Note Orchestra

Unit 2: Chapter 3 [Print Journalism]

2019-11-12T10:56:00.002-08:00

• Magazines Reporting-

• A magazine is a publication that is issued periodically. It generally contains essays, stories, poems, articles, fiction, recipes, images etc. Magazines are directed at general and special audience, often published on a weekly or monthly basis.

• Magazines don't necessarily follow a specific format or structure in writing the articles.

• Newspaper Articles provide information but a magazine article creates an experience. Usually magazines publish features.

• A magazine article should be a detailed report. It is like a feature and the writer / Reporter has an intention. The author can use his language skill comfortably. The article need not be on a current topic. The tone can be light. It can be conversational.

• News Agencies’ Reporting-

• A news agency is an organization of journalists established to supply news reports to organizations in the news trade. They are also known as wire services or News services.

• News agencies generally prepare hard news stories and feature articles that can be used by other news organizations with little or no modification, and then sell them to other news organizations.

• Every news agency copy news story must carry at the top a suitable slug. Generally the slug is one word, which is often the key work in the story.

• News agencies working process is totally different from newspapers because news agencies work as a news providers to different news channels they are not publishing the news like other Newspapers.

• Newspaper Reporting-

• A newspaper is a publication that is issued daily or weekly. It includes local and international news stories, advertisements, announcements, opinions, cartoons, and sports news and television listings.

• In newspaper reporting it is required to deliver the information on deadline. The basic objective of news writing is to inform the audiences about the actions and events by creating pictures and visuals in the minds of the audiences.

• Most important 5 Ws and 1 H are very important.

• Always keep the words short. Always prefers the familiar words, avoid complex words. Always write the same way as you talk. Always write to express, not to impress.

• An important story need not be long. Use Quotes in order to improve the story.

Unit 2: Chapter 2 [Print Journalism]

2019-11-12T10:55:00.002-08:00

Reporting:

• Reporting is the process through which we go on location or site of the incident and grab the information and make available to the common people.

• Objective Reporting-

• Journalism needs to be more objective, accurate and investigative in the way it presents information and relays facts to the public. This objectivity in journalism helps the audience to make up their own mind about a story and decide what they want to believe.

• The journalist must report only the facts and not a personal attitude toward the facts.

• Interpretative Reporting-

• Interpretative reporting puts news in perspective to bring out its significance.

• The Interpretative reporter gives the reader the background of an event and explains the possible consequences.

• Most important 5 Ws in factual background are as follow – What, When, Where, Who & Why.

• For an intelligent newspaper reader, there are few surprises, because the interpretative reports keeps him informed of the consequence of events.

• Investigative Reporting-

• Investigative reporting is exposing and reporting corruption. It calls for exceptional courage, a sense of justice and a commitment to the higher values of life.

• The best kind of Investigative reporting is that which keeps the public interest in mind. It may highlight an injustice, expose corrupt practices or unmask dishonest politicians and Bureaucrats.

• Investigative journalism is finding, reporting and presenting news which other people try to hide. The job of journalists is to let people know what is going on in the community, the society and the world around them.

• When a journalist tries to report on matters which somebody wants to keep secret, this is investigative journalism.

• Good investigative reporters do not let any possible story clues escape. They write them down because they might come in useful later.

Unit 2: Chapter 1 [Print Journalism]

2019-11-12T10:53:00.002-08:00

1. News Reporting:

• Definition-

• It means the collection or gathering of facts about current events or background material required for a news story or feature.

• Reporters do it through interviews, investigations and observation. They write the news stories, which are called copies.

• Beat Reporting-

• It is the craft of reporting on an issue or particular sector, organization or institution over time. Beat reporters build up a base of knowledge on and gain familiarity with the sector, allowing them to provide insight and commentary in addition to reporting straight facts.

• Crime Reporting: Crime is a part of life and it is newspaper’s duty to inform the readers of what crimes are going on in their city, state or country. Crime reporting is usually assigned to one of the junior reporters in a newspaper, it is a highly responsible and specialized job. Eg - There are several types of crime news-murders, fires, accidents, robberies, fraud, blackmail, kidnapping, rape, etc.

• Court Reporting: Court reporters must understand the judicial process from beginning to end. They should know what happens when a suspect is arrested, charged, tried and sentenced or released. The best way to learn the process is to spend time at the court house.

• Health Reporting: Health reporter usually informs the public about major epidemics, diseases and their cures, new medical discoveries, medical irregularities, etc. The health reporter in no way should frighten the common man but present remedies and cures for the diseases. Health reporters need to examine the credibility and biases of scientific sources.

• Civic Reporting: Reporters around the country are increasingly turning to civic journalism to find better stories and report them in ways that re-establish a bond with readers, viewers and listeners. Eg - products liability, medical malpractice, cases involving children, cases involving drugs or medical devices for women etc.

• Education Reporting: The education reporter has to report education plans, durations, costs, and scholarships of various educational programs started by national and international universities. The education reporter must be aware with different departments of education, have good contacts with colleges and universities and get an insight into the psyche of the students’ about their preferences and choices.

• Sports Reporting: Sports reporters write to appeal to a class of readers who eat, drink and sleep sports. Sports writing is as competitive as the game itself. Reporter’s depth of knowledge is important while commenting on star performers.

Unit 1: Chapter 4 [Print Journalism]

2019-11-12T10:52:00.002-08:00

News Sources

• In journalism, a source is a person, publication, or other record or document that gives timely information. Sources of news are everywhere.

• Eg - Official records, publications or broadcasts, officials in government or business, organizations or corporations, witnesses of crime, and most importantly involved people.

• Most sources are not confidential. Research indicates that anonymous sourcing undermines credibility. When a source requests anonymity, they are referred to as a "confidential source".

• The phrase on the record is used to refer to making an audio or video recording, making a transcription, or taking minutes.

• ACADEMIC JOURNALS: Research by academics, published in journals is a frequent source of news stories.

• COMMERCE & TRADE: business organizations can be useful source of news stories or comments about anything from interest rates, shares to shopping.

• LIBRARIES: Though it is hard to believe but the truth is that not everything is available on the Internet. Libraries retain a useful role in providing access to reference books, company reports, local history achieves, indexes of local societies, community notice boards and so on.

• NEWS AGENCIES: They are the foot soldiers of journalism at a national and international level, allowing media organizations to cover stories in areas where they have few or no staff. Agencies keep a check on offices and local bodies and look out for news stories here.

• NEWS RELEASES: News or press releases are point of reference for the journalists while covering an event.

• Attributions-

• In journalism Attribution is the identification of the source of reported information.

• Attribution means to tell your readers or listeners the name and title of the person you interviewed or document you got the information from.

• Sometimes, attributions can be avoided. This simply means that the information given can be used but the source must not be identified. Individuals can be quoted and depending on the source, their general occupation can be named. For instance, someone may be named as a "senior Justice Department official" or a "spokesman" without the speaker's name.

• Byline-

• BY LINE: When the staff reporters or correspondents of the newspaper file news stories, there are three ways of mentioning it. First, credit is given by mentioning the name of the journalist. This is called giving by-line and is used only in special cases when the journalist has done something more than the usual.

• Second, designation of the person who has filed the story is given. EXAMPLES: Our Special Correspondent, Our Correspondent, Our Staff Reporter, HT Correspondent, etc.

• Credit Line-

• CREDIT LINE: Credit line contains information about the source from where the news has been taken for publication. The news may be taken form a news agency and the abbreviated form of the name of the agency is used.

• When the news has been picked from more than one news agency either the names of all the agencies are given or Agencies is mentioned in the credit line. In some newspapers the name of the agency is given at the end of the news.

• EXAMPLES: PTI (Press Trust of India), UNI (United News of India), Bhasha (Hindi), Varta (Hindi), AP (Associated Press), Reuter etc.

• Embargo-

• Embargoes are typically used by government or corporate representatives working in publicity or public relations, and are often arranged in advance as part of a formal or informal agreement.

• Sometimes publishers will release advance copies of a book to reviewers with the agreement that reviews of it will not appear before the official release date of the publication.

• Complex scientific news might also require advance notice with an embargo. Governments also have legitimate reasons for imposing embargoes, often so as to prevent news reports being an unfair or undue influence over votes in legislative bodies.

• Artists' names and locations of performances are sometimes embargoed pending the official announcement of the scheduled performance tour.

• It’s a Mandatory deadline for the release of a story. A news embargo is a request by a source that the information or news provided by that source not be published until a certain date or certain conditions have been met.

Pdf for the above notes:..

Unit 1: Chapter 3 [Print Journalism]

2019-11-12T10:51:00.002-08:00

News:

• Meaning-

• Anything timely that is interesting and significant to the audience. It is the current happenings that are not ordinary but worth knowing.

• News makes people curious and surprised. It makes people talk. Eg – Dog bites man is not news but Man bites dog is news.

• Definition-

• “News is any accurate fact or idea that will interest a large amount of readers”- Lyle M Spencer.

• Nature-

• Lead – The opening paragraph of a news story. It’s function is to summarise the story and garner interest for the story.

