same company was awarded more ash trees, in the Phata forest, 80 km away from Gopeshwar. Here again, due to local opposition, starting on June 20, 1973, the contractors retreated after a stand-off that lasted a few days. Thereafter, the villagers of Phata and Tarsali formed a vigil group and watched over the trees till December, when they had another successful stand-off, when the activists reached the site in time. The lumberermen retreated leaving behind the five ash trees felled.

The final flash point began a few months later, when the government announced an auction scheduled in January, 1974, for 2,500 trees near Reni village, overlooking the Alaknanda River. Bhatt set out for the villages in the Reni area, and incited the villagers, who decided to protest against the actions of the government by hugging the trees. Over the next few weeks, rallies and meetings continued in the Reni area.^[17]

On March 26, 1974, the day the lumbermen were to cut the trees, the men of the Reni village and DGSS workers were in Chamoli, diverted by state government and contractors to a fictional compensation payment site, while back home labourers arrived by the truckload to start logging operations.^[4] A local girl, on seeing them, rushed to inform Gaura Devi, the head of the villageMahila Mangal Dal, at Reni village (Laata was her ancestral home and Reni adopted home). Gaura Devi led 27 of the village women to the site and confronted the loggers. When all talking failed, and instead the loggers started to shout and abuse the women, threatening them with guns, the women resorted to hugging the trees to stop them from being felled. This went on into late hours. The women kept an all-night vigil guarding their trees from the cutters till a few of them relented and left the village. The next day, when the men and leaders returned, the news of the movement spread to the neighbouring Laata and others villages including Henwalghati, and more people joined in. Eventually only after a four-day stand-off, the contractors left.

Aftermath[edit]

The news soon reached the state capital, where then state Chief Minister, Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna, set up a committee to look into the matter, which eventually ruled in favour of the villagers. This became a turning point in the history of eco-development struggles in the region and around the world.

The struggle soon spread across many parts of the region, and such spontaneous stand-offs between the local community and timber merchants occurred at several locations, with hill women demonstrating their new-found power as non-violent activists. As the movement gathered shape under its leaders, the name Chipko Movement was attached to their activities. According to Chipko historians, the term originally used by Bhatt was the word "angalwaltha" in the Garhwali language for "embrace", which later was adapted to the Hindi word, Chipko, which means to stick.^[19]

Subsequently, over the next five years the movement spread to many districts in the region, and within a decade throughout the Uttarakhand Himalayas. Larger issues of ecological and economic exploitation of the region were raised. The villagers demanded that no forest-exploiting contracts should be given to outsiders and local communities should have effective control over natural resources like land, water, and forests. They wanted the government to provide low-cost materials to small industries and ensure development of the region without disturbing the ecological balance. The movement took up economic issues of landless forest workers and asked for guarantees of minimum wage. Globally Chipko demonstrated how environment causes, up until then considered an activity of the rich, were a matter of life and death for the poor, who were all too often the first ones to be devastated by an environmental tragedy. Several scholarly studies were made in the aftermath of the movement.^[4] In 1977, in another area, women tied sacred threads, Raksha Bandhan, around trees earmarked for felling in a Hindu tradition which signifies a bond between brother and sisters.^[20]

Women’s participation in the Chipko agitation was a very novel aspect of the movement. The forest contractors of the region usually doubled up as suppliers of alcohol to men. Women held sustained agitations against the habit of alcoholism and broadened the agenda of the movement to cover other social issues. The movement achieved a victory when the government issued a ban on felling of trees in the Himalayan regions for fifteen years in 1980 by then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, until the green cover was fully restored.^[21] One of the prominent Chipko leaders, Gandhian Sunderlal Bahuguna, took a 5,000-kilometre trans-Himalaya foot march in 1981–83, spreading the Chipko message to a far greater area.^[22] Gradually, women set up cooperatives to guard local forests, and also organized fodder production at rates conducive to local environment. Next, they joined in land rotation schemes for fodder collection, helped replant degraded land, and established and ran nurseries stocked with species they selected.^[23]

Participants[edit]

Surviving participants of the first all-woman Chipko action at Reni village in 1974 on left jen wadas, reassembled thirty years later.

One of Chipko's most salient features was the mass participation of female villagers.^[24] As the backbone of Uttarakhand's Agrarian economy, women were most directly affected by environmental degradation and deforestation, and thus related to the issues most easily. How much this participation impacted or derived from the ideology of Chipko has been fiercely debated in academic circles.^[25]

Despite this, both female and male activists did play pivotal roles in the movement including Gaura Devi, Sudesha Devi, Bachni Devi,Chandi Prasad Bhatt, Sundarlal Bahuguna, Govind Singh Rawat, Dhoom Singh Negi, Shamsher Singh Bisht and Ghanasyam Raturi, the Chipko poet, whose songs echo throughout the Himalayas.^[22] Out of which, Chandi Prasad Bhatt was awarded the Ramon Magsaysay Award in 1982,^[26] and Sundarlal Bahuguna was awarded the Padma Vibhushan in 2009.

Legacy[edit]

In Tehri district, Chipko activists would go on to protest limestone mining in the Doon Valley (Dehra Dun) in the 1980s, as the movement spread through the Dehradun district, which had earlier seen deforestation of its forest cover leading to heavy loss of flora and fauna. Finally quarrying was banned after years of agitation by Chipko activists, followed by a vast public drive for afforestation, which turned around the valley, just in time. Also in the 1980s, activists like Bahuguna protested against construction of the Tehri dam on the Bhagirathi River, which went on for the next two decades, before founding the Beej Bachao Andolan, the Save the Seeds movement, that continues to the present day.

Over time, as a United Nations Environment Programme report mentioned, Chipko activists started "working a socio-economic revolution by winning control of their forest resources from the hands of a distant bureaucracy which is only concerned with the selling of forestland for making urban-oriented products.".^[7]^[22] The Chipko movement became a benchmark for socio-ecological movements in other forest areas of Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan and Bihar; in September 1983, Chipko inspired a similar, Appiko movement in Karnataka state of India, where tree felling in theWestern Ghats and Vindhyas was stopped.^[22] In Kumaon region, Chipko took on a more radical tone, combining with the general movement for a separate Uttarakhand state, which was eventually achieved in 2000.^[12]^[22]^[27]

In recent years, the movement not only inspired numerous people to work on practical programmes of water management, energy conservation, afforestation, and recycling, but also encouraged scholars to start studying issues of environmental degradation and methods of conservation in the Himalayas and throughout India.^[28]

On March 26, 2004, Reni, Laata, and other villages of the Niti Valley celebrated the 30th anniversary of the Chipko Movement, where all the surviving original participants united. The celebrations started at Laata, the ancestral home of Gaura Devi, where Pushpa Devi, wife of late Chipko Leader Govind Singh Rawat, Dhoom Singh Negi, Chipko leader of Henwalghati, Tehri Garhwal, and others were celebrated. From here a procession went to Reni, the neighbouring village, where the actual Chipko action took place on March 26, 1974.^[17] This marked the beginning of worldwide methods to improve the present situation.

2014-03-08T07:51:00.001-08:00

Woman

A woman /ˈwʊmən/, pl: women /ˈwɪmɨn/ is a female human. The term woman is usually reserved for an adult, with the term girl being the usual term for a female child or adolescent. However, the term woman is also sometimes used to identify a female human, regardless of age, as in phrases such as "women's rights". Women are typically capable of giving birth from puberty onwards, though older women who have gone through menopause and some intersex women cannot. Throughout history women have assumed various social roles in occupation. In some cultures, a majority of women have adopted specific appearances, such as those regulated by dress codes.

Etymology

The spelling of woman in English has progressed over the past millennium from wīfmann^[1] to wīmmann to wumman, and finally, the modern spellingwoman.^[2] In Old English, wīfmann meant "female human", whereas wēr meant "male human". Mann or monn had a gender-neutral meaning of "human", corresponding to Modern English "person" or "someone", however subsequent to the Norman Conquest, man began to be used more in reference to "male human", and by the late 1200s had begun to eclipse usage of the older term wēr.^[3] The medial labial consonants f and m in wīfmann coalesced into the modern form "woman", while the initial element, which meant "female", underwent semantic narrowing to the sense of a married woman ("wife"). It is a popular misconception that the term "woman" is etymologically connected with "womb", which is from a separate Old English word, wambe meaning "stomach" (of male or female). Nevertheless, such a false derivation of "woman" has appeared in print.^[4]

A very common Indo-European root for woman, *g^wen-, is the source of modern English "queen" (Old English cwēn had primarily meant woman, highborn or not; this is still the case in Danish, with the modern spelling kvinde, as well as in Swedish kvinna and Norwegian kvinne). The word gynaecology is also derived from the Ancient Greek cognate γυνή gynē, woman. Other English words traceable to the same Indo-European root include banshee "fairy woman" (from Irish bean "woman" and sí "fairy") and zenana (from Persian زن zan).^[5]

The Latin fēmina, whence female, is likely from the root in fellāre (to suck), in reference to breastfeeding.

