WRITING

Double negatives and usage

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438a - Double negatives and usage

Words such as never, nobody, no one, nothing, nowhere have a negative meaning and do not require a negative verb form:

Ø The company never told the new staff that they needed a password.

(~~The company didn’t never tell the new staff that they needed a password~~.)

Ø When I got there, there was nobody in the park.

(~~When I got there, there wasn’t nobody in the park~~.)

However, in many non-standard dialects of English, double and multiple negatives are frequent with words such as never, nobody, nothing and nowhere:

Ø I didn’t see nobody nowhere.

Double and multiple negatives are used, especially in spoken English, in order to create emphasis. Traditional grammar books prohibit them, and the use of double negatives with words such as never, nobody, nothing and nowhere is a very sensitive issue. Learners of English are advised not to use them.

Representing speech in writing

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120 - Representing speech in writing

In writing, the expressive character of spoken language is represented by reproducing the sound of core words and phrases as accurately as possible. There is a wide variety of possible variants but the most common transcriptions are:

§ I don’t wanna do it. (want to)
§ Havva nice day. (have a)
§ That’s great innit? (isn’t it?)
§ I dunno and she dunno. (don’t/doesn’t know)
§ I’m gonna have an iced coffee. (going to)
§ Dad, you just gotta look at this. (got to)
§ I hafta go now. (have to)

Common forms of spoken grammar

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119b - Common forms of spoken grammar

Accusative personal pronoun as subject

I don’t know how but me and my sister got lost in the market. (level 3)

(the level 1 form would be: my sister and I got lost …)

Zero plural for nouns of measurement

That’s twelve foot long. You need something a lot shorter. (level 3)

(level 1 form: twelve feet long …)

What as a relative pronoun

That’s the house what she rented. (level 4)

(level 1 form: the house that/which …)

Them as demonstrative determiner and pronoun

Did you get them photos we sent round? (level 4)

(level 1 form: get those photos …)

A: What are the right plants then?

B: Them over there, the peonies. (level 4)

(level 1 form: those over there …)

Ain’t as a negative contraction

I know something. That ain’t the answer. (level 4)

(level 1 form: that isn’t …)

also 120 for innit, which may be regarded as a variant of ain’t it

Double and multiple negation

She hasn’t got no sense at all, she hasn’t. (level 4)

I haven’t got nothing to say to no one. (level 4)

also 438a Double negatives and usage

Patterns with past and -ed participle verb forms

These range from past forms used as -ed participle forms, -ed participle forms used as past forms and base forms used as past tenses:

She’s been so worried she’s hid in her room. (level 4)

Yeah, it’s good, innit, I seen it there yesterday. (level 4)

She’s already give it to me, thanks. (level 4)

Subject/verb concord

This is a very common area of variation in spoken grammar. Patterns occur involving singular noun + plural verb, plural noun + singular verb and structures involving existential there, in particular, in which a singular verb is followed by a plural complement. This last structure is very common in spoken English and is becoming established as a standard form:

It were too heavy to move. You need a winch of some sort. (level 4)

We was frightened like. That’s why we didn’t call her. (level 4)

There’s three other people still to come. (level 2)

Grammatical acceptability

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85 - Grammatical acceptability

In Cambridge Grammar of English book the following criteria* are adopted for grammatical acceptability in British English to determine whether or not an item or structure is included. ‘Widespread’ here means across speakers of both genders and across a wide range of ages and social and regional backgrounds.

• Included: in widespread use in both the written and spoken corpus (most forms are in this category).

• Included: in widespread use in both the written and spoken corpus but not approved in more prescriptive grammar books and often avoided by many writers of formal English, for example, split infinitives, stranded prepositions (e.g. That’s the woman I gave it to, compared with That’s the woman to whom I gave it).

• Included: rare or not occurring in the written corpus but widespread and normal in the spoken corpus ( for example, 96 Headers and 97 Tails), and vice versa.

