The Sanskrit Blog

Critical Grammatical Analysis of Naisadhiyacharita Canto I

2011-04-21T13:38:00.000+05:30

अनुसन्धाता - प्रतीक दत्तः मार्गनिर्देशकः - सि.उपेन्द्र रावः(विशिष्टसंस्कृताध्यनकेन्द्रम् जे.एन.यू )
भूमिका
नैषधीयचरितमहाकाव्यप्रणेता अमरवाणीसाहित्यसुधीशिरोरत्नविश्वविदितयशा कविचक्रचूडामणिस्तार्किकजग –
दालंकारो लोकोत्तरप्रतिभापावनः श्रीहर्षो वैदुष्यातुलविभावितनिबन्धप्रणयननिपुणः शास्त्रीयस्य पाण्डित्यस्य कवित्वस्य चानुपम एव रत्नाकर आसीदित्यत्र नास्ति काचित् संशीतिः।
कविवरेण्यस्यास्य जनकः श्रीहीरस्तथा जननी च मामल्लदेवी आस्ताम् । यथा काव्यकर्मण्यधिगतकवित्वप्रकर्षो श्रीहर्षः स्वस्य नैषधीयचरितमहाकाव्यस्य प्रत्येकसर्गस्यान्तिमश्लोकस्य पूर्वार्धे स्वयमात्मना निगदति –
श्रीहर्षः कविराजराजिमुकुटालंकारहीरः सुतं ।
श्रीहरिः सुषुवे जितेन्द्रियचयं मामल्लदेवी च यम् ॥

केचित् विद्वांसः ’माम् + अल्लदेवी ’ इत्येवं रूपेण पदच्छेदं विधाय महाकवेः श्रीहर्षस्य मातुः नाम ’अल्लदेवी’ इतीत्थंमङ्गीकुर्वन्ति । परमन्येषां विदुषां मतं विद्यते यत् ’वातापि’ इत्यस्यान्तिके ’मामल्लपुर’ इत्यभिधानान्वितं नगरं विविधविद्याविभूषितस्य श्रीहर्षस्य जनन्याः निवासस्थानम्, तमाधारीकृत्य च तस्य मातुः नाम ’मामल्लदेवी’ इत्यभवदिति ।
कविपुंगवस्यास्य जनकः श्रीहरिः काशिनिवासिनो गढवालवंश प्रसूतस्य श्रीविजयचन्द्रस्य सभापण्डित आसीत्। जातुचित् केनापि विदुषा जितः श्रीहरिः स्वमरणकाले निजजेतारं पण्डितं पराजेतुं आत्मनः तनयं श्रीहर्षं संप्रेरितवान् । तदाज्ञावशवर्ती श्रीहर्षः वर्षैकं यावत् गङ्गातटे चिन्तामणिमन्त्रजपं सविशेषं विधाय विशिष्टां प्रतिभां समवाप । अधिगतवैदुष्यप्रकर्षोऽसौ श्रीहर्षः सभाभवनं सम्प्रविश्य भूपतेः विजयचन्द्रस्य प्रशंसायामधस्ताल्लिखितं श्लोकं श्रावयामास –
गोविन्दनन्दनतया च वपुःश्रिया च
मामस्मिन् नृपे कुरुत कामधिय तरुण्यः ।
अस्त्रीकरोति जगतां विजये स्मरः स्त्री –
रस्त्री जनः पुनरनेन विधीयते स्त्री ॥

एतत्कृतीनां कश्मीरदेशेषु महती प्रतिष्ठाऽऽसीत् ’काव्यप्रकाशकारः श्रीमम्मटोऽपि मातुलो बभूव ’ इत्येवं रूपात्मिका प्रथितिरपि जगति प्रचलिता विद्यते । कान्यकुब्जाधीश्वरस्य जयचन्द्रस्य सभायां सभापण्डितरूपेण कविवरेण्यस्यास्य प्रभूतं सम्मानमासीदित्यधस्ताल्लिखितश्लोकेन ज्ञायते ---

ताम्बूलद्वयमासनं च लभते यः कान्यकुब्जेश्वराद्
यः साक्षात्कुरुते समाधिषु परं ब्रह्मप्रमोदार्णवम् ।
यत्काव्यं मधुवर्षि धर्षितपरास्तर्केषु यस्योक्तयः
श्रीहर्षकवेः कृतिः कृतिमुदे तस्याभ्युदीयादियम् ॥ (२२।१५५)
जयचन्द्रपितुर्विजयचन्द्रस्य प्रशंसायामनेन लिखितो ग्रन्थः विजयप्रशस्तिनामा सम्प्राप्यते । जयचन्द्रो गढवालवंश्यो नृपः आसीत् । विजयचन्द्रजयचन्दौ सम्मेल्य ११५६ ईशवीयतः ११९३ ई० पर्यन्तं राज्यं चक्रतुः। एतावता श्रीहर्षस्य स्थितिकालोऽपि द्वादशशतकोत्तरार्द्धभागो सुधीभिः निश्चीयते ।

