The Ultimate

Comfort And Energy Savings Your Home With Winterizing

noreply@blogger.com (The Ultimate) — Wed, 14 Sep 2011 16:34:00 +0000

The winter months can be very hard on your home. Unfortunately, they can also be hard on your wallet if your home isn't prepared for the onslaught of winter weather. Are you and your family warm and toasty during the winter months or do you find you are searching for ghost-like cold spots and cursing the mailman for bringing you higher energy bills?

Don't stress. Late summer and early autumn is the perfect time for winterizing your home. Below are a few tips from Galaxie Home Remodeling that will help you in preparing your home for the cold winter months ahead.

Check Doors and Windows

Cold winter air can seep through doors and windows. Storm windows provide a good barrier, but installing double pane windows is preferred. Energy-efficient thermal vinyl windows not only increase your energy savings, but keeps precious heat inside your house. If your budget prevents you from installing energy-efficient thermal vinyl windows, then look into less expensive alternatives such as clear plastic insulator kits. These popular DIY kits are easy to install and easier on the pocketbook. At least until you can replace the windows.

Check entry doors for a tight seal. Doors should fit nice and snug so cold winter air doesn't sneak in. Checking for leaks is as simple as holding a lit candle near door and window fittings. The flickering flame is a tell-tale sign that cold winter air will creep in. Steel insulated doors are best to keep old man winter at bay, but for a quick fix, try blocking small leaks with caulk or spray foam insulation.

Insulation

The insulation in your attic should be a minimum of R-38. Unfaced fiberglass insulation can be added on top of your current insulation. Make sure there is no paper backing on it, as this will help keep your home warmer in winter and cooler in summer. Not to mention lowering your energy bill.

An insulation blanket around and on top of your hot water heater, will also add to energy savings. If you have a recirculating pump, consider installing a timer so that your warm water is in the faucet right away, rather than running the water waiting for it to get hot. You can also set the timer to work during the hours you are normally using the most water. This will prevent the water from recirculating during your off peak hours and waste energy.

It is also helpful to visually inspect your furnace duct work, then wrap it with insulation. Duct work residing in colder places such as the basement or attic result in cooler heating temperatures. Insulation will help maintain those ambient air temperatures as the air travels through the ducts.

Heating

Don't forget to replace the filters on your furnace once a month and have it inspected by a professional before the winter season starts. Regular service of your furnace leads to optimal performance. Keep the furnace clear of clutter and debris and lubricate the motor as needed.

A programmable thermostat can significantly reduce your energy bill during the cold winter months. These devices will lower the heating temperature during the hours that you're at work, then move to a slightly higher temperature before you get home. After all, if no one is home why have the house nice and toasty? Recent studies indicate you can save up to $200 on your energy bill in just one winter by installing a programmable thermostat. In our opinion, this is a must for every home.

Thinking ahead about winterizing your home before the cold winter winds blow, not only makes good sense, but can lead to much needed savings in your energy budget.

Gas Versus Diesel Generator

noreply@blogger.com (The Ultimate) — Wed, 14 Sep 2011 16:33:00 +0000

When a generator is required many people choose a diesel generator over a gas one. There are several reasons for this. Firstly the diesel generator naturally uses diesel fuel which is much cheaper to buy than petrol, so they are saving on the cost of running the generator. Diesel fuel is also easy to access, being available almost worldwide, so no matter where you live you should find no problems in accessing the fuel.

Many people have to store quantities of fuel on site or somewhere nearby since they cannot be running into town every few days. They may live in remote areas where access is difficult or be cut off by snow or flood. Diesel storage is much safer since diesel almost never explodes. It does not release a significant amount of inflammable vapour, so it is safer to store and use than gas.

Diesel generators, while significantly more expensive to start with, are going to last a great deal longer than other types of generators due to the heavy quality of the parts. They are ideal for situations where extreme weather is experienced for this reason. And don't forget that the cheaper running costs will help to recover the cost of purchase.
They take minimal maintenance which is another big benefit in their favour. No one wants to be forever pulling down a generator to see why it is not working. When it comes to generators that provide power you need reliability above everything else and that is what you can expect with a diesel generator.

The quality of the parts and the size may mean that the diesel generator is very heavy to transport, to load and unload. Thus special arrangements may need to be made to ensure that the heavy lifting can be managed more easily. Most construction or industrial sites would not find this a difficult chore as they would be equipped with men and machines to take care of heavy lifting. If the generator is for private use then special arrangements may be needed.

If service or parts are needed, it is such a common type of generator that nearly every mechanic will be able to fix it easily and in addition there is no trouble in accessing parts. You would not have to wait for parts to come in from another country, for instance, as you may with certain car brands.

Diesel generators are extremely versatile as they can be used for both mechanical energy and electrical output. You can therefore get diesel generators that suit more than one need, thus saving costs.

There are a few disadvantages in diesel generators which may or may not be a bother. They are noisier than their petrol counterparts, but this may not worry those in remote locations, or in applications where it is installed away from the neighbours. More modern diesel generators are not quite as noisy as the older models. Pollution may worry some people as under light loads the generators may develop what is known as 'wet stacking' during which time they emit more smoke.

Heat Balance Diagram

noreply@blogger.com (The Ultimate) — Wed, 14 Sep 2011 16:32:00 +0000

What is Heat Balance Diagram?

Heat Balance Diagram or HBD for Thermal Power Station is the basically schematic representation of the whole steam cycle from Boiler to High Pressure (HP) Turbines Intermediate Pressure (IP) Turbines and Low Pressure (LP) Turbines to condenser to pumps to re-heaters and again to boiler.

This diagram also contains some information of steam properties like Pressure Temperature, enthalpy and mass of the steam at every junction of the line.

What Information the HBD has?

As mentioned above, Heat Balance Diagram or HBD has the heat equation at points before and after every component. Considering the first point after the boiler, knowing the steam properties, pressure and temperatures, other properties like enthalpy of the steam can also be determined. Knowing the efficiencies and considerations like pressure drop across the control valves, these properties along the cycle can be determined, thus the heat rate of the system. With help of heat rate, the mass of steam required can be determined.

Why it is Important?

Heat Balance Diagram is generally one of the first produced diagrams and part of Process Control Diagrams(PCDs), by an engineering wing or consultancy while working on the specifications of the project (power plant). HBD helps to engineer the plant by way of providing the steam properties at different point across the steam cycle, thus providing vital information, helpful to design the whole system and supporting systems. In a way this diagram is critical to finalize the specifications of different components before initiating the bidding procedures by the consultants, especially working on EPC assignments.

HBD, in fact also helps in estimating the cost of the plant as well as it provides the heat rate, operational cost can also be estimated. Knowing the both costs, it is easier to decide on refining the specifications of components (comparing initial investments as well as the operational costs), before bidding process, as mentioned above.

Usually there has been no ways for the project owner to comment on the consultants decision about the specifications. Mostly it has to be dependent on individual discretion and experience and expertise. However, recently some software solutions have come to provide support to engineers, which can simulate the Heat Balance Diagram for engineers to understand the process in a better way and not only to comment over the design provided by consultants, but also provide an opportunity to increase the operating efficiencies, resulting into significant saving in operational costs.

Some of such commercial software which are based on Rankine cycle are "Simple Heat Balance", Thermoflow, FCycle (All from different vendors) are now available which are quite accurate and affordable.

What is The Difference Academic And Corporate Programming ?

noreply@blogger.com (The Ultimate) — Sun, 11 Sep 2011 03:51:00 +0000

When getting all the difficult programming assignments from school it is very reasonable to start wondering if coding for a company that you are going to work for one day is just as difficult.

This is because most school programming assignments in College and University expect you to code everything from scratch, while at the same time solving a usually difficult problem that requires some thought. However, working in a company you will focus mostly on software releases of a product that has been out for some time and that the company will not even think about wasting time writing it from scratch.

Academic Programming:

One has to understand that for corporate programming you will be mostly looking at solving problems that representative of client needs. In school assignments however, you are given problem presented by very intellectual professors that have been researching complex problems in both computer science and engineering for years.

Now based on those two differences one should be able to see how the nature of the coding will be different. You are meant to practice the different concepts taught to you by actually going ahead and coding these concepts in the form of very hard problems. In more advanced years you will actually be coding whole operating systems and computer architectures yourself, which is a very complex and redundant task to do in the corporate world. So you can see how academic programming is mostly designed to help you exercise the concepts given to you in your textbooks that are often very difficult to figure out.

Corporate Programming:

Now to understand the programming that you will do for a company you have to understand their client needs. Everything that you will be coding will be based on that almost completely. You will be solving the problems that clients present to you and then implementing them in your code in the form of enhancements and defects. The planning phases involved with corporate programming focus on increasing the stability of the software product through rigorous testing as well.

Testing is something that you will barely touch in school but in the industry it will have to be done by you at almost every step of a software release. There is daily, weekly and monthly testing that products go through that are designated to either permanent testers on the team or developers that have to do some of their own testing on the code they work on.

So I hope you saw the main differences between academic and corporate programming. So now when you make the transition from school to work you will see how these differences will affect the way you thought about programming and will either interest you more so or detract you since one is based on academic inquiry and the other on client needs.

Network Security From IT Industry's Jobs

noreply@blogger.com (The Ultimate) — Sun, 11 Sep 2011 03:50:00 +0000

Lacking creativity but loaded with technical intelligence? Network security is a great career to try out in the IT industry.

This field involves securing the information uploaded by various institutions online using authentication processes, firewalls and encryption so that the attacks of potential viruses and hackers can be curtailed. Network security is gaining prominence as greater reliance is placed on the internet. In all spheres of life there is always some level of computer dependency and with the rise of harmful viruses and spiteful hackers, it is necessary to maintain utmost security.

Reality 101

This field demands a great deal of technological insight as network police have to keep themselves updated with all the latest forms of viruses so that they can formulate accurate and effective defense mechanisms. As a network security analyst, you will be expected to create the entire defensive framework of various websites and online data bases using all your computing knowledge.

The first step in network security is authentication and this is achieved in two main levels:

One Factor Authentication - This involves the use of a username and password to distinguish between visitors and protect the site from unauthorized users. This is a popular form of authentication which you must undoubtedly be familiar with.
Two Factor Authentication - For this you require a security token like an ATM card or a mobile phone to further support your entry. Network security analysts are thus expected to provide the framework that allows this process to further strengthen the security of the site.

Security analysts must also make use of firewalls which ensure that each user is able to see only the data he is authorized to see. This provides additional security to the information on the site. However, firewalls do not give adequate protection against worms or Trojan viruses and so anti-virus software is needed to protect against attacks. Security analysts will also be expected to create anomaly-based intrusion detection systems which will be able to notify the administrator in the event of suspicious behavior to further protect the information. Encryption must also be used to ensure conversations between users remain private and to avoid information loss.

Essentially, a good network security analyst makes use of a wide variety of security measures to protect data. However, this is not a one-time job; security analysts have to constantly monitor the security of their sites and take immediate action whenever the security is compromised. By analyzing previous attacks, they can formulate advanced security frameworks that can effectively deal with future attacks.

This is definitely a crucial occupation within the IT industry that facilitates the basic success of all other sectors. Without a security analyst, private information could be leaked or stolen and the internet would no longer be the useful platform that it is. That being said, there are difficulties as the blame for a compromised web site ultimately falls on the head of the security analyst who has created the defense framework.

As a career, network security is perfect for individuals who are extremely familiar with protocols like transmission control protocol, and internet protocol (TCP/IP). TCP and IP are the basic means for communication between computers and thus to create a security system, one must appreciate them. By fully understanding these protocols one will be able to detect any irregularities on sites and thus fix them efficiently.

Thus there is a heavy workload upon a network security analyst but it is definitely a rewarding career that will expand your technological skills.

The Inside Scoop

Here is a look at the concepts a future network security analyst must know:

Understanding of Basic Protocols - As mentioned before, protocols are the foundation of relations in the online world and hence to be a good network security analyst you will have to be extremely comfortable in understanding these protocols.
Understanding of Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) - IDS are present in all secure websites and so a good security analyst will have experience in checking the packets logged in by the IDS to monitor site activity and avoid hackers and viruses. More often than not the IDS will log false attacks but you will never know if they really are false unless you check them. For this you need to be well-versed in the understanding of IDS.
Firewalls and Routers - Firewalls ensure that data is not easily available to everyone and routers manage traffic. The two are extremely important for the successful working of any website and so a security analyst must be able to use them efficiently to provide the highest degree of protection. This involves a great deal of practical application as the settings have to be tweaked to suit the particular site. Setting up routers is a somewhat confusing process but as a security analyst you will be expected to be able to do this with ease.
Reading of Code and Programming - By being knowledgeable in programming and in reading code you will be able to analyze intrusion attempts better.
Ethical Hacking - A security analyst can also use hacking skills to identify weak areas in a site and thus tweak the security framework. This process is extremely effective as it allows you to detect weaknesses before they are found and misused by spiteful hackers.

Besides the knowledge of these concepts, you should also have the following attributes:

Patience - Network security demands continuous attention and you will have to check through numerous security reports as well as monitor the daily functioning of the site under your authority and this demands a great deal of patience.
Adaptability - The sites you work on will all have different security demands. For instance, a government site will need extremely strong protection while a site advertising a product will need a bare minimum. You should be familiar with all levels of network security.
Quick Thinking - You need to be able to solve problems as fast as possible as delays can lead to detrimental losses of important information which must be avoided at all costs. Any threat to the system must be instantaneously detected and deflected.

Sweet Sensations

You don't need a cape or a superpower to save the world anymore! Instead, you can just become a network security analyst and prevent the 'bad guys' of the world from getting their hands on valuable information, even if it is just product details or opinions on the latest Apple product! Being a security analyst gives you a great deal of power as you alone are responsible for protecting the integrity of important information; this is a great title to have!

Being a part of the network police is a really cool job to talk about as your role is similar to that of a policeman, only better! You can work from the comfort of your home while still doing the world a great service by protecting its vital information!

Plus, the other guys at your workplace will undoubtedly treat you like a God as you alone hold in your hands the power to protect their information! There is thus no greater status than that of a network security analyst!

As a security analyst you will always be in demand and that kind of attention can only do wonders for your ego! Yes, you don't need a fancy car to have all eyes on you, you can just hold the key to the defense framework of some of the world's most important websites and your life will be made!

Hurdles and Challenges

The demands that are placed upon a network security analyst are enormous. You will be assaulted by numerous security violations and glitches that you alone will have to sort out every so often. And if anything goes wrong, you alone will be blamed for everything and you will have to fix each problem and account for data loss.

Moreover, the industry is cruel when it comes to working hours and your constant attention is required to maintain the security of the sites under your control. This is no nine-to-five job, it's a twenty four-hour commitment to protecting information and you will often have to update the security framework you spend weeks creating to keep up with the changing threats.

Fruits of Labor

Primary

The average salary paid to network security analysts is around $73,000 per year. As with all other professions in the IT industry, the number increases with experience and so perseverance in the field can get you a salary between $80,000 and $90,000.

The firm you work for also determines the salary: while government jobs pay around $78,000 a year, senior analysts in corporate firms can earn up to $97,000.

Studies have shown that the salaries in this field are increasing as time goes by and so this is a promising and rewarding career to look into.

Secondary

Naturally this career comes with several perks which make it a good field to go into. Your services can be looked upon as a great contribution to the overall security of the online world and you will have considerable access to information that many would kill to know! Moreover, your value will never be doubted so if you're good at what you do, things can only get better!

By working a network security you are also setting yourself up for an extremely steady career as there is sure to be a continuous demand for security analysts as the world makes increasing use of the internet. As time goes by, there will only be a proliferation of spiteful hackers and your existence is thus essential to the survival of the world!

Becoming a security analyst is a fulfilling career choice that is sure to keep you on your toes and to broaden your knowledge of the technological world. If you work well, you stand to gain immensely.

Essential Tools

From Home

Practice, practice and more practice should be the dictum you live by! You can't expect to be paid millions the minute you enter the industry so it's worth spending time learning the ropes of coding, programming and intrusion detection so that you can advance through all the low-paying levels and get into the real money-making position!

Experience increases your pay check and so you should spend a great deal of time learning security techniques and making yourself aware of all the latest security threats. Take control of several small-scale websites at first to get a feel of what is expected and then progress to more complex ones so that you are well-versed in what you will need to do once you get employed.

From School

Look for degrees that offer practical exposure as well as regular lectures so that you get a chance to practice what you learn. Certification is essential in this career as it demands many skills which are difficult to acquire on your own. Moreover, firms prefer well-qualified employees and degrees will open up your mind and allow you to best appreciate threats and formulate effective ways to combat them.

You can take up a Masters degree in security information or do courses in security management which are readily available at most well-known universities.

You could also check out the International Information Systems Security Certification Consortium which provides the following qualifications: Certified Information Systems Security Professional (CISSP), Certification and Accreditation Professional (CAP) and Systems Security Certified Practitioner (SSCP). These certifications are recognized worldwide for providing a comprehensive learning experience that will be extremely valuable for a future career in the field of network security.

Another important association to take note of is the Information Systems Audit and Control Association which also provides good courses to take.

At the Job

While working you should make yourself familiar with the numerous sites online and try to analyze the security systems they have used. Practice makes perfect so make sure you really get involved and contribute greatly to whatever assignment you have been given.

This isn't a career where you can sit back and relax once you've done your work; by constantly checking the sites under your control you will be able to keep yourself updated on any new threats and by designing protection to keep up with changing threats you will evolve as a security analyst and become better at what you do.

To Conclude

Network policing is a vital feature of the internet that prevents untoward incidents. It is thus a promising career choice for those with technological acumen and dedication to the cause of preventing information loss. Understandably, this is no easy job: it demands a great deal of concentration and focus and you have to be able to change rapidly to meet the new demands. Each day brings forth new threats that need to be dealt with and thus network security is a crucial department in all firms that have online websites. Thus, finding a job in this field is no problem if you are good at what you do and maintain an undying interest in learning the tricks of the trade.

Did You Know About Computer Forensics ?

noreply@blogger.com (The Ultimate) — Sun, 11 Sep 2011 03:47:00 +0000

In recent years, there have been a record number of computer security related crimes than ever before. The more that digital technology advances, the more chances that computer criminals will take advantage and find new ways of stealing and destroying data. That is why the growing interest in computer forensics training is becoming a sought after field for those wanting a high paid and stable forensics career.

If you want to pursue a computer forensics education, there are many forensics classes you will need to complete to get your forensics degree. The basis of your forensics classes will be to become a forensics specialist who can solve computer crimes successfully.

Another aspect of your forensics training will be to find and recover lost or stolen computer systems information, as well as making it safe against future computer criminals. Going to forensics school will also entail becoming trained to analyze other electronic devices besides computers, such as cell phones, iPads, iPhones and other new technological devices that connect to the internet. As a result, you can imagine that there are many in-demand forensics colleges and forensics classes that will help you to get your forensics degree. Believe it or not, you can receive a forensics degree as soon as two years from now.

However, keep in mind that the highest salaried forensics jobs will be from those forensics colleges that offer a four-year degree in the specialized area. Some of the training you will receive when attending a forensics school, will be the basics of computer forensics, as well as much more focused education on computer file recovery, how criminals hide data, administrative procedures when dealing with related court cases.

You will also become an expert in computer forensics software programs used in the profession. If you are someone who enjoys computer work on a full time basis and you also find working with the law interesting, the field of computer forensics will be very rewarding for you. If you also have a degree of skill working with computer software and programs, you will very likely enjoy the computer forensics training you receive.

This is a field that will never be short of jobs because of the continued advancements in computers and digital technology. This, like the healthcare field, is a career you can feel secure about pursuing as it will always be in demand as long as there are computers and people who use them!