• Body – These are the facts, quotes and incidents that explain the lead. No personal opinions are allowed here. A narrative which helps the story flow. (Inverted Pyramid)

• Conclusion – Completion of news story by giving audience closure. It also includes some important observation.

• Elements of News and News Values- They determine the ‘newsworthiness’ of news.

• Proximity – It makes the story interesting as local news is appreciated by the local audience, rather than news from very faraway places. People wish to learn about the happenings of their towns and cities.

• Oddity – Something odd or strange attracts readers. Eg – Man bites dog.

• Conflict – The winner of conflict creates curiosity among people to see it through. Eg – Sports events and competitions.

• Timeliness – News is a perishable commodity which loses its worth once consumed. Even a delay of seconds may cause news to lose its worthiness.

• Consequence – People are interested in things which might affect their lives. Therefore news which can affect lives of people is very valuable. Eg – Students will value the news which gives information about doubling of college fees.

• Human Interest – News which invokes emotions among humans. Eg – Bollywood news.

• Hard News-

• News which has great importance and significance. It impacts the life of a nation.

• It is of immediate importance. Should be brought to the attention of the reads ASAP.

• It starts with a summary lead and answers all the questions – What, When, Where, Why, Whom and How.

• Brief and simple in nature for greater understanding. It is timely and serious news.

• Eg – Election Results, accidents, swearing in of new govt, budget announcement.

• Soft News-

• News that interests people but doesn’t have huge significance. Involves subjects of human interest like Sex, Entertainment, Events, Persons, Places, et cetera.

• It is sometimes sensational in nature. May appear frequently as anchor stories on front page (The Hindu).

• Journalist can get creative and have fun with the content of news story.

• Eg – Release of a book, seminars, people reaction about budget, lifestyle stories.

• News Feature-

• Deal with both information and facts. In news features, the presentation may be dramatic and major information may be revealed after creating some suspense or after creating a receptive environment.

• It explores an issue. The most important information is normally not given in the beginning.

• A good feature is about the people in your community and their struggles, victories and defeats. A feature takes a certain angle and explores it by interviewing the people involved and drawing conclusions from that information.

• All important pieces of information are covered. These can be given in an imaginative manner using quotes, dialogue and picture making verbs.

• News features more or less follow the chronological order of storytelling.

• News Article-

• An article is an organized way of telling the information which includes a headline, name of the writer/speaker, introduction, body, summary, conclusion etc.

• If the story is about a natural disaster, a court case, or an important meet taking place to discuss some important social or environmental issues, the article necessarily has timeliness about it as it is time bound and has to carry facts and information that is fresh and has taken place just now.

• A news article should not give any judgment or remarks from the author or the creator of the story as it is based upon real life facts and situations.

• A simple article does not need concluding remarks from the writer, and it should be just reporting the facts as they are without being biased or judgmental.

• Backgrounders-

• These write-ups bring the readers up to date explaining how, why, and when of the event and issue so far. Backgrounders are more or less an historical presentation of the information and facts.

• It might spin off a news event or it might appear after the reporter has collected enough information on a topic. It is advisable to write backgrounders in a systematic and planned manner.

• For a backgrounder the data is generally organized in chronological order. Care should be taken to go into the past as much as possible. Its main purpose is to update and inform.

• Since the backgrounder contains lot of facts, it has to be written very carefully to make it interesting and readable.

• Eg - During elections, background information about constituencies, political groups and contestants is very important and every newspaper publishes it.

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pdf for the above notes:

Unit 1: Chapter 2 [Print Journalism]

2019-11-12T10:50:00.002-08:00

Journalism:

• Definition-

“Knowledge of the current events is journalism. It involves obtaining the facts, their critical evaluation and appropriate representation of such events”- C.G Muller. Mainly concerned with newspaper. NEWS: North, East, West and South.
Role of a Journalist-
A journalist is the person who wants to give a definite direction to the public through his writings published at short intervals”- T.H.S Scott
Ancient Indian Journalist: Narada: First Journalist on Earth and also known as ancient father of journalism.
People have the desire to know things. This curiosity is satisfied by the journalists through their writings in newspapers and journals.
Journalists are the reporters, writers, columnists who write for a newspaper or a magazine.
Truth – Journalists should always pursue truth in a practical sense. They should also be credible.
Loyalty – They should maintain public loyalty by working for the public good rather than manipulating people for any third party.
Verification – Maintaining transparency and objectivity.
Independent of Bias – Journalist should not be influenced by external forces of culture, religion, et cetera.
Watchdog – They act as a watchdog to the government officials by exposing corruption and other malpractices.

• Journalists should also:

Make people aware of the world around them.
Inform and Educate the audience.
Promote Art and Culture.
Entertain the masses.
Make people sensitive to burning issues.
Instil good moral values.

• Journalism as a Fourth Estate-

• The Press is the unofficial Fourth institution in any democracy, apart from the Legislature, Executive and Judiciary.
• The Press includes all photographers, journalists, broadcasters, radio announcers, et cetera.
• The Press has immense political influence and power.
• Press protects the ordinary citizens against the tyranny of rulers.
• It is the upholder of rights and freedoms of citizens.
• It is the voice of the people and watchdog of the government.
• Press is the embodiment of Article 19 of Indian Constitution: Freedom of Speech and Expression.

• Citizen Journalism-

• The concept of citizen journalism is basically journalism in the hands of citizens other than professional journalists.

• It is based upon public citizens playing an active role in the process of collecting, reporting, analysing, and disseminating news and information.

• Social media has empowered the ordinary citizens to take on the role of news reporters. Users are able to express their views and opinions.

• Creating a blog or doing a report on a topic you are knowledgeable on, even though you are not a journalist.

• Commenting on things you find online makes you become a Citizen Journalist by sharing your opinions and others.

• Examples of Citizen Journalism:

• Kennedy Assassination, 1963,

• WTC, 2011,

• Columbia shuttle Disater, 2003.

• It allows citizens to feel more involved in the community by expressing their opinions, engaging with other social media users and contributing their thoughts and knowledge about a subject.

• Penny Press-

• The Penny Press was most famous for its low price, a penny per paper.

• It became popular with the American public because while other papers were priced around six cents, they were able to sell their paper for just a penny.

• The Penny Press is generally considered to have started in 1833, when Benjamin Day founded The Sun, a New York City newspaper.

• Focus on local events, scandals and crime. Ran serialized stories. Human interest stories. Celebrity news. Fashion notes and Jokes.

• The heavy dependence on ‘advertising’ as a major source of revenue was a main reason that the Penny Press was able to sell papers for a lower price than anyone else.

• The Sun was the first popular penny paper.

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pdf for the above notes:

Unit 1:Chapter 1 [Print Journalism]

2019-11-12T10:48:00.002-08:00

11. Evolution and Growth of Print Journalism in India

William bolts
• First attempt to start a newspaper in Calcutta in 1776 but his efforts to publish newspaper were not approved by the Company

• JAMES AUGUSTUS HICKEY:
• James Augustus Hickey who published the first newspaper In January 29th 1780, It was called the Bengal Gazette, Calcutta General Advertiser and Hicky’s gazette
• Hickey is regarded as the father of the Indian press
• He described Bengal gazette weekly political and commercial paper open to all parties but influenced by none
• James Augustus Hickey’s personal contention with the British rule or its representative- East India Company
• The content was mainly for criticizing the East India Company. But to make it more catchy and readable, Hickey added other things four page Gazette, like a Gossip column, a poet’s corner, news related the European scandals and most importantly the advertisement
• There were two rival groups :one group supporting Warren Hastings, and another group led by Philip Francis who himself an aspirant of the post of the Governor General.
• The newspaper was entirely against Warren Hastings and his friend Elijah Impey, the chief justice of the Supreme Court.
• The newspaper survived only for two years.

After Bengal Gazette:
• Rival paper(Messink and Reed) established India Gazette in the year 1780 as a voice against Bengal Gazette. It was a new paper of quality and standard in comparison to Hickey’s newspaper, India Gazette enjoyed the patronage of Warren Hastings in the form of all facilities from him. Approximately 200 newspapers/ journals came into existence between 1780 and 1857 but most of them were closed within short duration of time.

Early Newspapers of Calcutta
• 1780 November – India Gazette by Bernard Mess ink
• 1784 February – Calcutta Gazette and Oriental Advertiser
• 1785 February – Bengal Journal by Thomas Jones
• 1785 May – Oriental Magazine/Calcutta Amusement, first monthly
• 1786 January – Calcutta Chronicle
• 1796 – The Telegraph
• 1799 – The Relator

• 1795 – The Harakuru, name changed in 1864 Indian Daily News

Early newspapers of Madras
• 1785 – Madras Courier by Richard Johnson
• 1795 Weekly Madras Gazette by Robert William
• 1795 – Indian Herald by Humphrey (without authority was arrested)
• As a result censorship was introduced in 1795

Early Press in Bombay
• 1789 – Bombay Herald, weekly
• 1790 – Bombay Courier by Luke Ashberner, name changed to Bombay Times in 1838 under the editorship of Robert Knight
• 1791 – Bombay Gazette
• 1792 - Bombay herald and Bombay Gazette merged
• 1816 – Bengal Gazette, The first Indian owned newspaper by Gangadhar Bhattacharya.