महाकवेः श्रीहर्षस्य पाण्डित्यम्
चिन्तामणिचिन्तनाधिगतवैदुष्यप्रकर्षान्वितो महाकविः श्रीहर्षः प्रभूतं पाण्डित्यं स्वस्मिन् धत्ते । महाकवेरस्य या प्रतिभासीमान्तिनी दर्शनरहस्यानि सरलीकरोति सैव शृङ्गारधारापि प्रवाहयति । यथा स्वयमेव निगदितं श्रीहर्षेण -
साहित्ये सुकुमारवस्तुनि दृढन्यायग्रहग्रन्थिले
तर्के वा मयि संविधातरि समं लीलायते भारती ।
शय्या वाऽऽस्तु मृदूत्तरच्छदवती दर्भाङ्कुरैरास्तृता
भूमिर्वा ह्रदयङ्गमो यदि पतिस्तुल्या रतिर्योषिताम् ॥
’यः साक्षात्कुरुते समाधिषु परं ब्रह्मप्रमोदार्णवम् ’ इत्यनेन विज्ञायते यत् कविपुंगवोऽयं यथैव दार्शनिककविस्तैव योगीति । तार्किकवरेण्यो श्रीहर्षः स्वीयस्य शास्त्रज्ञानस्य परिचयं प्रतिसर्गं प्रस्तुवन्नपि सप्तदशसर्गे नास्तिकास्तिकसकलदर्शनप्रवीणत्वं व्याकरणनिष्णातत्वं च सडिण्डिमनादं सविशेषं समुद्घोषितवान् । वेदान्तविद्यानिष्णातः कविवरोऽयं नैयायिकानां वैशेषिकानाञ्चोपरि स्वकवितायामप्युपहसति स्म । निदर्शनार्थं यथा ---
मुक्तये यः शिलात्वाय शास्त्रमूचे सचेतसाम् ।
गोतमं तमवेक्ष्यैव यथा वित्थ तथैव सः ॥
ध्वान्तस्य वामोरु विचारणायां वैशेषिकं चारुमतं मतं मे ।
औलूकमाहुः खलु दर्शनं तत् क्षमं तमस्तत्त्वनिरूपणाय ॥
सर्ववेदान्तमतेषु अद्वैततत्त्वप्रतिपादकं मतमेव साधु सर्वातिशायि चेति प्रतिपादयन् श्रीहर्षः स्वीये नैषधीयचरिते निगदति ---
साप्तुं प्रयच्छति न पक्षचतुष्टये तां
तल्लाभशंसिनि न पञ्चमकोटिमात्रे ।
श्रद्धां दधे निषधराड्विमतौ मताना –
मद्वैततत्त्व इव सत्यतरेऽपि लोकः ॥ १
व्याकरणनिष्णातोऽयं कविवरेण्यः वैयाकरणानामुपरि चारुतया उपहसन् स्वीये नैषधीयचरितकाव्ये कथयति –
भङ्क्तुं प्रभुर्व्याकरणस्य दर्पं पदप्रयोगाध्वनि लोक एषः ।
शशो यदस्यास्ति शशी ततोऽयमेवं मृगोऽस्यास्ति मृगिति नोक्तः ॥२
अन्यच्च –
उभयी प्रकृतिः कामे सज्जेदिति मुनेर्मतः ।
अपवर्गे तृतीयेति भणतः पाणिनेरपि ॥ ३
पाण्डित्यप्रकर्षान्वितोऽयं कविवरेण्यो महावैयाकरण आसीदित्यत्र नास्ति कश्चित् संशयावकाशः । विदुषां प्रीतये निदर्शनार्थमत्र द्वौ श्लोकौ समुद्ध्रियेते –
क्रियेत चेत्साधुविभक्ति चिन्ता व्यक्तिस्तदा सा प्रथमाभिधेया ।
या स्वैजसां साधयितुं विलासैस्तावत्क्षमा नामपदं बहु स्यात् ॥४
अस्मिन् श्लोके हंसमुखेन भूपतेः नलस्य वर्णनं कारयन् महाकविः ’अपदं न युञ्जीत’ ’एकवचनमुत्सर्गतः करिष्यते ’ इति वैयाकरणसिद्धान्तावभिमुखं जनान् संकेतयति ।