Womanhood is the period in a female's life after she has passed through childhood and adolescence, generally around the age 18.

Venus, a classical image of youthful female beauty in Western art.

The word woman can be used generally, to mean any female human, or specifically, to mean an adult female human as contrasted with girl. The wordgirl originally meant "young person of either sex" in English;^[7] it was only around the beginning of the 16th century that it came to mean specifically afemale child.^[8] The term girl is sometimes used colloquially to refer to a young or unmarried woman, however during the early 1970s feminists challenged such use because the use of the word to refer to a fully grown woman may cause offence. In particular, previously common terms such asoffice girl are no longer widely used. Conversely, in certain cultures which link family honor with female virginity, the word girl is still used to refer to a never-married woman; in this sense it is used in a fashion roughly analogous to the obsolete English maid or maiden. Referring to an unmarried female human as a woman may, in such a culture, imply that she is sexually experienced, which would be an insult to her family.

There are various words used to refer to the quality of being a woman. The term "womanhood" merely means the state of being a woman, having passed the menarche; "femininity" is used to refer to a set of typical female qualities associated with a certain attitude to gender roles; "womanliness" is like "femininity", but is usually associated with a different view of gender roles; "femaleness" is a general term, but is often used as shorthand for "human femaleness"; "distaff" is an archaic adjective derived from women's conventional role as a spinner, now used only as a deliberate archaism; "muliebrity" is a neologism (derived from the Latin) meant to provide a female counterpart of "virility", but used very loosely, sometimes to mean merely "womanhood", sometimes "femininity" and sometimes even as a collective term for women.

Menarche, the onset of menstruation, occurs on average at age 12-13. Many cultures have rites of passage to symbolize a girl's coming of age, such as confirmation in some branches ofChristianity, bat mitzvah in Judaism, or even just the custom of a special celebration for a certain birthday (generally between 12 and 21), like the Quinceañera of Latin America.

History

The earliest women whose names are known through archaeology include:

Neithhotep (circa 3,200 B.C.E.), the wife of Narmer and the first queen of ancient Egypt.^[9]^[10]
Merneith (circa 3,000 B.C.E.), consort and regent of ancient Egypt during the first dynasty. She may have been ruler of Egypt in her own right.^[11]^[12]
Merit-Ptah (circa 2,700 B.C.E.), also lived in Egypt and is the earliest known female physician and scientist.^[13]
Peseshet (circa 2,600 B.C.E.), a physician in Ancient Egypt.^[14]^[15]
Puabi (circa 2,600 B.C.E.), or Shubad – queen of Ur whose tomb was discovered with many expensive artifacts. Other known pre-Sargonic queens of Ur (royal wives) include Ashusikildigir, Ninbanda, and Gansamannu.^[16]
Kugbau (circa 2,500 B.C.E.), a taverness from Kish chosen by the Nippur priesthood to become hegemonic ruler of Sumer, and in later ages deified as "Kubaba"
Tashlultum (circa 2,400 B.C.E.), Akkadian queen, wife of Sargon of Akkad and mother of Enheduanna.^[17]^[18]
Baranamtarra (circa 2,384 B.C.E.), prominent and influential queen of Lugalanda of Lagash. Other known pre-Sargonic queens of the first Lagash dynasty include Menbara-abzu, Ashume'eren, Ninkhilisug, Dimtur, and Shagshag, and the names of several princesses are also known.
Enheduanna (circa 2,285 B.C.E.),^[19]^[20] the high priestess of the temple of the Moon God in the Sumerian city-state of Ur and possibly the first poet and first named author of either gender.
Health

Further information: Women's health and Maternal death

Women's health refers to health issues specific to human female anatomy. There are some diseases that primarily affect women, such as lupus. Also, there are some sex-related illnesses that are found more frequently or exclusively in women, e.g., breast cancer, cervical cancer, or ovarian cancer. Women and men may have different symptoms of an illness and may also respond differently to medical treatment. This area of medical research is studied by gender-based medicine.

Maternal mortality or maternal death is defined by WHO as "the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes."^[29] About 99% of maternal deaths occur in developing countries. More than half of them occur in sub-Saharan Africaand almost one third in South Asia. The main causes of maternal mortality are severe bleeding (mostly bleeding after childbirth), infections (usually after childbirth), pre-eclampsia and eclampsia, unsafe abortion, and pregnancy complications from malaria and HIV/AIDS.^[30] Most European countries, Australia, as well as Japan and Singapore are very safe in regard to childbirth, while Sub-Saharan countries are the most dangerous.
Culture and gender roles

Main article: Gender role

A woman weaving. Textile work is traditionally and historically a female occupation in many cultures.

In many prehistoric cultures, women assumed a particular cultural role. In hunter-gatherer societies, women were generally the gatherers of plant foods, small animal foods and fish, while men hunted meat from large animals.

In more recent history, the gender roles of women have changed greatly. Traditionally, middle class women were involved in domestic tasks emphasizing child care. For poorer women, especially working class women, although this often remained an ideal,^[specify] economic necessity compelled them to seek employment outside the home. The occupations that were available to them were, however, lower in pay than those available to men.

As changes in the labor market for women came about, availability of employment changed from only "dirty", long hour factory jobs to "cleaner", more respectable office jobs where more education was demanded, women's participation in the U.S. labor force rose from 6% in 1900 to 23% in 1923. These shifts in the labor force led to changes in the attitudes of women at work, allowing for the revolution which resulted in women becoming career and education oriented.

Christian convents in the Middle Ages provided women one alternative to married life. Throughout much of European history, marriage and religious life were widely considered the only options for a "respectable" life.^{[citation needed]}

During World War II, women performed roles which would otherwise have been considered male jobs by the culture of the time

In the 1970s, many female academics, including scientists, avoided having children. However, throughout the 1980s, institutions tried to equalize conditions for men and women in the workplace. However, the inequalities at home stumped women's opportunities to succeed as far as men. Professional women are still responsible for domestic labor and child care. As people would say, they have a "double burden" which does not allow then the time and energy to succeed in their careers. Furthermore, though there has been an increase in the endorsement of egalitarian gender roles in the home by both women and men, a recent research study showed that women focused on issues of morality, fairness, and well-being, while men focused on social conventions.^[39] Until the early twentieth century, U.S. women's colleges required their women faculty members to remain single, on the grounds that a woman could not carry on two full-time professions at once. According to Schiebinger, "Being a scientist and a wife and a mother is a burden in society that expects women more often than men to put family ahead of career." (pg. 93).^[40]

Movements advocate equality of opportunity for both sexes and equal rights irrespective of gender. Through a combination of economic changes and the efforts of the feminist movement,^[specify] in recent decades women in many societies now have access to careers beyond the traditionalhomemaker.

Although a greater number of women are seeking higher education, salaries are often less than those of men. CBS News claims that in the United States women who are ages 30 to 44 and hold a university degree make only 62 percent of what similarly qualified men do, a lower rate than in all but three of the 19 countries for which numbers are available. Some Western nations with greater inequity in pay are Germany, New Zealand and Switzerland.^[41]

Violence against women

Main article: Violence against women

A campaign against female genital mutilation – a road sign near Kapchorwa,Uganda.

Anti-dowry poster in Bangalore, India

Burning witches, with others held in Stocks

The phrase violence against women is a technical term used to collectively refer to violent acts that are committed against women, especially when said violence is committed because of their gender, or when it affects women disproportionately.

Rangoon, Burma. August 8, 1945. A young ethnic Chinese woman who was in one of the Imperial Japanese Army's "comfort battalions" is interviewed by anAllied officer.

The UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women defines "violence against women" as:^[42]

"any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or mental harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life."

and identifies three forms of such violence: that which occurs in the family, that which occurs within the general community, and that which is perpetrated or condoned by the State. It also states that "violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women".^[43]

Violence against women remains a widespread problem, fueled, especially outside the West, by patriarchal social values, lack of adequate laws, and lack of enforcement of existing laws. Social norms that exist in many parts of the world hinder progress towards protecting women from violence. For example, according to surveys by UNICEF, the percentage of women aged 15–49 who think that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife under certain circumstances is as high as 90% in Afghanistan and Jordan, 87% in Mali, 86% in Guinea and Timor-Leste, 81% in Laos, and 80% in the Central African Republic.^[44] A 2010 survey conducted by the Pew Research Center found that stoning as a punishment for adultery was supported by 82% of respondents in Egypt and Pakistan, 70% in Jordan, 56% Nigeria, 42% in Indonesia.^[45]

Specific forms of violence that affect women include female genital mutilation, sex trafficking, forced prostitution, forced marriage, rape, sexual harassment, honor killings, acid throwing, dowry related violence. The State can be complicit in violence against women, for instance through practices such as stoning (as punishment for adultery).

There have also been many forms of violence against women which have been prevalent historically, notably the burning of witches, the sacrifice ofwidows (such as sati) and foot binding. The prosecution of women accused of witchcraft has a long tradition, for example witch trials in the early modern period (between the 15th and 18th centuries) were common in Europe and in the European colonies in North America. Today, there remain regions of the world (such as parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, rural North India, and Papua New Guinea) where belief in witchcraft is held by many people, and women accused of being witches are subjected to serious violence.^[46]^[47]^[48] In addition, there are also countries which have criminal legislation against the practice of witchcraft. In Saudi Arabia, witchcraft remains a crime punishable by death, and in 2011 the country beheaded a woman for 'witchcraft and sorcery'.^[49]^[50]

It is also the case that certain forms of violence against women have been recognized as criminal offenses only during recent decades, and are not universally prohibited, in that many countries continue to allow them. This is especially the case with marital rape.^[51]^[52] In the Western World, there has been a trend towards ensuring gender equality within marriage and prosecuting domestic violence, but in many parts of the world women still lose significant legal rights when entering a marriage.^[53]

Sexual violence against women greatly increases during times of war and armed conflict, during military occupation, or ethnic conflicts; most often in the form of war rape and sexual slavery. Contemporary examples of sexual violence during war include rape during the Bangladesh Liberation War, rape in the Bosnian War, rape during the Rwandan Genocide, and rape during Second Congo War. In Colombia, the armed conflict has also resulted in increased sexual violence against women.^[54]

Laws and policies on violence against women vary by jurisdiction. In the European Union, sexual harassment and human trafficking are subject todirectives.^[55]^[56]

Clothing, fashion and dress codes

Further information: Fashion, Modesty, and Hijab by country

A map of hijab laws in the world.

Women in different parts of the world dress in different ways, with their choices of clothing being influenced by local culture and traditions, social norms, and fashion trends. Different societies have different ideas about modesty. However, in many jurisdictions, women's choices in regard to dress are not always free, with laws limiting what they may or may not wear. This is especially the case in regard to Islamic dress. While certain jurisdictions legally mandate such clothing (the wearing of the headscarf), other countries forbid or restrict the wearing of certain hijab attire (such as burqa/covering the face) in public places (one such country is France - see French ban on face covering). These laws are highly controversial.^[57]

Fertility and family life

Further information: Mother

A world map showing countries by total fertility rate (TFR), according to the CIA World Factbook's 2013 data.

  7–8 Children

  6–7 Children

  5–6 Children

  4–5 Children

  3–4 Children

  2–3 Children

  1–2 Children

  0–1 Children

Percentage of births to unmarried women, selected countries, 1980 and 2007.^[58]

The total fertility rate (TFR) - the average number of children born to a woman over her lifetime - differs significantly between different regions of the world. In 2013, the highest estimated TFR was in Niger (7.03 children born per woman) and the lowest in Singapore (0.79 children/woman).^[59] While most Sub-Saharan African countries have a high TFR, which creates problems due to lack of resources and contributes to overpopulation, most Western countries currently experience a sub replacement fertility rate which may lead to population ageing and population decline.

In many parts of the world, there has been a change in family structure over the past few decades. For instance, in the West, there has been a trend of moving away from living arrangements that include the extended family to those which only consist of the nuclear family. There has also been a trend to move from marital fertility to non-marital fertility. Children born outside marriage may be born to cohabiting couples or to single women. While births outside marriage are common and fully accepted in some parts of the world, in other places they are highly stigmatized, with unmarried mothers facing ostracism, including violence from family members, and in extreme cases even honor killings.^[60]^[61] In addition, sex outside marriage remains illegal in many countries (such as Saudi Arabia, Pakistan,^[62] Afghanistan,^[63]^[64] Iran,^[64] Kuwait,^[65] Maldives,^[66] Morocco,^[67] Oman,^[68] Mauritania,^[69] United Arab Emirates,^[70]^[71] Sudan,^[72] Yemen,^[73]).

The social role of the mother differs between cultures. In many parts of the world, women with dependent children are expected to stay at home and dedicate all their energy to child raising, while in other places (mostly in Western countries) mothers most often return to paid work (see working motherand stay at home mother).

Religion

Further information: Women in Christianity, Women in Judaism, Women in Islam, Women in Mormonism, Women in Hinduism, Women in Sikhism, and Women in Buddhism

Particular religious doctrines have specific stipulations relating to gender roles, social and private interaction between the sexes, appropriate dressing attire for women, and various other issues affecting women and their position in society. In many countries, these religious teachings influence the criminal law, or the family law of those jurisdictions. (see for example Sharia law). The relation between religion, law and gender equality has been discussed by international organizations.^[74]

Education

Women attending an adult literacy class in the El Alto section of La Paz, Bolivia.

Main article: Female education

Literacy

Main article: Literacy

World literacy is lower for females than for males. Latest data from CIA World Factbook shows that 79.7% of women are literate, compared to 88.6% of men (aged 15 and over). Literacy rates are lowest in South and West Asia, and in parts of Sub-Saharan Africa.^[75]

OECD countries

Education

The educational gender gap in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries has been reduced over the last 30 years. Younger women today are far more likely to have completed a tertiary qualification: in 19 of the 30 OECD countries, more than twice as many women aged 25 to 34 have completed tertiary education than have women aged 55 to 64. In 21 of 27 OECD countries with comparable data, the number of women graduating from university-level programmes is equal to or exceeds that of men. 15-year-old girls tend to show much higher expectations for their careers than boys of the same age.^[76]

A female biologist weighs a deserttortoise before release.

While women account for more than half of university graduates in several OECD countries, they receive only 30% of tertiary degrees granted in science and engineering fields, and women account for only 25% to 35% of researchers in most OECD countries.^[77]

There is a common misconception that women have still not advanced in achieving academic degrees. According to Margaret Rossiter, ahistorian of science, women now earn 54 percent of all bachelor's degrees in the United States. However, although there are more women holding bachelors degrees than men, as the level of education increases, the more men tend to fit the statistics instead of women. At thegraduate level, women fill 40 percent of the doctorate degrees (31 percent of them being in engineering).^[78]

While to this day women are studying at prestigious universities at the same rate as men, they are not being given the same chance to join faculty. Sociologist Harriet Zuckerman has observed that the more prestigious an institute is, the more difficult and time consuming it will be for women to obtain a faculty position there. In 1989, Harvard University tenured its first woman in chemistry, Cynthia Friend, and in 1992 its first woman in physics, Melissa Franklin. She also observed that women were more likely to hold their first professional positions as instructors and lecturers while men are more likely to work first in tenure positions. According to Smith and Tang, as of 1989, 65 percent of men and only 40 percent of women held tenured positions and only 29 percent of all scientists and engineers employed as assistant professors in four-year colleges and universities were women.^[79]

Jobs

In 1992, women earned 9 percent of the Ph.D.'s awarded in engineering but only one percent made it to become a professor. In 1995, 11 percent of professors in science and engineering were women. In relation, only 311 deans of engineering schools were women, which is less than 1 percent of the total. Even inpsychology, a degree in which women earn the majority of Ph.D.'s, they hold a significant amount of fewer tenured positions, roughly 19 percent in 1994.^[80]

Women in politics

A world map showing countries governmental participation by women, 2010.

Angela Merkel has earned the top spot on the FORBES list of Most Powerful Women In The World for eight of the past 10 years.^[81]

Politics have been traditionally dominated by men; and women today continue to be under-represented in government in most countries. On October 2013, the global average of women in national assemblies was 21.5%.^[82]Suffrage is the civil right to vote. Women's suffrage in the United States was achieved gradually, first at state and local levels, starting in the late 19th century and early 20th century, and in 1920 women in the US received universal vote, with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Some Western countries were slow to allow women to vote; notably Switzerland, where women gained the right to vote in federal elections in 1971, and in the canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden women were granted the right to vote on local issues only in 1991, when the canton was forced to do so by the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland;^[83]^[84] andLiechtenstein, in 1984, through the Liechtenstein women's suffrage referendum, 1984.