Once you are armed with a forensics degree, you'll be amazed at the job opportunities that will open up to you in the government as well as the numerous businesses that are seeking a computer forensics specialist with the degree you have obtained. If you'd like to learn more about obtaining a computer forensics education, such as salaries and jobs available, visit: ForensicsFacts.com

image source: eve1070.com

Charger With World's Most Unique Forms

noreply@blogger.com (The Ultimate) — Sun, 04 Sep 2011 13:18:00 +0000

Of course we all know if the charger is a gadget used to recharge that is a battery, and of course the shape we know enough, but some chargers made with a unique and sometimes of them have a very odd shape, such as chargers we are following.

The Best Gadget in The World on 2011

noreply@blogger.com (The Ultimate) — Sun, 04 Sep 2011 12:57:00 +0000

1. Alienware M11x

With prices starting from just $ 799, is one of the gadgets in 2010 which should not to miss! This really is an ultra-portable, weighing less than 5 pounds and 11-inch screen. It uses the latest Intel processors from the line of low voltage processors. The main feature of this laptop though is the twin graphics cards, one of which is a low power chip that gives you almost 6 hours of computing and the other, GeForce 335M is for the game. And this one certainly could play the title above with high details as it runs COD - Modern Warfare 2 on exceptional frame rates (with highest details).

2. Xbox Christmas

Now known as Kinect, as a Christmas project before E3 this year. This device is for the Xbox360 is set to begin in November this year. Almost no one game and did not know about Christmas, unless she has been living under a rock. Sony and Nintendo reveal the same peripherals for the first time at E3 this year too, but Kinect looks way more cooler. It is currently available for pre-order on various sites for $ 150.

3. Mitsubishi 82-inch 3-D Readrt DLP TV

3D has taken the world by storm, as seen and deserves the number one gadget of 2011 is a 82-inch 3D TVs from Mitsubishi Digital Electronics America. Costing about $ 4499 when released.

4. 3M’s M2256PW – The Ten Finger Touch Screen

Although not intended for home use (atleast judging from the price of $ 1500), the beauty of multi-touch will certainly facilitate the work of your office. This 22-inch monitors can detect upto 20 simultaneous input through the screen. No release date is set up now though.

5. Skiff Reader – The Electric Newspaper

It is estimated that this gadget is probably one of the "newspaper" in the top 10 markets by the end of 2010. This e-book reader said to be one of the thinnest around the reader, though quite large, but that's what makes it compatible with newspaper journalism.

6. 4G Phones

Set to be released in 2010, this device really going to set fire 4g wireless world. With a data transfer rate 100 Mbps which can also reach upto 1 gigabit per second when static, downloading DVD movies will only work half a minute.

7. EnTourage eDGe

It slashes the tablet PC e-book reader devices running Google Android 1.6 and the world's first dualbook; one screen is touch sensitive e-ink, while others are full-color LCD touch screen. In addition to boasting access to e-books, he also will allow for most of the functionality of notebook computers, such as a USB data transfer and normal web surfing. This gadget is a bit absurd price of $ 499.

8. WD TV Live Plus HD Media Player

A device from Western Digital that enables you to watch movies, listen to music and view images on the big screen TV, all from the USB drive. This baby can play almost any format you can throw at it. The latest model also allows you to connect to the internet and stream live content from many sites such as Youtube, Flickr, Live365, or even from your own home network. Streaming over Wi-Fi is also possible with this model. In addition, this model also supports streaming from Netflix, and it's also in HD. Whoa!

9. Panasonic 3D Camcorder AG-3DA1

This is the world's first fully integrated professional HD camcorder. Equipped with dual lenses and 2 full 1920 × 1080 2.07 megapixel imagers, can record anything from 24p to 1080/60i. The price, well, $ 21,000. It is scheduled to release for the autumn.

10. Polk HitMaster Gaming Audio System

Sing-along games like Guitar Hero and Rock Band is very popular among the masses and you will not do justice to them by playing on the loudspeaker system of old age. This is why Polk makes this high-end audio speakers and amplifier system provides the proper way to play and can be conveniently plugged into any gaming system. This gadget from Polk threw issued 80 watts strong neat sound awesome.

Resistance Band and Cardio Routine Can Make Effective Workout

noreply@blogger.com (The Ultimate) — Thu, 01 Sep 2011 01:21:00 +0000

We all know how cardio routines can help you lose weight. But which of them do the best job and give you the fastest results? Exercising with resistance bands can be a challenging and very effective workout, ideal for both weight loss and muscle building.

Although there are no hard rules about which workout is more effective, since a lot depends on what you actually like doing, there are some workouts that tend to be more effective than others simply because they are generally more intense. It is these workouts that I want to share with you in this article. So, if you’re looking for fast and effective results, check these workouts out:

1. Jumping rope

The truth is that jumping rope is a super-effective and time efficient way to get a cardiovascular workout and burn off body fat.

2. Stair climbing

If you think about climbing stairs as a sport and not an obligation, you will find that it is one of the best workouts you can do. It is a high intensity workout that requires real effort and burns a lot of calories quickly.

3. Kickboxing classes

Kickboxing, if done intensely, works your entire body from head to toe and burns a lot of calories.

4. Rowing

I love this workout because it’s intense and works the upper body.

5. Running

Need I say more? We all know how to run but most of us don’t appreciate how incredibly effective it can be.

For these cardio routines you can buy best running shoes online and hit the payement or the grass instead. Concentrating on your form, including the speed and range of movement will help you get the best results in the shortest amount of time. Selecting the appropriate band for each exercise will become second nature as you gain experience in working out with resistance bands.

Some of the exercises that you can do with resistance bands are curls, triceps extensions, rowing, bench press type movements, shoulder exercises such as presses, squats with added resistance, etc. I even found that I was able to work my abs by locking a resistance band in the door and doing a swinging-the-axe type movement. The sky is really the limit when it comes to different exercise band exercises that you can do.

About Handphone in Japan

noreply@blogger.com (The Ultimate) — Thu, 25 Aug 2011 17:35:00 +0000

Nowadays mobile phones are no longer considered a luxury but a requirement of goods that are considered mandatory to have. Japan which incidentally is the developed countries, the ownership rate is very high HP (Hand Phone) could even say almost everyone has it. There are enough interesting things to say about HP in the country, you might not know and could learn more in the article below.

Not OTC

Very different to the situation in Indonesia where Hp purchased freely, without any requirement and also without any age restrictions. But if we have money anyone can buy it and sell it when it's not needed. But in Japan, apply very different rules. All of HP in the country should not be sold freely within the meaning can only be purchased at an authorized agent as well as to have required a number of specific requirements, fill out some forms, bank book and not miss the identity card such as SIM card or other ID. Likewise, the Sim card or voucher card her, generally sold in a package along with Hp it or not sold separately.

Most are Post Paid

Then from the payment system, most of Hp in the country are using the postpaid so similar to a home telephone, the bill is calculated according to the final purchase amount of pulses used. Whether in Japan does not recognize a prepaid system or vouchers? Of course there is, but the system is less popular in the country. Besides, not much different from buying Hp, vouchers are also not sold its interest-free and almost equal terms with post-paid vouchers. Generally, vouchers and cards hp engine sold in a package or in other words, not sold separately, except when they want to replace the HP model.

Otherwise there is a very special, it looks like almost no Japanese people who are interested in Hp such vouchers. This also means an agent or store which sells vouchers Hp hardly common in the country.

No Free Substitute for the Card

In Japan to buy Hand phone identical by choosing the provider. Provider is the name of the company operating the telephone network operator Hp such as Indosat, Satelindo Telkomsel or if in Indonesia. Unlike the case in Indonesia which has many operators and a variety of its Sim card products, in Japan the condition is much simpler because there are only 3 companies Sim card provider as well as 3 course that is, NTT DoCoMo, KDDI and Softbank AU.

If it is assumed if the provider is a kind of SIM card, then the most important steps when you first buy Hp in Japan is choosing vouching card. Once we have chosen to use the card then we are most likely beyond using the card (read: providers) are the same. Why? Because the provider does not serve only as a selling agent limited to cards, but also serves as a place to sell Hp itself (read: Hp and sim cards sold one package) and one unique card provider to another provider can not be exchanged. DoCoMo Sim card for example, HP is also need to DoCoMo and can only be purchased at DoCoMo's official counter, as well as with other providers. Of course the system is a little confusing because we generally know about the sim card is replaced free and installed on another HP. All Hp marketed in Japan, by the provider is sold in a locked position so practical can only use SIM Card from the same provider. Replacement sim card slot on the HP in Japan is located slightly recessed and not very easy to install removable, because it is designed not to mutually exchange the card. Besides, since most of use postpaid then generally from the first Hp Hp purchased until the turn of the next due to damage or change the model, the card voucher will continue to stick in place. Then if we dare try to install the card belongs to another provider then the signal will not be readable at all even on a particular HP model can only be limited to on / off alone without being able to go into any menu.

Brand is the Last Option.

There are various brands of can be selected such as Sharp, Panasonic, Toshiba, NEC, Samsung, Nokia, Casio and Kyocera etc.. Each provider generally has its own design and HP models are not found on any other provider. One thing interesting is some of the popular brands like Hp Balckberry example even less popular in the country. One reason may be because Blacbery considered to be less compact due to the relatively large size and has lots of buttons which are relatively rare lettered alphabet they use.

So from a little explanation on the reader might be able to get a picture of HP systems in Japan that is only recognized three voucher card (sim card) and 3 types of machines namely Hp DoCoMo, Softbank and AU. So the standard questions like "Do you wear Hp what?" then the answer is certainly not the HP brand, but one of the 3 provider name earlier.

Tied Sales Contract

As is well known that Hp in Japan has not been easy because it requires a lot of rules and requirements. In addition to filling a number of forms, bank accounts and insurers also have other additional rules are required to sign a contract for a certain time which is usually a minimum of two years.
Why should be bound by the contract? Of course since the providers do not want to lose. They usually sell hp with low price (subsidy) but takes advantage of the monthly toll paid by the customer. Party providers will suffer losses if the customer stops in the middle of the road. So this is the purpose of the rules of the contract. Contract and form filling only applies once the time to buy (subscription) mob first. As for when buying the next Hp due to damage or replace the new model, the contract is not required anymore but just enough to write a simple form. What happens if if the user stops subscribing before the contract runs out? Of course there are a number of penalties we pay. What if not stopped in the middle of the road without a report? Of course this is foolish as it is used telephone or not, your bank account will still be deducted each month by the provider. At first glance looks complicated and expensive, but this system also has a number of advantages of one of them is to narrow the space for criminals because all numbers can be traced ownership Hp. Hp theft also become very common because almost unusable. And another advantage is the price of HP being cheap, the price can be paid in installments or even to a particular type can be obtained almost for free.

Mail and SMS

Hp in Japan knows two ways to send short messages ie SMS and Mail. From both methods, the Mail seems far more popular. This is because the SMS messages have a limitation which can only be used between users the same provider. So all of HP in Japan, in addition to having a telephone number also must have a mail address. In other words, even though we know the numbers Hp someone, without knowing the address of the mail message will not be sent. How to send and receipt the same as regular SMS, the difference is just numbers Hp as the address, mail address is replaced with. This system has shortcomings as well have an edge. With this mail system, messages can be sent not just limited to letters and numbers only. His name also mail, means we can also add a message with a variety of symbols, emotion or image. In addition, short messages can be sent or received is not limited by Hp alone, but can also via telephone or personal computer. Even when you are abroad though, as long as there is the Internet network, the message can be sent quickly and cheaply. Mail on Hp can be recognized easily because they always have the last name of one of the three existing providers. Examples: for users zzzzzz@docomo.ne.jp providers DoCoMo and Softbank xxxxx@softbank.ne.jp for providers and so on. Mail address can also be replaced or modified at any time if deemed necessary as to avoid spam messages for example. Because all HP can also be used to access the internet then the mail can also be sent by way of such standards through yahoo for example. But this way is of course a little more expensive because it must connect to the internet first.
Hand Phone Cheap and Free! This is probably part of an exciting and awaited by many readers. As in almost all other developed countries, the price of an HP is usually pretty cheap indeed, they often can be obtained free of charge. Of course this rule applies only to HP models only who are usually older models. But although the old model, not at all be called old and cheap, because at least still small and thin and at least have a camera facility, video, and can be used for internet connection. Hp latest models with various facilities such as TV, games, touch screen, internet and various other latest facilities of course expensive. However, as expensive as the high prices of electronic goods in Japan is still counted cheap because it is "subsidized" by the provider and pembayaraanya also relatively easy because it can be gradually and charged at each end of the month bills. For free Hp mentioned above, often leading to misunderstanding of some of my colleagues because we assume can be taken for granted. Once again, HP in Japan with Telphone house so without subscribing or registering a free Hp certainly will not be able to take home for granted. So a helmet similar to the case for free if you buy a motorcycle.

Hand Phone and Pulse in Japan

Generally the price of an HP in the country, especially to new models more or less equal to the price in Indonesia. Then for the pulse rates that averaged probably about 10 yen (USD 1,000) per 30 seconds .. Average Japanese person, for standard usage (the extent necessary) will generally pay about 5000 yen (USD 500,000) per month. But if Hp stuck in ears day and night, yes of course 500 thousand dollars will run out in just a few days.
Since most HP in the country is post-pay calculations pulse becomes less complicated and varied. Toll to be paid by different groups such as students with a general class of pulses. Likewise for beginners different customers with old customers. Someone who faithfully use the same provider for long periods of time will usually get the pulse of special rates with discount up to 30%. Then there jugaprovider which applies to 24-hour toll-free telephone between families, disount at certain hours, free sms, etc. between the same provider. While the pulse on a prepaid card is the same so do not know the difference or exception.
Most Japanese people will remain loyal to one provider. Moving the provider would mean starting again from scratch, is considered a new customer it means more expensive pulse rates and can not take advantage of other facilities like those of old customers in the place before.

HP Japan Can Used in Indonesia? (and vice versa) HP Japan in Indonesia ?

This is the most interesting and most frequently asked questions. If Hp is Hp special in the sense of the initial purchase to use International, used in Indonesia but the bills are paid in Japan, obviously there is no problem at all sema. Of course we do not discuss this type of HP, but HP standard (in terms of Hp Japan) with Indonesia cards.
In general, the answer can not, this is because all the Hp which is marketed in Japan is in a state in the "Lock" or locked by the provider can only be practically used in Japan alone. But wait, the answer above is the standard answer. Stay left on akhlinya then presto, things are almost as litter in our state, it can function normally like other Hp. Unlock prices of services it is approximately 400an thousand dollars by one mob. Regarding the place or unlock services, please check yourself in at the engine google. But that little note is not all hp can be unlocked to be limited only to certain models only.

AntiLaser, Future Computer Technology

noreply@blogger.com (The Ultimate) — Tue, 23 Aug 2011 18:10:00 +0000

Laser technology, 'obsolete' 50-year-old is now plural is used in a variety of devices, ranging from CDs to the pointer used for presentations. Now, the technology is facing his opponent, namely Antilaser.

Antilaser device will be able to catch and cancel the laser beam is emitted.

Though such devices might be only suitable for science fiction films, but in the real world, the most possible use of technology antilaser is in the computer world, especially optical drives.

"Looking ahead, the workings of this device is like a laser emitting in reverse," said Stone, as quoted from Phbeta, July 30, 2011.

Although lasers require electrical energy and emit light in a fairly narrow frequency band, Antilaser created to take the laser beam and transforming them into heat energy. However, this energy can also be converted into electrical energy.

Conventional lasers, which was discovered in 1960, using the so-called 'medium gain' such as the semiconductor material to create a focused beam of light waves.

The researchers created a device that uses silicon as the absorber 'media loss' which captures light waves that would make it bounced until they are converted into heat.

And although the technology found researchers looked interesting, Antilaser they make are not intended as a protective laser. This is a way to absorb the laser. In contrast to a laser gun that if he used to kill, the laser beam will still kill the target.

According to the researchers, the most likely to use its technology is in the computer field. High performance computers of the future will have a hybrid chip. Instead of having chips with transistors and silicon, future computers will use electrical energy and light, "according to the researchers.

They said the device with Antilaser can also be used as an optical switch that can be lit on and off whenever desired.

False Bionic Leg Better than Regular Leg

noreply@blogger.com (The Ultimate) — Tue, 23 Aug 2011 17:58:00 +0000

A new artificial leg developed at Vanderbilt University and allow patients to walk without amputation characteristics of conventional artificial foot.

This device uses the latest advances in computers, sensors, electric motors and battery technology to provide bionic abilities: that of simultaneously operating the knee and ankle joints with motion sensors that monitor users.

The new leg has a microprocessor that is programmed using the data to predict what is attempted by the user and the device operates in a manner that facilitates these movements.

"The device we describe our progress in integrating human and machine," said Michael Goldfarb, professor of mechanical engineering from Vanderbilt, as quoted by Science Daily, August 23, 2011.

Vanderbilt prosthesis designed for everyday life. This makes it substantially easier for patients with amputation for walking, sitting, standing, and walking up and down stairs and ramps in place.

Research has shown that users are equipped with these devices naturally runs 25 percent faster on the surface of the storied than when they use ordinary prosthesis. That's because they need energy from 30 to 40 percent lower.

How do trials? Craig Hutto, who amputated the patient says, when working, new-tech prosthetic limbs is entirely different from the artificial leg he used.

"Walking up and down the slopes is one of the hardest things to do with conventional leg, but it will not be a problem with the new leg is due to go up and down the slopes almost as easy as using a natural foot," said Hutto.

One of the new capabilities presented by the engineers on this bionic leg is anti-tripping. If it detects that the user's feet will stumble, it would automatically lift his leg to avoid the obstacles that exist.

If it detects the user will stumble, he will automatically avoid obstacles.

Keep Your Security And The Family In The Digital World

noreply@blogger.com (The Ultimate) — Mon, 08 Aug 2011 06:54:00 +0000

Help children learn the basics of digital security

Technology makes it so easy, so that children can connect with friends and family wherever they are. But these connections can lead to enormous costs if the kids are not careful. Learning to protect the personally identifiable information, creating strong passwords, and be careful when downloading programs and files that are important for safety and security of children using digital devices, as well as information storing device. Otherwise, children may expose themselves and their families for digital threats such as computer viruses, data and identity theft, and hacking.

What is a Digital Safety?

To understand the safety and security of digital, you will need to learn some new words: phishing, malware, spyware, spam, and yes, even trash. These programs are easily slipped into the favorite software, for example, downloading a game that looks really cool - and then wreak havoc when installed on your computer. Security programs can block them, but one of the most important weapon is to teach children to understand that the information itself is something to be cherished.

Why?

If children do not protect their personal information, there are many potential risks: damage to hardware, identity theft or financial loss. But children may not realize that they put their information in jeopardy, because the warning signs are not always clear.

A friend might ask your child's computer password to play the game, and then access your child's personal email account. Or your child may be using a file-sharing programs that pass viruses to your computer. To participate in online contests, your tween may be asked to provide personal identifiable information such as home phone number, address, date of birth, or Social Security number, all of which are open to family risk of identity theft. Just like in real life, children should know who to trust with information. It is as true in the digital world is the real world.

Tips for all children

Mastering the art of creating a password. It can actually be fun to develop a password that is really good. Strong passwords is a key defense against unauthorized access to your information, as well as identify theft.

Knowing the difference between the value of information sharing and personal information. There are many ways you can share ideas and creativity online, but personal information remains private. Do not include personal identifying information such as phone number, address, or date of birth to download something. And never give your Social Security number or credit card information.

Be careful of what you download. Be careful downloading free games or video to your computer. These programs often come with spyware and viruses that will land in stores on your computer.

Tips for making the perfect password

Protect yourself - and your stuff - with a strong password that protects your digital data.