______________________________
१. नैषधीयचरितमहाकाव्यम् (१३ ।२६)
२. ibid (२२। ८४)
३. ibid (१७।७०)
४. ibid (३।२३)

अन्यच्च –
स्वं नैषधादेशमहो विधाय कार्यस्य हेतोरिति नानलः सन् ।
किं स्थानिवद्भावमधत्त दुष्टं तादृक्कृत व्याकरणः पुनः सः ॥५
अत्र महावैयाकरणः श्रीहर्षः शक्रादीनां नरपतेः नलस्य रूपं धारणं कृत्वा भैम्याः स्वयम्वरे आगमनस्य वर्णनं कुर्वन् ’स्थानिवदादेशोऽनल्विधौ’ इति पाणिनीयसूत्राभिमुखं सङ्केतं विदधाति ।
नरपतिना नलेन विहिते सपर्याप्रसङ्गे यद्वर्णनं समुपलभ्यते, तदनुसारेण कविपुंगवोऽयं रामनामानुरागी परमवैष्णव इत्यपि सिद्ध्यति । निदर्शनार्थमत्र द्वित्राः श्लोकाः समुपस्थाप्यन्तेऽधस्तात् –
लीलायाऽपि तव नाम जना ये गृह्णाते नरकनाशकरस्य ।
तेभ्य एव नरकैरुचिता भीस्ते तु बिभ्यतु कथं नरकेभ्यः ॥६
अस्मदाद्यविषयेऽपि विशेषे रामनाम तव धाम गुणानाम् ।
आन्वबन्धि भवतैव तु कस्मादन्यथा ननु जनुत्रितयेऽपि ॥७
 नैषधीयचरितमहाकाव्यस्य रसच्छन्दोऽलंकारभावादिविवेचनम् –
महाकवेः श्रीहर्षस्य नैषधीयचरिते प्रधान्येन शृङ्गाररसस्य गौणतयाऽन्येषां रसानां वर्णनं समुपलभ्यते । शृङ्गाररसेऽपि विप्रलम्भशृङ्गार-सम्भोगशृङ्गारञ्चेति द्वितयं समानरूपेण राजते । पाञ्चाल्यादिरीतिष्वपि वैदिर्भीरीतेः प्राधान्येन अत्र द्योतते । सकलशास्त्रपारदृश्वा कविवरोऽयं स्वकीयस्य नैषधीयचरितस्य संरचना उपजाति-वंशस्थ-वसन्ततिलका-वैतालीय-रथोद्धता-हरिणी-शार्दूलविक्रीडित-मन्दाक्रान्तास्रग्धराप्रभृत्येकोन –
विंशतिसंख्यकेषु वृत्तेषु समापादिता । अलंकारेषु ’श्लेष-अनुप्रास-अर्थान्तरन्यास-अतिशयोक्ति-उपमा-दृष्टान्त-निदर्शनादीनां भूयांसः प्रयोगाः यत्र यत्र संदृश्यते । उत्प्रेक्षाणामपि चमत्कारोऽस्य नितान्तह्रद्यः ।
निदर्शनार्थं यथा –
यदस्य यात्रासु बलोद्धतं रजः स्फुरत्प्रतापानलघूममञ्जिम ।
तमेव गत्वा पतितं सुधाम्बुधौ दधाति पङ्कीभवदङ्कतां विधौ ॥

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१.नैषधीयचरितमहाकाव्यम् – (१०।१३६।)
२. ibid (२७। ९७)
३. ibid (२७।९०)