James Silk Buckingham
• Father of indian journalism
• He came to India in 1818 as the editor of the “ Calcutta Chronicle”
• Biweekly paper consisiting of 8 pages
• Contain political, commercial and literary news and views.
• This set a new standard in calcutta journalism as correspondence columns were open to all who had grievance.
• Buckingham paper was interested in discussing the acts and policies of bengal govermnet, postal service ,the police , the military establishment and government attitude to various matters of public interest.
• Buckingham criticised the policy of sati and denounced the government’s failure to put an and to this system.
• Calcutta journal was acknowledged to be the be the best produced paper and the best in content and presentation.
• Buckngham first encounter with authoritoes of east india company col rubinson.
• In england buckingham started the “ Oriental Herald”
• Role and contribution of buckingham in indian journalism :
• Imparted a quality of leadership
• Unbiased news
• Made the newspaper the mirror of the people
• He set a examples of others.

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pdf of the above file...

Unit 4 Chapter 1[Still Photography]

2019-10-13T11:27:00.002-07:00

4.1. Photo Journalism: Definition and Concept Role, Importance

Concept:

The basic idea of using photograph in various channels and outlets such as news papers, periodicals, information booklets and leaflets, albums, exhibitions, display, stills on T.V. internet etc. is to attract the receiver to receive your information by visual support of your message and minimise your words for your expression.

A good photograph is equivalent to thousand words” is said rightly.

What makes a good photograph?

Focus
Clear subject in the photograph
Composition
Lighting and exposure
Colour

Emotion and mood?

Definition:

Photo journalism is a particular form of journalism (the collecting, editing and presenting of news material for publication or broadcast) that creates images in order to tell a news story. It can be used:

1. Photo support the story.

2. Photo itself become the story.

PHOTO-JOURNALISM is one of the most difficult and powerful branch of the profession, because it requires competence and specialization in two fields—Photography and Journalism. Photojournalism is not staged. It shows the subject as it happened. The public has to trust what they see is true. It’s historic.

Photojournalism is a special category itself which gives ample opportunities and scope to the photographer to show his ability and creative talent for disseminating the required information through photographic illustrations by using minimum words.

Role and Types of Photojournalism:

1. Sports photojournalism

2. War photojournalism

3. Glamour/Fashion photojournalism

4. Spot news photojournalism

5. Travel photojournalism

6. Wildlife photojournalism

1. Sports photojournalism: As sports events are a big part of news, there are photojournalists who specialise in photographing sports. This is also because sports photography requires a specialised skill as well as equipment. Nowadays there are photojournalists who specialise in photographing individual sports.

2. War photojournalism: This is the earliest form of photojournalism, where photojournalists have covered wars and sent photos from the centre of action. In India we see a lot of photographs in newspapers, of conflicts within the country such a terrorist activity or a riot where the photographer is in a dangerous situation and yet he manages to send us pictures, risking his life.

3. Glamour/Fashion photojournalism: Film stars and other famous personalities have become a major part of news coverage as most people want to peep into the lives of the rich and famous. There are photojournalists who specialise in this kind of photography only are also called paparazzi, which is an Italian word.

4. Spot news photojournalism: This means covering events that make day to day news, like political events, crime, accidents etc. This is in fact the most common type of photojournalism and is most demanding for a photojournalist.

5. Travel photojournalism: This type of photojournalism involves the documentation of an area’s landscape, people, culture. Travel photographs are taken by professionals or even amateurs. Photographs taken by amateurs are shared online with friends, relatives etc through photo sharing websites.es, customs and history .

6. Wildlife photojournalism : This is regarded as one of the more challenging forms of photojournalism. Advanced photographic equipment as well as a good knowledge of the animal’s behaviour as well as the terrain is needed to take wildlife photographs.

Role:

· For a coverage or story treatment, advance case study, establishment of locals, inclusion of concern subject matter or persons, wide-angle views, close up shots from different angles are necessary.

· Other than key-shot, few more supportive shots with variety and contrast are also necessary for maintaining continuity and development of story.

· Photographers presence is very much required on the spot and he has to be in the midst of the event without which he cannot record.

· There are certain events which has to be recorded as they are happening and photographer cannot anticipate or predict anything further than what is happening at that particular moment, viz. riots mass demonstration, war, fire, natural calamities, accidents, sport events etc.

· Journalist may not be present at the site of actual happening of event but he can built up his story from hearing it from different sources.

· Photographers has to be present on the spot and take live photographs of actual events risking his life, equipment etc.

· As camera never lies, sometimes one may get a very rare action photograph of the event which brings him name and fame.

Photojournalist has to be very alert and news conscious.
Some photographers are good at fast moving events because they have fast reflexes but they may not be equally good at stage managed assignments.

Unit 3 Chapter 4 [Still Photography]

2019-10-13T11:03:00.002-07:00

3. 3 Lighting Aesthetics: Controlling Contrast through Lighting

Lighting’s Terminology:

· Optical Medium: A medium through which light can pass is called an optical medium viz. air, water, ground glass etc.
· Transparent Medium: A transparent medium is one through which light can pass freely, viz. air, glass, water etc.
· Translucent Medium: A translucent medium is one through which light can pass only with an appreciable loss and so objects cannot be distinctly seen viz. ground glass, oiled or butter paper etc.
· Opaque Medium: It is that medium through which light cannot pass viz. wood, metal etc.
· Luminous Bodies: Luminous bodies, which are those, which emit light from themselves viz. Sun, Lamp, and Candlelight etc.
· Non-Luminous Bodies: Those bodies which have no light of their own are called non-luminous bodies’ viz. moon, man etc.
· Direct rays: When you look directly into the sun, or a camera's flash unit, or a flashlight ... that is direct light. The light you see is coming directly from the source.
· Transmitted rays: When you look at a signal light the top light is red, the middle is yellow and the bottom light is green. That light is transmitted by putting a light source behind a colored filter.
· Reflected rays: When you look at anything, you can see that object because direct light is shining on it and being reflected back into your eyes.

Visual artists of all kinds are manipulators. They deliberately arrange light and shade, line and form, texture and colour, to create carefully designed effects. They know that how the feature can be adjusted and controlled to create an illusion and influence their audience. Through persuasive arrangements, they express ideas. While using light as a persuasive tool you need to appreciate its various properties, and become adept at controlling the way in which it illuminates the scene.

Various aspects of lighting:

· Light quality:
· Light direction:
· Light coverage:
· Light intensity:
· Colour:

Light Quality:

Hard Light is the highly directional illumination produced by any small-area light source. The light radiates from such a point source in straight lines, so casts sharp, clearly defined shadows, revealing surface contours and texture. The more concentrated a light source is, the “harder” its illumination will be; the sharper its shadows.

A hard light source does not have to be powerful. It can equally well be a single match, or a candle, or an arc. The ‘hard’ quality of light comes from its effective concentration, and not from its intensity or brightness. If a hard light source is close, or large relative to the subject, a certain amount of its light will be diffracted round the edges causing the outline of cast shadows to be softened and clear –cut.

If the lighting angle is unsuitable, hard light can produce some very

unattractive effects:

Harsh crudely defined modeling; Coarse texture; Important areas of the subject may be left unlit; Distracting shadows may form; The subject’s shape may even appear distorted.

Texture: If a surface has many extremely small irregularities, each bump or projection on it will cast its own tiny shadow, and create an overall random pattern.

Soft Light: Is the diffuse, shadow less illumination that results from scattered light. We meet soft light under natural conditions, when the sun is obscured by thick layers of cloud, by fog or mist. Lighting equipment produces soft light in various ways; by scattering through diffusion, reflection or multiple sources:

It can be used for shadow less illumination.

It will illuminate detail in shadow areas, without casting additional shadows.

It can be used to create subtly graded shading.

It can reduce or suppress unwanted texture or modeling.

Where a large area is to be illuminated, a single key light can be supplemented with soft light to produce a single –shadow effect.

It can be used to simulate natural lighting from sky light or reflected light, or

cloudy skies.

Light direction

The angle at which light strikes a subject can have a major effect on its appearance. The optimum direction will depend on the subject itself, and what you want to look like. The lighting angle you would use to emphasize the surface detail in a close shot of a coin, or the texture of cloth would produce a very unattractive portrait.

Classifying direction

Since we are lighting in a three-dimensional space, and have to make rapid off the- cuff judgments about the angle and direction of lighting; we need some kind of system for classifying lamp position, simple and unambiguous.

Light is the primary source of energy from the universe as well as the central icon of many religions and the photographer's chief resource. Photography depends on light; from single candle to powerful Sun. Therefore, an understanding of light, what it is, how it behaves and how you can learn to use it, is essential for creating outstanding photographs. Photographer uses the language of light to record and interpret the world around us. How well he understand and use light, affects the clarity and expressive power of the pictures. It is light that enables film to capture colors, details, shapes and textures. In fact, the Greek roots of the word "photographer" mean, "light writer.