Use these tips to help you do it:

Do not use passwords that are easy to guess - like your nickname or the name of your pet. People who know you well can guess this kind of password.
Do not use personal identifying information in your password. Identity thieves can use this information to pretend to be you.
Do not use a word in the dictionary as a password. Hackers use programs that will try every word in the dictionary to guess passwords.
Use a combination of letters, numbers, and symbols. It is harder to guess than ordinary words because there are more combinations to try.

image source: brighthub.com

Microelectromechanical Systems

noreply@blogger.com (The Ultimate) — Sat, 06 Aug 2011 16:02:00 +0000

Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) (also written as micro-electro-mechanical, MicroElectroMechanical or microelectronic and microelectromechanical systems) is the technology of very small mechanical devices driven by electricity, it merges at the nano-scale into nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) and nanotechnology. MEMS are also referred to as micromachines (in Japan), or micro systems technology – MST (in Europe).

MEMS are separate and distinct from the hypothetical vision of molecular nanotechnology or molecular electronics. MEMS are made up of components between 1 to 100 micrometres in size (i.e. 0.001 to 0.1 mm) and MEMS devices generally range in size from 20 micrometres (20 millionths of a metre) to a millimetre. They usually consist of a central unit that processes data, the microprocessor and several components that interact with the outside such as microsensors. At these size scales, the standard constructs of classical physics are not always useful. Because of the large surface area to volume ratio of MEMS, surface effects such as electrostatics and wetting dominate volume effects such as inertia or thermal mass.

The potential of very small machines was appreciated before the technology existed that could make them—see, for example, Richard Feynman's famous 1959 lecture There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom. MEMS became practical once they could be fabricated using modified semiconductor device fabrication technologies, normally used to make electronics. These include molding and plating, wet etching (KOH, TMAH) and dry etching (RIE and DRIE), electro discharge machining (EDM), and other technologies capable of manufacturing small devices. An early example of a MEMS device is the resonistor – an electromechanical monolithic resonator.

1. Materials for MEMS Manufacturing

The fabrication of MEMS derived from the process technology in semiconductor device fabrication, i.e. the basic techniques are deposition of material layers, patterning by photolithography and etching to produce the required shapes.

Silicon

Silicon is the material used to create most integrated circuits used in consumer electronics in the modern world. The economies of scale, ready availability of cheap high-quality materials and ability to incorporate electronic functionality make silicon attractive for a wide variety of MEMS applications. Silicon also has significant advantages engendered through its material properties. In single crystal form, silicon is an almost perfect Hookean material, meaning that when it is flexed there is virtually no hysteresis and hence almost no energy dissipation. As well as making for highly repeatable motion, this also makes silicon very reliable as it suffers very little fatigue and can have service lifetimes in the range of billions to trillions of cycles without breaking.

Polymers

Even though the electronics industry provides an economy of scale for the silicon industry, crystalline silicon is still a complex and relatively expensive material to produce. Polymers on the other hand can be produced in huge volumes, with a great variety of material characteristics. MEMS devices can be made from polymers by processes such as injection molding, embossing or stereolithography and are especially well suited to microfluidic applications such as disposable blood testing cartridges.

Metals

Metals can also be used to create MEMS elements. While metals do not have some of the advantages displayed by silicon in terms of mechanical properties, when used within their limitations, metals can exhibit very high degrees of reliability. Metals can be deposited by electroplating, evaporation, and sputtering processes. Commonly used metals include gold, nickel, aluminium, copper, chromium, titanium, tungsten, platinum, and silver.

Ceramics

The nitrides of silicon, aluminium and titanium as well as silicon carbide and other ceramics are increasingly applied in MEMS fabrication due to advantageous combinations of material properties. AlN crystallizes in the wurtzite structure and thus shows pyroelectric and piezoelectric properties enabling sensors, for instance, with sensitivity to normal and shear forces. TiN, on the other hand, exhibits a high electrical conductivity and large elastic modulus allowing to realize electrostatic MEMS actuation schemes with ultrathin membranes. Moreover, the high resistance of TiN against biocorrosion qualifies the material for applications in biogenic environments and in biosensors.

2. MEMS Basic Processes

- Deposition processes

One of the basic building blocks in MEMS processing is the ability to deposit thin films of material with a thickness anywhere between a few nanometres to about 100 micrometres.

Physical Deposition

There are two types of physical deposition processes.They are as follows.

Physical vapor deposition (PVD)

Physical vapor deposition consists of a process in which a material is removed from a target, and deposited on a surface. Techniques to do this include the process of sputtering, in which an ion beam liberates atoms from a target, allowing them to move through the intervening space and deposit on the desired substrate, and Evaporation (deposition), in which a material is evaporated from a target using either heat (thermal evaporation) or an electron beam (e-beam evaporation) in a vacuum system.

Chemical deposition

Chemical deposition techniques include chemical vapor deposition ("CVD"), in which a stream of source gas reacts on the substrate to grow the material desired. This can be further divided into categories depending on the details of the technique, for example, LPCVD (Low Pressure chemical vapor deposition) and PECVD (Plasma Enhanced chemical vapor deposition).

Oxide films can also be grown by the technique of thermal oxidation, in which the (typically silicon) wafer is exposed to oxygen and/or steam, to grow a thin surface layer of silicon dioxide.

Patterning

Patterning in MEMS is the transfer of a pattern into a material.

Lithography

Lithography in MEMS context is typically the transfer of a pattern into a photosensitive material by selective exposure to a radiation source such as light. A photosensitive material is a material that experiences a change in its physical properties when exposed to a radiation source. If a photosensitive material is selectively exposed to radiation (e.g. by masking some of the radiation) the pattern of the radiation on the material is transferred to the material exposed, as the properties of the exposed and unexposed regions differs.

This exposed region can then be removed or treated providing a mask for the underlying substrate. Photolithography is typically used with metal or other thin film deposition, wet and dry etching.

Electron beam lithography

Electron beam lithography (often abbreviated as e-beam lithography) is the practice of scanning a beam of electrons in a patterned fashion across a surface covered with a film (called the resist), ("exposing" the resist) and of selectively removing either exposed or non-exposed regions of the resist ("developing"). The purpose, as with photolithography, is to create very small structures in the resist that can subsequently be transferred to the substrate material, often by etching. It was developed for manufacturing integrated circuits, and is also used for creating nanotechnology architectures.

The primary advantage of electron beam lithography is that it is one of the ways to beat the diffraction limit of light and make features in the nanometer regime. This form of maskless lithography has found wide usage in photomask-making used in photolithography, low-volume production of semiconductor components, and research & development.

The key limitation of electron beam lithography is throughput, i.e., the very long time it takes to expose an entire silicon wafer or glass substrate. A long exposure time leaves the user vulnerable to beam drift or instability which may occur during the exposure. Also, the turn-around time for reworking or re-design is lengthened unnecessarily if the pattern is not being changed the second time.

Ion Beam Lithography

It is known that focused-ion-beam lithography has the capability of writing extremely fine lines (less than 50 nm line and space has been achieved) without proximity effect. However, because the writing field in ion-beam lithography is quite small, largearea patterns must be created by stitching together the small fields.

X-ray Lithography

X-ray lithography, is a process used in electronic industry to selectively remove parts of a thin film. It uses X-rays to transfer a geometric pattern from a mask to a light-sensitive chemical photoresist, or simply "resist," on the substrate. A series of chemical treatments then engraves the produced pattern into the material underneath the photoresist.

3. Etching Processes

There are two basic categories of etching processes: wet etching and dry etching. In the former, the material is dissolved when immersed in a chemical solution. In the latter, the material is sputtered or dissolved using reactive ions or a vapor phase etchant. for a somewhat dated overview of MEMS etching technologies.

- Wet Etching

Wet chemical etching consists in selective removal of material by dipping a substrate into a solution that dissolves it. The chemical nature of this etching process provides a good selectivity, which means the etching rate of the target material is considerably higher than the mask material if selected carefully.

Isotropic Etching

Etching progresses at the same speed in all directions. Long and narrow holes in a mask will produce v-shaped grooves in the silicon. The surface of these grooves can be atomically smooth if the etch is carried out correctly, with dimensions and angles being extremely accurate.

Anisotropic Etching

Some single crystal materials, such as silicon, will have different etching rates depending on the crystallographic orientation of the substrate. This is known as anisotropic etching and one of the most common examples is the etching of silicon in KOH (potassium hydroxide), where Si <111> planes etch approximately 100 times slower than other planes (crystallographic orientations). Therefore, etching a rectangular hole in a (100)-Si wafer results in a pyramid shaped etch pit with 54.7° walls, instead of a hole with curved sidewalls as with isotropic etching.

HF Etching

Hydrofluoric acid is commonly used as an aqueous etchant for silicon dioxide (SiO2, also known as BOX for SOI), usually in 49% concentrated form, 5:1, 10:1 or 20:1 BOE (buffered oxide etchant) or BHF (Buffered HF). They were first used in medieval times for glass etching. It was used in IC fabrication for patterning the gate oxide until the process step was replaced by RIE.

Hydrofluoric acid is considered one of the more dangerous acids in the cleanroom. It penetrates the skin upon contact and it diffuses straight to the bone. Therefore the damage is not felt until it is too late.

Electrochemical Etching

Electrochemical etching (ECE) for dopant-selective removal of silicon is a common method to automate and to selectively control etching. An active p-n diode junction is required, and either type of dopant can be the etch-resistant ("etch-stop") material. Boron is the most common etch-stop dopant. In combination with wet anisotropic etching as described above, ECE has been used successfully for controlling silicon diaphragm thickness in commercial piezoresistive silicon pressure sensors. Selectively doped regions can be created either by implantation, diffusion, or epitaxial deposition of silicon.

- Dry Etching

Xenon difluoride etching

Xenon difluoride (XeF2) is a dry vapor phase isotropic etch for silicon originally applied for MEMS in 1995 at University of California, Los Angeles. Primarily used for releasing metal and dielectric structures by undercutting silicon, XeF2 has the advantage of a stiction-free release unlike wet etchants. Its etch selectivity to silicon is very high, allowing it to work with photoresist, SiO2, silicon nitride, and various metals for masking. Its reaction to silicon is "plasmaless", is purely chemical and spontaneous and is often operated in pulsed mode. Models of the etching action are available, and university laboratories and various commercial tools offer solutions using this approach.

Plasma Etching

In reactive ion etching (RIE), the substrate is placed inside a reactor, and several gases are introduced. A plasma is struck in the gas mixture using an RF power source, which breaks the gas molecules into ions. The ions accelerate towards, and react with, the surface of the material being etched, forming another gaseous material. This is known as the chemical part of reactive ion etching. There is also a physical part, which is similar to the sputtering deposition process. If the ions have high enough energy, they can knock atoms out of the material to be etched without a chemical reaction. It is a very complex task to develop dry etch processes that balance chemical and physical etching, since there are many parameters to adjust. By changing the balance it is possible to influence the anisotropy of the etching, since the chemical part is isotropic and the physical part highly anisotropic the combination can form sidewalls that have shapes from rounded to vertical. RIE can be deep (Deep RIE or deep reactive ion etching (DRIE)).

Deep RIE (DRIE) is a special subclass of RIE that is growing in popularity. In this process, etch depths of hundreds of micrometres are achieved with almost vertical sidewalls. The primary technology is based on the so-called "Bosch process", named after the German company Robert Bosch, which filed the original patent, where two different gas compositions alternate in the reactor. Currently there are two variations of the DRIE. The first variation consists of three distinct steps (the Bosch Process as used in the Plasma-Therm tool) while the second variation only consists of two steps (ASE used in the STS tool).

In the 1st Variation, the etch cycle is as follows:

(i) SF6 isotropic etch;

(ii) C4F8 passivation;

(iii) SF6 anisoptropic etch for floor cleaning. In the 2nd variation, steps

(iv) (i) and (iii) are combined.

Both variations operate similarly. The C4F8 creates a polymer on the surface of the substrate, and the second gas composition (SF6 and O2) etches the substrate. The polymer is immediately sputtered away by the physical part of the etching, but only on the horizontal surfaces and not the sidewalls. Since the polymer only dissolves very slowly in the chemical part of the etching, it builds up on the sidewalls and protects them from etching. As a result, etching aspect ratios of 50 to 1 can be achieved. The process can easily be used to etch completely through a silicon substrate, and etch rates are 3–6 times higher than wet etching.

After preparing a large number of MEMS devices on a silicon wafer, individual dies have to be separated, which is called die preparation in semiconductor technology. For some applications, the separation is preceded by wafer backgrinding in order to reduce the wafer thickness. Wafer dicing may then be performed either by sawing using a cooling liquid or a dry laser process called stealth dicing.

Are You Consistent ?

noreply@blogger.com (The Ultimate) — Sat, 06 Aug 2011 11:03:00 +0000

Consistency is one of the biggest contributors to our successes in all aspects of our life regardless of whether it was business, blogging, or body building and without it we still be stumbling from one goal to the next with no reliable progress.

If I write a blog post listing out 101 ways to drive traffic to your blog and you then spend your time trying to implement all of them in the course of a month or two, you’ll make some great progress and definitely increase your traffic, but what if you instead focused your attentions on just a handful of the methods on a consistent basis over the course of… forever?

This consistency will take you a lot further than if you just give it short bursts of effort toward your goal. It’s by developing the habit of doing something that we can truly start to make effortless gains in any aspect of our life. I say effortless, but it’s most likely even better than that, here let me explain.

Whenever we do something consistently we then develop a habit for that particular task, or function. Habits, the good ones at least can be great for helping people make tremendous gains towards something. Let’s take someone looking to get into better shape, and who’s chosen running as their method to accomplish it.

Even if they can only run a total of five minutes a day in the beginning, but add just 1 minute each day they continue to run, they’ll be running an easy 35 minutes daily at the end of the month, and will also be in the habit of running. This is where the true power and gains will start to accumulate. Habits can be powerful tools if used correctly.

Some questions to ask ourself:

- Do we write consistently?
- Do we post on our blog consistently? (not the same as writing)
- Are we posting at the same time each day?
- Are we constantly expanding our knowledge on your chosen topic?
- Are we link building consistently?
- Are we consistently improving our blog, or business?

These are just a few questions we might ask, and if we aren’t there might be room to add these to our daily routine so that they too can become habits. (good ones).

And so, what about your opinion ? Have some comment ? Please write to me. I really need suggestion from everybody.

Currency Conversion With Google Search

noreply@blogger.com (The Ultimate) — Fri, 05 Aug 2011 12:03:00 +0000

Want to know how the currency conversion easy on the internet?

To improve the functionality of its search engine services, Google has a variety of new tools present to its users so far. One of the newest tools that will be integrated into its search engine service is a currency conversion tool that can display the conversion rate against the currencies of its consumer needs.

Accordingly, Google is now working to improve the concept associated with the currency conversion tool to be integrated into existing Google Search service.

Where as before, you will only be presented with information about currency conversion rates that you are looking for it. But with the existence of this new tool, you will be presented with a more specific search results and significantly more complete than ever before.

First of all you will be presented with information in the form of conversion rate chart history to see the movement of the two currency fluctuations from one another in recent years.

In addition, you also presented a field (textfield) that can be used to fill in the number of units of currency you want to edit without doing new searches and even to change the currency displayed though.

To obtain answers to display the conversion rate or this latest conversion tool, you must perform a query relating to the subject concerned.

For example, the query is inputted is "1 EUR USD" chances are you will not get specific information from the currency you are looking for, where as if the query is inputted is "1 EUR" only then you will be able to obtain specific information from the currency rate you're looking for.

Meanwhile, quite interesting, if you search for "currency converter", then this new tool is automatically populated with the current conversion rate between USD and EUR. And this is reportedly only applies to those that are now in the United States and use the search engine Google.com.

The new tool is quite useful because it allows not only changes the amount you want to convert, but also the currency you use to simplify the task through a few checks at the same time.

How do you think? Are you already doing?

Customer Data On The Site Codemasters Breaking By Hackers

noreply@blogger.com (The Ultimate) — Fri, 05 Aug 2011 11:59:00 +0000

Leading video game developer known British Codemasters has just been shut down its site after a hacker managed to break into and steal rampant customer data.

The incident itself occurred on 3 June. And related it, the Codemasters took a week to determine the extent of infringement and damages.

The game developers have been warned to its customers via email on Friday and then if the attacker could steal the name and address of the home / office, email addresses, phone numbers, passwords encrypted and that the customer's order history from Codemasters eStore.

No problems so far in financial terms because fortunately the company uses an external payment processor and does not store the type of data on a server they own.

In addition eStore Codemasters, Codemasters CodeM database has also been burglarized that expose member names, user name, screen name, email address, birth date, encrypted passwords, preferences newsletter, biography, details of their activities last site, the IP address Xbox Live Gamertags.

The hackers also have penetrated access to the code page 3 VIP DiRT payment, as well as sites and sub-domains company Codemasters. Related to that, the company immediately shut down all public sites and switch its customers to her Facebook page.

While the company rebuilt from scratch, codemasters.com site will likely remain offline for an undetermined time.

Codemasters has urged the company to its customers to change their passwords on all properties Codemasters, as well as other online sites where they may have used it.

As with all cases of data breaches, affected individuals appear to be wary of email and telephone scams that try to use the information that compromised data and then compromised to get more details of the person concerned.

Why Should We Be Blogging ?

noreply@blogger.com (The Ultimate) — Tue, 02 Aug 2011 10:15:00 +0000

Blogging more so a spot activity from day to day. With a blog you can divide the life, thoughts or anything interesting to share to your readers. The Blog can make you famous, have fans with thousands of people.

Here I write down some reasons which I think is why we are interested in blogging.

Free and Easy

The first reason blogging it's because full free. You don't need to spend a single dollar was, in fact you could make the money into the pockets of your account. You don't need to have knowledge of HTML. Easy Blog really started using blogspot or wordpress.

Share Your Minds

About 40% of the total existing blog contrived just to share opinions and thoughts. If you have something you want to be revealed, the blog is a medium of expression. Non-free as you can write just about anything. Starting from hobbies, interests, current topics and other things.

Help Others

If You have knowledge about a specific field, with blogging, you can help others by sharing your experiences such as how to lose weight, how to troubleshoot PC and other sciences.

Improve Your Skills

If you want to improve your writing skills, the best way of blogging. This will definitely help you to reduce errors of spelling and grammatical errors.

Earn Money

Yes! You can make money a lot of blogs. The capital you need is knowledge and strong vigor. Admittedly cursory look easy, but I also don't know how exactly because I have yet to earn money from blogging and I am also not listed in the affiliate programs. How about you?

Engrossing

Blogging is fun. You'll know a lot of things different, get acquainted with other bloggers and forms an extensive network. What are you waiting for? Go there, blogging!

You're Famous!

By Blogging You will be well known and more popular, more and more of you anyway bathwater coffers the money that you can be the result of blogging. But one thing that struck me as no less important in the world of blogging is we will have lots of friends, relatives and others. The more the number of visitors you have, then you will be more well known in the blogging world. Agree?

Develop Your Business

Later, after your blog more and more popular, you will be able to feel the blog could be a media promotion and selling something that is effective. Any business that you get more money, more easily developed via the blog.

Knitting Her Own Network

With the diligent and commented on the blog's best friend, you're systematically develop networking with fellow bloggers and people who have similar interests. You and they can exchange ideas and information.

Generate Feedback

If you've started blogging, then it is the best way to get feedback from others. Note, a blog has a feature where users can comment on each article you write.

Roughly, thus my article about the reasons why someone should be blogging. If you have an interest, start right now !

The Menstrual Cycle

noreply@blogger.com (The Ultimate) — Mon, 01 Aug 2011 21:32:00 +0000

The menstrual cycle is the scientific term for the physiological changes that can occur in fertile female humans and apes. Overt menstruation (where there is blood flow from the uterus through the vagina) occurs in humans and some animals such as chimpanzees. Females of other species of placental mammal undergo estrous cycles, in which the endometrium is completely reabsorbed by the animal (covert menstruation) at the end of its reproductive cycle. This article focuses on the human menstrual cycle.