Science, literature and art

Marie Curie

Women have, throughout history, made contributions to science, literature and art. One area where women have been permitted most access historically was that of obstetrics and gynecology (prior to the 18th century, caring for pregnant women in Europe was undertaken by women; from the mid 18th century onwards medical monitoring of pregnant women started to require rigorous formal education, to which women did not generally have access, therefore the practice was largely transferred to men).^[85]^[86]

Writing was generally also considered acceptable for upper class women, although achieving success as a female writer in a male dominated world could be very difficult; as a result several women writers adopted a male pen-name (e.g. George Sand, George Eliot).

BEAUTY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE

2014-03-06T07:07:00.001-08:00

English literature

The focus of this article is literature written in English from anywhere, not just the literature of England, so that it includes writers from Scotland, the whole of Ireland, Wales, as well as literature in English from former British colonies, including the US. But until the early 19th century, it just deals with literature from Britain and Ireland written in English; then America starts to produce major writers. In the 20th century America and Irelandproduced many of the most significant works of literature in English, and after World War II writers from the former British Empire also began to produce major works of literature.

BEAUTY OF NAVRATHRI FESTIVAL

2013-10-11T03:04:00.001-07:00

Navratri

Navratri (Hindi: नवरात्री Gujarati: નવરાત્રી ଓଡ଼ିଶା [oˑɽisaˑ]), Bengali: নবরাত্রী Assamese: নৱৰাত্রি Marathi: नवरात्री Punjabi: ਨਰਾਤੇ Kannada: ನವರಾತ್ರಿ Kashmiri: نَورات / नवरात Telugu:నవరాత్రీ Tamil: நவராத்திரி Malayalam: നവരാത്രി) is a festival dedicated to the worship of the Hindu deity Durga. The word Navaratri literally means nine nights in Sanskrit, navameaning nine and ratri meaning nights.^[2] During these nine nights and ten days, nine forms of Shakti/Devi are worshiped. The tenth day is commonly referred to asVijayadashami or "Dussehra." Navratri is a very important and major festival and is celebrated with great zeal all over India.

Navratri

Type	Hindu festival
Celebrations	9–10 days
Begins	Ashvin Shukla Prathama
Ends	Ashvin Shukla Navami
Date	Usually September–November. The date changes as per lunar calendar.
2012 date	16 – 24 October^[1]
2013 date	5 - 13 October

Significance[edit]

Women and men performing Garba as part of Navratri celebrations in Vadodara

Garba dance in Ahmedabad during navaratri festivities

The beginning of spring and the beginning of autumn are considered to be important junctions of climatic and solar influences. These two periods are taken as sacred opportunities for the worship of the Divine Mother Durga. The dates of the festival are determined according to the lunar calendar.

Navarathri represents a celebration of the Goddess Amba, (the or Power). The Navarathri festival or "Nine Nights festival"

Worship of The Divine as Mother is a special characteristic of the Indian Culture. God is mostly referred as the Father of all creation or the Omnipotent ruler of Nature in other religions. Navaratri or Navadurga Parva happens to be the most auspicious and unique period of devotional sadhanas and worship of Shakti (the sublime, ultimate, absolute creative energy of the Divine conceptualized as the Mother Goddess-Durga, whose worship dates back to prehistoric times before the dawn of Vedic age.

A whole chapter in the tenth mandal of the holy Rigveda deals with the devotional sadhanas of Shakti. The "Devi Sukta" and "Usha Sukta" of the Rigveda and "Ratri Sukta" of the Samveda similarly sing paeans of praise of sadhanas of Shakti.

Before the beginning of the Mahabharat war, Lord Krishna had worshipped Durga - the Goddess of Shakti- for the victory of the Pandvas.

Lord Brahma is cited in the Markandey Purana as mentioning to Rishi Markandey that the first incarnation of Shakti was as Shailputri. Other incarnations of the Divine Mother are: Brahmcharñi, Chandraghanta, Kushmanda, Skandamata, Katyayani, Kalratri, Mahagauri and Siddhidatri in that order. These nine manifestations of Shakti, are worshipped as "Nava-Durga". The fifth chapter of the Rudra Sanhita of Shiva Purana also vividly describes the various Divine Emanations of Durga.

Since the Vedic Age of the Rishis, the devotional practices recommended during Navratri are primarily those of Gayatri Anushthana.

In the Vedic Age of the Indian Culture, the religious philosophy and devotional practices were focused towards true knowledge and ultimate realization of the supreme power of Gayatri (Bram Shakti). The Vedas were the basis of all streams of spirituality and science those days. Gayatri has been the source of the divine powers of the gods in the heavens and their angelic manifestations and incarnations. Gayatri sadhana was also paramount in the higher level spiritual endeavors of the yogis and tapaswis. Gayatri Mantra was the core-focus of daily practice of sandhya-vandan (meditation and devotional worship) for everyone. As guided by the rishis, specific sadhanas and upasanas of the Gayatri Mantra were sincerely practiced during the festival period of Navaratri by every aspirant of spiritual enlightenment.

Traditions of Navratri[edit]

Durga Puja at Bagbazar Sarbajanin, North Kolkata.

Navaratri is celebrated five times a year. They are Vasanta Navaratri, Ashadha Navaratri, the Sharad Navaratri, and the Paush/Magha Navaratri. Of these, the Sharad Navaratri of the month of Puratashi and the Vasanta Navaratri of the Vasanta kala are the most important.

2. Gupta Navaratri: Gupta Navaratri, also referred as Ashadha or Gayatri or Shakambhari Navaratri, is nine days dedicated to the nine forms of Shakti (Mother Goddess) in the month of Ashadha (June–July). Gupta Navaratri is observed during the Ashadha Shukla Paksha (waxing phase of moon).

3. Sharad Navaratri: This is the most important of the Navaratris. It is simply called Maha Navaratri (the Great Navratri) and is celebrated in the 'pratipada' (first day) of the bright fortnight of the lunar month of Ashvina. Also known as Sharad Navaratri, as it is celebrated during Sharad (beginning of winter, September–October).

4. Paush Navaratri: Paush Navaratri is nine days dedicated to the nine forms of Shakti (Mother Goddess) in the month of Paush (December–January). Paush Navaratri is observed during the Paush Shukla Paksha (waxing phase of moon).

5. Magha Navaratri: Magha Navaratri, also referred as Gupta Navaratri, is nine days dedicated to the nine forms of Shakti (Mother Goddess) in the month of Magha (January–February). Magha Navaratri is observed during the Magha Shukla Paksha (waxing phase of moon).

Vasanta Navaratri[edit]

Navaratri Golu, dolls and figurine display festival for girls and women in South India

Devi Shakthi at Parashakthi Temple, Pontiac, USA adorned as Goddesses Lakshmi, Durga and Saraswathi during Navarathri

This is celebrated during Vasanta Rhitu (beginning of summer) (March- April). This is also known as Chaitra navarathri as it falls during the lunar month of Chaitra.

The Story of Vasanta Navaratri[edit]

In days long gone by, King Dhruvasindhu was killed by a lion when he went out hunting. Preparations were made to crown the prince Sudarsana. But, King Yudhajit of Ujjain, the father of Queen Lilavati, and King Virasena of Kalinga, the father of Queen Manorama, were each desirous of securing the Kosala throne for their respective grandsons. They fought with each other. King Virasena was killed in the battle. Manorama fled to the forest with Prince Sudarsana and a eunuch. They took refuge in the hermitage of Rishi Bharadwaja.

The victor, King Yudhajit, thereupon crowned his grandson, Satrujit, at Ayodhya, the capital of Kosala. He then went out in search of Manorama and her son. The Rishi said that he would not give up those who had sought protection under him. Yudhajit became furious. He wanted to attack the Rishi. But, his minister told him about the truth of the Rishi’s statement. Yudhajit returned to his capital.

Fortune smiled on Prince Sudarsana. A hermit’s son came one day and called the eunuchby his Sanskrit name Kleeba. The prince caught the first syllable Kli and began to pronounce it as Kleem. This syllable happened to be a powerful, sacred Mantra. It is the Bija Akshara (root syllable) of the Divine Mother. The Prince obtained peace of mind and the Grace of the Divine Mother by the repeated utterance of this syllable. Devi appeared to him, blessed him and granted him divine weapons and an inexhaustible quiver.