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Unit 3 Chapter 3 [Still Photography]

2019-10-13T11:02:00.003-07:00

3.3. Three Point Lighting: Key, Fill & Back Light

______________________________________________________________________

Three Point Lighting:

Whatever you use as a light source, it could be a flashgun a lamp or a window; the important thing is to make sure that the light is coming from the side and not from the camera position.

The ideal position for the main light source is 45 degrees from the camera. While adjusting light, apart from back light, the main light should be at a 45 degree angle to the left of the camera and second light on the right of the camera. The second light is pointing away from the subject towards a white wall, giving a softer and less powerful ‘fills in' light. The relative strength of these two lights is quite important as that is what determines how dense the shadows are. It's quite easy to adjust the strength of each light just by moving them nearer or further from the subject. Backlight should be powerful with mini-spot or snoot and around 1500 degree away from camera position. The position of main light and secondary or fill-in light can be change vice versa as per the subject or photographers choice. If you only have one light to use you can create the same effect by sitting your subject as close as possible to a white wall. We can use large sheets of white paper to reflect light back onto the subject as this gives a more subtle effect. The same applies to height, aim the light at an angle of about 45 degrees to the floor and push it up until it shines where you want it. If your subject is wearing glasses you will need to push the light round to the side to avoid getting a reflection of it in the lenses.

Key Light

The most common way to achieve proper three-point lighting is by using three different spot lights in the scene. Setting up each light the correct way will allow the subject to be illuminated without deep shadows and be seen properly in the camera view. The first and most important light is the key light. Like the name suggests, this light is vital when establishing the overall lighting for the scene. It should have the most intensity out of the three lights and should highlight the form and dimension of the subject. The key light is typically set up to the right of the camera at a 45 degree angle. Once the key light has been properly set up, then the fill light should be created. The fill light’s purpose is to fill in the deep shadows that are inevitably cast onto the subject by the key light. The fill light is usually set up opposite of the key light. The last spot light used is the rim light (sometimes referred to as the back light). This has the least illumination effects to the subject because it is typically placed directly behind the subject, facing the camera. The rim lights purpose is to add a very slight glow to the back of the character. If you were to hide the key and fill light, you would see that the subject is darkened all around, except a small light around the edges. When setting up the key light the first step is getting it in the proper place. As mentioned above, typically it is placed to the right of the camera at a 45 degree angle. While this works most of the time, it really depends on your scene and what you need to illuminate. Play with different angles and positions until you are happy with the result. Remember,

most of your light will be emitted from the key light so a higher intensity may be needed.

Key Light

Fill Light

The position of the fill light depends on where the shadows are being cast from the key light. It should be placed in a spot where it can illuminate those dark spots on the subject. It’s important to remember that the fill light should not be as bright as the key light. A common mistake is having the intensity much too high, like in the example image above. This can cause the subject to get blown out. Instead, you want it just bright enough to illuminate what the spot light isn’t reaching.

Fill Light

Back Light:

When positioning the back light make sure it doesn’t really provide any frontal illumination to the subject, it should just create a very slight outline of light. While theback light is typically placed directly behind the character don’t be afraid to adjust the angle in order to achieve the look that you want. Depending on the subject you are illuminating, and if there is a background, you may want to adjust your settings in your 3D application so the spot lights in your three-point lighting setup only illuminate the subject and not the background. The reason for this is because the spot lights can have unappealing results on the background.

Back Light

All the three lights are even combined or used in combination to get the required effect or please the aesthetics of the picture:

Eg:

Key Light + Fill Light + Back Light

Unit 3 Chapter 1&2 [Still Photography]

2019-10-13T11:02:00.000-07:00

3.1. Source of Light: Natural and Artificial

3.2. Nature and Physical Properties of Light

____________________________________________________________________________

1. Natural and Artificial Lights Sources

a. Light sources can be either natural or artificial. Sun is the primary source of natural light, and lightbulbs or lamps are the artificial sources.

b. Light is a form of electromagnetic energy that, in the case of natural light, comes from the sun as the source and, in case of artificial light, illuminates via energy from another source.

c. No matter what the source, light has an impact on life on earth as a whole.

2. Properties of Natural Light

a. Natural light is self-generated and comes in a spectrum of colors --- the visible colors of the rays we experience.

b. The color spectrum contains light with shorter wavelengths near the violet on one end and light with higher wavelength near the red. Called ultraviolet and infrared rays respectively, these rays are not visible to us.

c. The complete spectrum of light from the natural source is ideal for plant and animal life on earth. Plants and animals thrive on natural light.

d. The darkness that follows photo activity in organisms helps rejuvenate and repair life forms at the cellular level. A moderate amount of exposure to the healthy sunlight benefits humans, as it increases one's energy and metabolism, boosts the immune system and helps build vitamin D --- all of which are essential for the body.

e. Overexposure, on the other hand, has detrimental effects on living organism. The harmful ultraviolet rays can cause conditions such as skin cancer and cataracts while also damaging the texture of the skin. For plants, the need for light and dark periods helps balance the cell activity in terms of growth and repair.

f. Sunlight is also harmful since we cannot alter or control it to suit our condition.

3. Properties of Artificial Light

a. Artificial light is man-made light generated from another energy source. Most of our activities would come to a halt if we didn't have an alternate source of light. The advantage with this light lies in the fact that we can control it at our own will.

b. We can monitor the intensity, quantity and quality of light to suit each situation.

c. Artificial light does not have as broad a spectrum of colors and wavelengths as natural light; hence, it is not as beneficial.

d. Since the light has comparatively poorer quality, its effect on plant and animal life is also not as beneficial.

e. Plants and animals exposed for prolonged periods to artificial light tend to yield poorer quality of life forms in plants and cause cellular degeneration or death in living beings.

4. Properties of Light:

Following are the properties of light that shows the behavior of light as a wave:

a. Reflection - Light is reflected off the surface like mirror such that angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection.

b. Refraction - Refraction is the bending of light as it passes between material of different optical density

c. Dispersion - Light is composed of waves of different wavelengths that correspond to different colors of lights. When light wave passes through a material, these different wavelengths causes refraction by different amounts according to the wavelengths and which gives rise to different colors seen through prism or for rainbow.

d. Diffraction - This is the bending of light waves around obstacles in its path. ex. When a light wave comes against a barrier with a small opening, it acts as a single point source from where light emerges in all direction.

Unit 2 Chapter 2.d [Still Photography]

2019-10-13T11:01:00.002-07:00

2.2 d: Composition and Perspective:

• Composition is an art of arranging objects and forms in a harmonious way within the four walls of the picture area to create an impact.

• Art of arranging primary subject, secondary subject, surroundings, fore-ground and background is called composition.

• Art of putting all visual elements within frame is known as composition.

• Composition is a process in which we compose a frame and put the subject (s) at desired and attractive place.

Types of Composition

1. Symmetry Composition-

a. Symmetrical compositions are said to signify solidity, stability, and strength; they are also effective for organizing images containing elaborate detail.

1. Radial Composition

a. Radial Compositions are those in which key elements spread outward from the middle of the frame. This imparts a lively feeling, even if subjects are static.

1. Diagonal Composition:

a. In such composition, diagonal lines lead the eye from one part of an image to another and impart more energy than horizontals.

1. Portrait format:

a. In this composition we compose our frame vertically. It emphasize subject strength and always used to show heights.

1. Landscape Format:

a. In this frame we compose our frame to emphasize width. It is mainly used to compose subjects with surroundings.

1. Overlapping Composition:

a. In such composition, overlapping subject elements not only indicate increasing depth perspective, they also invite the viewer to observe subject contrast.

1. Rule of Space:

a. In portrait, leave more space towards the side in which the sitter is looking.

b. Keep more space in the direction of subject’s movement.

1. Rule of Thirds:

a. According to this rule the focus of interest must be placed at the intersection of lines that divide the frame into thirds from top to bottom and from left to right.

• Frame should be well balanced and not to be lop sided or top heavy.

• Remove all unnecessary details from frame.

• Background and foreground should be simple and not disturbing.

• Avoid cropping any subjects from just middle.

• During composition of landscapes, always keep horizon line either below or above the centre.

• Horizon line should be parallel to the base of picture.

• What to capture and why? Think

• Simplify your frame

• We compose frame not camera

• Chose subject then surroundings

• Thousands rule of composition and no rule.

Unit 2 Chapter 2.c [Still Photography]

2019-10-13T11:00:00.005-07:00

2.2 c: Measurement of Light – Exposure Metering System:

In order to accurately expose a greater range of subject lighting and reflectance combinations, most cameras have several metering options. Each option works by assigning a relative weighting to different light regions; regions with a higher weighting are considered more reliable, and thus contribute more to the final exposure calculation. In DSLR we use three metering system : center weighted, Matrix and spot or partial metering system

Center weighted metering:

This is the most basic of the metering modes. It takes a reading from the whole image, but the exposure is biased towards the center of the frame. This helps prevent the exposure being affected by any dark or light areas in the foreground or background.