• Not included: regionally or socially marked in the written and/or spoken corpus but widespread and normal within major regional/social varieties of British English ( for example, the use of ain’t, 119b).

• Not included: non-occurring and unacceptable in all varieties of British English he did must speak).

* Our thanks to Susan Hunston for suggesting this list of categories.

FROM UTTERANCE TO DISCOURSE

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FROM UTTERANCE TO DISCOURSE

92 – INTRODUCTION

Sections 82–91 outlined some key features of spoken language, especially the way face-to-face conversations are tied to the participants and the immediate situation in which they are speaking in real time.

In this chapter, 92–103, we consider how grammatical features in spoken utterances reflect the creation of discourse rather than just the internal construction of phrases, clauses and sentences. We use the term ‘utterance’ to refer to complete communicative units, which may consist of single words, phrases, clauses and clause combinations spoken in context, in contrast to the term ‘sentence’, which we reserve for units consisting of at least one main clause and any accompanying subordinate clauses, and marked by punctuation (capital letters and full stops) in writing.

This chapter considers how speakers orient themselves to the situation of speaking, centred on the notion of deixis. Deixis concerns the way speakers refer to people and things in terms of time and space, all in relation to the moment and situation of speaking. For example, the basic meanings of I and you in English are ‘person speaking’ and ‘person addressed’, respectively, and who the words refer to will change every time the speaker changes. Similarly, an object which is this cup for a speaker may be referred to as that cup by a listener who is separated from the speaker in space or time:

A: What’s this box here?

B: I don’t know. Trash.

[at a travel agent’s; the customer (A) has just received his tickets]

A: Right well this is all right now is it?

B: That’s the ticket yes.

(what is this for the customer is that for the agent)

=> 93

This chapter also considers how speakers encode assumptions about what can be understood from the situation without being said, and what cannot, as reflected in the phenomenon of situational ellipsis. Ellipsis, or absence of references to entities which are obvious to all participants, is common in informal speech:

A: Finished yet?

B: Not yet.

(obvious to the listener that the speaker means ‘Have you finished yet?’)

=> 94

This chapter also examines how listeners respond to messages and show their ‘listenership’, for example by the use of response tokens, i.e. single words and phrases that represent much more personally and affectively engaged alternatives to bare yes and no:[talking about food preparation]

A: Actually these things should be marinated the night before.

B: Exactly. Oh absolutely. Actually er yeah. Even the vegetables, Karen.

The chapter then describes how speakers package the information in their messages with the listener firmly in mind (e.g. by the use of headers, informative items that precede the conventional clause structure and make the clause easier to process):

(header)

My father, he’s been in hospital three times already.

=> 96

In addition, the chapter considers how speakers create interactive exchanges by the use of questions and tags (short structures typically found at the end of clauses, such as You like mushrooms, don’t you?) (=> 98).

Another important feature of spoken discourse is the purposive use of vague language (such as sort of, whatever) to project particular kinds of relationships between speakers (=> 103).

The way speakers organise their utterances into coherent discourse and monitor it in relation to its reception by listeners is covered in the next chapter, in the section on discourse markers (=> 108).

The notion of standard spoken grammar

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84 - The notion of standard spoken grammar

The term ‘standard grammar’ is most typically associated with written language, and is usually considered to be characteristic of the recurrent usage of adult, educated native speakers of a language. Standard grammar ideally reveals no particular regional bias. Thus ‘Standard British English’ grammar consists of items and forms that are found in the written usage of adult educated native speakers from Wales, Scotland and England and those Northern Irish users who consider themselves part of the British English speech community.

The typical sources of evidence for standard usage are literary texts, quality journalism, academic and professional writing, etc. Standard grammar is given the status of the official record of educated usage by being written down in grammar books and taught in schools and universities.

Spoken transcripts often have frequent occurrences of items and structures considered incorrect according to the norms of standard written English. However, many such forms are frequently and routinely used by adult, educated native speakers. Examples of such structures are split infinitives (e.g. We decided to immediately sell it), double negation (e.g. He won’t be late I don’t think, as compared to I don’t think he will be late), singular nouns after plural measurement expressions (e.g. He’s about six foot tall), the use of contracted forms such as gonna (going to), wanna (want to), and so on.