The emissaries of the king of Benares passed through the Ashram of the Rishi and, when they saw the noble prince Sudarsana, they recommended him to Princess Sashikala, the daughter of the king of Benares.

The ceremony at which the princess was to choose her spouse was arranged. Sashikala at once chose Sudarsana. They were duly wedded. King Yudhajit, who had been present at the function, began to fight with the king of Benares. Devis helped Sudarsana and his father-in-law. Yudhajit mocked Her, upon which Devi promptly reduced Yudhajit and his army to ashes.

Thus Sudarsana, with his wife and his father-in-law, praised Devi. She was highly pleased and ordered them to worship her with havanand other means during the Vasanta Navarathri. Then she disappeared.

Prince Sudarsana and Sashikala returned to the Ashram of Rishi Bharadwaja. The great Rishi blessed them and crowned Sudarsana as the king of Kosala. Sudarsana and Sashikala and the king of Benares implicitly carried out the commands of the Divine Mother and performed worship in a splendid manner during the Vasanta Navarathri.

Sudarsana’s descendants Sri Rama and Lakshmana also performed worship of Devi during the Sharad Navarathri and were blessed with Her assistance in the recovery of Sita.

According to the Krittibas Ramayana, Rama invoked the goddess Durga in his epic battle against Ravana. Although Goddess Durga was traditionally worshipped in the late spring, due to contingencies of battle, Lord Rama had to invoke her in the form of astam (eighth) Mahavidya (Maa Bagla) in the autumn and thus is known as akaal bodhan (invoking out of scheduled time). This autumnal ritual was different from the conventional Durga Puja, which is usually celebrated in the springtime. So, this Puja is also known as 'akal-bodhan' or out-of-season ('akal') worship ('bodhan'). This Rama's date for the Navratra puja has now gained ascendancy and culminates with Dusherra in North India on the following day.

Forms of Shakti[edit]

Main article: Navadurga

Nine forms of Shakti are worshipped during the Navaratris. The Devis worshipped depend on the tradition of the region.

Durga
Bhadrakali
Amba or Jagadamba, Mother of the universe
Annapoorna devi, The one who bestows grains (anna) in plenty (purna: used as subjective)
Sarvamangala, The one who gives joy (mangal) to all (sarva)
Bhairavi
Chandika or Chandi
Lalita
Bhavani
Mookambika

Rituals[edit]

Srikanta Datta Wadiyar, incumbent Maharaja of Mysore inaugurating first day of Mysore Dasara

The Navaratri commences on the first day (pratipada) of the bright fortnight of the lunar month of Ashvin. The festival is celebrated for nine nights once every year during the beginning of October, although as the dates of the festival are determined according to the lunar calendar, the festival may be held for a day more or a day less.

Navaratri is celebrated in different ways throughout India. In North India, all three Navaratris are celebrated with much fervor by fasting on all nine days and worshiping the Mother Goddess in her different forms. The Chaitra Navratri culminates in Ram Navami and the Sharad Navaratri culminates in Durga Puja and Dussehra. The Dussehra of Kullu in Himachal Pradesh is particularly famous in the North. Navratri festival in Gujarat is one of the main festivals. Garba is dance which people use to dance after the Durga Pooja with the groups and live orchestra or devotional songs.

The last four days of Sharad Navaratri take on a particularly dramatic form in the state of West Bengal in East India where they are celebrated as Durga Puja.^[3] This is the biggest festival of the year in this state. Exquisitely crafted and decorated life-size clay idols of the Goddess Durga depicting her slaying the demon Mahishasura are set up in temples and other places. These idols are then worshiped for five days and immersed in the river on the fifth day.

In Western India, particularly in the state of Gujarat and Mumbai, Navratri is celebrated with the famous Garba and Dandiya-Raas dance. Since the past few years, the Government of Gujarat has been organising the "Navratri Festival Celebrations" on a regular basis for the nine days of Navratri Festival in Gujarat. People from all over Gujarat and even abroad come to participate in the nine days celebrations. It is also popular throughout India and among Indian communities around the world including the UK, Canada,Malaysia,Singapore and USA.

In the temples of Goa,on the first day of the seventh month of the Hindu calendar Ashwin, in some temples, a copper pitcher is installed surrounded by clay in which nine varieties of food grains are sown inside the sanctum sanctuary of the temple.All the nine nights are celebrated by presenting devotional songs, and through religious discourses. Later in the night the idol of the goddess is put in a specially-decorated colourful swing and for nine nights, this swing is being swung to the tune of temple music (called as ranavadya) by devotees who throng in large numbers to participate in the festival. ^[4]

In South India, people set up steps and place idols on them. This is known as golu. Photos of typical golu displayed in Tamil Nadu style can be found here.

In Karnataka, Ayudha Puja, the ninth day of Mysore Dasara, is celebrated with the worship of implements used in daily life such as computers, books, vehicles, or kitchen tools. The effort to see the divine in the tools and objects one uses in daily life is central to this celebration, so it includes all tools that help one earn one's livelihood. Knowledge workers go for books, pen or computers, farmers go for the plough and other agricultural tools, machinery for industrialists and cars/buses/trucks for the transportation workers—all are decorated with flowers and worshiped on this day invoking God's blessing for success in coming years. It is believed that any new venture such as starting of business or purchasing of new household items on this day is bound to bring success and prosperity.

Mysore is well known for the festivities that take place during the period of Dasara, the state festival of Karnataka. The Dasarafestivities, which are celebrated over a ten-day period, were first introduced by King Raja Wodeyar I in 1610.^[5] On the ninth day ofDasara, called Mahanavami, the royal sword is worshipped and is taken on a procession of decorated elephants, camels and horses.^[5]On the tenth day, called Vijayadashami, the traditional Dasara procession (locally known as Jumboo Savari) is held on the streets of Mysore. An image of the Goddess Chamundeshwari is placed on a golden howdah on the back of a decorated elephant and taken on a procession, accompanied by tableaux, dance groups, music bands, decorated elephants, horses and camels.^[5] The procession starts from the Mysore Palace and culminates at a place called Bannimantapa, where the banni tree (Prosopis spicigera) is worshipped.^[5]The Dasara festivities culminate on the night of Vijayadashami with a torchlight parade, known locally as Panjina Kavayatthu.^[5]

In Kerala, three days: Ashtami, Navami, and Vijaya Dashami of Sharad Navarathri are celebrated as Sarasvati Puja in which books are worshiped. The books are placed for Puja on the Ashtami day in own houses, traditional nursery schools, or in temples. On Vijaya Dashami day, the books are ceremoniously taken out for reading and writing after worshiping Sarasvati. Vijaya Dashami day is considered auspicious for initiating the children into writing and reading, which is called Vidyarambham. Tens of thousands of children are initiated into the world of letters on this day in Kerala.

In Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh, people celebrate Bathukamma festival over a period of nine days. It is a kind of navratri celebration.

Navratri is divided into sets of three days to adore three different aspects of the supreme goddess or goddesses.

Effigy of Ravana being burnt

First three days[edit]

The goddess is separated a spiritual force called Durga also known as Kali in order to destroy all our evil and grant boons.

Second three days[edit]

The Mother is adored as a giver of spiritual wealth, Lakshmi, who is considered to have the power of bestowing on her devotees inexhaustible wealth, as she is the goddess of wealth.

Final three days[edit]

Effigy of Ravana being burnt

Food during Navratri Fast[edit]

The Navratri abstinence is observed from the first day to the ninth day. Some people confine to milk and fruits during the nine days/nights. Most devotees take a single meal during the day. Non-vegetarian food is totally avoided. Many people also avoid the consumption of onion and garlic for the entire duration of Navaratri.