Center-weighted metering was once a very common default setting in cameras because it coped well with a bright sky above a darker landscape. Nowadays, it has more or less been surpassed in flexibility by evaluative and matrix, and in specificity by partial and spot metering. On the other hand, the results produced by center-weighted metering are very predictable, whereas matrix and evaluative metering modes have complicated algorithms which are harder to predict. For this reason some still prefer to use center-weighted as the default metering mode.

Matrix Metering System:

This is the default metering mode on most DSLRs, but is one of the most sophisticated. It works by dividing the image into equally weighted segments of about the same size, and taking a separate reading from each segments. These separate readings are then electronically analyzed by the camera to arrive at the final overall exposure. This analysis is where the clever bit comes in, as it allows the camera to try to automatically compensate for any specific bright or dark areas of the scene, darkening them down and brightening them up respectively, thus giving more useable results across a wide range of different lighting conditions.

Spot or Partial Metering System:

Unlike the other two metering modes, this only takes the reading from a small parts of the frame-normally the center, though some DSLRs can take a spot reading from focus point you’re using. The difference between spot and partial metering is the size of area the assess-spot meters normally use around 1-5% of the frame, while partial meter use larger area, 10-15%.

Partial and spot metering give the photographer far more control over the exposure than any of the other settings, but this also means that these are more difficult to use — at least initially. They are useful when there is a relatively small object within your scene which you either need to be perfectly exposed.

Unit 2 Chapter 2.b [Still Photography]

2019-10-13T11:00:00.002-07:00

2. Camera Control and Adjustment:

a. Exposure- Aperture, Shutter, ISO

b. Depth of Focus and Depth of Field

c. Measurement of light -Exposure Metering System

d. Composition and Perspective

___________________________________________________

2.2 b Depth Of Focus and Depth Of Field:

• The range of acceptable focus in a scene is called depth of field

• DOF indicates that area, which represents sharpness in the final picture

• DOF is the distance between the nearest and furthest point from the camera within which the subject is in focus.

• DOF can be described as the zone of sharp focus extending in-front of and behind the point of focus

• DOF area begins with the object closest to the lens that appears in focus, and ends with the most distant object in the scene that is still in focus

• DOF is zone of sharpness

Factors affecting depth of field

• Aperture- large apertures give shallow DOF while small apertures give greater

• Focal Length- the shorter the focal length, the greater DOF while longer focal length show small DOF

• Distance b/w lens and subject- DOF is reduced at close focusing distance, and increases as the point of focus moves further away from the camera

• Focal Length▲ , DOF▼

• F-stop ▲ , DOF ▲

• Distance b/w lens & subject ▼ , DOF ▼.

What is DOF?

Depth of focus is a lens optics concept that measures the tolerance of placement of the image plane (film/sensor) in relation to the lens. When we move the sensor in a digital camera relative to the lens, the plane in object space that is sharply focused moves as well.

Unit 2 Chapter 3 [Still Photography]

2019-10-13T10:59:00.002-07:00

3. Type of Lenses and Special Purpose Lenses

The lens is one of the most important vital parts of the camera and quality of camera mainly depends on the quality of the lens.

Or
Lens is a light-bending optical device fitted in front of a camera into the hole to focus light from subjects at various distances on to the film’s surface.

Simply Single Lenses fall into two basic categories: Concave and Convex.

ü Concave Lenses which are thinner at the Center than at the edges bend Light rays away from the center of the Lens.

ü On the other hand Convex Lenses are thickest at the center and bend light toward the center of the Lens.

ü Modern film and video camera Lenses are composed of more than one piece of glass and are called Compound Lenses. Compound Lenses – Combine several concave and convex lenses.

A few terms used in relation to lens:

• Optical Center:
It is point on the lens through which the ray of light passed un-deviated.

• Focus:
The rays of light parallel to the principal axis passing through the lens converge to a point (in the case of convex lens) or seem to diverge from a point (in case of concave lens) on the principal axis. This point is called the focus.

• Principal axis: It is a straight line passing through the centre of curvature of all the lens elements, and normal to all plane surfaces.

• Focal length:
The distance between the optical centre and the focus is called the focal length of the lens and usually denoted as “f”.

• Focal plane:A plane passing through the focus of the lens perpendicularly to the principal axis is called the focal plane of the lens.

A photographic lens is composed of lenses ( ground and polished pieces of optical glass) assembled and fitted together in a tube (usually made of metal) called a "lens barrel". The individual lenses are known as “elements” when they are in a photographic lens.

· IRIS:

The iris is the diaphragm, and it controls the aperture. The size of the aperture is indicated by its f-number or f-stop.

Bigger the number of f-stop smaller the size of the aperture. the standard series of numbers on the f-stop scale as follows:

f/1.4, f/2, f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, f/16, f/22, f/32, f/45, f/64.

· FOCUS:

The focus control is the ring farthest from the camera body, on the front of the lens. Distance settings are marked in meters and in feet. While a non-zoom (fixed focal length) lens is focused simply by turning the ring until the image is sharp, the zoom lens must be zoomed in to the smallest angle of view and the largest image size to adjust focus.

Angle of View

ü Angle of View is the amount of a scene a photograph captures and can be measured vertically, horizontally or diagonally.

ü Also known as angle of coverage or field of view, angle of view changes given the type of lens a photographer uses to take a picture.

ü While wide-angle lens tend to capture more of a scene than any other lenses, longer lenses generally get about two degrees of a scene within their angle of view.

Focal length:

The distance between the film and the optical center of the lens when the lens is focused on infinity. The focal length of the lens on most adjustable cameras is marked in millimeters on the lens mount.

Very simply, it is the distance from the lens to the film, when focused on a subject at infinity. In other words, focal length equals image distance for a far subject. To focus on something closer than infinity, the lens is moved farther away from the film. This is why most lenses get longer when you turn the focusing ring.

Points related to focal length of lens:

ü Focal length controls magnification and also controls angle of view.

ü A normal focal length lens also called standard lens, approximates the impression human vision gives.

ü A normal lens has certain advantages over wide- angle or tele-photo lenses. Most normal lenses faster, compact, light weight and less expensive.

Types of Lenses:

	Film Format
Lens Type	35mm	6x4cm	6x6cm	6x7cm	5x4in
Ultra-wide	20mm	35mm	40mm	45mm	65mm
Wide-angle	28mm	45mm	50mm	55mm	90mm
Standard	50mm	75mm	80mm	90mm	150mm
Short-telephoto	90mm	140mm	150mm	180mm	270mm
Medium-telephoto	200mm	300mm	350mm	420mm	520mm
Long-telephoto	300mm	450mm	500mm	600mm	800mm

Lens Focal Length	Terminology	Typical Photography
Less than 21 mm	Extreme Wide Angle	Architecture
21-35 mm	Wide Angle	Landscape
35-70 mm	Normal	Street & Documentary
70-135 mm	Medium Telephoto	Portraiture
135-300+ m	Telephoto	Sports, Bird & Wildlife

WIDE ANGLE LENS

• Wide Angle Lenses are the lenses with short focal length used for landscape photography that involves capturing all the scenery in front of them.

• Wide angle lenses are generally used when we need wider view or when the subject is in the extreme foreground. We can use it to get more in the frame where space prevents us from stepping back.

• Traditionally, a super wide-angle lens is classified as anything under 20mm.

• Wide-angle is 16-35mm.

Use:

Wide-angle lenses are most commonly used for photographing landscapes and architecture, although they are often also used for photographing large groups of people.

STANDARD LENS:

• Standard or normal lenses are used to get normal view of subject.

• A standard lens has a focal length range of 35-70mm.

• The most common standard lens is a fixed 50mm lens.

• Lenses in the 50 mm to 75 mm range create natural looking portraits without facial distortions.

USES OF STANDARD LENS:

Standard lenses are most commonly used for documentary and street photography. Pioneers of modern street photography, always used a 50mm lens, choosing to move themselves around so as to best frame an image. Good for a wide range of photographic needs but excel at portraits

MEDIUM TELEPHOTO / PORTRAIT LENS

• The focal range between 80-135mm is nearly always used by portrait photographers.

• Fixed lenses at these lengths produce ideal framing for head and shoulders shots.

• It magnifies the subject.

USES OF MEDIUM TELEPHOTO / PORTRAIT LENS:

These lenses are used for portrait photography and excel in capturing good features of the subject especially human faces. These lenses are mostly used by fashion photographers to make portfolios of models. They also find use in product or commercial photography.

TELEPHOTO LENS

• Any lens with a focal length of between 135mm and 300mm is a true telephoto lens.

• These lenses compress the foreground and background.

• Work well with portraits but also cause some distortion, the longer the focal length of the lens, the more it compresses the visual space.

USES OF TELEPHOTO LENS:

Telephoto lenses are traditionally used for sports and wildlife photography, but their essential function is to bring distant objects closer.

SPECIALIST LENS

There are a variety of specialist lenses available. Some of the more common are:

• Super Telephoto. These have a focal length of more than 300mm, and are used by dedicated sports, space and wildlife photographers.