The menstrual cycle, under the control of the endocrine system, is necessary for reproduction. It is commonly divided into three phases: the follicular phase, ovulation, and the luteal phase; although some sources use a different set of phases: menstruation, proliferative phase, and secretory phase. Menstrual cycles are counted from the first day of menstrual bleeding. Hormonal contraception interferes with the normal hormonal changes with the aim of preventing reproduction.

Stimulated by gradually increasing amounts of estrogen in the follicular phase, discharges of blood (menses) slow then stop, and the lining of the uterus thickens. Follicles in the ovary begin developing under the influence of a complex interplay of hormones, and after several days one or occasionally two become dominant (non-dominant follicles atrophy and die). Approximately mid-cycle, 24–36 hours after the Luteinizing Hormone (LH) surges, the dominant follicle releases an ovum, or egg in an event called ovulation. After ovulation, the egg only lives for 24 hours or less without fertilization while the remains of the dominant follicle in the ovary become a corpus luteum; this body has a primary function of producing large amounts of progesterone. Under the influence of progesterone, the endometrium (uterine lining) changes to prepare for potential implantation of an embryo to establish a pregnancy. If implantation does not occur within approximately two weeks, the corpus luteum will involute, causing sharp drops in levels of both progesterone and estrogen. These hormone drops cause the uterus to shed its lining and egg in a process termed menstruation.

In the menstrual cycle, changes occur in the female reproductive system as well as other systems (which lead to breast tenderness or mood changes, for example). A woman's first menstruation is termed menarche, and occurs typically around age 12. The end of a woman's reproductive phase is called the menopause, which commonly occurs somewhere between the ages of 45 and 55.

The menarche is one of the later stages of puberty in girls. The average age of menarche in humans is 12 years, but is normal anywhere between ages 8 and 16. Factors such as heredity, diet and overall health can accelerate or delay menarche. The cessation of menstrual cycles at the end of a woman's reproductive period is termed menopause. The average age of menopause in women is 52 years in industrialised countries such as the UK, with anywhere between 45 and 55 being common. Menopause before age 45 is considered premature in industrialised countries. The age of menopause is largely a result of genetics; however, illnesses, certain surgeries, or medical treatments may cause menopause to occur earlier.

The length of a woman's menstrual cycle will typically vary, with some shorter cycles and some longer cycles. A woman who experiences variations of less than eight days between her longest cycles and shortest cycles is considered to have regular menstrual cycles. It is unusual for a woman to experience cycle length variations of less than four days. Length variation between eight and 20 days is considered as moderately irregular cycles. Variation of 21 days or more between a woman's shortest and longest cycle lengths is considered very irregular.

1. Phases

The menstrual cycle can be divided into several different phases. The average length of each phase is shown below, the first three are related to changes in the lining of the uterus whereas the final three are related to processes occurring in the ovary:

Name of Phase          Average start day    Average end day
                                assuming 28 day cycle

Menstruation 1    4
Proliferative Phase                5    13
Ovulation 13                                    16
Luteal Phase                        16    28
Ischemic Phase    27                                    28
Folicular Phase 1                                    13

2. Menstruation

Menstruation is also called menstrual bleeding, menses, catamenia or a period. The flow of menses normally serves as a sign that a woman has not become pregnant. (However, this cannot be taken as certainty, as a number of factors can cause bleeding during pregnancy; some factors are specific to early pregnancy, and some can cause heavy flow.)

Levels of estradiol (the main estrogen), progesterone, follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone during the menstrual cycle, taking inter-cycle and inter-woman variability into account.

Eumenorrhea denotes normal, regular menstruation that lasts for a few days (usually 3 to 5 days, but anywhere from 2 to 7 days is considered normal). The average blood loss during menstruation is 35 milliliters with 10–80 ml considered normal. (Because of this blood loss, women are more susceptible to iron deficiency than men are.) An enzyme called plasmin inhibits clotting in the menstrual fluid.

Painful cramping in the abdomen, back, or upper thighs is common during the first few days of menstruation (most women experience some pain during menstruation). Severe uterine pain during menstruation is known as dysmenorrhea, and it is most common among adolescents and younger women (affecting about 67.2% of adolescent females). When menstruation begins, symptoms of premenstrual syndrome (PMS) such as breast tenderness and irritability generally decrease. Many sanitary products are marketed to women for use during their menstruation.

3. Follicular phase

This phase is also called the proliferative phase because a hormone causes the lining of the uterus to grow, or proliferate, during this time.

Through the influence of a rise in follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) during the first days of the cycle, a few ovarian follicles are stimulated. These follicles, which were present at birth and have been developing for the better part of a year in a process known as folliculogenesis, compete with each other for dominance. Under the influence of several hormones, all but one of these follicles will stop growing, while one dominant follicle in the ovary will continue to maturity. The follicle that reaches maturity is called a tertiary, or Graafian, follicle, and it forms the ovum.

As they mature, the follicles secrete increasing amounts of estradiol, an estrogen. The estrogens initiate the formation of a new layer of endometrium in the uterus, histologically identified as the proliferative endometrium. The estrogen also stimulates crypts in the cervix to produce fertile cervical mucus, which may be noticed by women practicing fertility awareness.

4. Ovulation

During the follicular phase, estradiol suppresses production of luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary gland. When the egg has nearly matured, levels of estradiol reach a threshold above which they stimulate production of LH. These opposite responses of LH to estradiol may be enabled by the presence of two different estrogen receptors in the hypothalamus: estrogen receptor alpha, which is responsible for the negative feedback estradiol-LH loop, and estrogen receptor beta, which is responsible for the positive estradiol-LH relationship. In the average cycle this LH surge starts around cycle day 12 and may last 48 hours.

The release of LH matures the egg and weakens the wall of the follicle in the ovary, causing the fully developed follicle to release its secondary oocyte. The secondary oocyte promptly matures into an ootid and then becomes a mature ovum. The mature ovum has a diameter of about 0.2 mm.

Which of the two ovaries—left or right—ovulates appears essentially random; no known left and right co-ordination exists. Occasionally, both ovaries will release an egg; if both eggs are fertilized, the result is fraternal twins.

After being released from the ovary and into the peritoneal space, the egg is swept into the fallopian tube by the fimbria, which is a fringe of tissue at the end of each fallopian tube. After about a day, an unfertilized egg will disintegrate or dissolve in the fallopian tube.

Fertilization by a spermatozoon, when it occurs, usually takes place in the ampulla, the widest section of the fallopian tubes. A fertilized egg immediately begins the process of embryogenesis, or development. The developing embryo takes about three days to reach the uterus and another three days to implant into the endometrium. It has usually reached the blastocyst stage at the time of implantation.

In some women, ovulation features a characteristic pain called mittelschmerz (German term meaning middle pain). The sudden change in hormones at the time of ovulation sometimes also causes light mid-cycle blood flow.

5. Luteal phase

The luteal phase is also called the secretory phase. An important role is played by the corpus luteum, the solid body formed in an ovary after the egg has been released from the ovary into the fallopian tube. This body continues to grow for some time after ovulation and produces significant amounts of hormones, particularly progesterone. Progesterone plays a vital role in making the endometrium receptive to implantation of the blastocyst and supportive of the early pregnancy; it also has the side effect of raising the woman's basal body temperature. There is a noted secretion of prolactin towards the end of the secretory phase.

After ovulation, the pituitary hormones FSH and LH cause the remaining parts of the dominant follicle to transform into the corpus luteum, which produces progesterone. The increased progesterone in the adrenals starts to induce the production of estrogen. The hormones produced by the corpus luteum also suppress production of the FSH and LH that the corpus luteum needs to maintain itself. Consequently, the level of FSH and LH fall quickly over time, and the corpus luteum subsequently atrophies. Falling levels of progesterone trigger menstruation and the beginning of the next cycle. From the time of ovulation until progesterone withdrawal has caused menstruation to begin, the process typically takes about two weeks, with 14 days considered normal. For an individual woman, the follicular phase often varies in length from cycle to cycle; by contrast, the length of her luteal phase will be fairly consistent from cycle to cycle.

The loss of the corpus luteum can be prevented by fertilization of the egg; the resulting embryo produces human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), which is very similar to LH and which can preserve the corpus luteum. Because the hormone is unique to the embryo, most pregnancy tests look for the presence of hCG.

6. Length

Although many people believe the average menstrual cycle takes 28 days, a large study of more than 30,000 cycles from more than 2300 women showed that the mean cycle length was 29.1 with a standard deviation of 7.5 days and a 95% prediction interval of between 15 and 45 days. In that study, the subset of data with cycle lengths between 15 and 45 days had an average length of 28.1 days with a standard deviation of 4 days. A smaller study of 140 women performed in 2006 found a mean cycle length of 28.9 days.

The variability of menstrual cycle lengths is highest for women under 25 years of age and is lowest, that is, most regular, for ages 35 to 39. Subsequently, the variability increases slightly for women aged 40 to 44. Usually, length variation between eight and 20 days in a woman is considered as moderately irregular menstrual cycles. Variation of 21 days or more is considered very irregular.

It has long been thought that cycle length is associated with the moon. A 1979 study of 305 women found that approximately one-third of the subjects had lunar period cycles, i.e., a mean cycle length of 29.5 days plus or minus 1 day. Almost two-thirds of the subjects started their cycle in the brighter half of the lunar cycle, significantly more than would be expected by random distribution. Another study found a statistically significant number of menstruations occurred around the new moon.

7. Fertile window

The most fertile period (the time with the highest likelihood of pregnancy resulting from sexual intercourse) covers the time from some 5 days before until 1–2 days after ovulation. In a 28 day cycle with a 14-day luteal phase, this corresponds to the second and the beginning of the third week. A variety of methods have been developed to help individual women estimate the relatively fertile and the relatively infertile days in the cycle: these systems are called fertility awareness.

Fertility awareness methods that rely on cycle length records alone are called calendar-based methods. Methods that require observation of one or more of the three primary fertility signs (basal body temperature, cervical mucus, and cervical position) are known as symptoms-based methods. Urine test kits are available that detect the LH surge that occurs 24 to 36 hours before ovulation; these are known as ovulation predictor kits (OPKs). Computerized devices that interpret basal body temperatures, urinary test results, or changes in saliva are called fertility monitors.

A woman's fertility is also affected by her age. As a woman's total egg supply is formed in fetal life, to be ovulated decades later, it has been suggested that this long lifetime may make the chromatin of eggs more vulnerable to division problems, breakage, and mutation than the chromatin of sperm, which are produced continuously during a man's reproductive life. However, despite this hypothesis, a similar paternal age effect has also been observed.

8. Effect on other systems

Some women with neurological conditions experience increased activity of their conditions at about the same time during each menstrual cycle. For example, drops in estrogen levels have been known to trigger migraines (a neurological syndrome Migraines), especially when the woman who suffers migraines is also taking the birth control pill. Many women with epilepsy have more seizures in a pattern linked to the menstrual cycle; this is called "catamenial epilepsy". Different patterns seem to exist (such as seizures coinciding with the time of menstruation, or coinciding with the time of ovulation), and the frequency with which they occur has not been firmly established. Using one particular definition, one group of scientists found that around one-third of women with intractable partial epilepsy have catamenial epilepsy. An effect of hormones has been proposed, in which progesterone declines and estrogen increases would trigger seizures. Recently, studies have shown that high doses of estrogen can cause or worsen seizures, whereas high doses of progestrone can act like an antiepileptic drug. Studies by medical journals have found that women experiencing menses are 1.68 times more likely to commit suicide.

Mice have been used as an experimental system to investigate possible mechanisms by which levels of sex steroid hormones might regulate nervous system function. During the part of the mouse estrous cycle when progesterone is highest, the level of nerve-cell GABA receptor subtype delta was high. Since these GABA receptors are inhibitory, nerve cells with more delta receptors are less likely to fire than cells with lower numbers of delta receptors. During the part of the mouse estrous cycle when estrogen levels are higher than progesterone levels, the number of delta receptors decrease, increasing nerve cell activity, in turn increasing anxiety and seizure susceptibility.

Estrogen levels may affect thyroid behavior. For example, during the luteal phase (when estrogen levels are lower), the velocity of blood flow in the thyroid is lower than during the follicular phase (when estrogen levels are higher).

Among women living closely together, the onsets of menstruation may tend to synchronize somewhat. This McClintock effect was first described in 1971, and possibly explained by the action of pheromones in 1998. However, subsequent research has called this hypothesis into question.

9. Cycle abnormalities and disorders

Infrequent or irregular ovulation is called oligoovulation. The absence of ovulation is called anovulation. Normal menstrual flow can occur without ovulation preceding it: an anovulatory cycle. In some cycles, follicular development may start but not be completed; nevertheless, estrogens will form and will stimulate the uterine lining. Anovulatory flow resulting from a very thick endometrium caused by prolonged, continued high estrogen levels is called estrogen breakthrough bleeding. Anovulatory bleeding triggered by a sudden drop in estrogen levels is called changes. Anovulatory cycles commonly occur before menopause (perimenopause) and in women with polycystic ovary syndrome.

Very little flow (less than 10 ml) is called hypomenorrhea. Regular cycles with intervals of 21 days or fewer are polymenorrhea; frequent but irregular menstruation is known as metrorrhagia. Sudden heavy flows or amounts greater than 80 ml are termed menorrhagia. Heavy menstruation that occurs frequently and irregularly is a menometrorrhagia. The term for cycles with intervals exceeding 35 days is oligomenorrhea. Amenorrhea refers to more than three to six months without menses (while not being pregnant) during a woman's reproductive years.

10. Hormonal contraception

While some forms of birth control do not affect the menstrual cycle, hormonal contraceptives work by disrupting it. Progestogen negative feedback decreases the pulse frequency of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) release by the hypothalamus, which decreases the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) by the anterior pituitary. Decreased levels of FSH inhibit follicular development, preventing an increase in estradiol levels. Progestogen negative feedback and the lack of estrogen positive feedback on LH release prevent a mid-cycle LH surge. Inhibition of follicular development and the absence of a LH surge prevent ovulation.

The degree of ovulation suppression in progestogen-only contraceptives depends on the progestogen activity and dose. Low dose progestogen-only contraceptives—traditional progestogen only pills, subdermal implants Norplant and Jadelle, and intrauterine system Mirena—inhibit ovulation in ~50% of cycles and rely mainly on other effects, such as thickening of cervical mucus, for their contraceptive effectiveness. Intermediate dose progestogen-only contraceptives—the progestogen-only pill Cerazette and the subdermal implant Implanon—allow some follicular development but more consistently inhibit ovulation in 97–99% of cycles. The same cervical mucus changes occur as with very low dose progestogens. High dose progestogen-only contraceptives—the injectables Depo-Provera and Noristerat, completely inhibit follicular development and ovulation.

Combined hormonal contraceptives include both an estrogen and a progestogen. Estrogen negative feedback on the anterior pituitary greatly decreases the release of FSH, which makes combined hormonal contraceptives more effective at inhibiting follicular development and preventing ovulation. Estrogen also reduces the incidence of irregular breakthrough bleeding. Several combined hormonal contraceptives—the pill, NuvaRing, and the contraceptive patch—are usually used in a way that causes regular withdrawal bleeding. In a normal cycle, menstruation occurs when estrogen and progesterone levels drop rapidly. Temporarily discontinuing use of combined hormonal contraceptives (a placebo week, not using patch or ring for a week) has a similar effect of causing the uterine lining to shed. If withdrawal bleeding is not desired, combined hormonal contraceptives may be taken continuously, although this increases the risk of breakthrough bleeding.

11. Lactational amenorrhea

Breastfeeding causes negative feedback to occur on pulse secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). Depending on the strength of the negative feedback, breastfeeding women may experience complete suppression of follicular development, follicular development but no ovulation, or normal menstrual cycles may resume. Suppression of ovulation is more likely when suckling occurs more frequently. The production of prolactin in response to suckling is important to maintaining lactational amenorrhea. On average, women who are fully breastfeeding whose infants suckle frequently experience a return of menstruation at fourteen and a half months postpartum. There is a wide range of response between individual breastfeeding women, however, with some experiencing return of menstruation at two months and others remaining amenorrheic for up to 42 months postpartum.

Storm Botnet

noreply@blogger.com (The Ultimate) — Mon, 01 Aug 2011 19:51:00 +0000

The Storm botnet or Storm worm botnet (not to be confused with StormBot, which is a TCL script that is not malicious) is a remotely controlled network of "zombie" computers (or "botnet") that has been linked by the Storm Worm, a Trojan horse spread through e-mail spam. Some have estimated that by September 2007 the Storm botnet was running on anywhere from 1 million to 50 million computer systems. Other sources have placed the size of the botnet to be around 250,000 to 1 million compromised systems. More conservatively, one network security analyst claims to have developed software that has crawled the botnet and estimates that it controls 160,000 infected computers. The Storm botnet was first identified around January 2007, with the Storm worm at one point accounting for 8% of all malware on Microsoft Windows computers.

The Storm botnet has been used in a variety of criminal activities. Its controllers and the authors of the Storm Worm have not yet been identified. The Storm botnet has displayed defensive behaviors that indicated that its controllers were actively protecting the botnet against attempts at tracking and disabling it. The botnet has specifically attacked the online operations of some security vendors and researchers who attempted to investigate the botnet.

Some reports as of late 2007 indicated the Storm botnet to be in decline, but many security experts reported that they expect the botnet to remain a major security risk online, and the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation considers the botnet a major risk to increased bank fraud, identity theft, and other cybercrimes.

The botnet is reportedly powerful enough as of September 2007 to force entire countries off the Internet, and is estimated to be capable of executing more instructions per second than some of the world's top supercomputers.

The botnet, or zombie network, comprises computers running Microsoft Windows as their operating system. Once infected, a computer becomes known as a bot. This bot then performs automated tasks—anything from gathering data on the user, to attacking web sites, to forwarding infected e-mail—without its owner's knowledge or permission. Estimates indicate that 5,000 to 6,000 computers are dedicated to propagating the spread of the worm through the use of e-mails with infected attachments; 1.2 billion virus messages have been sent by the botnet through September 2007, including a record 57 million on August 22, 2007 alone.

Back-end servers that control the spread of the botnet and Storm worm automatically re-encode their distributed infection software twice an hour, for new transmissions, making it difficult for anti-virus vendors to stop the virus and infection spread. Additionally, the location of the remote servers which control the botnet are hidden behind a constantly changing DNS technique called ‘fast flux’, making it difficult to find and stop virus hosting sites and mail servers. In short, the name and location of such machines are frequently changed and rotated, often on a minute by minute basis. The Storm botnet's operators control the system via peer-to-peer techniques, making external monitoring and disabling of the system more difficult. There is no central "command-and-control point" in the Storm botnet that can be shut down. The botnet also makes use of encrypted traffic. Efforts to infect computers usually revolve around convincing people to download e-mail attachments which contain the virus through subtle manipulation. In one instance, the botnet's controllers took advantage of the National Football League's opening weekend, sending out mail offering "football tracking programs" which did nothing more than infect a user's computer.

Usually, they are named in a sequence from game0.exe through game5.exe, or similar. It will then continue launching executables in turn. They typically perform the following:

game0.exe - Backdoor/downloader
game1.exe - SMTP relay
game2.exe - E-mail address stealer
game3.exe - E-mail virus spreader
game4.exe - Distributed denial of service (DDoS) attack tool
game5.exe - Updated copy of Storm Worm dropper

At each stage the compromised system will connect into the botnet; fast flux DNS makes tracking this process exceptionally difficult. This code is run from %windir%\system32\wincom32.sys on a Windows system, via a kernel rootkit, and all connections back to the botnet are sent through a modified version of the eDonkey/Overnet communications protocol.