Standard spoken English grammar will therefore be different from standard written English grammar in many respects if we consider ‘standard’ to be a description of the recurrent spoken usage of adult native speakers. What may be considered ‘non-standard’ in writing may well be ‘standard’ in speech.

Speech and writing are not independent. Although some forms of spoken grammar do not appear in writing (unless in written dialogues), there is considerable overlap and there is an increasing range of forms appearing in informal written texts which previously were only considered acceptable in speech. In => 120 the presence of typically spoken grammatical forms in such contexts as emails and internet chat-room exchanges is discussed.

HEADERS in English Grammar

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96 - HEADERS

96a - Headers and clause structure

The dominant word order in English in both speech and writing is the declarative s-v-x where s is the subject of the clause, v is the verb and x is any other item that may be present, e.g. an object (o) or an adjunct (a). The theme (what the speaker wants to talk about or the point of departure of the message) is usually the subject of the clause (=> 472).

Fronting may be used to emphasise what the speaker considers to be especially significant. The word or phrase which is fronted and which comes first in the clause is highlighted or ‘thematised’ by the word order. Adjuncts are frequently fronted for emphasis in both spoken and written language (=> 473), and objects and complements can also be fronted. This is particularly common in spoken language:

I like David but Pat I find rather odd. (fronting of the object Pat)

I think we tried to see too much. Naples I remember but all those other towns along the coast are a bit of a blur. (fronting of the object Naples)

[trying to find a library book that is on short loan, i.e. must be returned after only a very short period]

A: There’s another short-loan book round here somewhere that I have to get in and I don’t know where it is. Yes. That one and there’s another one. Not one on the floor down there is there?

B: No.

A: It’s probably around here then. Aha. Hiding from me. And a very good book it was too.

(fronting of subject complement)

These fronted elements still remain within the clause structure:

[c = subject complement]

C	S	V	A
a very good book	it	was	too

(non-fronted: it was a very good book too)

However, in spoken English a particular type of structure is common where an item within the clause structure is placed before the clause and repeated (usually as a pronoun) in the clause itself. When such an item occurs before the clause, the structure is called a header:

< ------- header-------- >, < -----clause------ >

S V C

The teacher with glasses, he seems very nice.

(non-fronted: The teacher with glasses seems very nice.)

FROM UTTERANCE TO DISCOURSE

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FROM UTTERANCE TO DISCOURSE

92 – INTRODUCTION

A: What’s this box here?

B: I don’t know. Trash.

[at a travel agent’s; the customer (A) has just received his tickets]

A: Right well this is all right now is it?

B: That’s the ticket yes.

(what is this for the customer is that for the agent)

=> 93

A: Finished yet?

B: Not yet.

(obvious to the listener that the speaker means ‘Have you finished yet?’)

=> 94

A: Actually these things should be marinated the night before.

B: Exactly. Oh absolutely. Actually er yeah. Even the vegetables, Karen.

(header)

My father, he’s been in hospital three times already.

=> 96

Another important feature of spoken discourse is the purposive use of vague language (such as sort of, whatever) to project particular kinds of relationships between speakers (=> 103).

INTRODUCTION TO GRAMMAR AND SPOKEN ENGLISH

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INTRODUCTION TO GRAMMAR AND SPOKEN ENGLISH

82 - Spoken language

Until recently, items and structures most typically found in spoken communication have not been fully described. Most grammars of English have had a bias towards the written language. It is only recently that advances in audio-recording and associated technology have made it possible for sufficient quantities of spoken language to be used for analysis.

This chapter focuses on spoken English in its own right. Most chapters of this grammar book include mention of differences between spoken and written grammar and aspects of context that affect choices of grammar. Those chapters give more detailed examples of items and structures described in this chapter.