• Macro. These lenses are designed for extreme photography , able to focus closer to an object than normal lenses, offering a 1:1 ratio. It is used to click small object and allow to fill the frame with small subject. .

• Fisheye. These are on the edge of wide-angle lenses (with shortest focal length), and give a distorted view of the subject matter. The center of the image is magnified, and objects diminish in size in all directions around it. It is also used to create dramatic effect. It captures aprox 180*(wider angle of view)

Unit 2 Chapter 2 [Still Photography]

2019-10-13T10:58:00.005-07:00

2. Camera Control and Adjustment:

a. Exposure- Aperture, Shutter, ISO

b. Depth of Focus and Depth of Field

c. Measurement of light -Exposure Metering System

d. Composition and Perspective

Camera Control and Adjustment:

Exposure- Aperture, Shutter, ISO
Depth of Focus and Depth of Field
Measurement of light- Exposure Metering system
Compositions and Perspective

a) Exposure- Aperture, Shutter, ISO :

Aperture?

A mechanical device that adjusts the size of the hole or a diaphragm so more or less light can pass through it.

The iris/aperture is the diaphragm, and the opening in the iris of the eye (the pupil) is the aperture.

The aperture of a lens is the diameter of the lens opening and is usually controlled by an iris. The larger the diameter of the aperture, the more light reaches the film / image sensor.

In optics, a diaphragm is a thin solid structure with an opening (aperture) at its centre. The role of the diaphragm is to stop the passage of light, except for the light passing through the aperture.

The aperture (the size of the lens opening) controls the brightness of the light that reaches the film. The size of the aperture is indicated by its f-number or f-stop. Bigger the number of f-stop smaller the size of the aperture. the standard series of numbers on the f-stop scale as follows:

• f/1, f/1.4, f/2, f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, f/16, f/22, f/32, f/45, f/64.

Shutter?

A light-blocking gate that can be opened to let light reach the film for a predetermined and very precise time and then shut to keep light away from the film.

An automatic mechanical device, which allows and controls the light passing through the lens and acts on the sensitive emulsion (film) or A mechanism that opens and close to admit light into a camera for a measured length of time. so as to proper exposure is known as “shutter”.

Types: Shutters are normally between-the-lens (Leaf) or Focal Plane.

Leaf types can usually be found in older cameras, film compacts and medium format camera lenses.
Focal plane shutters are generally used on SLR’s. Focal plane shutter – vertically running, this gives more opportunity for higher speeds as there is less travel for the blades.

The main differences between the two is the range of speeds and the highest flash (sync) speed.

Leaf shutters can sync over their complete range of 1/500sec to 4 or 8 sec.

Focal planes can run from 30sec to 1/8000sec but have relatively low sync speeds typically 1/90sec to 1/250sec.

Ø The Shutter Speed controls the amount of light by the length of time it remains opens.

Ø The faster the shutter speed, the more likely a moving subject will be sharp.

Ø Shutter and subject speed also affect the amount of blurring in a photograph.

Relation of Shutter speed and aperture:

Shutter speed and Aperture are the two controls a camera uses to make an exposure on the film when we “take a picture”.

Ø Both the shutter speed and aperture affect the amount of light entering the camera.

Ø Shutter speed and aperture also affect sharpness.

Things consider to choosing a shutter speed:

Ø Subject need to be extremely still/steady in order to not show motion / blur in the image with the shutter speed of 1/30 of a second or slower.

Ø Fast moving subjects tend to need shutter speed of 1/250 of a second or faster into order to freeze motion or prohibit blur.

Ø The faster the subject needed faster shutter speed.

Ø Low level of light limit one to a slow shutter speed.

Things consider to choosing a aperture:

Ø Choosing an aperture can dictate the amount of distance in front and behind

Ø your subject that is in acceptable focus.

Ø The larger the aperture number, the smaller the aperture hole, and the better the depth of field.

Ø The smaller the aperture number, the larger the aperture hole the less depth of field.

Ø Wide angle lenses,35mm-15mm have more depth of field per aperture.

Ø Tele photo lenses,80mm-200mm have less depth of field per aperture.

Ø Low level of light may require a large aperture hole.

ISO:

Ø In traditional (film) photography ISO* (or ASA**) was the indication of how sensitive a film was to light. It was measured in numbers (you’ve probably seen them on films – 100, 200, 400, 800 etc). The lower the number the lower the sensitivity of the film and the finer the grain in the shots you’re taking.

Ø *ISO International Organization of Standardization

Ø **ASA American Standards Association

Ø In Digital Photography ISO measures the sensitivity of the image sensor. The same principles apply as in film photography – the lower the number the less sensitive your camera is to light and the finer the grain.

Higher ISO settings are generally used in darker situations to get faster shutter speeds.

• If your subject is moving and you’re trying freeze the motion for a still, you’ll likely need a higher ISO setting to compensate for the high shutter speed and ensure your image gets enough light.

• If you’re using a tripod to stabilize your camera you can usually get away with a slower shutter speed, which in turn allows you to use a lower ISO

• If you’re shooting an image that doesn’t require a large depth-of-field, you can increase the camera’s aperture (thus allowing more light into the lens) and use a lower ISO

• If you’re shooting with artificial light (i.e., using a flash) you can typically get away with a lower ISO setting.

b. Depth-of-Field and Depth of Focus:

Depth-of-Field: When a lens focuses on a subject at a distance, all subjects at that distance are sharply focused. Subjects that are not at the same distance are out of focus and theoretically are not sharp.

Ø Depth of field is an area, from near to far in the scene that is having acceptable sharpness in a photograph.

Ø Smaller the aperture size, the more that a scene will be sharp from near to far. As the aperture is stopped down and gets smaller, more of the background and foreground in a given scene becomes sharp.

Three factors can affect the depth of field

focal length of the lens
distance from the camera to the subject
the size of the aperture or the setting of the f-stop

1. Focal length of the lens

The depth of field is inversely proportional to the focal length of the lens; that is, the smaller the focal length number of the lens, the greater the depth of field. For example, a 28mm lens has the ability to capture more of the picture in sharp focus than a 100mm lens.

Distance from the camera to the subject

Depth of field is directly proportional to distance; i.e. a subject at a greater distance will have greater depth of field than a close-up subject. Therefore, you need not worry as much about a distant subject being out of focus.

The size of the aperture or (f-stop)

While changing the aperture (f-stop) will not have a striking effect on the depth of field for a distant subject or a wide angle (short focal length) lens, it can make a great deal of difference in a close-up or a photo taken using a telephoto or zoom lens.

A wider aperture (smaller f-stop number) will result in a shallower depth of field. You can use this to keep either the foreground or background out of focus while maintaining the subject in focus.

In the first photograph, focus on first subject with half pressed shutter release button and without releasing that, you bring second subject in an appropriate frame and then click shutter release button. Same procedure can be repeated in second picture, with second object focused. This is known as lock focus.

C. Measurement of light- Exposure Metering system:

Exposure & Exposure meter—a mechanism to regulate the appropriate intake of light coming through the combination of shutter speed and aperture. It is also synchronized with film speed.
Proper exposure is essential to taking good pictures, and is determined by accurate measurement of the light falling on or reflected by the subject, using a light meter, also known as an exposure meter.

To record the correct amount of light, camera has three exposure controls to control the amount of light.

A. Aperture (controls the amount of light)

B. Shutter speed (controls time duration)

C. ISO (controls brightness)

Exposure Triangle:

In this way, we can say that- “total amount of light allowed to reach the light sensitive material during the formation of the image.
A good combination among aperture, shutter speed and ISO are needed to produce for good exposure

Under exposure- when amount of light is less than required, produce under exposed image.
Over exposure- when amount of light is more than required, we get over-exposed image.

D- Compositions and Perspective:

The term “composition” applies not only to visual arts, but to music, dance, literature and virtually any other kind of art.

In a photography composition is simply the selection and arrangement of subjects within the picture area.

Simply put, composing an image means arranging elements within it in a way that suits the core idea or goal of your work best. Arranging elements can be done by actually moving the objects or subjects.

The main objective behind the compositions in photograph is placing figures or objects in certain positions makes some arrangements and choosing a point of view makes others.

Main points for good Composition:

ü The Rule of Thirds

ü Simplicity

ü Lines

ü Balance

ü Framing

· You can simplify your pictures and strengthen your center of interest by selecting uncomplicated backgrounds, avoiding unrelated subjects, and moving in close. If you want to make your center of interest even more dynamic, place it slightly off center in your frame.

· Generally, pictures with subjects directly in the center tend to be more static and less interesting than pictures with off-center subject placement.

· Horizontal lines communicate rest. They are the horizon of a quite meadow or water etc.

· Diagonal lines means action. They are the athlete straining forward for an extra measure of speed or the train leaning against a curved section of track.

· A feeling of depth can be best achieved by having familiar and recognizable objects at varying distances from the camera. Proper placement of objects stimulates three dimensional effect.

· Straightforward arrangements attract the eye because they express their content quickly. In picture of people or things, simplicity is a true virtue.