The Storm botnet's systems also take steps to defend itself locally, on victims' computer systems. The botnet, on some compromised systems, creates a computer process on the Windows machine that notifies the Storm systems whenever a new program or other processes begin. Previously, the Storm worms locally would tell the other programs — such as anti-virus, or anti-malware software, to simply not run. However, according to IBM security research, versions of Storm also now simply "fool" the local computer system to run the hostile program successfully, but in fact, they are not doing anything. "Programs, including not just AV exes, dlls and sys files, but also software such as the P2P applications BearShare and eDonkey, will appear to run successfully, even though they didn't actually do anything, which is far less suspicious than a process that gets terminated suddenly from the outside.

On September 25, 2007, it was estimated that a Microsoft update to the Windows Malicious Software Removal Tool (MSRT) may have helped reduce the size of the botnet by up to 20%. The new patch, as claimed by Microsoft, removed Storm from approximately 274,372 infected systems out of 2.6 million scanned Windows systems. However, according to senior security staff at Microsoft, "the 180,000+ additional machines that have been cleaned by MSRT since the first day are likely to be home user machines that were not notably incorporated into the daily operation of the 'Storm' botnet," indicating that the MSRT cleaning may have been symbolic at best.

The computer security company McAfee is reported as saying that the Storm Worm would be the basis of future attacks. Craig Schmugar, a noted security expert who discovered the Mydoom worm, called the Storm botnet a trend-setter, which has led to more usage of similar tactics by criminals. One such derivative botnet has been dubbed the "Celebrity Spam Gang", due to their use of similar technical tools as the Storm botnet controllers. Unlike the sophisticated social engineering that the Storm operators use to entice victims, however, the Celebrity spammers make use of offers of nude images of celebrities such as Angelina Jolie and Britney Spears.

Cisco Systems security experts stated in a report that they believe the Storm botnet would remain a critical threat in 2008, and said they estimated that its size remained in the "millions".

The Storm botnet was sending out spam for more than two years until its decline in late 2008. One factor in this, on account of making it less interesting for the creators to maintain the botnet, may have been the Stormfucker tool, which made it possible to take control over parts of the botnet.

On April 28, 2010, McAfee made an announcement that the so-called "rumors" of a Stormbot 2 were verified. Mark Schloesser, Tillmann Werner, and Felix Leder, the German researchers who did a lot of work in analyzing the original Storm, found that around two-thirds of the “new” functions are a copy and paste from the last Storm code base. The only thing missing is the P2P infrastructure, perhaps because of the tool which used P2P to bring down the original Storm. Honeynet blog dubbed this Stormbot 2.

Jeannie Walker -Award Winning Author: #1 Top Rated in Kindle Store

noreply@blogger.com (The Ultimate) — Thu, 28 Jul 2011 18:56:00 +0000

Jeannie Walker -Award Winning Author: #1 Top Rated in Kindle Store

JOURNEYS THROUGH TIME: Untold Stories

noreply@blogger.com (The Ultimate) — Thu, 28 Jul 2011 18:49:00 +0000

JOURNEYS THROUGH TIME: Untold Stories

Style of Dance

noreply@blogger.com (The Ultimate) — Thu, 28 Jul 2011 07:28:00 +0000

This is a promenade position for dance or specialized dance forms, such as ballet, tap dancing, and square dancing.

- Amalgamation

"A combination of two or more figures". More generally: a sequence of figures that a couple wants to dance.

- American Smooth

A category of dances in American Style ballroom competitions. It includes waltz, tango, foxtrot and Viennese waltz. Previously Peabody was also included.

This category loosely corresponds to the Standard category of International Style ballroom. However, Smooth differs from Standard in its inclusion of open and separated figures, whereas Standard makes exclusive use of closed positions.

- American Rhythm

A category of dances in American Style ballroom competitions. It includes Cha-cha-cha, Rumba, East Coast Swing, Bolero, Mambo. Sometimes it may include Samba and West Coast Swing.
This category loosely corresponds to the Latin category of International Style ballroom.

- American Style

The term describes a particular style of ballroom dances developed in the USA that contrasts with the International Style. In a narrower sense, it denotes the group of dances danced in American Style ballroom competitions. The group consists of two categories: American Smooth and American Rhythm.

-- Backleading

In social dancing strongly relying on leading and following, this term means that the follower executes steps without waiting for or contrary to the lead of the leader. This is also called anticipation and usually considered bad dancing habit. An exception would be to avoid a collision with another couple the leader hasn't seen (this is usually just to stop the leader performing specific steps rather than the follower actively executing steps).
Sometimes this term is used in the meaning of hijacking, which is not exactly the same.

--- Body flight

Body flight is a property of many movements in dances such as the waltz and foxtrot. It refers to steps taken with momentum in excess of that necessary to arrive at a point of static balance over the new position, which suggests a carry through to another step in the same direction. Steps in these dances naturally flow one into another, in contrast to the tango and to the Latin and rhythm dances where many steps arrive to a point of static balance.

--- Body contact

Body contact is a style of closed position in partner dancing ("closed position with body contact"); it is also a type of physical connection.

--- Body support

Support of the partner's body is largely avoided in ballroom dancing. The exception would be "lifts" - often featured in some forms of swing dancing, and ballroom showdance presentations, but banned in ordinary ballroom competition and rarely seen in social dancing.

--- Call

A call in square dancing is a command by a caller to execute a particular dance figure. In round dancing, calls are called cues. See "Caller" for the explanation of the difference. Voice calls may be complemented by hand signs. See also Voice cue.

--- Caller

A caller or a cuer is a person that calls/cues dance figures to be executed in square dances and round dances.

--- Center

When indicating a direction of movement during a dance, the term "center" means the direction perpendicular to the LOD pointing towards the center of the room. If one stands facing the LOD, then the center direction is to their left.
The term Center may also be used as shorthand for the center point of balance.

--- Center point of balance

Together with the center of gravity (COG), center point of balance (CPB) helps the dancer to better understand and control his movements. CPB differs from the two other centers in two respects. The exact location of the COG is always well-defined, however it significantly depends on the shape the body assumes. In contrast, the CPB during normal dancing (heads up, feet down on the floor) is always at the same place of the dancer body, although defined in a loose way: it is said that the CPB is in the general area of the solar plexus for the gentlemen, and navel for the women. The reason to distinguish this point lies in the following simple observation. If you put your feet together, you may move your head or your hips pretty far away from your area of support without losing your balance. But if you move your CPB just 2-3 inches away from the equilibrium position, you will feel a strong urge to step in this direction. Therefore awareness of your CPB, both consciously and instinctively, gives you a better control of the overall dance movement and connection with your partner.

Chassé

"A figure of three steps in which the feet are closed on the second step".

-- Closed dance figure

The term has at least two meanings: regarding dance position and regarding footwork.

A figure performed in closed position.
A figure in which at the last step the moving foot closes to rest at the support foot. Examples are box step in American Style waltz or natural turn in International Style Waltz.

-- Closed position

The ordinary position of ballroom dancing in which the partners face each other with their bodies approximately parallel. In Standard and Smooth the bodies are also offset about a half body width such that each person has their partner on their right side, with their left side somewhat unobstructed. Contrast promenade position and open position.

-- Connection

A means of communication between dancers in the couple. Physical and visual types of connection are distinguished. Sometimes referred to as resistance or tone, it involves slightly tensing the upper-body muscles, often in the context of a frame, thus enabling leader to communicate intentions to follower. See compression and tension, two basic associated actions/reactions.

-- Contra body movement

Refers to the action of the body in turning figures; turning the opposite hip and shoulder towards the direction of the moving foot.

-- Contra body movement position

Contra body movement position occurs when the moving foot is brought across (behind or in front) the standing foot without the body turning. Applies to every step taken outside partner; occurs frequently in tango and in all promenade figures.

- Compression

The term has several meanings.

Compression is a type of physical connection, opposite to leverage, in which a stress exists at the point(s) of contact directed towards the contact point(s). The term is frequently used, e.g., in swing dance community.

Compression is lowering the body by bending the knees in a preparation for a step. The term is mostly used in describing the Rises and falls technique of ballroom dances of Standard (International style) of Smooth (American style) categories: waltzes, tangos, foxtrots.

Compression is a hip action in Latin dances.

An action to achieve a graceful sway.

- Cuban hip motion

Cuban motion is characterized by a rhythmic swaying of the hips caused by the bending and straightening of the knees (though the knees remain "soft" —slightly bent— at all times). It is a style of movement which should be present in Latin American dances, including bachata, mambo, salsa, rumba, merengue, samba and cha-cha-cha. It tends to be easier to dance and more noticeable when the music is slow.

- Cue

Voice cues help match rhythmic patterns of steps (or other moves) with the music. There are different types of voice cues.

The most common example is the usage of "quick" and "slow" words: "quick-quick-slow" (pronounced as "quick quick slo-o-o-ow") immediately tells you that the third step takes twice the time of the first one (and of the second one).

Some East Coast Swing instructors cue the basic step as "shuf-fle-STEP, shuf-fle-STEP, rock BACK", to indicate both the rhythmic pattern of the figure (1&2, 3&4, 5, 6) and the syncopated character of swing music: every second syllable is stressed.

Still another example: the Box Step of American style Rumba may be cued as "forward-...-side-together, back-...-side-together", to indicate the directions of (leader's) steps and their timing.

Finally, for more advanced dancers voice cues are actually names of dance figures and standard variations:

"Two walks, link, closed promenade" (tango).

"Open telemark, natural fallaway, whisk, quick wing" (waltz).

"Dile que no!... setenta!... Dame dos con una!..." (salsa rueda)

Cues are an important element of round dances. In square dances they are called calls and called by a caller .

-- Dancesport

An official term to denote dance as competitive, sport activity.

Dance formation

1. Formation or dance formation is a team of dance couples.

2. Formation of a dance team is the specification of

- positions of dancers or dance couples on the floor relative to each other and

- directions the dancers face or move with respect to others.

-- Dance move

--- Dance pattern

Dance moves or dance steps are the building blocks of many dances. More complex dance moves are called dance patterns, dance figures or dance variations. They are usually isolated, defined, and organized so that beginning dancers can learn and use them independently of each other. Dance moves tend to emphasize the concepts of lead and follow and connection. In most cases dance moves by themselves are independent of musicality, which is the appropriateness of a move to the music (for a notable exception, see Bharatanatyam). Generally, they are memorized in sets of eight counts.

The names of moves may be somewhat arbitrary and vary from person to person and city to city. For example, in Lindy Hop, circles are also called "rhythm circles" and "reverses".

Dance moves may blur into each other. For example, the Lindy Hop move swing out from close can also be thought of as a groucho to open.

Each dance emphasizes its own moves, but often moves are shared by several dances.

--- Dance step

In a strict sense, a step, or a footstep, is a single move of one foot, usually involving full or partial weight transfer to the moving foot. However foot actions, such as tap, kick, etc., are also sometimes called "steps". For example, in a description: "step forward, replace, together" all three actions are steps.

Sometimes it is important to define the exact limits of one (foot)step, i.e., exactly when it begins and ends. In describing the detailed technique in Standard and Smooth dances (Waltz, Tango,...) it is agreed that in figures where the moving foot doesn't stop at the support foot a step begins (and the previous step ends) at the moment when the moving foot passes the support foot. Notice that according to this agreement such steps do not begin/end precisely at the "counts" 1, 2, etc. which normally match musical beats.

In a broader sense, step means dance step, i.e., a dance figure, e.g., basic step, triple step.

--- Direction of movement

In ballroom dancing (as well as in other types of partner dance), directions of (progressive) movement, in particular, directions of steps, can be indicated either in relation to the room or in relation to the body position. Directions of turns, although there are only two of them, may also be indicated in several ways.
See Direction of movement.

--- Direction of step

These are described in one of the following ways.

By compass points: Assuming that the dancer faces North at any moment, one may say, e.g., "take a step North-West".
By clock: Assuming that the dancer stands at the center of a clock with hands and faces 12, one may say, e.g., "take a step at two o'clock".
With respect to the line of the supporting foot, the next step may be placed
forward,
back,
sideways,
diagonally forward,
diagonally back,
forward and across,
back and across.

-- Figure

"A completed set of steps" More explicitly: a small sequence of steps comprising a meaningful gestalt, and given a name, for example 'whisk' or 'spin turn'.

-- Follower

In partner dancing, the two dance partners are never equal. One must be the Lead and the other will be the Follow.
The Lead (conventionally the male in a mixed sex couple) is responsible for choosing appropriate steps to suit the music (if it is an improvised dance), and leading the Follow by hand pressure and signals to complete the chosen steps smoothly and safely. If the dance is a set (pre-choreographed) routine, the Lead is still responsible for initiating each move, which ensures smooth coordination between the two dancers.
The degree to which the Lead 'controls' the dance (and, by implication, "controls" the Follow) depends on the dance style and dancer sensitivity, the social context in which the dance exists, the experiences and personalities of each partner, and a range of other factors. Some partner dances such as Lindy Hop involve an open position which encourages each partner to improvise alone, yet others, such as Argentine Tango may involve a "close embrace" or closed position which require Follows to follow the Lead more comprehensively.

For many individual dancers, exploring the limits of the Lead-Follow relationship adds to the dance, where this relationship might better be understood as a conversation between partners, with each contributing to the style and mood of the dance through their connection. For other partners, the lead's complete control of the follow, and the follow's relinquishing a greater degree of creative or expressive autonomy is more personally comfortable or satisfying.

-- Footwork

In a wider sense the term footwork describes dance technique aspects related to feet: foot position and foot action.

In a narrow sense, e.g., in descriptions of ballroom dance figures, the term refers to the behavior of the foot when it is in contact with the floor. In particular, it describes which part of the foot is in contact with the floor: ball, heel, flat, toe, high toe, inside/outside edge, etc. In the Smooth and Standard dances, it is common for the body weight to progress through multiple parts of the foot during the course of a step. Customarily, parts of the foot reached only after the other foot has passed to begin a new step are implied but not explicitly mentioned.

- Formation

Formation or dance formation is a team of dance couples.
Formation of a dance team is the specification of

positions of dancers or dance couples on the floor relative to each other and
directions the dancers face or move with respect to others.

-- Formation dance

Formation dance is a choreographed dance of a team of couples, e.g., ballroom Sequence Or Ballroom formation dance/team.

-- Full weight

Full weight or full weight transfer means that at the end of the step the dancer's center of gravity is directly over the support foot. A simple test for a full weight transfer is that you can freely lift the second foot off the floor.

--- Frame

Dance frames are the upper body positions of the dancers. A strong frame provides connection with your partner and conveys intended movement. A strong frame is where your arms and upper body are held firmly in place without relying on your partner to maintain your frame nor applying force that would move your partner or your partner's frame.
Major types of dance frames are Latin, smooth, and swing.

- Guapacha

Guapacha timing is an alternative rhythm of various basic cha-cha steps that are normally counted "<1>, 2, 3, cha-cha-1" whereas "cha-cha-1" is counted musically "4-&-1". In Guapacha, the step that normally occurs on count "2" is delayed an extra half-beat, to the "&" of 2, making the new count "<1>, -&-3, 4-&-1".

- Handhold

Handhold is an element of dance connection: it is a way the partners hold each other by hands.

- Heel lead

Landing on the heel of the foot in motion during a step before putting weight on the remainder of the foot. As in normal walking, much of the swing of the foot is accomplished with its midpart closest to the floor, emphasis shifting to the heel only as the final placement is neared.

- Heel turn

A heel turn is an action danced by the partner on the inside of turn in certain figures in Standard or Smooth. During the course of rotation, the dancer's weight moves from toe to heel of one foot while the other foot swings to close to it, then forward from heel towards the toe of the just closed foot. Follower's heel turns feature body rise coincident with the first step, which leads her foot to close next to the standing one rather than swing past. In contrast, when the leader is dancing a heel turn the rise is delayed until the conclusion of the turn, as he can better lead the amount of turn from a more grounded position. The heel turn is distinguished from other members of the family of heel pull actions which do not require complete closure of the feet. Follower's heel turns are commonly found in the double reverse spin and the open or closed telemark, and the natural and reverse turns of international style foxtrot, while leader's heel turns form the basis of the open or closed impetus.

- Hijacking

In social dancing strongly relying on leading and following, this term hijacking means temporary assuming the leading role by the follower. Also known as stealing the lead. Compare to backleading.

- International Standard

A category of dances in International Style ballroom competitions. Sometimes in the context of competitions it is called Ballroom or International Ballroom, confusing as it might be. (In England, the term "Modern" is often used, which should not be confused with "Modern Dance" that derives from Ballet technique) It includes waltz (also called "slow waltz"), tango, foxtrot, quickstep, and Viennese waltz. This category loosely corresponds to the Smooth category of American Style ballroom.

- International Style

The term describes a particular style of ballroom dances that contrasts with American Style. In a narrower sense, it denotes the group of dances danced in International Style ballroom competitions. The group consists of two categories: Standard and Latin.

- International Latin

International Latin is category of dances in International Style ballroom competitions. It includes Samba, Cha-Cha, Rumba, Paso Doble, and Jive.

- Jack and Jill

Jack and Jill (J&J) is a format of competition in partner dancing, where the competing couples are the result of random matching of leaders and followers. Rules of matching vary. The name comes from the popular English nursery rhyme, Jack and Jill. In venues with same-sex dance partners, the ambiguous name "Pat and Chris" has been used.
In dance competitions J&J is included as a separate division (or divisions, with additional gradations). J&J is popular at swing conventions, as well as at ballroom dance competitions in the USA.

- Latin (dance)

As applied to dances, Latin dance is any type of social dance of Latin American origin.

Latin dance is a general label (and a term in partner dance competition jargon) that refers to various forms of ballroom dance and folk dance, and can include a wide range of dances originating in Latin America (including Puerto Rico and Cuba).

Ballroom examples include the cha-cha-cha, rumba, samba, mambo, danza, merengue, tumba, bachata, bomba, plena, paso doble and bolero.[citation needed] Some also consider tango and Argentine tango in this list, although they differ from the rest in their overall style and in dance competition may form their own category or categories.[citation needed] The salsa style, originating among the Latin American population of Spanish Harlem in New York City, is also often considered Latin dance.

Latin folk dances of Argentina include the chacarera, gato, escondido and zamba. Typical Bolivian folk dances are the morenada, kullawada, caporales and the recently created tinku. In Colombia one of the typical dances is the cumbia.

- Latin hip motion

A characteristic type of hip motion found in the technique of performing a step in Latin and Rhythm dances. Although most visible in the hips, much of the effect is created through the action of the feet and knees. Sometimes it is also called Cuban hip motion, although because of the divergence in dance technique between American Rhythm and International Latin some prefer to distinguish the two, with the term "Latin motion" reserved for International Style, while the "Cuban motion" reserved for American Style and Club Latin dances. The most notable distinction (in a simplified description) is that in the International Style "Latin motion" the straightening of the knee happens before the full weight transfer, while in the "Cuban motion" the straightening of the knee happens after the full weight transfer. As a result, the Cuban hip motion results in a more fluid leg movement, whereas the Latin hip motion results in a more staccato leg movement.

- Lead stealing

A body lead occurs where the leader initiates a lead by moving their body, which moves their arm(s), and thus transmits a lead to the follow. 'Body lead' means much the same as 'weight transfer'. An arm lead occurs where the leader moves their arm(s) without moving their body, or moves their body in a different direction to their arm. While an 'arm lead' without the transfer of weight (or movement of the body) on the part of the leader is often a marker of an inexperienced or poorly taught dancer, the process of leading and following, particularly at an advanced level, often involves the contra- and contrasting uses of weight transfers and 'arm moves'. As an example, a leader may lead a follow back onto their right foot through the leader's own weight transfer forwards onto their left foot, yet at the same time turn the follow's torso to the left from above the hips.