It is difficult fully to represent spoken grammar in a written book. Although the corpus used as the source of examples in this book provides useful evidence of spoken usage, the corpus has not been systematically coded for phonetic and prosodic features. Variations in stress, intonation contour, voice quality and other aspects such as loudness and tempo, rhythm and length of pauses are not indicated. And the citations from the corpus are presented in written form so that there always remains an underlying bias towards writing in the transcription itself.

This bias towards written language also means that appropriate terms for describing special features of spoken grammar are not always available in existing grammatical frameworks. In some cases new terminology has to be introduced. An example is the use of the terms headers and tails in 96–97.

The chapters on spoken English in this page are constructed on the basis of four main features of spoken language:

1. Spoken language happens in real time and is typically unplanned.

2. Spoken language is most typically face to face.

3. Spoken language foregrounds choices which reflect the immediate social and interpersonal situation.

4. Spoken language and written language are not sharply divided but exist on a continuum.

The four features overlap. For example, the very fact that spoken language typically occurs face to face means that it is usually unplanned. It should also be acknowledged that written language involves social and interpersonal choices, for example in the writing of personal letters or emails, or in constructing persuasive arguments.

INTRODUCTION TO GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH

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INTRODUCTION TO GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH

WHAT IS GRAMMAR?

Grammar is concerned with how sentences and utterances are formed. In a typical English sentence, we can see the two most basic principles of grammar, the arrangement of items (syntax) and the structure of items (morphology):

I gave my sister a sweater for her birthday.

1a - Arrangement of items (syntax)

The meaning of this sentence is obviously created by words such as gave, sister, sweater and birthday. But there are other words (I, my, a, for, her) which contribute to the meaning, and, additionally, aspects of the individual words and the way they are arranged which enable us to interpret what the sentence means. For example, we know it is I who gave the sweater, not my sister, because I comes before the verb (gave). In English, subjects (the doers of actions) come before verbs in statements. We also know the relationship between the indirect object, my sister, and the direct object, a sweater, (that the sweater was given and my sister was the recipient) because indirect objects come before direct objects. We also expect my to come before sister, not after. These aspects of the arrangement of things in sentences is referred to as syntax. Syntax is one of the two basic principles of grammar.

1b - Structure of items (morphology)

The example sentence (i.e. I gave my sister a sweater for her birthday.) also illustrates the other basic principle of grammar. I and my are two different forms, one with a subject meaning, the other with a possessive meaning, even though they both refer to the same person. Gave refers to past time, in contrast to give(s), which refers to present time. Sweater is singular; if there were more than one sweater, the form would be sweaters. These small items of meaning, such as I, my, the past form gave, a plural -s ending, are called grammatical morphemes, and come under the heading of morphology. Morphology is concerned with the structure of words and phrases. It is the second basic principle of grammar.

1c - Acceptable and unacceptable forms

Grammar is concerned with acceptable and unacceptable forms and the distinctions of meaning these forms create. The fact that sweater means ‘knitted outer garment worn on the upper part of the body for warmth’ and that sister means ‘female sibling’ are matters of vocabulary (lexis), but the distinction between present and past, one and more than one, subject and object, possession and non-possession, etc., are matters of grammar. In every language, some forms are acceptable and others are not. So, in English, we can create arrangements of our example sentence which are not acceptable, either syntactically or morphologically:

I my sister gave a sweater for birthday her.

Gave I my sister a sweaters for his birthday.

I gives my sisters sweater a for her birthday.

In Cambridge Grammar book, we indicate unacceptable forms with a line through the text:

~~I my sister gave a sweater for birthday her~~.

1d - Vocabulary (lexis)

Although some aspects of our example sentence are concerned with lexis, lexis and grammar are not totally independent. A ‘sweater’ is the kind of thing in the world that English treats as countable (we may have one, two or more of them). However, if I gave my sister ‘information’, the fact that information is an abstract entity, which English considers to be uncountable, affects the grammar, and the sentence would have to be I gave my sister some information. ‘I gave my sister an information’ would be an unacceptable form.