Navratri Dishes[edit]

Sabudana vada Ideal food during Navaratri fast

Sundal
Sabudana vada
Sabudana Khichadi
Puri Chana and Halwa
Makhane Ki Sabzi
Sawank Ke Chawal
Dahi Pudine Wale Aloo
Makhane Ki Sabzi
Shakarkandi Ki Chaat
Sabudana Papad
Banana Raita
Aloo Raita
Singhare Ke Pakode
Banana Chips
Kaddu Ka Raita
Malaiwale Kofte
Fruits/Fruit Juices
Sabudana Khir
Bhagar
Varai
Bhindi Sabzi
Ram ladoo

2013-07-18T23:20:00.001-07:00

Belgaum district

Belgaum district
— district —
Gokak Falls in Belgaum district
Location in Karnataka, India
Coordinates: 15.85°N 74.55°ECoordinates: 15.85°N 74.55°E
Country	India
State	Karnataka
Region	North Karnataka
Division	Belgaum Division
Headquarters	Belgaum
Area^[1]
• Total	13,415 km²(5,180 sq mi)
Population (2011)^[1]
• Total	4,778,439
• Density	360/km² (920/sq mi)
Languages
• Official	Kannada
Time zone	IST (UTC+5:30)
Vehicle registration	KA-22,KA-23,KA-24,KA-49
Sex ratio	1.04 ♂/♀
Literacy	64.2%
Precipitation	823 millimetres (32.4 in)
Website	belgaum.nic.in

Belgaum district is a district in the state of Karnataka, India. The city of Belgaum is the district headquarters in North Karnataka. According to the 2011 Census of India, it has a population of 4,778,439 of which 24.03% live in urban areas,^[2] making it the second most populous district in Karnataka (out of 30), after Bangalore.^[3] The district has an area of 13,415 square kilometers, and is bounded on the west and north byMaharashtra state, on the northeast by Bijapur District, on the east by Bagalkote District, on the southeast by Gadaga District, on the south byDharawada District and Uttara Kannada districts, and on the southwest by the state of Goa.

[hide]

1 History

1.1 Border dispute

2 Divisions

2.1 Administrative divisions

2.2 Cities & Towns

3 Demographics

4 Culture

4.1 Tourist sites

4.2 Notable personalities

5 Education

6 References

7 External links

History[edit]

Bhuvaraha Narasimha temple Halasi,Karnataka

Panchalingeshwara temple Hooli

Belgaum is the Divisional Head quarter of North Karnataka The ancient name of the town of Belgaum was Venugrama, meaning Bamboo Village. It is also called as Malnad Pradesh. The most ancient place in the district is Halsi; and this, according to inscriptions on copper platesdiscovered in its neighborhood, was once the capital of a dynasty of nine Kadamba kings. It appears that from the middle of the 6th century to about 760 the area was held by theChalukyas, who were succeeded by the Rashtrakutas. After the break-up of the Rashtrakuta power a portion of it survived in the Rattas (875-1250), who from 1210 onward made Venugrama their capital. Inscriptions give evidence of a long struggle between the Rattas and the Kadambasof Goa, who succeeded in the latter years of the 12th century in acquiring and holding part of the district. By 1208, however, the Kadambas had been overthrown by the Rattas, who in their turn succumbed to the Yadavas of Devagiri in 1250. After the overthrow of the Yadavas by the Delhi Sultanate (1320), Belgaum was for a short time under the rule of the latter; but only a few years later the part south of the Ghataprabha River was subject to the Hindu rajas of Vijayanagara. In 1347 the northern part was conquered by the Bahmani Sultanate, which in 1473 took the town of Belgaum and conquered the southern part also. When Aurangzeb overthrew the Bijapura sultans in 1686, Belgaum passed to the Mughals. In 1776 the country was overrun by Hyder Ali ofMysore, but was taken by the Madhavrao Peshwa with British assistance. In 1818 it was handed over to the British East India Company. Yadur is situated beside Krishna river, there is famous veerbhadra temple. Many devotees visit this place from Karnataka and Maharastra.

Hooli is one of the oldest villages in Belgaum district. There are many Chalukya temples in the village and the 'Panchaligeswara temple is very famous.

Kittur in Belgaum district is a place of historical importance. Rani Chennamma of Kittur (1778–1829) is known for her resistance to British rule;

The British had a sizable infantry post here, having realised the military importance of its geographic location. It is one of the reasons for Belgaum's sobriquet The Cradle of Infantry. Development of a rail network for movement of resources and later troops was one of the means employed by both the British East India Company and the British to exert control over India. Belgaum's railway station, the Mahatma Gandhi Railway Station was established by the British. A signboard declaring the sobriquet can be seen hung on Platform 1 at the station.

Border dispute[edit]

Main article: Belgaum border dispute

Belgaum district was incorporated into the newly formed Mysore state (now Karnataka) with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act (1956), which reorganised India's states along linguisticlines since majority of the people in the district spoke Kannada, although the majority in the cities spoke Marathi. Because of that linguistic disparity, Maharashtra has been claiming the district and the case is now in the Supreme Court of India.

Divisions[edit]

Administrative divisions[edit]

Administration of Belgaum District has been divided into 14 talukas. Chikkodi taluka is the largest with an area of 1,995.70 km² and Raybag taluka is the smallest with an area of 958.8 km². The district comprises three revenue sub-divisions and six police sub-divisions. Apart from the Belgaum City Corporation, there are 17 municipalities, 20 towns, 485 gram panchayats, 1,138 habitated villages and 26 non-habitated villages. Belgaum is also the headquarters of the Belgaum Revenue Division.

Cities & Towns[edit]

Saundatti Fort, Karnataka

Degaon Kamala Narayana temple 5 km fromKittur, Karnataka

Demographics[edit]

According to the 2011 census Belgaum district has a population of 4,778,439,^[3] roughly equal to the nation of Singapore^[4] or the US state ofAlabama.^[5] This gives it a ranking of 25th in India (out of a total of 640).^[3] The district has a population density of 356 inhabitants per square kilometre (920 /sq mi) .^[3] Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 13.38%.^[3] Belgaum has a sex ratio of 969 females for every 1000 males,^[3] and a literacy rate of 73.94%.^[3] Kannada is the main language and is spoken by a majority of the population of the district(by 73%) although Marathi is the predominant spoken in the cities of Belgaum, Khanapur, Nipani, Ugar etc. There is also sizable population of Dakhini (a southern dilalect of Urdu) and Konkani speakers in the district. Hindi and English are also spoken, the latter being the medium of instruction at the college and university level as also being the spoken language in most upper class and educated households of Marathi, Kannada and muslim families. Almost 67% of the residents of Belgaum District are multilingual, conversant in Kannada, Marathi, Urdu-Hindi and to some extent, English.

Culture[edit]

Tourist sites[edit]

Kamal basadi Jain temple, Belgaum

Kasamalgi Parshwanatha, 5 km from Kittur

Tourism attractions of Belgaum District^[6]

Belgaum is famous for Belgaum Fort, Kamal basadi Jain temple, safi maszid and many historical monuments. Belgaum Fort which is in the heart of the city. The Kote lake is also a beautiful lake to visit. Inside the fort we can find an ancient Kamala Basadi and Chikka Basadi Jain temples. Just few metres walk to this temple you can find Ramkrishna Ashrama where you can relax. There is an ancient Masjid also in the fort. Belgaum Cantonment with both Portuguese and British style buildings, churches and schools.

Hooli is famous for Panchalingeshwara temple 13 km from Savadatti, one of the oldest village in the district, it is famous for Panchaligeswara temple. Other ruined Chalukya temples await for conservation and restoration.

Gokak Falls
Shedbal, Shedbal is a village in the southern state of Karnataka, India.[1][2] It is located in the Athni taluk of Belgaum district in Karnataka. There is a famous Jain Ashram.

The Shanthinatha Jain temple of Shedbal was built in the year 1292 A.D. It is the birth place of the well known Jain ascetic Elacharya Paramapujya Muni Sri 108 Vidyananda Maharaj. Under the guidance of Paramapujya Muni Sri Shanthisagar Maharaj Shanthisagar Chatra Ashram was built. The Chaturvamshathi tirthankara mandir with the 24 tirthankaras was built in 1952.

Jamboti, 20 km south-west of Belgaum, is a popular tourist spot with its evergreen hilltop forests.

Varapoha Falls, where the Mandovi River plunges 60 meters, is a beautiful waterfall in Belgaum district.

Saundatti is famous for Savadatti Fort and historical temples.

Kittur is famous for Kittur fort, museum and other monuments

Shirasangi is famous for Desai wade, Kalika Temple and other historical monuments.

Turmari is about 7 km from Sangolli, is famous for B C Patil house (Goudaramane) more than 300 year old and two floor mansion, where the Girish Karnad movie Ondanondu Kaladalli shot.

Kamala Narayana Temple, Degaon (Degamve / Devgram) is famous for Kamala Narayana Temple is about 5 km from Kittur.

Kasamalgi Parshwanatha is about 10 km from Kittur and 5 km from Kamala Narayana Temple, Degaon (Degamve/ Devgram).

Halasi is famous Kadamba temple of Bhuvaraha Narasimha.

Yallammagudda is famous for Renuka Yallamma temple, people from Maharashtra, Andhra and south India visit.