The Lead has to communicate the direction of the movement to the Follow. Traditionally, the Lead's right hand on the follow's back, near the lowest part of the shoulder-blade. This is the strongest part of the back and the lead can easily pull the Follow's body inwards. To enable the Lead to communicate a step forward (backward for the Follow) the Follow has to constantly put a little weight against the Lead's right hand. When the Lead goes forward, the Follow will naturally go backwards.

An important leading mechanism is the Lead's left hand, which usually holds the Follow's right hand. At no point should it be necessary for any partner to firmly grab the other's hand. It is sufficient to press the hand or even only finger tips slightly against each other, the Follows hand following the Leads hand.

Another important leading mechanism is hip contact. Though not possible in traditional Latin dances like Rumba, Cha-cha, Tango Argentino because of partner separation, hip contact is a harmonious and sensual way of communicating movement to the partner, used primarily in Standard or Ballroom Dances (English / slow Waltz, European Tango, Quickstep etc) and Caribbean dances.

- Leader

The Lead (conventionally the male in a mixed sex couple) is responsible for choosing appropriate steps to suit the music (if it is an improvised dance), and leading the Follow by hand pressure and signals to complete the chosen steps smoothly and safely. If the dance is a set (pre-choreographed) routine, the Lead is still responsible for initiating each move, which ensures smooth coordination between the two dancers.

The degree to which the Lead 'controls' the dance (and, by implication, "controls" the Follow) depends on the dance style and dancer sensitivity, the social context in which the dance exists, the experiences and personalities of each partner, and a range of other factors. Some partner dances such as Lindy Hop involve an open position which encourages each partner to improvise alone, yet others, such as Argentine Tango may involve a "close embrace" or closed position which require Follows to follow the Lead more comprehensively.

For many individual dancers, exploring the limits of the Lead-Follow relationship adds to the dance, where this relationship might better be understood as a conversation between partners, with each contributing to the style and mood of the dance through their connection. For other partners, the lead's complete control of the follow, and the follow's relinquishing a greater degree of creative or expressive autonomy is more personally comfortable or satisfying.

- Leading and following

For the Lead and Follow to interact with each other, communication needs to occur between the dance couple. Since it's not practical to discuss moves, physical contact is the most effective means. More advanced dancers will take many cues from each other through this connection, with the Follow using it to communicate feedback to the Lead just as the Lead uses it to suggest moves to their partner. The most accomplished dancers use connection as a line of communication which allows the lead to incorporate the follow's ideas, abilities, and creative suggestions into their own styling and selection of moves.

In many partner dances, the lead's steps differ from the follow's. In face-to-face positions, the follow generally "mirrors" the lead's footwork. For example, if the lead begins on their left foot, the follow will begin on their right foot. In choreographed pieces and other situations where the follow is in a tandem position or shadow position, the lead and follow will use the same footwork. Usually both partners move together as a unit, but in some dances the partners move in opposite directions - together and apart again.

In partner dancing, dancers seek to work together to create synchronised or complementary movements. The lead is largely responsible for initiating movement, whereas the follow's role is to maintain this movement (though they may choose not to). Many dancers describe this process as involving the initiation of momentum or 'energy' (by the lead) and then the subsequent maintenance, exaggeration, decreasing or dissolving of this momentum by both partners. This momentum or energy may be manifested as movement (in its most obvious form), or in a range of more complex interactions between partners:

Compression (where each partner 'compress' the energy by bending joints and moving towards or 'into' their partner, to varying degrees);

Leverage (where one partner - usually the lead - exploits the development of compression or connection to shift their follow's weight or to 'ground' (develop 'compression' downwards, with the contact their feet make with the floor) themselves more thoroughly before initiating movement);

Tension (is the opposite of compression - partners moving away from each other but still in contact).

- Leverage

The term describes type of physical connection, opposite to compression, in which a stress exists at the points of contact directed away from the contact points. Predominantly used in the swing dance community.

- Line of dance

Line of dance (LOD) is conceptually a path along and generally parallel to the edge of the dance floor in the counterclockwise direction. To help avoid collisions, it is agreed that in travelling dances dancers should proceed along the line of dance.

Line of dance is a useful line of reference when describing the directions of steps taken, e.g., "facing LOD", "backing [or reverse] LOD". See also center, wall. Reference to line of dance is based on the direction faced by the leader rather than the follower.

Line of Dance is also a ballroom dance inspired clothing company that specializes in casual dancewear. Started by Chris Lynam in 2004, and then incorporated in 2010, Line of Dance Inc. now ships casual ballroom dancewear throughout the English speaking world.

- Line of foot

An imaginary straight line passing through the foot in the heel-toe direction.
[edit] Measures per minute
Measures per minute, or MPM, refers to the tempo of the music according to the number of measures or bars occurring in one minute of music. This can vary from as low as 25-27 MPM for international style rumba to as fast as 58-60 MPM for international style Viennese waltz.

- Musicality

Musicality is a noun that means sensitivity to, knowledge of, or talent for music. The word also refers to the quality or state of being musical (aka melodiousness.) A musical person has the ability to perceive differences in pitch, rhythm and harmonies. One usually differentiates between two types of musicality: To be able to perceive music (musical receptivity) and to be able to reproduce music as well as creating music (musical creativity).

Musicality may also refer to fitting a dance to the music being played, with the goal of relating the dance to the music's rhythm, melody, and mood. Dancers usually step on the beats of the music, and may vary the size of their movements with the volume of the music. This is especially true in choreography, where dancers plan a routine of dance moves, sometimes with a specific song in mind. This is also a key characteristic of improvised swing dancing. Unlike most ballroom dances which tend to use the music as a metronome to guide the dance, Lindy Hop and West Coast swing view matching your dancing to the spirit/mood of the music is the highest goal achievable.

- No foot rise

In descriptions of the footwork of step patterns the abbreviation NFR stands for no foot rise and means that the heel of the support foot remains in contact with the floor until the weight is transferred onto the other foot. See "Rises and falls" for details. The rise is felt in body and legs only.

- Open dance figure

The term has at least two meanings: regarding dance position and regarding footwork.

A figure performed in open position.
A figure in which during the last step the moving foot passes the support foot. Examples are feather step in Foxtrot or open left turn, e.g., in Tango.

- Open position

Open position is any dance position in couple dances, in which the partners stand apart in contrast to closed position. They may face inwards or outwards, and hold one or both hands or stand independently.
[edit] Outside partner position

A step into outside partner position occurs when the moving foot of the forward travelling partner moves on a track outside of their partner's standing foot when it would ordinarily move on a track aimed between their partner's feet. Due to the offset of the hold, this generally applies to a step with the right foot. (The term left side outside is often used for the rare occurrences when the left foot crosses to pass outside, as in the Hover cross). Steps into outside partner position are also required to be in contra body movement position, and are often preceded by a step with a strong side lead. The term "inline" is occasionally used when it is necessary to clarify that an outside partner position is not involved.

- Physical connection

A dance connection by means of physical contact. Types of physical connection are body contact, compression, leverage.

- Pinched shoulder

Pinched shoulder is the position seen when promenade position is incorrectly danced with an outward rotation of the upper bodies, rather than a rotational stretch in each body. It is characterized by one or both partner's having their trailing elbow behind the line of their shoulders, with a resulting break in the arm line at the trailing shoulder.

- Progressive dance

A dance that significantly travels over the dance floor, generally in the direction of the line of dance. Examples are waltz, foxtrot, polka, samba, Argentine tango. Compare spot dance, slotted dance.

- Promenade position

The promenade position is described differently in various dance categories. See also counter promenade position.
In ballroom dances their common trait is that the dance couple moves (or intends to move) essentially sidewise to the leader's left while partners nearly face each other, with the leader's right side of the body and the follower's left side of the body are closer than the respective opposite sides. Steps of both partners are basically sidewise or diagonally forward with respect to their bodies. Normally the dancers look in the direction of the intended movement.
In square dances it is a close side-by-side position in various handholds with the general intention to move together forward, "in promenade".
Replace

In brief descriptions of dance figures, replace means replacing the weight to the previous support foot while keeping it in place. For example a "rock back" figure may be described as "step back, replace". Notice that it doesn't require to "replace" the moving foot to the place from where it come in the previous step.

- Shadow position

Both partners face the same general direction, one of them squarely behind or slightly shifted sideways ("in the shadow"). Handholds vary. Variants: sweetheart position, cuddle position.

- Side lead

A body position or action during a step, sometimes also called Same side lead. Side leading refers to a movement during which the side of the body corresponding to the moving foot is consistently in advance as a result of a previous contra body movement or body turns less action. A step with side lead will often precede or follow a step of the opposite foot taken into contra body movement position (in which the leading side is that opposite the moving foot) without requiring intervening rotation of the body.

Due to the offset position of the partners in the hold, a left side lead may be quite pronounced whereas a right side lead will be more subtle if taken in closed position.

- Slot

In slotted dances, the dance slot is an imaginary narrow rectangle along which the follower moves back and forth with respect to the leader, who is more or less stationary. As a rule, the leader mostly stays in the slot as well, leaving it only to give way for the follower to pass him.

[edit] Slotted dance

A dance style in which the couple's movements are generally confined to a slot. The most typical slotted dance is west coast swing. Some other dances, e.g., hustle and salsa, may be danced in slotted style. Compare spot dance, travelling dance.

- Smooth

A category of dances in American Style ballroom competitions. It includes waltz, tango, foxtrot and Viennese waltz. Previously Peabody was also included.

This category loosely corresponds to the Standard category of International Style ballroom. However, Smooth differs from Standard in its inclusion of open and separated figures, whereas Standard makes exclusive use of closed positions.

- Spot dance

A dance that is generally danced in a restricted area of the dance floor. Examples are rumba, salsa, east coast swing. Compare travelling dance, slotted dance.

- Spotting

A technique used during turns. The dancer chooses a reference point (such as his or her partner or a distant point along the line of travel) and focuses on it as long as possible. When during the turn it is no longer possible to see it, the head flips as fast as possible to "spot" the reference point again. This technique guides the body during the turn, makes it easier to determine when to stop turning, and helps prevent dizziness.

- Standard

A category of dances in International Style ballroom competitions. Sometimes in the context of competitions it is called Ballroom or International Ballroom, confusing as it might be. (In England, the term "Modern" is often used, which should not be confused with "Modern Dance" that derives from Ballet technique) It includes waltz (also called "slow waltz"), tango, foxtrot, quickstep, and Viennese waltz. This category loosely corresponds to the Smooth category of American Style ballroom.

- Stationary dance

A dance that is generally danced in a restricted area of the dance floor. Examples are rumba, salsa, east coast swing. Compare travelling dance, slotted dance.

- Stealing the lead

Sometimes the follow steals the lead and they reverse roles for some time. This is called hijacking (also known as lead stealing). Hijacking requires experience and good connection, since without proper timing it may look like sloppy dancing. A signal for hijacking is typically an unusually changed (mostly, increased) stress in the connection from the follow's side. "Unusually" means more than typically required for the execution of the current step (by these partners). For a follow to hijack, they must be sure that the lead will understand or at least guess the follow's intentions.

- Step

In a broader sense, step means dance step, i.e., a dance figure, e.g., basic step, triple step.

- Standing foot

Same as Supporting foot.

- Supporting foot

It is also called support foot, a foot which bears the full (or nearly full) weight at the beginning of a step or while the other foot does some action (tap, ronde, etc.). Compare moving foot.

- Sway

The term sway has a specific meaning in the technique of ballroom dancing. Basically, it describes a body position in which its upper part gracefully deflects from the vertical.

-- Syncopation

In dancing, the term has two meanings: The first one is similar to the musical terminology. The second one is making more (and/or different) steps than required by the standard description of a figure, to address more rhythmical nuances of the music. The latter usage is considered incorrect by many dance instructors, but it is still in circulation, a better term lacking.

- Tension

Describes a physical connection, opposite to compression, in which a stress exists at the point(s) of contact directed away from the contact point(s) between partners. People frequently resort to describing the actions as "push" (compression, towards partner) and "pull" (tension, away from partner) to get the idea across. See also leverage.

- Three Ts

Technique, Timing, Teamwork. The criteria for evaluation of dance mastery in Swing dancing community.

- Timing

The relation of the elements of a dance step or dance figure with respect to musical time: bars and beats.

- Toe lead

Landing on the toe of the foot in motion during a step before putting weight on the remainder of the foot.

- Track of foot

The trajectory of the moving foot visualized as a narrow imaginary track, forward and backward of the foot rather than a line. For the standing foot, its track is determined by its current orientation on the floor which may be noted on the inside of turns where the feet often point in differing directions.

- Travelling (progressive) dance

A dance that significantly travels over the dance floor, generally in the direction of the line of dance. Examples are waltz, foxtrot, polka, samba, Argentine tango. Compare spot dance, slotted dance.

- Visual connection

A dance connection by means of visual awareness of partners in a couple. Visual connection by no means should replace the physical connection, and some consider it to be an inferior form of connection. However it does have its proper usages. Most important are the coordination of styles (arms, etc.) and when dancing without physical contact. An important example of the latter is spotting the partner during turns, especially free spins.

This type of connection is essential for "Shine Position Patterns", commonly found in latin dances like the Cha-Cha, Mambo, and Salsa as well as "Side By Side Position Patterns".

- Voice cue

Voice cues help match rhythmic patterns of steps (or other moves) with the music. There are different types of voice cues.

Still another example: the Box Step of American style Rumba may be cued as "forward-...-side-together, back-...-side-together", to indicate the directions of (leader's) steps and their timing.

Finally, for more advanced dancers voice cues are actually names of dance figures and standard variations:

"Two walks, link, closed promenade" (tango).

"Open telemark, natural fallaway, whisk, quick wing" (waltz).

"Dile que no!... setenta!... Dame dos con una!..." (salsa rueda)

Cues are an important element of round dances. In square dances they are called calls and called by a caller .

- Wall

When indicating a direction of movement during a dance, the term "wall" means the direction perpendicular to the LOD pointing towards the wall of the room (possibly imaginary). If one stands facing the LOD, then the wall direction is to their right.

Nanoelectronics, Molecular Scale Electronics, and Molecular Logic Gate

noreply@blogger.com (The Ultimate) — Wed, 27 Jul 2011 18:49:00 +0000

In 1965 Gordon Moore observed that silicon transistors were undergoing a continual process of scaling downward, an observation which was later codified as Moore's law. Since his observation transistor minimum feature sizes have decreased from 10 micrometers to the 45-65 nm range in 2007; one minimum feature is thus roughly 180 silicon atoms long. The field of nanoelectronics aims to enable the continued realization of this law by using new methods and materials to build electronic devices with feature sizes on the nanoscale.

Nanoelectronics refer to the use of nanotechnology on electronic components, especially transistors. Although the term nanotechnology is generally defined as utilizing technology less than 100 nm in size, nanoelectronics often refer to transistor devices that are so small that inter-atomic interactions and quantum mechanical properties need to be studied extensively. As a result, present transistors do not fall under this category, even though these devices are manufactured with 45 nm, 32 nm, or 22 nm technology.

Nanoelectronics are sometimes considered as disruptive technology because present candidates are significantly different from traditional transistors. Some of these candidates include: hybrid molecular/semiconductor electronics, one dimensional nanotubes/nanowires, or advanced molecular electronics.

The volume of an object decreases as the third power of its linear dimensions, but the surface area only decreases as its second power. This somewhat subtle and unavoidable principle has huge ramifications. For example the power of a drill (or any other machine) is proportional to the volume, while the friction of the drill's bearings and gears is proportional to their surface area. For a normal-sized drill, the power of the device is enough to handily overcome any friction. However, scaling its length down by a factor of 1000, for example, decreases its power by 10003 (a factor of a billion) while reducing the friction by only 10002 (a factor of "only" a million). Proportionally it has 1000 times less power per unit friction than the original drill. If the original friction-to-power ratio was, say, 1%, that implies the smaller drill will have 10 times as much friction as power. The drill is useless.

For this reason, while super-miniature electronic integrated circuits are fully functional, the same technology cannot be used to make working mechanical devices beyond the scales where frictional forces start to exceed the available power. So even though you may see microphotographs of delicately etched silicon gears, such devices are currently little more than curiosities with limited real world applications, for example, in moving mirrors and shutters. Surface tension increases in much the same way, thus magnifying the tendency for very small objects to stick together. This could possibly make any kind of "micro factory" impractical: even if robotic arms and hands could be scaled down, anything they pick up will tend to be impossible to put down. The above being said, molecular evolution has resulted in working cilia, flagella, muscle fibers and rotary motors in aqueous environments, all on the nanoscale. These machines exploit the increased frictional forces found at the micro or nanoscale. Unlike a paddle or a propeller which depends on normal frictional forces (the frictional forces perpendicular to the surface) to achieve propulsion, cilia develop motion from the exaggerated drag or laminar forces (frictional forces parallel to the surface) present at micro and nano dimensions. To build meaningful "machines" at the nanoscale, the relevant forces need to be considered. We are faced with the development and design of intrinsically pertinent machines rather than the simple reproductions of macroscopic ones.
All scaling issues therefore need to be assessed thoroughly when evaluating nanotechnology for practical applications.

Nanofabrication

For example, single electron transistors, which involve transistor operation based on a single electron. Nanoelectromechanical systems also fall under this category. Nanofabrication can be used to construct ultradense parallel arrays of nanowires, as an alternative to synthesizing nanowires individually.

Nano Material Electronics

Besides being small and allowing more transistors to be packed into a single chip, the uniform and symmetrical structure of nanotubes allows a higher electron mobility (faster electron movement in the material), a higher dielectric constant (faster frequency), and a symmetrical electron/hole characteristic.
Also, nanoparticles can be used as quantum dots.

Molecular electronics

Single molecule devices are another possibility. These schemes would make heavy use of molecular self-assembly, designing the device components to construct a larger structure or even a complete system on their own. This can be very useful for reconfigurable computing, and may even completely replace present FPGA technology.
Molecular electronics is a new technology which is still in its infancy, but also brings hope for truly atomic scale electronic systems in the future. One of the more promising applications of molecular electronics was proposed by the IBM researcher Ari Aviram and the theoretical chemist Mark Ratner in their 1974 and 1988 papers Molecules for Memory, Logic and Amplification. This is one of many possible ways in which a molecular level diode / transistor might be synthesized by organic chemistry. A model system was proposed with a spiro carbon structure giving a molecular diode about half a nanometre across which could be connected by polythiophene molecular wires. Theoretical calculations showed the design to be sound in principle and there is still hope that such a system can be made to work.

Nanoelectronic devices

Simulation result for formation of inversion channel (electron density) and attainment of threshold voltage (IV) in a nanowire MOSFET. Note that the threshold voltage for this device lies around 0.45V.

Radios

Nanoradios have been developed structured around carbon nanotubes.

Computers

Nanoelectronics holds the promise of making computer processors more powerful than are possible with conventional semiconductor fabrication techniques. A number of approaches are currently being researched, including new forms of nanolithography, as well as the use of nanomaterials such as nanowires or small molecules in place of traditional CMOS components. Field effect transistors have been made using both semiconducting carbon nanotubes[9] and with heterostructured semiconductor nanowires.

Energy production

Research is ongoing to use nanowires and other nanostructured materials with the hope to create cheaper and more efficient solar cells than are possible with conventional planar silicon solar cells. It is believed that the invention of more efficient solar energy would have a great effect on satisfying global energy needs.

There is also research into energy production for devices that would operate in vivo, called bio-nano generators. A bio-nano generator is a nanoscale electrochemical device, like a fuel cell or galvanic cell, but drawing power from blood glucose in a living body, much the same as how the body generates energy from food. To achieve the effect, an enzyme is used that is capable of stripping glucose of its electrons, freeing them for use in electrical devices. The average person's body could, theoretically, generate 100 watts of electricity (about 2000 food calories per day) using a bio-nano generator. However, this estimate is only true if all food was converted to electricity, and the human body needs some energy consistently, so possible power generated is likely much lower. The electricity generated by such a device could power devices embedded in the body (such as pacemakers), or sugar-fed nanorobots. Much of the research done on bio-nano generators is still experimental, with Panasonic's Nanotechnology Research Laboratory among those at the forefront.