1e - Phrases

Our initial example sentence may also be seen as composed of units or building blocks of different sizes, not just individual words and their endings. For example, the sentence could be divided up thus:

I | gave | my sister | a sweater | for her birthday.

We have now divided the sentence into its constituent phrases (items which have individual functions in the sentence). It is the phrase a sweater which acts as the object, not just the word sweater, and the whole phrase for her birthday indicates the reason or circumstances of the giving.

1f - Clauses

We could extend the example sentence:

I gave my sister a sweater for her birthday and she bought me a CD for mine.

We can now see two larger building blocks (in green) in the sentence, connected by and. These are clauses (separate units containing their own verbs: gave/bought). Grammar is concerned with how the constituent units of sentences (morphemes, words, phrases and clauses) are put together to form sentences.

1g - Classes of word, phrase and clause

Words are not all of the same type. Some, such as sweater and sister, are nouns (words referring to entities: persons, things, animals, abstract concepts); some, such as gave and bought, are verbs (words referring to actions, events or states); and so on. These words belong to different classes.

Equally, the phrases belong to different classes: for her birthday and for mine are prepositional phrases (phrases introduced by prepositions).

Clauses too belong to classes: some are declarative (they have the subject first and typically make statements), some are interrogative (they have a verb such as do, be or have first, and typically ask questions). Grammar is concerned with how units and classes relate to one another.

1h - Functions

The noun phrases my sister, a sweater are types of object in our example sentence in 1f, and for my birthday and for mine are operating as phrases indicating the circumstances. They are referred to as adjuncts. The terms subject, verb, object, adjunct refer to the functions the different phrase-types carry out in the clause. Grammar describes what the acceptable functions are.

1i - Sounds (phonology)

How sentences are spoken is also relevant. The sentence I do like your car, on the face of it, seems to break the rule that do is not used in statements. However, if the sentence is spoken with appropriate stress, then it becomes acceptable. This is the emphatic do, which may be used in statements:

I do like your car.

Phonology (the sound systems of a language) is therefore also connected in important ways with grammar and lexis, and influences the interpretation of sentences.

1j - Choices

Throughout the construction of a sentence, the speaker/writer makes choices. Choices involve things such as number (singular or plural), tense (present or past), definiteness (a sweater versus the sweater), etc. Every choice carries a different meaning, and grammar is concerned with the implications of such choices.

ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES FOR YOUNG LEARNERS USING MUF FRAMEWORK : A Qualitative Research in a Primary School in Bandung Kulon by YULIANI, Desi

2010-07-28T02:31:00.000+07:00

Penulis : YULIANI, Desi
Judul : ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES FOR YOUNG LEARNERS USING MUF FRAMEWORK: A Qualitative Research in a Primary School in Bandung Kulon

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Pembimbing : Ika Lestari Damayanti (Pembimbing 1), Della N. Kartikasari (Pembimbing 2)

Abstrak : The study is entitled Assessment Techniques for Young Learners Using MUF Framework: A Qualitative Research in a Primary School in Bandung Kulon. The study is intended to answer the two research questions: 1. what techniques are used by the teachers to conduct assessment in young learners' classroom using MUF framework, and 2. what aspects are assessed by the English primary teachers in young learners' classroom using MUF framework. The study took place in a primary school in Bandung Kulon. This school was chosen based on the consideration that the school was categorized as "challenged school". The third and fourth grades of the school were involved in this study. The two English teachers in those grades were selected as the respondents. The data was analyzed by referring to the theory from Georgiou and Pavlou (2003) about assessment techniques and aspects.
The result of this study reveals that the assessment techniques used by the two respondents in the MUF framework class were observation, written test, take-home task, oral test and structured assessment-task. The assessment aspects assessed by the two respondents included skill development aspects (grammar, vocabulary, spelling, pronunciation, fluency and listening for detailed information), attitudes (students' participation and students' response) and social skills (students' behavior).

UNIVERSITAS PENDIDIKAN INDONESIA

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