Navilateertha

Parasgad Fort

M.K.Hubli is famous for Ashwatha Narasimha Temple and Gangabike Memorial.

Sangolli

Nandagad

Panchalingeshwara temple at Munavalli

Chandur,Yadur situated beside Krishna river

Notable personalities[edit]

Sangolli Rayanna
Kittur Chennamma
Belawadi Mallamma
Kumar Gandharva
Shehnai Pandit S Ballesh , disciple of Shehnai Maestro Bharat Ratna Usta Bismillah Khan
Enagi Balappa
Atul Kulkarni
Chandrashekhara Kambara
Kaka Kalelkar (1885–1981) Social reformer, scholar, historian, educationist, and journalist. Born in Belgundi.
Prabhakar Hampiholi Great Professor in Mathematics.

Education[edit]

Visveswaraiah Technological University is located in Belgaum. All technical and engineering colleges in the Karnataka State come under this University. Belgaum is also known for the Airmen Training School, an Indian Air Force training centre located at Sambra. The Maratha Light Infantry has its regimental headquarters in Belgaum. The Commando School and School of jungle warfare and the Indian Army is also situated in Belgaum. The Karnataka Lingayat (K.L.E.) Education Society is in Belgaum. The K.L.E.S. Hospital of Belgaum is the second-largest hospital in Asia^{[citation needed]}. The Medical Council of India has one of its regional research centre here, and the Indian Institute of Hydrology and Vaccine Institute are also situated here. Military School Belgaum (Principal - Lt Col Sudhanshu Arya) is one of the five Military Schools in India. The School was set up in 1945 by King George VI for the wards of VCOs (present day JCOs) and NCOs of Indian Army

2013-07-18T23:19:00.001-07:00

Belgaum district

Belgaum district
— district —
Gokak Falls in Belgaum district
Location in Karnataka, India
Coordinates: 15.85°N 74.55°ECoordinates: 15.85°N 74.55°E
Country	India
State	Karnataka
Region	North Karnataka
Division	Belgaum Division
Headquarters	Belgaum
Area^[1]
• Total	13,415 km²(5,180 sq mi)
Population (2011)^[1]
• Total	4,778,439
• Density	360/km² (920/sq mi)
Languages
• Official	Kannada
Time zone	IST (UTC+5:30)
Vehicle registration	KA-22,KA-23,KA-24,KA-49
Sex ratio	1.04 ♂/♀
Literacy	64.2%
Precipitation	823 millimetres (32.4 in)
Website	belgaum.nic.in

[hide]

History[edit]

Bhuvaraha Narasimha temple Halasi,Karnataka

Panchalingeshwara temple Hooli

Hooli is one of the oldest villages in Belgaum district. There are many Chalukya temples in the village and the 'Panchaligeswara temple is very famous.

Kittur in Belgaum district is a place of historical importance. Rani Chennamma of Kittur (1778–1829) is known for her resistance to British rule;

Border dispute[edit]

Main article: Belgaum border dispute

Divisions[edit]

Administrative divisions[edit]

Cities & Towns[edit]

Saundatti Fort, Karnataka

Degaon Kamala Narayana temple 5 km fromKittur, Karnataka

Demographics[edit]

Culture[edit]

Tourist sites[edit]

Kamal basadi Jain temple, Belgaum

Kasamalgi Parshwanatha, 5 km from Kittur

Tourism attractions of Belgaum District^[6]

Belgaum is famous for Belgaum Fort, Kamal basadi Jain temple, safi maszid and many historical monuments. Belgaum Fort which is in the heart of the city. The Kote lake is also a beautiful lake to visit. Inside the fort we can find an ancient Kamala Basadi and Chikka Basadi Jain temples. Just few metres walk to this temple you can find Ramkrishna Ashrama where you can relax. There is an ancient Masjid also in the fort. Belgaum Cantonment with both Portuguese and British style buildings, churches and schools.

Hooli is famous for Panchalingeshwara temple 13 km from Savadatti, one of the oldest village in the district, it is famous for Panchaligeswara temple. Other ruined Chalukya temples await for conservation and restoration.

Gokak Falls
Shedbal, Shedbal is a village in the southern state of Karnataka, India.[1][2] It is located in the Athni taluk of Belgaum district in Karnataka. There is a famous Jain Ashram.

Jamboti, 20 km south-west of Belgaum, is a popular tourist spot with its evergreen hilltop forests.

Varapoha Falls, where the Mandovi River plunges 60 meters, is a beautiful waterfall in Belgaum district.

Saundatti is famous for Savadatti Fort and historical temples.

Kittur is famous for Kittur fort, museum and other monuments

Shirasangi is famous for Desai wade, Kalika Temple and other historical monuments.

Turmari is about 7 km from Sangolli, is famous for B C Patil house (Goudaramane) more than 300 year old and two floor mansion, where the Girish Karnad movie Ondanondu Kaladalli shot.

Kamala Narayana Temple, Degaon (Degamve / Devgram) is famous for Kamala Narayana Temple is about 5 km from Kittur.

Kasamalgi Parshwanatha is about 10 km from Kittur and 5 km from Kamala Narayana Temple, Degaon (Degamve/ Devgram).

Halasi is famous Kadamba temple of Bhuvaraha Narasimha.

Yallammagudda is famous for Renuka Yallamma temple, people from Maharashtra, Andhra and south India visit.

Navilateertha

Parasgad Fort

M.K.Hubli is famous for Ashwatha Narasimha Temple and Gangabike Memorial.

Sangolli

Nandagad

Panchalingeshwara temple at Munavalli

Chandur,Yadur situated beside Krishna river

Notable personalities[edit]

Sangolli Rayanna
Kittur Chennamma
Belawadi Mallamma
Kumar Gandharva
Shehnai Pandit S Ballesh , disciple of Shehnai Maestro Bharat Ratna Usta Bismillah Khan
Enagi Balappa
Atul Kulkarni
Chandrashekhara Kambara
Kaka Kalelkar (1885–1981) Social reformer, scholar, historian, educationist, and journalist. Born in Belgundi.
Prabhakar Hampiholi Great Professor in Mathematics.

Education[edit]

2013-07-18T23:12:00.001-07:00

Belgaum district

Belgaum district
— district —
Gokak Falls in Belgaum district
Location in Karnataka, India
Coordinates: 15.85°N 74.55°ECoordinates: 15.85°N 74.55°E
Country	India
State	Karnataka
Region	North Karnataka
Division	Belgaum Division
Headquarters	Belgaum
Area^[1]
• Total	13,415 km²(5,180 sq mi)
Population (2011)^[1]
• Total	4,778,439
• Density	360/km² (920/sq mi)
Languages
• Official	Kannada
Time zone	IST (UTC+5:30)
Vehicle registration	KA-22,KA-23,KA-24,KA-49
Sex ratio	1.04 ♂/♀
Literacy	64.2%
Precipitation	823 millimetres (32.4 in)
Website	belgaum.nic.in

[hide]

History[edit]

Bhuvaraha Narasimha temple Halasi,Karnataka

Panchalingeshwara temple Hooli

Hooli is one of the oldest villages in Belgaum district. There are many Chalukya temples in the village and the 'Panchaligeswara temple is very famous.

Kittur in Belgaum district is a place of historical importance. Rani Chennamma of Kittur (1778–1829) is known for her resistance to British rule;

Border dispute[edit]

Main article: Belgaum border dispute

Divisions[edit]

Administrative divisions[edit]

Cities & Towns[edit]

Saundatti Fort, Karnataka

Degaon Kamala Narayana temple 5 km fromKittur, Karnataka

Demographics[edit]

Culture[edit]

Tourist sites[edit]

Kamal basadi Jain temple, Belgaum

Kasamalgi Parshwanatha, 5 km from Kittur

Tourism attractions of Belgaum District^[6]

Belgaum is famous for Belgaum Fort, Kamal basadi Jain temple, safi maszid and many historical monuments. Belgaum Fort which is in the heart of the city. The Kote lake is also a beautiful lake to visit. Inside the fort we can find an ancient Kamala Basadi and Chikka Basadi Jain temples. Just few metres walk to this temple you can find Ramkrishna Ashrama where you can relax. There is an ancient Masjid also in the fort. Belgaum Cantonment with both Portuguese and British style buildings, churches and schools.

Hooli is famous for Panchalingeshwara temple 13 km from Savadatti, one of the oldest village in the district, it is famous for Panchaligeswara temple. Other ruined Chalukya temples await for conservation and restoration.