· Picture should almost always be made from as close as possible without eliminating any part of the subject that’s important to the snapshot or any part of the background that contributes to the meaning or the mood of it.

· When same kind of object, repeated over and over again, trails off into the distance, it also contributes a remarkable illusion of depth.

· Recognizable and familiar objects at different distances from the camera establishes a strong feeling of depth and creates three dimensional effect.

· Backgrounds are very much important in a picture. A detail filled, distracting, “busy” background will make any picture look sloppy.

· To avoid this, shift your snapping position to acquire a plain, simple, less distracting one. Sometimes, you may shoot slightly upward or downward so that the sky, horizon, trees, grass, water, beach etc. become the background.

Rule of third:

• Before you snap the picture, imagine your picture area divided into thirds both horizontally and vertically. The intersections of these imaginary lines suggest four options for placing the center of interest for good composition. The option you select depends upon the subject and how you would like that subject to be presented.

Simplicity:

• Be sure that only the things you want the viewer to see appear in the picture. If there are numerous objects cluttering up the background, your message will be lost. If you can’t find an angle or framing to isolate your subject, consider using depth of field control to keep the background out of focus.

Contrast:

• A light subject will have more impact if placed against a dark background and vice versa. Contrasting colors may be used for emphasis, but can become distracting if not considered carefully

Balance:

• Generally, informal balance is considered more pleasing in a photograph than symmetric (formal) balance. In other words, placing the main subject off-center and balancing the "weight" with other objects (smaller or lower impact) will be more effective than placing the subject in the center.

Framing:

• A "frame" in a photograph is something in the foreground that leads you into the picture or gives you a sense of where the viewer is. For example, a branch and some leaves framing a shot of rolling hills and a valley, or the edge of an imposing rock face leading into a shot of a canyon. Framing can usually improve a picture. The "frame" doesn’t need to be sharply focused. In fact if it is too sharply detailed, it could be a distraction

Viewpoint:

• You can often change a picture dramatically by moving the camera up or down or, stepping to one side. One of the best ways to come up with a prize-winning photograph is to find an "unusual" point of view.

• Direction of movement : When the subject is capable of movement, such as an animal or person, it is best to leave space in front of the subject so it appears to be moving into, rather than out of, the photograph.

Diagonals:

· Linear elements such as roads, waterways, and fences placed diagonally are generally perceived as more dynamic than horizontals.

Remember that these are only guidelines, not hard and fast "rules." While a novice can achieve quality output quickly with these guidelines, experienced photographers who know the rules often find very creative ways to break them, with excellent results.

Unit 2: Chapter 1 [Still Photography]

2019-10-13T10:58:00.002-07:00

1. Basic Parts of Digital Single Lens Reflex (DSLR) Camera: Lens, Sensor, Shutter, View Finder

Lens:

The lens is one of the most important vital parts of the camera and quality of camera mainly depends on the quality of the lens.
Or
Lens is a light-bending optical device fitted in front of a camera into the hole to focus light from subjects at various distances on to the film’s surface.

Simply Single Lenses fall into two basic categories: Concave and Convex.

ü Concave Lenses which are thinner at the Center than at the edges bend Light rays away from the center of the Lens.

ü On the other hand Convex Lenses are thickest at the center and bend light toward the center of the Lens.

ü Modern film and video camera Lenses are composed of more than one piece of glass and are called Compound Lenses. Compound Lenses – Combine several concave and convex lenses.

A few terms used in relation to lens:

• Optical Center: It is point on the lens through which the ray of light passed un-deviated.

• Focus: The rays of light parallel to the principal axis passing through the lens converge to a point (in the case of convex lens) or seem to diverge from a point (in case of concave lens) on the principal axis. This point is called the focus.

• Principal axis: It is a straight line passing through the centre of curvature of all the lens elements, and normal to all plane surfaces.

• Focal length: The distance between the optical centre and the focus is called the focal length of the lens and usually denoted as “f”.

• Focal plane: A plane passing through the focus of the lens perpendicularly to the principal axis is called the focal plane of the lens.

Lens controls:

The modern camera lens has three controls: iris, focus, and Focal length/angle of view. On a fully automatic camera you may not have to adjust the focus or iris except under unusual conditions, but you should know what's going on so you can use manual settings with confidence.

IRIS: The iris is the diaphragm, and it controls the aperture. The size of the aperture is indicated by its f-number or f-stop.

Bigger the number of f-stop smaller the size of the aperture. the standard series of numbers on the f-stop scale as follows:

f/1.4, f/2, f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, f/16, f/22, f/32, f/45, f/64.

FOCUS: The focus control is the ring farthest from the camera body, on the front of the lens. Distance settings are marked in meters and in feet. While a non-zoom (fixed focal length) lens is focused simply by turning the ring until the image is sharp, the zoom lens must be zoomed in to the smallest angle of view and the largest image size to adjust focus.

Angle of View

ü Angle of View is the amount of a scene a photograph captures and can be measured vertically, horizontally or diagonally.

ü Also known as angle of coverage or field of view, angle of view changes given the type of lens a photographer uses to take a picture.

ü While wide-angle lens tend to capture more of a scene than any other lenses, longer lenses generally get about two degrees of a scene within their angle of view.

Focal length:

Points related to focal length of lens:

ü Focal length controls magnification and also controls angle of view.

ü A normal focal length lens also called standard lens, approximates the impression human vision gives.

ü A normal lens has certain advantages over wide- angle or tele-photo lenses. Most normal lenses faster, compact, light weight and less expensive.

Types of Lenses:

	Film Format
Lens Type	35mm	6x4cm	6x6cm	6x7cm	5x4in
Ultra-wide	20mm	35mm	40mm	45mm	65mm
Wide-angle	28mm	45mm	50mm	55mm	90mm
Standard	50mm	75mm	80mm	90mm	150mm
Short-telephoto	90mm	140mm	150mm	180mm	270mm
Medium-telephoto	200mm	300mm	350mm	420mm	520mm
Long-telephoto	300mm	450mm	500mm	600mm	800mm

Lens Focal Length	Terminology	Typical Photography
Less than 21 mm	Extreme Wide Angle	Architecture
21-35 mm	Wide Angle	Landscape
35-70 mm	Normal	Street & Documentary
70-135 mm	Medium Telephoto	Portraiture
135-300+ m	Telephoto	Sports, Bird & Wildlife

WIDE ANGLE LENS

• Wide Angle Lenses are the lenses with short focal length used for landscape photography that involves capturing all the scenery in front of them.

• Wide angle lenses are generally used when we need wider view or when the subject is in the extreme foreground. We can use it to get more in the frame where space prevents us from stepping back.

• Traditionally, a super wide-angle lens is classified as anything under 20mm.

• Wide-angle is 16-35mm.

Use:

Wide-angle lenses are most commonly used for photographing landscapes and architecture, although they are often also used for photographing large groups of people.

STANDARD LENS:

• Standard or normal lenses are used to get normal view of subject.

• A standard lens has a focal length range of 35-70mm.

• The most common standard lens is a fixed 50mm lens.

• Lenses in the 50 mm to 75 mm range create natural looking portraits without facial distortions.

USES OF STANDARD LENS:

MEDIUM TELEPHOTO / PORTRAIT LENS

• The focal range between 80-135mm is nearly always used by portrait photographers.

• Fixed lenses at these lengths produce ideal framing for head and shoulders shots.

• It magnifies the subject.

USES OF MEDIUM TELEPHOTO / PORTRAIT LENS:

TELEPHOTO LENS

• Any lens with a focal length of between 135mm and 300mm is a true telephoto lens.

• These lenses compress the foreground and background.

• Work well with portraits but also cause some distortion, the longer the focal length of the lens, the more it compresses the visual space.

USES OF TELEPHOTO LENS:

Telephoto lenses are traditionally used for sports and wildlife photography, but their essential function is to bring distant objects closer.

SPECIALIST LENS

There are a variety of specialist lenses available. Some of the more common are:

• Super Telephoto. These have a focal length of more than 300mm, and are used by dedicated sports, space and wildlife photographers.

Fisheye. These are on the edge of wide-angle lenses (with shortest focal length), and give a distorted view of the subject matter. The center of the image is magnified, and objects diminish in size in all• directions around it. It is also used to create dramatic effect. It captures aprox 180*(wider angle of view)

Unit 1: Chapter 4 [Still Photography]

2019-10-13T10:57:00.002-07:00

Types of Photography: Portrait, Wildlife, Nature, Advertising, Fashion, Night Photography

Photography

Photography is an expansive art form that includes more than just portraiture, landscape or glamour photography. Both professional and amateur photographers may favor specific types of photography over others. While a professional photographer may work in photojournalism, an amateur may be particularly interested in macro-photography. Read on to learn more about the various types of photography.

· Portrait:

Portraiture is one of the oldest types of photography. Whether the subject is your family or your pet, the goal of portraiture is to capture the personality of the subject or group of subjects on film.