Molecular logic gate

A molecular logic gate is a molecule that performs a logical operation on one or more logic inputs and produces a single logic output. Much academic research is dedicated to the development of these systems and several prototypes now exist. Because of their potential utility in simple arithmetic these molecular machines are also called moleculators.

Molecular logic gates work with input signals based on chemical processes and with output signals based on spectroscopy. One of the earlier water solution-based systems exploits the chemical behavior of compounds A and B in scheme 1.

Scheme 1. Molecular logic gates de Silva 2000

Compound A is a push-pull olefin with the top receptor containing four carboxylic acid anion groups (and non-disclosed counter cations) capable of binding to calcium. The bottom part is a quinoline molecule which is a receptor for hydrogen ions. The logic gate operates as follows.

Without any chemical input of Ca2+ or H+, the chromophore shows a maximum absorbance in UV/VIS spectroscopy at 390 nm. When calcium is introduced a blue shift takes place and the absorbance at 390 nm decreases. Likewise addition of protons causes a red shift and when both cations are in the water the net result is absorption at the original 390 nm. This system represents a XNOR logic gate in absorption and a XOR logic gate in transmittance.

In compound B the bottom section now contains a tertiary amino group also capable of binding to protons. In this system fluorescence only takes place when both cations are present and therefore the system represents an AND logic gate.

With both systems run in parallel and with monitoring of transmittance for system A and fluorescence for system B the result is a half-adder capable of reproducing the equation 1+1=2.

In a modification of system B not two but three chemical inputs are simultaneously processed in an AND logic gate. An enhanced fluorescence signal from the compound depicted below is obtained only in the presence of hydrogen, zinc and sodium ions through interaction with respectively the amine, carboxylate and crown ether receptors and this system can be potentially applied in disease screening (lab-on-a-molecule) because these ions are all physiologically relevant.

Scheme 2. Lab On A Molecule

In another XOR logic gate system the chemistry is based on the pseudorotaxane depicted in scheme 3. In organic solution the electron deficient diazapyrenium salt (rod) and the electron rich 2,3-dioxynaphthalene units of the crown ether (ring) self-assemble by formation of a charge transfer complex.

An added tertiary amine like tributylamine forms a 1:2 adduct with the diazapyrene and the complex gets dethreaded. This process is accompanied by an increase in emission intensity at 343 nm resulting from freed crown ether. Added trifluoromethanesulfonic acid reacts with the amine and the process is reverted. Excess acid locks the crown ether by protonation and again the complex is dethreaded.

Scheme 3. Pseudorotaxane logic gate

A full adder system based on fluorescein is able to compute 1+1+1=3.

Molecular Scale Electronics

Conventional electronics have traditionally been made from bulk materials. Ever since its invention in 1958 the performance and complexity of integrated circuits has been growing exponentially (a trend also known as Moore’s law) and has forced the feature sizes of the embedded components to shrink accordingly. As the structures become smaller the sensitivity for deviations increases and in a few generations, when the minimum feature sizes reaches 13 nm, the composition of the devices will have to be controlled to a precision of a few atoms in order for the devices to work. With the bulk approach having inherent limitations in addition to becoming increasingly demanding and expensive, the idea was born that the components could instead be built up atom for atom in a chemistry lab (bottom up) as opposed to carving them out of bulk material (top down). This idea is the reasoning behind molecular electronics with the ultimate miniaturization being components contained in single molecules.

In single molecule electronics, the bulk material is replaced by single molecules. That is, instead of creating structures by removing or applying material after a pattern scaffold, the atoms are put together in a chemistry lab. This way billions of billions of copies are made simultaneously (typically more than 10 20 molecules are made at once) while the composition of molecules are controlled down to the last atom. The molecules utilized have properties that resemble traditional electronic components such as a wire, transistor or rectifier.

Single molecule electronics is an emerging field, and entire electronic circuits consisting exclusively of molecular sized compounds are still very far from being realized. However, the continuous demand for more computing power together with the inherent limitations of the present day lithographic methods make the transition seem unavoidable. Currently, the focus is on discovering molecules with interesting properties and on finding ways to obtaining reliable and reproducible contacts between the molecular components and the bulk material of the electrodes.

Molecular electronics operates in the quantum realm of distances less than 100 nanometers. The miniaturization down to single molecules brings the scale down to a regime where quantum effects are important. As opposed to the case in conventional electronic components, where electrons can be filled in or drawn out more or less like a continuous flow of charge, the transfer of a single electron alters the system significantly. This means that when an electron has been transferred from the source electrode to the molecule, the molecule gets charged up and makes it much harder for the next one to transfer (see also Coulomb blockade). The significant amount of energy due to charging has to be taken into account when making calculations about the electronic properties of the setup and is highly sensitive to distances to conducting surfaces nearby.

The theory of single molecule devices is particularly interesting since the system under consideration is an open quantum system in nonequilibrium (driven by voltage). In the low bias voltage regime, the nonequilibrium nature of the molecular junction can be ignored, and the current-voltage characteristics of the device can be calculated using the equilibrium electronic structure of the system. However, in stronger bias regimes a more sophisticated treatment is required, as there is no longer a variational principle. In the elastic tunneling case (where the passing electron does not exchange energy with the system), the formalism of Rolf Landauer can be used to calculate the transmission through the system as a function of bias voltage, and hence the current. In inelastic tunneling, an elegant formalism based on the non-equilibrium Green's functions of Leo Kadanoff and Gordon Baym, and independently by Leonid Keldysh was put forth by Ned Wingreen and Yigal Meir. This Meir-Wingreen formulation has been used to great success in the molecular electronics community to examine the more difficult and interesting cases where the transient electron exchanges energy with the molecular system (for example through electron-phonon coupling or electronic excitations).

Further, connecting single molecules reliably to a larger scale circuit has proven to be a great challenge and constitute a significant hindrance to commercialization.

Common for molecules utilized in molecular electronics is that the structures contain a lot of alternating double and single bonds (see also Conjugated system). The reason for this is that such a pattern delocalizes the molecular orbitals making it possible for electrons to move freely over the conjugated area.

Wires

This animation of a rotating carbon nanotube shows its 3D structure.

The sole purpose of molecular wires is to electrically connect different parts of a molecular electrical circuit. As the assembly of these and their connection to a macroscopic circuit is still to be mastered, the focus of research in single molecule electronics is primarily on the functionalized molecules: molecular wires are characterized by containing no functional groups and are hence composed of plain repetitions of a conjugated building block. Among these are the carbon nanotubes that are quite large compared to the other suggestions but have shown very promising electrical properties.

The main problem with the molecular wires is to obtain good electrical contact with the electrodes so that the electrons can move freely in and out of the wire.

Transistors

Single molecule transistors are fundamentally different than the ones known from bulk electronics. The gate in a conventional (field-emission) transistor determines the conductance between the source and drain electrode by controlling the density of charge carriers between them, whereas the gate in a single molecule transistor controls the feasibility of a single electron to jump on and off the molecule by modifying the energy of the molecular orbitals. One of the effects of this difference is that the single molecule transistor is almost binary: it is either ON or OFF. This opposes its bulk counterparts which have quadratic responses to gate voltage.

It is the quantization of charge into electrons that is responsible for the markedly different behavior compared to bulk electronics. Because of the size of a single molecule, the charging due to a single electron is significant and provides a mean to turn the transistor ON or OFF. For this to work, the electronic orbitals on the transistor molecule cannot be too well integrated with the orbitals on the electrodes. If they are, an electron cannot be said to be located on the molecule or the electrodes and the molecule will function as a wire.

A popular group of molecules, that can work as the semiconducting channel material in a molecular transistor, is the oligopolyphenylenevinylenes (OPVs) that works by the Coulomb blockade mechanism when placed between the source and drain electrode in an appropriate way. Fullerenes work by the same mechanism and have also been commonly utilized.

Semiconducting carbon nanotubes have also been demonstrated to work as channel material but although molecular, these molecules are sufficiently large to behave almost as bulk semiconductors.

The size of the molecules and the low temperature the measurements are being conducted at makes the quantum mechanical states well defined. It is therefore being researched if the quantum mechanical properties can be used for more advanced purposes than simple transistors (e.g. spintronics).

Physicists at the University of Arizona, in collaboration with chemists from the University of Madrid, have designed a single molecule transistor using a ring-shaped molecule similar to benzene. Physicists at Canada's National Institute for Nanotechnology have designed a single-molecule transistor using styrene. Both groups expect (their designs have yet to be experimentally verified) their respective devices to function at room temperature, and to be controlled by a single electron.

Rectifiers (diodes)

Molecular rectifiers are mimics of their bulk counterparts and have an asymmetric construction so that the molecule can accept electrons in one end but not the other. The molecules have an electron donor (D) in one end and an electron acceptor (A) in the other. This way, the unstable state D+ - A- will be more readily made than D- - A+. The result is that an electric current can be drawn through the molecule if the electrons are added through the acceptor end, but not so easily if the reverse is attempted. An example of a molecular rectifier was made by Geoffrey J. Ashwell's Ph.D. students.

Fullerene nanoelectronics

Rotating view of a graphite crystal (2 graphene layers)

In polymers, classical organic molecules are composed of both carbon and hydrogen (and sometimes additional compounds such as nitrogen, chlorine or sulphur). They are obtained from petrol and can often be synthesized in large amounts. Most of these molecules are insulating when their length exceeds a few nanometers. However, naturally occurring carbon is conducting. In particular, graphite (recovered from coal or encountered naturally) is conducting. From a theoretical point of view, graphite is a semi-metal, a category in between metals and semi-conductors. It has a layered structure, each sheet being one atom thick. Between each sheet, the interactions are weak enough to allow an easy manual cleavage.

Tailoring the graphite sheet to obtain well defined nanometer-sized objects remains a challenge. However, by the close of the twentieth century, chemists were exploring methods to fabricate extremely small graphitic objects that could be considered single molecules. After studying the interstellar conditions under which carbon is known to form clusters, Richard Smalley's group (Rice University, Texas) set up an experiment in which graphite was vaporized using laser irradiation. Mass spectrometry revealed that clusters containing specific "magic numbers" of atoms were stable, in particular those clusters of 60 atoms. Harry Kroto, an English chemist who assisted in the experiment, suggested a possible geometry for these clusters - atoms covalently bound with the exact symmetry of a soccer ball. Coined buckminsterfullerenes, buckyballs or C60, the clusters retained some properties of graphite, such as conductivity. These objects were rapidly envisioned as possible building blocks for molecular electronics.

Artifacts

When trying to measure electronic characteristics of molecules, artificial phenomena can occur that can be hard to distinguish from truly molecular behavior. Before they were discovered these artifacts have mistakenly been published as being features pertaining to the molecules in question.

Applying a voltage drop in the order of volts across a nanometer sized junction results in a very strong electrical field. The field can cause metal atoms to migrate and eventually close the gap by a thin filament which can be broken again when carrying a current. The two levels of conductance imitate molecular switching between a conductive and an isolating state of a molecule.

Another encountered artifact is when the electrodes undergo chemical reactions due to the high field strength in the gap. When the bias is reversed the reaction will cause hysteresis in the measurements that can be interpreted as being of molecular origin.

A metallic grain between the electrodes can act as a single electron transistor by the mechanism described above thus resembling the characteristics of a molecular transistor. This artifact is especially common with nanogaps produced by the electromigration technique.

One of the biggest problems with measuring on single molecules is to establish reproducible electrical contact with only one molecule and doing so without shortcutting the electrodes. Because the current photolithographic technology is unable to produce electrode gaps small enough to contact both ends of the molecules tested (in the order of nanometers) alternative strategies are put into use.

One way to produce electrodes with a molecular sized gap between them is break junctions, in which a thin electrode is stretched until it breaks. Another is electromigration. Here a current is lead through a thin wire until it melts and the atoms migrate to produce the gap. Further, the reach of conventional photolithography can be enhanced by chemically etching or depositing metal on the electrodes.

Probably the easiest way to conduct measurements on several molecules is to use the tip of a scanning tunneling microscope (STM) to contact molecules adhered at the other end to a metal substrate.

A popular way to anchor molecules to the electrodes is to make use of sulfurs’ high affinity to gold. In these setups, the molecules are synthesized so that sulfur atoms are placed strategically to function as crocodile clips connecting the molecules to the gold electrodes. Though useful, the anchoring is non-specific and thus anchors the molecules randomly to all gold surfaces. Further, the contact resistance is highly dependent on the precise atomic geometry around the site of anchoring and thereby inherently compromises the reproducibility of the connection.

To circumvent the latter issue, experiments has shown that fullerenes could be a good candidate for use instead of sulfur because of the large conjugated π-system that can electrically contact many more atoms at once than a single atom of sulfur.

Further, connecting single molecules reliably to a larger scale circuit has proven to be a great challenge and constitute a significant hindrance to commercialization.

In their 1940's discussion of so-called "donor-acceptor" complexes, Robert Mulliken and Albert Szent-Gyorgi advanced the concept of charge transfer in molecules. They subsequently further refined the study of both charge transfer and energy transfer in molecules. Likewise, a 1974 paper from Mark Ratner and Ari Aviram 1 illustrated a theoretical molecular rectifier. In 1988, Aviram described in detail a theoretical single-molecule field-effect transistor. Further concepts were p roposed by Forrest Carter of the Naval Research Laboratory, including single-molecule logic gates. A wide range of ideas were presented, under his aegis, at a conference entitled Molecular Electronic Devices in 1988. These were all theoretical constructs and not concrete devices. The direct measurement of the electronic characteristics of individual molecules awaited the development of methods for making molecular-scale electrical contacts. This was no easy task. Thus, the first experiment directly-measuring the conductance of a single molecule was only reported in 1997 by Mark Reed and co-workers. Since then, this branch of the field has progressed rapidly. Likewise, as it has become possible to measure such properties directly, the theoretical predictions of the early workers have been substantially confirmed.

Graphical representation of a rotaxane, useful as a molecular switch.

Recent progress in nanotechnology and nanoscience has facilitated both experimental and theoretical study of molecular electronics. In particular, the development of the scanning tunneling microscope (STM) and later the atomic force microscope (AFM) have facilitated manipulation of single-molecule electronics. In addition, theoretical advances in molecular electronics have facilitated further understanding of non-adibatic charge transfer events at electrode-electrolyte interfaces.

The concept of molecular electronics was first published in 1974 when Aviram and Ratner suggested an organic molecule that could work as a rectifier. Having both huge commercial and fundamental interest much effort was put into proving its feasibility and 16 years later in 1990 the first demonstration of an intrinsic molecular rectifier was realized by Ashwell and coworkers for a thin film of molecules.

The first measurement of the conductance of a single molecule was realised in 1994 by C. Joachim and J. K. Gimzewski and published in 1995 (see the corresponding Phys. Rev. Lett. paper). This was the conclusion of 10 years of research started at IBM TJ Watson, using the scanning tunnelling microscope tip apex to switch a single molecule as already explored by A. Aviram, C. Joachim and M. Pomerantz at the end of the 80's (see their seminal Chem. Phys. Lett. paper during this period). The trick was to use an UHV Scanning Tunneling microscope to allow the tip apex to gently touch the top of a single C60 molecule adsorbed on a Au(110) surface. A resistance of 55 MOhms was recorded together with a low voltage linear I-V. The contact was certified by recording the I-z current distance characteristic, which allows the measurement of the deformation of the C60 cage under contact. This first experiment was followed by the reported result using a mechanical break junction approach to connect two gold electrodes to a sulfur-terminated molecular wire by Mark Reed and James Tour in 1997.

A single-molecule amplifier was implemented by C. Joachim and J.K. Gimzewski in IBM Zurich. This experiment involving a single C60 molecule demonstrated that a single C60 molecule can provide gain in a circuit just by playing with through C60 intramolecular quantum interference effects.

A collaboration of researchers at HP and UCLA, led by James Heath, Fraser Stoddart, R. Stanley Williams, and Philip Kuekes, has developed molecular electronics based on rotaxanes and catenanes.

Work is also being done on the use of single-wall carbon nanotubes as field-effect transistors. Most of this work is being done by IBM.

Some specific reports of a field-effect transistor based on molecular self-assembled monolayers were shown to be fraudulent in 2002 as part of the Schön scandal.

Until recently entirely theoretical, the Aviram-Ratner model for a unimolecular rectifier has been unambiguously-confirmed in experiments by a group led by Geoffrey J. Ashwell at Bangor University, UK. Many rectifying molecules have so far been identified, and the number and efficiency of these systems is expanding rapidly.

Supramolecular electronics is a new field that tackles electronics at a supramolecular level.

An important issue in molecular electronics is the determination of the resistance of a single molecule (both theoretical and experimental). For example, Bumm, et al. used STM to analyze a single molecular switch in a self-assembled monolayer to determine how conductive such a molecule can be.[18] Another problem faced by this field is the difficulty of performing direct characterization since imaging at the molecular scale is often difficult in many experimental devices.

Tourism in Indonesia

noreply@blogger.com (The Ultimate) — Wed, 27 Jul 2011 15:30:00 +0000

Tourism in Indonesia is an important component of the Indonesian economy as well as a significant source of its foreign exchange revenues. In 2009, the number of international tourists arriving in Indonesia climbed 3.6% to 6.45 million arrivals from 6.43 million in 2008. The subsequent economical impact of this tourist influx in 2009 saw $6.3 billion US dollars spent by international tourists in Indonesia, at an average spend of US$129.57 per day and US$995.93 per visit. Whilst the number of arrivals increased in 2009 the total spent per visitor decreased leading to a revenues shortfall of US$1.07 billion when compared to the previous year.

In late January 2011 Culture and Tourism Minister Jero Wacik announced that "Wonderful Indonesia" would replace the previous “Visit Indonesia Year” branding used by the nations official tourism promotional campaigns. The minister announced that in 2010, foreign tourists visiting Indonesia touched 7 million and made predictions of 7.7 million in 2011. He was reported as describing the new branding as reflecting "the country’s beautiful nature, unique culture, varied food, hospitable people and price competitiveness. “We expect each tourist will spend around US$1,100 and with an optimistic target of 7.7 million arrivals, we will get $8.3 billion,” from this. The Culture and Tourism Minister added that 50 percent of the revenue would be generated from about 600 meetings, conventions and exhibitions that were expected to take place in various places throughout the country 2011. He further added in the announcements of January 2011 that his ministry would be promoting the country’s attractions under the eco-cultural banner.

Both nature and culture are major components of Indonesian tourism. The natural heritage can boast a unique combination of a tropical climate, a vast archipelago of 17,508 islands, 6,000 of them being inhabited, the third longest shoreline in the world (54,716 km) after Canada and the European Union. It is the worlds largest and most populous country situated only on islands. The beaches in Bali, diving sites in Bunaken, Mount Rinjani in Lombok and various national parks in Sumatra are just a few examples of popular scenic destinations. These natural attractions are complemented by a rich cultural heritage that reflects Indonesia's dynamic history and ethnic diversity. One fact that exemplifies this richness is that 719 living languages are used across the archipelago. The ancient Prambanan and Borobudur temples, Toraja, Yogyakarta, Minangkabau, and of course Bali, with its many Hindu festivities, are some of the popular destinations for cultural tourism.

Tourism in Indonesia is currently overseen by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. International tourism campaigns have been focusing largely on its tropical destinations with white sand beaches, blue sky, and cultural attractions. Beach resorts and hotels have been developed in some popular tourist destinations, especially Bali island as the primary destination. At the same time, the integration of cultural affairs and tourism under the scope of the same ministry shows that cultural tourism is considered an integral part of Indonesia's tourism industry, and conversely, that tourism is used to promote and preserve the cultural heritage.