Gokak Falls
Shedbal, Shedbal is a village in the southern state of Karnataka, India.[1][2] It is located in the Athni taluk of Belgaum district in Karnataka. There is a famous Jain Ashram.

Jamboti, 20 km south-west of Belgaum, is a popular tourist spot with its evergreen hilltop forests.

Varapoha Falls, where the Mandovi River plunges 60 meters, is a beautiful waterfall in Belgaum district.

Saundatti is famous for Savadatti Fort and historical temples.

Kittur is famous for Kittur fort, museum and other monuments

Shirasangi is famous for Desai wade, Kalika Temple and other historical monuments.

Turmari is about 7 km from Sangolli, is famous for B C Patil house (Goudaramane) more than 300 year old and two floor mansion, where the Girish Karnad movie Ondanondu Kaladalli shot.

Kamala Narayana Temple, Degaon (Degamve / Devgram) is famous for Kamala Narayana Temple is about 5 km from Kittur.

Kasamalgi Parshwanatha is about 10 km from Kittur and 5 km from Kamala Narayana Temple, Degaon (Degamve/ Devgram).

Halasi is famous Kadamba temple of Bhuvaraha Narasimha.

Yallammagudda is famous for Renuka Yallamma temple, people from Maharashtra, Andhra and south India visit.

Navilateertha

Parasgad Fort

M.K.Hubli is famous for Ashwatha Narasimha Temple and Gangabike Memorial.

Sangolli

Nandagad

Panchalingeshwara temple at Munavalli

Chandur,Yadur situated beside Krishna river

Notable personalities[edit]

Sangolli Rayanna
Kittur Chennamma
Belawadi Mallamma
Kumar Gandharva
Shehnai Pandit S Ballesh , disciple of Shehnai Maestro Bharat Ratna Usta Bismillah Khan
Enagi Balappa
Atul Kulkarni
Chandrashekhara Kambara
Kaka Kalelkar (1885–1981) Social reformer, scholar, historian, educationist, and journalist. Born in Belgundi.
Prabhakar Hampiholi Great Professor in Mathematics.

Education[edit]

2013-07-18T23:11:00.007-07:00

Belgaum district

Belgaum district
— district —
Gokak Falls in Belgaum district
Location in Karnataka, India
Coordinates: 15.85°N 74.55°ECoordinates: 15.85°N 74.55°E
Country	India
State	Karnataka
Region	North Karnataka
Division	Belgaum Division
Headquarters	Belgaum
Area^[1]
• Total	13,415 km²(5,180 sq mi)
Population (2011)^[1]
• Total	4,778,439
• Density	360/km² (920/sq mi)
Languages
• Official	Kannada
Time zone	IST (UTC+5:30)
Vehicle registration	KA-22,KA-23,KA-24,KA-49
Sex ratio	1.04 ♂/♀
Literacy	64.2%
Precipitation	823 millimetres (32.4 in)
Website	belgaum.nic.in

Contents
[hide]

1 History

1.1 Border dispute

2 Divisions

2.1 Administrative divisions

2.2 Cities & Towns

3 Demographics

4 Culture

4.1 Tourist sites

4.2 Notable personalities

5 Education

6 References

7 External links

History[edit]

Bhuvaraha Narasimha temple Halasi,Karnataka

Panchalingeshwara temple Hooli

Hooli is one of the oldest villages in Belgaum district. There are many Chalukya temples in the village and the 'Panchaligeswara temple is very famous.

Kittur in Belgaum district is a place of historical importance. Rani Chennamma of Kittur (1778–1829) is known for her resistance to British rule;

Border dispute[edit]

Main article: Belgaum border dispute

Divisions[edit]

Administrative divisions[edit]

Cities & Towns[edit]

Saundatti Fort, Karnataka

Degaon Kamala Narayana temple 5 km fromKittur, Karnataka

Demographics[edit]

Culture[edit]

Tourist sites[edit]

Kamal basadi Jain temple, Belgaum

Kasamalgi Parshwanatha, 5 km from Kittur

Tourism attractions of Belgaum District^[6]

Belgaum is famous for Belgaum Fort, Kamal basadi Jain temple, safi maszid and many historical monuments. Belgaum Fort which is in the heart of the city. The Kote lake is also a beautiful lake to visit. Inside the fort we can find an ancient Kamala Basadi and Chikka Basadi Jain temples. Just few metres walk to this temple you can find Ramkrishna Ashrama where you can relax. There is an ancient Masjid also in the fort. Belgaum Cantonment with both Portuguese and British style buildings, churches and schools.

Hooli is famous for Panchalingeshwara temple 13 km from Savadatti, one of the oldest village in the district, it is famous for Panchaligeswara temple. Other ruined Chalukya temples await for conservation and restoration.

Gokak Falls
Shedbal, Shedbal is a village in the southern state of Karnataka, India.[1][2] It is located in the Athni taluk of Belgaum district in Karnataka. There is a famous Jain Ashram.

Jamboti, 20 km south-west of Belgaum, is a popular tourist spot with its evergreen hilltop forests.

Varapoha Falls, where the Mandovi River plunges 60 meters, is a beautiful waterfall in Belgaum district.

Saundatti is famous for Savadatti Fort and historical temples.

Kittur is famous for Kittur fort, museum and other monuments

Shirasangi is famous for Desai wade, Kalika Temple and other historical monuments.

Turmari is about 7 km from Sangolli, is famous for B C Patil house (Goudaramane) more than 300 year old and two floor mansion, where the Girish Karnad movie Ondanondu Kaladalli shot.

Kamala Narayana Temple, Degaon (Degamve / Devgram) is famous for Kamala Narayana Temple is about 5 km from Kittur.

Kasamalgi Parshwanatha is about 10 km from Kittur and 5 km from Kamala Narayana Temple, Degaon (Degamve/ Devgram).

Halasi is famous Kadamba temple of Bhuvaraha Narasimha.

Yallammagudda is famous for Renuka Yallamma temple, people from Maharashtra, Andhra and south India visit.

Navilateertha

Parasgad Fort

M.K.Hubli is famous for Ashwatha Narasimha Temple and Gangabike Memorial.

Sangolli

Nandagad

Panchalingeshwara temple at Munavalli

Chandur,Yadur situated beside Krishna river

Notable personalities[edit]

Sangolli Rayanna
Kittur Chennamma
Belawadi Mallamma
Kumar Gandharva
Shehnai Pandit S Ballesh , disciple of Shehnai Maestro Bharat Ratna Usta Bismillah Khan
Enagi Balappa
Atul Kulkarni
Chandrashekhara Kambara
Kaka Kalelkar (1885–1981) Social reformer, scholar, historian, educationist, and journalist. Born in Belgundi.
Prabhakar Hampiholi Great Professor in Mathematics.

BEAUTIFUL WORLD

GUIDANCE IN OUR LIFE

IT 'Z ALL ABOUT LOVE

BEAUTY OF MALAYALAM LITERATURE

Early literature

Ramacharitham

Early prose literature[edit]

Allegories[edit]

Plays[edit]

Stories[edit]

Novels[edit]

Apologues[edit]

Malayalam novel[edit]

Notable Malayalam writers[edit]

Art criticism[edit]

Poetry[edit]

Modern Romantics[edit]

Other modern poets[edit]

Post-modern poets[edit]

Fiction[edit]

Nineteenth century[edit]

Modern[edit]

Post-modern fiction[edit]

Children's literature[edit]

Essayists[edit]

Literary criticism[edit]

Film criticism[edit]

Translation[edit]

Others

THE BEAUTY OF WASTE MANAGEMENT

WASTE MANAGEMENT

History

Modern era

Methods of disposal

Landfill

Incineration

Recycling

Sustainability

Biological reprocessing

Energy recovery

Resource recovery

Avoidance and reduction method

Waste handling and transport

Benefits

Challenges in developing countries

Technologies

Central principles of waste management

Scientific journals

THE BEAUTY OF WASTE MANAGEMENT

WASTE MANAGEMENT

BEAUTY OF CHIPKO MOVEMENT

Chipko movement

History[edit]

Beginnings[edit]

Organization[edit]

Aftermath[edit]

Participants[edit]

Legacy[edit]

Woman

Etymology

History

Health

Culture and gender roles

Violence against women

Clothing, fashion and dress codes

Fertility and family life

Religion

Education

Literacy

OECD countries

Education

Jobs

Women in politics

Science, literature and art

BEAUTY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE

English literature

BEAUTY OF NAVRATHRI FESTIVAL

Navratri

Significance[edit]

Traditions of Navratri[edit]