· Wildlife:

It is the act of taking photographs of wildlife. Wildlife photography is regarded as one of the more challenging forms of photography. As well as needing sound technical skills, such as being able to expose correctly, wildlife photographers generally need good field craft skills. For example, some animals are difficult to approach and thus a knowledge of the animal's behavior is needed in order to be able to predict their actions. Photographing some species may require stalking skills or the use of a hide/blind for concealment.

· Nature:

It refers to a wide range of photography taken outdoors and devoted to displaying natural elements such as landscapes, wildlife, plants, and close-ups of natural scenes and textures. Nature photography tends to put a stronger emphasis on the aesthetic value of the photo than other photography genres, such as photojournalism and documentary photography.

· Night:

It refers to photographs taken outdoors between dusk and dawn. Night photographers generally have a choice between using artificial light and using a long exposure, exposing the scene for seconds, minutes, and even hours in order to give the film or digital sensor enough time to capture a usable image. With the progress of high-speed films, higher-sensitivity digital image sensors, wide-aperture lenses, and the ever-greater power of urban lights, night photography is increasingly possible using available light.

Unit 1 Chapter 3 [Still Photography]

2019-10-13T10:56:00.002-07:00

Types of Camera Digital vs Film:

1. View Camera

Built like an accordion, with a lens in the front, a viewing screen in the back, and flexible bellows in between.

Used for: Commercial studio photography

Landscapes

2. Rangefinder/ Viewfinder Camera

This is a lightweight compact camera used for

A Compact lightweight camera that allows you to view the scene through a small view finder.

Viewfinder cameras include inexpensive point and shoot cameras.

Rangefinders have a coupled rangefinder that allows manual focus.

3. Single Lens Reflex

An SLR has a mirror and pentaprism that allow you to use the lens for viewing and focusing.

Most are 35 mm format, but some are medium format as well.

4. Twin lens reflex

A TLR has a fixed mirror that reflects the scene upwards onto a viewing screen.

There is one lens to expose the film and another to view the image.

5. Polaroid Camera:

6. Underwater Camera

For capturing the flora and fauna underwater camera are amazing tools.

Underwater cameras are designed for underwater still and video photography.

These cameras are designed such that protects them from the water and damage caused by pressure.

There are two types of underwater camera available :

1. Housing system cameras

These underwater camera are considered superior for their accuracy of composition.

Auto-focus SLR cameras are placed in the system. This system is preferred for taking macro- shots. enables viewing through the lens more accurately and better composition control.

2. Amphibious cameras

These underwater camera are waterproof. These cameras are small, compact and easy to transport.

This is also known as submersible viewfinder cameras. They are highly preferred by scientists, in their exploring expeditions.

Unit 1 Chapter 2 [Still Photography]

2019-10-13T10:55:00.002-07:00

Brief History of Photography

History:

· Introduction

o History of Photography is mainly concerned with the development of the Art & Technique of producing images known as Photography. It was not discovered by a single person or in a single day. Aristotle was the person who observed that light passing through a small hole in the wall of a room shaped an image of subject on other wall. Journey of photography was started with the advent of camera obscura (dark chamber).

o Projecting images onto surfaces has been done for a long time. The camera obscura was used by artists to trace scenes as early as the 16^th century. These early cameras did not fix an image in time; they only projected what was before the lens or hole onto a surface. In 1727, A German Physician Johan H. Schulze discovered a silver salts which turned dark when exposed to light. By 1800 a young English Chemist, Thomas Wedgwood has succeeded in producing images of leaves on leather that he had treated with silver salts. However, he could find no way to halt the darkening action of light and his leaf images eventually faded into blackness.

o At that time for the birth of Photography, two key discoveries were still needed:

o (a) way to combine a light sensitive material like film plane with a device like camera obscura.

o (b) Secondly, a way to fix, or make permanent the resulting image.

o A Swedish chemist, Carl Scheele got success to made salt for developing purpose. In 1814, Charles and Vincent Chevalier got photographic image but it was not permanent and faded soon

· Briefing

1. Early Invention (1800-85)- In 1820 , a French scientist Joseph Nicephore Niepce was experimenting with a technique of creating image by action of light. Niepce was the first person who can be considered as founder of photography technique. The first photograph is considered to be an image produced in 1825 by Niepce. It was produced with an equipment like camera, and required an eight hour exposure in bright light condition. He couldn’t get the technique to fix the image for long time.

o In the process he discovered a way to copy images on a plate when exposed them in the light.

o He put plate soaked in silver chloride and allowed light to come. After exposure, he took out it. He observed the area where light fell on surface was dark. In this way, when he exposed the plate in light, light shining through it burned an image in the dark, creating nearly a perfect copy of the original image.

o In 1829, Louis Jacques Daguerre invented the first practical photographic method. He formed the partnership with Niepce and improved the process which was developed by Niepce. He reduced the time of exposure to less than 30 minutes. In 1839, he developed more convenient and effective method of photography which was known as ‘Daguerreotype’. He coated a copper plate with silver, then treated it with iodine vapour to make it sensitive to light. The image was developed by mercury vapour. But one problem remained: The image darkened over time. Daguerre solved this final obstacle by washing away silver iodide with a solution of warm water and table salt. He produced many photographs by this daguerretype method by 1839. After few months, he sold his techniques to French govt. and published details about techniques.

o The word ‘photography was used by sir John F.W. Herschel in 1839. In 1840, Henry Fox Talbot, an English mathematician invented the first negative from which multiple positive prints were made. In 1841, he improved his process which was known as ‘Calotype’. Called, Photogenic drawing, his process produced contact prints of leaves. Talbot’s process used negatives which were produced on silver chloride- coated paper. In 1849, he prepared glassy type paper also. In 1854, Scott Archer of London introduced collodian wet plates (glass negative system). In 1871, Dr. R.L. Maddox invented the dry plate using gelatin which helped to improve speed and quality.

2. Black & White Era: The birth of film (1885-40)- In 1885, George Eastman figured out how to process pictures on a roll film. He also introduced his camera ‘Kodak’. It was a box camera with a fixed focus lens and single shutter speed. After few years, he introduced ‘Brownie’ a popular model that introduced the concept of the snapshot. In 1898, Kodak company started manufacturing of roll film for commercial purpose. In 1920’s, 35 mm roll film was introduced.

o The first practical reflex camera was ‘Rolleiflex’. It was a medium format TLR, introduced in 1928. In 1930-40 various model of TLR were introduced. The first penta-prism SLR was the Contax S, introduced in 1949. The most popular rangefinder camera Leica M3 (one of Leica series model) was introduced in 1954. Retina of Kodak was also popular camera model. Pentax, Yashika and Canon also introduced various model during this period.

3. Colour Era (1940-80)- In the early 1940’s, colour films were introduced in market. After second world war, photojournalism became an important part of journalism. Rolleiflex was the most popular model during 1950’s. Colour film for various format camera were introduced during this era. Canon introduced their first 35 mm SLR ‘Canonflex’ in 1959. This era can be remembered for the various design of camera- SLR, TLR, Rangefinder ,Polaroid.

4. Digital Era (1981- till date)- In 1981, Sony was the first company to introduce a film-less camera ‘Mavika’. It couldn’t get recognition among camera users because of poor image quality. After few months, ‘pro- mavika’ was launched. Kodak launched first digital camera in 1986. Canon introduced their first digital SLR ‘DCS-3’ in 1995. During 1990-2000, various model of point & shoot camera and DSLR of various company like Canon, Nikon, Kodak, Sony were introduced in market. The journey of digital era is continue with new technological invent.

Unit 1 Chapter 1 [Still Photography]

2019-10-13T10:54:00.002-07:00

1. Photography: Definition, Meaning & Concept

Definition:

· Photography is the process, activity and art of creating still pictures by recording radiation on a sensitive medium, such as film or an electronic sensor.

· According to O.P. Sharma, “the complete process by which pictures are made by the chemical action of light on a sensitized plate or film known as photography.

· Photography is the technique of recording and generating permanent images, by the capturing and preservation of physical stimulus-patterns on a layer of photosensitive material.

· It involves recording light patterns as reflected from objects on a sensitive medium through momentary exposure.

· The process is done through mechanical, chemical or digital devices commonly known as camera

· In this way, we can say that photography is a technique of capturing image by a mechanical device (camera), after collecting information in the form of light on film roll, plate, or sensor.

· Digital photography is a method in which an image is digitally encoded and stored for later reproduction. It uses electronic sensor to record the image as a piece of electronic data.

· The art, practice, or occupation of taking and printing photographs is termed as photography

Meaning:

· Photography is a method of recording images by the action of light, or related radiation on a sensitive material.

· It is an artistic expression and probably world’s greatest hobby.

· The word photography is derived from the Greek words- photos (light) & graphein (to draw). It means, photography is an art of drawing images with light.

Concept:

· When we click a photograph, our camera collects all information (shadows and highlights) about subject in the form of light and send it to sensitive material (film roll, plate or electronic sensor). After developing or editing process, we collect recorded information on printing paper. In this way, we get all shadows and highlights on printing paper as final result and get picture of subject

2019-10-13T10:48:00.002-07:00