Some of the challenges Indonesia's tourism industry has to face include the development of infrastructure to support tourism across the sprawling archipelago, incursions of the industry into local traditions (adat), and the impact of tourism development on the life of local people. In 2010, based on World Economic Forum survey, Indonesia got Tourism Competiveness Index at number 74 (up from number 81) from 139 countries. The tourism industry in Indonesia has also faced setbacks due to problems related to security. Since 2002, warnings have been issued by some countries over terrorist threats and ethnic as well as religious conflicts in some areas, significantly reducing the number of foreign visitors for a few years. However, the number of international tourists has bounced back positively since 2007, and reached a new record in 2008.

Statistics

Indonesian Tourism Statistics

Year -------- International visitors ------- Average stay (days)
2000 ------------- 5,064,217 --------------------- 12.26
2001 ------------- 5,153,620 --------------------- 10.49
2002 ------------- 5,033 400 --------------------- 9.79
2003 ------------- 4,467,021 --------------------- 9.69
2004 ------------- 5,321,165 --------------------- 9.47
2005 ------------- 5,002,101 --------------------- 9.05
2006 ------------- 4,871,351 --------------------- 9.09
2007 ------------- 5,505,759 --------------------- 9.02
2008 ------------- 6,429,027 --------------------- 8.58
2009 ------------- 6,452,259 --------------------- 7.69

Ten most tourist destinations in Indonesia recorded by Central Statistics Agency (BPS) are Bali, West Java, Central Java, East Java, Jakarta, North Sumatra, Lampung, South Sulawesi, South Sumatra, Banten and West Sumatra (actually there are 11 provinces due to Banten is part of West Java before).

As with most countries, domestic tourists are by far the largest market segment. The biggest movement of domestic tourists is during the annual Eid ul-Fitr, locally known as "lebaran". During this period, which is a two-week holiday after the month of fasting during Ramadan, many city-dwelling Muslim Indonesians visit relatives in their home towns. Intercity traffic is at its peak and often an additional surcharge is applied during this time.

Over the five years up to 2006, attention has been focused on generating more domestic tourism. Competition amongst budget airlines has increased the number of domestic air travellers throughout the country. Recently, the Ministry of Labour legislated to create long weekends by combining public holidays that fall close to weekends, except in the case of important religious holidays. During these long weekends, most hotels in popular destinations are fully booked.

Since 2000, on average, there have been five million foreign tourists each year (see table), who spend an average of US$100 per day. With an average visit duration of 9–12 days, Indonesia gains US$4.6 billion of foreign exchange income annually. This makes tourism Indonesia's third most important non-oil–gas source of foreign revenue, after timber and textile products.

Three quarters of Indonesia's visitors come from the Asia-Pacific region, with Singapore and Australia among the top countries of origin. The United Kingdom, France, and Germany are the largest sources of European visitors. Although Dutch visitors are at least in part keen to explore the historical relationships, many European visitors are seeking the tropical weather at the beaches in Bali.
Around 59% of all visitors are traveling to Indonesia for holiday, while 38% for business purposes.

In 2005, tourism accounted for 7% of job opportunities and 5% of Indonesian GDP. In January 2010 the Coordinating Minister for the Economy Hatta Rajasa was reported as announcing that he expected "the tourism sector to contribute 4.8 percent of the gross domestic product” in the 2010 year.

Historical

Much of the international tourism of the 1920s and 1930s was by international visitors on oceanic cruises. The 1930s did see a modest but significant influx of mainly European tourists and longer term stayers to Bali. Many came for the blossoming arts scene in the Ubud area, which was as much a two-way exchange between the Balinese and outsiders as it was an internal phenomenon.

Tourism more or less disappeared during World War II, and in the early years of the Sukarno era. National pride and identity in the late 1950s and early 1960s was incorporated into the monumentalism of Sukarno in Jakarta — and this included the development of international standard hotels. The political and economic instability of the mid-1960s saw tourism decline radically again. Bali, and in particular the small village of Kuta, was however, in the 1960s, an important stopover on the overland hippy trail between Australia and Europe, and a "secret" untouched surf spot. In the early-to-mid 1970s, high standard hotels and tourist facilities began to appear in Jakarta and Bali, and from this period to the end of the Suharto era, governmental policies of the tourism industry included an array of regulations and developments to encourage increasing numbers of international tourists to both visit Indonesia and stay longer.

Nature Tourism

Puncak, West Java

Indonesia has a well-preserved, natural ecosystem with rainforests that stretch over about 57% of Indonesia's land (225 million acres), approximately 2% of which are mangrove systems. One reason why the natural ecosystem in Indonesia is still well-preserved is because only 6,000 islands out of 17,000 are permanently inhabited. Forests on Sumatra and Java are examples of popular tourist destinations. Moreover, Indonesia has one of longest coastlines in the world, measuring 54,716 kilometres (33,999 mi), with a number of beaches and island resorts, such as those in southern Bali, Lombok, Bintan and Nias Island. However, most of the well-preserved beaches are those in more isolated and less developed areas, such as Karimunjawa, the Togian Islands, and the Banda Islands.

Dive sites

With more than 17,508 islands, Indonesia presents ample diving opportunities. Bunaken National Marine Park, at the northern tip of Sulawesi, claims to have seven times more genera of coral than Hawaii, and has more than 70% of all the known fish species of the Indo-Western Pacific. Moreover, there are over 3,500 species living in Indonesian waters, including sharks, dolphins, manta rays, turtles, morays, cuttlefish, octopus and scorpionfish, compared to 1,500 on the Great Barrier Reef and 600 in the Red Sea. Tulamben Bay in Bali boasts the wreck of the 120 metres (390 ft) U.S. Army commissioned transport vessel, the Liberty. Other popular dive sites on Bali are at Candidasa and Menjangan. Across the Badung Strait from Bali, there are several popular dive sites on Nusa Lembongan and Nusa Penida. Lombok's three Gilis (Gili Air, Gili Meno and Gili Trawangan) are popular as is Bangka. Some of the most famous diving sites in Indonesia are also the most difficult to reach, with places like Biak off the coast of Papua and the Alor Archipelago among the popular, more remote, destinations for divers.

The beach at Gili Meno with Lombok in the distant background

Surf breaks

Surfing is also a popular water activity in Indonesia and the sites are recognised as world class. The well-known spots are mostly located on the southern, Indian Ocean side of Indonesia, for example, the large oceanic surf breaks on southern Java. However, the north coast does not receive the same surf from the Java Sea. Surf breaks can be found all the way along Sumatra, down to Nusa Tenggara, including Aceh, Bali, Banten, Java, Lombok, the Mentawai Islands, and Sumbawa. On Bali, there are about 33 surf spots, from West Bali to East Bali including four on the offshore island of Nusa Lembongan. Sumatra is the second island with the most number of surf spots, with 18 altogether. The common time for surfing is around May to September with the trade winds blowing from east to south-east. From October to April, winds tend to come from the west to north-west, so the east coast breaks get the offshore winds.

Two well-known surf breaks in Indonesia are the G-Land in the Bay of Grajagan, East Java, and Lagundri Bay at the southern end of Nias island. G-Land was first identified in 1972, when a surfer saw the break from the window of a plane. Since 6 to 8 foot (Hawaiian scale) waves were discovered by surfers at Lagundri Bay in 1975, the island has become famous for surfing worldwide.

National parks

There are 50 national parks in Indonesia, of which six are World Heritage listed. The largest national parks in Sumatra are the 9,500-square-kilometre (3,700 sq mi) Gunung Leuser National Park, the 13,750-square-kilometre (5,310 sq mi) Kerinci Seblat National Park and the 3,568-square-kilometre (1,378 sq mi) Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, all three recognised as Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Sumatra on the UNESCO World Heritage list. Other national parks on the list are Lorentz National Park in Papua, Komodo National Park in the Lesser Sunda Islands, and Ujung Kulon National Park in the west of Java.

Lesser Bird of Paradise

Komodo dragon

Komodo Dragon

To be noticed, different national parks offer different biodiversity, as the natural habitat in Indonesia is divided into two areas by the Wallace line. The Wallacea biogeographical distinction means the western part of Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan) have the same flora and fauna characteristics as the Asian continent, whilst the remaining eastern part of Indonesia has similarity with the Australian continent.

Many native species such as Sumatran elephants, Sumatran tigers, Sumatran rhinoceros, Javan rhinoceros and Orangutans are listed as endangered or critically endangered, and the remaining populations are found in national parks and other conservation areas. Orangutans can be visited in the Bukit Lawang conservation area. The world’s largest flower, rafflesia arnoldi, and the tallest flower, titan arum, can be found in Sumatra.

The east side of the Wallacea line offers the most remarkable, rarest, and exotic animals on earth. Birds of Paradise, locally known as cenderawaish, are plumed birds that can be found among other fauna in Papua New Guinea. The largest bird in Papua is the flightless cassowary. One species of lizard, the Komodo dragon can easily be found on Komodo, located in the Nusa Tenggara lesser islands region. Besides Komodo island, this endangered species can also be found on the islands of Rintja, Padar and Flores.

Volcanoes

Mount Bromo

Hiking and camping in the mountains are popular adventure activities. Some mountains contain ridge rivers, offering rafting activity. Though volcanic mountains can be dangerous, they have become major tourist destinations. Several tourists have died on the slopes of Mount Rinjani, Indonesia's second highest volcano and a popular destination for climbers visiting Lombok in eastern Indonesia. Popular active volcanoes are the 2,329-metre (7,641 ft) high Mount Bromo in the East Java province with its little desert, the upturned boat shaped Tangkuban Perahu on the outskirts of Bandung, the most active volcano in Java, Mount Merapi and the legendary Krakatau with its new caldera known as anak krakatau (the child of Krakatau). Puncak Jaya in the Lorentz National Park, the highest mountain in Indonesia and one of the few mountains with ice caps at the (tropical) equator offers the opportunity of rock climbing. In Sumatra, there are the remains of a supervolcano eruption that have created the landscape of Lake Toba close to Medan in North Sumatra.

Cultural tourism

Borobudur

Indonesia consists of an entire 300 ethnic groups, spread over a 1.8 million km² area of 6,000 inhabited islands. This creates a cultural diversity, further compounded by Hindu, Buddhist, Islamic and European colonialist influences.

From the 3rd century until the 13th century, Hinduism and Buddhism shaped the culture of Indonesia. The best-preserved Buddhist shrine, which was built during the Sailendra dynasty in the 8th century, is Borobudur temple in Central Java. A few kilometers to the southeast is the Prambanan complex, a Hindu temple built during the second Mataram dynasty. Both the Borobudur and the Prambanan temple compounds have been listed in the UNESCO World Heritage list since 1991. In Bali, where most Hindus live, cultural festivals are major attractions to foreign tourists.

Islam has also contributed greatly to the cultural society in Indonesia. As of 2006, 88% of Indonesia's recorded population were Muslim. Islamic culture is prominent in Sumatra, and a few of the remaining sultanate palaces can be seen in Medan and Tanjung Pinang.

Despite foreign influences, a diverse array of indigenous traditional cultures is still evident in Indonesia. The indigenous ethnic group of Toraja in South Sulawesi, which still has strong animistic beliefs, offers a unique cultural tradition, especially during funeral rituals. The Minangkabau ethic group retain a unique matrilineal culture, despite being devoted Muslims. Other indigenous ethnic groups include the Asmat and Dani in Papua, the Dayak in Kalimantan and the Mentawai in Sumatra, where traditional rituals are still observed.

A discussion of cultural tourism is not complete without a mention of Yogyakarta, a special province in Indonesia known as centre of classical Javanese fine art and culture. The rise and fall of Buddhist, Hindu, and Islamic kingdoms in Central Java has transformed Yogyakarta into a melting pot of Indonesian culture.

Metropolitan tourism

National Monument in Jakarta

Metropolitan tourism activities are shopping, sightseeing in big cities, and enjoying modern amusement parks. The nation's capital, Jakarta, offers many places for shopping. Mal Kelapa Gading (the biggest one with 130 square kilometres (50 sq mi), Plaza Senayan, Senayan City, Grand Indonesia, EX, and Plaza Indonesia are some of the shopping malls in the city. Another popular tourist activity is golfing, a favorite sport among the upper class Indonesians and foreigners. Some notable golf courses in Jakarta are the Cengkareng Golf Club, located in the airport complex, and Pondok Indah Golf and Country Club. Bali has many shopping centers, for instance, the Kuta shopping center and the Galeria Nusa Dua. Nightlife of Indonesia is also popular among foreigners, especially in the big cities like Jakarta, Bandung, Surabaya, Manado, Denpasar and Medan.

International tourist arrivals

Each of the larger Indonesian islands have at least one international airport. The biggest airport in Indonesia, Soekarno-Hatta International Airport, is located in Tangerang Regency, Banten. There are five more international airports on Java, Adisumarmo International Airport (IATA: SOC) in Solo, Central Java, Juanda International Airport (IATA: SUB) in Surabaya, East Java, Achmad Yani International Airport (IATA: SRG) in Semarang, Central Java, Husein Sastranegara International Airport (IATA: BDO) in Bandung, West Java and Adisucipto International Airport (IATA: JOG) in Yogyakarta. On Kalimantan, there is one international airport and there are two on Sumatra. Bali, which is part of the Nusa Tenggara Islands, has the Ngurah Rai International Airport (IATA: DPS). Selaparang Airport (IATA: AMI) is located on the west coast of Lombok. The new Lombok International Airport is due to open in 2011 at which time Selaparang Airport will either close or may be retained for close regional operations such as DPS-AMI and may possibly be developed as Indonesia's first General Aviation hub airport. There are three major tourists international airports arrivals, i.e. Ngurah Rai International Airport (IATA: DPS) with 2.54 million, Soekarno-Hatta Airport (IATA: CGK) with 1.82 million and Hang Nadim Airport (IATA: BTH), also known as Hang Nadim International Airport, in Batam, Riau Islands with 1.007 million from 7.002 million international tourists recorded as arriving in Indonesia during 2010.

Visa regulations

On February 1, 2004, Indonesia introduced unpopular and tighter tourist visa regulations. Although tourist visas were formerly free and valid for 60 days, visitors from certain countries were now required to purchase one of two visas on arrival (VOA): a US$15 visa valid for 10 days or a US$25 visa valid for 30 days. This was heavily protested by the tourist industry, which pointed out that this cost adds up for families and 30 days is a very limited time to travel in Indonesia with a number of remote and hard to reach locations. The countries now subject to these tighter regulations include Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, South Africa, South Korea, Switzerland, Taiwan, United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom and the United States. On July 14, 2004, the Indonesian tourism ministry granted permission for more countries to be included on the VOA list, including Iran, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Russia, Egypt, Austria, Ireland, Qatar and Luxembourg. These visa were not valid for extension of conversion into any other kind of visa and the visa holder was required to leave the country on or before the 30th day of the stay.

As of January 2010 the regulations changed again and the only type of visa on arrival (VOA) available was for 30 days for a fee of US$25.00. This new version of the VOA may be extended later at a local Immigration office for a further once only period of up to 30 days for a fee of Rp 250,000. The previous 7 day visa on arrival was no longer available from January 2010.

Currently Indonesia allows visa free entry to the citizens of 12 countries. The nationals of these countries who are going on holiday, attending conventions or engaging in similar such activities are allowed to stay in Indonesia of up to 30 days without visa. This type of visa cannot be extended, transferred or converted to any other kind of visa; nor can it be used as a working permit. Those visitors eligible under the visa waiver program have a visa issued at the Indonesian border checkpoints with that issuance subject to the discretion of the visa officer. The visa is not for employment and is not extendable. The citizens of the following countries are eligible: Brunei Darussalam, Chile, Ecuador, Hong Kong SAR (Special Administrative Region), Macau SAR (Special Administrative Region), Malaysia, Morocco, Peru, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam. These visas cannot be extended or converted to another type of visa.

The citizens of 17 countries need to obtain an approval from the immigration services head office the Direktorat Jenderal Imigrasi in Jakarta. The 17 countries are: Afghanistan, Israel, Albania, North Korea, Angola, Nigeria, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Cameroon, Somalia, Cuba, Sri Lanka, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Ghana, Tonga, Iraq and those effected must have a sponsor in Indonesia either a personal or company, the sponsor must go in person to the Immigration Head Office in South Jakarta (Jakarta Selatan) and must produce a photocopy of applicant's passport, a supporting letter and the applicant's photograph. When it is approved, the Immigration Head Office will sends a copy of approval letter to the applicant.

Visitors to Indonesia are required to be in possession of valid passport with minimum of 6 months validity and a return or an onwards journey ticket at the time of arrival.

Other visa classes are available for entry into Indonesia including;

- Transit visa

- Visit Visa

Tourist, Social, Business - for single and multiple journey

- Working visa (including dependants)

- Diplomatic service visa.

Diplomatic service passport holders of 9 nations can obtain a 14 day visit visa; Cambodia, Mongolia, Cuba, Montenegro, Croatia, People's Republic of China, India, Peru, Iran, Serbia, North Korea, Turkey, South Korea, Vietnam, Laos, Equador and Myanmar.

Visit Indonesia Year 2008

The Indonesian Ministry of Culture and Tourism, declared 2008 as a Visit Indonesia Year. Visit Indonesia Year 2008 was officially launched on 26 December 2007. The figure of Visit Indonesia Year 2008 branding took the concept of Garuda Pancasila as the Indonesian way of life. The 5 components of pancasila were represented by 5 different colored lines and symbolized the Indonesian Unity in Diversity. The targeted number was 7 million. Visit Indonesia Year 2008 was also commemorating 100 years of Indonesia's national awakening in 1908.

Visit Indonesia Year 2009

TIME 2009 was held at Santosa Villas & Resort in Senggigi on the west coast Of Lombok NTB. Entering its 16th years of conduct, TIME 2009 was organised by the Indonesian Tourism Promotion Board (ITPB) and received the support of a wide number of tourism participants in Indonesia. TIME 2009 attracted 127 Buyers from 25 countries. The top five buyers were from Korea, India, Malaysia, Indonesia, USA, and the Netherlands. TIME 2009 also attracted a total of 250 delegates of Sellers from 97 companies of Indonesia occupying 84 booths at the Exhibition. Sellers came from 15 provinces dominated by West Nusa Tenggara, Jakarta, Bali, Central Java, and East Kalimantan as top five Sellers. The percentage of Sellers based on industry was Hotel, Resort & Spa (75%), NTO (10%), Tour Operator/Travel Agent (7%), Adventure/Activity Holiday (3%), Airline (1.5%), and Others (Hotel Management, Tourism Board, Tourism Organization & Travel Portal (8.5%). Amidst current global financial crisis, TIME 2009 booked an estimated of transaction of USD 17.48 million, or increasing 15% from the previous TIME held in Makassar, South Sulawesi in 2008.

Visit Indonesia Year 2010

Following the hosting on the island of Lombok in 2009 the event was again hosted in Lombok-Sumbawa on 12–15 October 2010 at Santosa Villas & Resort in Senggigi on the west coast of Lombok. Entering its 16th years, TIME is organized by the Indonesian Tourism Promotion Board (ITPB) and supported by a wide number of tourism participants in Indonesia. TIME 2010 was supported by the travel and tourism industry in Indonesia, including the Ministry of Culture & Tourism, the Provincial Government of West Nusa Tenggara, West Nusa Tenggara Culture & Tourism Office, Lombok Sumbawa Promo, Garuda Indonesia as Official Airlines, other supporting airlines , Indonesia National Air Carriers Association (INACA), Board of Airline Representatives Indonesia (BARINDO), Association of Indonesian Tours & Travel Agencies (ASITA), Indonesia Hotels and Restaurant Association (PHRI), Indonesian Conference and Convention Association (INCCA), Pacto Convex as the event organizer, supported by national and international media. Lombok and Sumbawa in West Nusa Tenggara have set a target of wooing one million tourists to visit the islands by 2012.