नैषधीयचरितमहाकाव्यस्य प्रथमसर्गे विशिष्टव्याकरणप्रयोगाः

तत्र तावत् प्रथमश्लोके दृश्यते विशिष्टव्याकरणप्रयोगः। तथा हि उच्यते

निपीय यस्य क्षितिरक्षिणः कथां
तथाद्रियन्ते न बुधास्सुधामपि।
नलस्सितच्छत्रितकीर्तिमण्डलः
स राशिरासीन्महसां महोज्ज्वलः ॥१॥
अत्र दिवादिगणीय पीङ् धातोः ल्यप् प्रत्यते कृते निपीय इति रूपं सिद्ध्यति । अत्र निपीय इत्यत्र भ्वादिगणीय पा धातोः प्रयोगस्तु न भवति । तत्र ’न ल्यपि’ इति सूत्राणुसारेण “घुमास्थागपाजहातिसां हलि” इति सूत्रेण ल्यपि कृते तत्र “ईकार” अनन्तरं न भवति । तेन निपिय इति रूपं सम्भवति । तत्त्वनिष्टं रूपं स्यादेव।
पश्यन्तां तावत् द्वितीयश्लोकः । तत्रैव प्रतिभाति विशिष्टव्याकरणप्रयोगः।
रसैः कथा यस्य सुधावधीरिणी
नलः स भूजानिरभूद् गुणाद्भुतः।
सुवर्णदण्डैकसितातपत्रित-
ज्वलत्प्रतापावलिकीर्तिमण्डलः ॥२॥
अस्मिन् श्लोके विशिष्टव्याकरणप्रयोगः –
सुधावधीरिणी – सुधा (उपपद) + अव + धीर + णिनि ।
सुवर्णदण्डैकसितातपत्रित = “सुवर्णदण्डैकसितातपत्रित” इति शब्दात् ’तत्करोति तदाचष्टे’ इति सूत्रेण णिच् प्रत्यये कृते तदनन्तरं नामधातोः कर्मणि ’क्त’ प्रत्यते च कृते सुवर्णदण्डैकसितातपत्रित इति रूपं सिद्ध्यति ।
समासः – भूजानिः = भूः जाया यस्य स भूजानिः [ भूपतिरित्यर्थः] । अत्र बहुव्रीहि समासः । अत्र “जायाया निङ्” इति सूत्रेण जाया शब्दस्य निङादेशो भवति ।

किञ्च षष्ठश्लोकेऽपि दृश्यते विशिष्टव्याकरणप्रयोगः। तथा हि उच्यते –
दिगीशवृन्दांशविभूतिरीशिता दिशां स कामप्रसभावरोधिनीम् ।
बभार शास्त्राणि दृशं द्वयाधिकां निजत्रिनेत्रावतरत्वबोधिकाम् ॥६॥
विशिष्टव्याकरणप्रयोगः – वस्तुतः श्लोकेऽस्मिन् अवतर शब्दस्य प्रयोगः दृश्यते । अत्र तॄ धातोः ’ऋदोरप्’ इति सूत्रेण अप् प्रत्यये कृते , अव इत्युपसर्गेण सह तर इत्यस्य समासे च कृते अवतर इति रूपं भवति । न ह्यत्र अव इत्युपसर्गपूर्वकात् नॄ धातोः अप् प्रत्यये कृते अवतर इति रूपं सिद्ध्यति। यतो हि अव इत्युपसर्गपूर्वकात् तॄ धातोः “अवेस्तॄस्रोर्घञ्” इति सूत्रेण घञ् प्रत्यये कृते अवतार इति रूपं स्यात् । तत्तु नेष्टम् ।
समास: - निजत्रिनेत्रावतरत्वबोधिकाम् = निजं स्वकीयं यत् त्रिनेत्रावतरत्वं तस्य बोधिकाम् इत्यत्र षष्ठीतत्पुरुषसमासः ।

नवमे च श्लोके दृश्यते तावत् विशिष्टव्याकरणप्रयोगः । तथा हि उच्यते –
स्फुरद्धनुर्निस्वनतद्घनाशुगप्रगल्भवृष्टिव्ययितस्य सङ्गरे ।
निजस्य तेजश्शिखिनः परश्शता वितेनुरङ्गाररमिवायशः परे ॥९॥
विशिष्टव्याकरणप्रयोगः – परश्शताः इति शब्देऽस्मिन् दृश्यते विशिष्टव्याकरणप्रयोगः । शतात् परे इति परश्शताः। अस्मिन् प्रसङ्गे टीकाकारः मल्लिनाथः कथयति यदत्र “पञ्चमी भयेन” इति सूत्रेण योगविभागात् यस्य पदस्यान्ते पञ्चमी विभक्तिर्भवति तस्य पदस्य सुबन्तेन साकं समासो भवतीति नियमेन शतात् इत्यस्य परे इत्यनेन सह समासे कृते “राजदन्तादिषु परम्” इति सूत्रेण शत इत्यस्य परनिपाते कृते , “पारस्करादीनि सत्तायाम्” इति सूत्रेण सुडागमे च कृते परश्शताः इति रूपं सिद्धति ।
समासः – शतात् परे इति परश्शताः इति पञ्चमी तत्पुरष समासः ।

किञ्च प्रथमसर्गस्य षष्टीश्लोकेऽपि विशिष्टव्याकरणप्रयोगः दृश्यते –
चलाचलप्रोथतया महीभृते स्ववेगदर्पानिव वक्तुमुत्सुकम् ।
अलं गिरा वेद किलायमाशयं स्वयं इयस्येति च मौनमास्थितम् ॥ ६०॥
विशिष्टव्याकरणप्रयोगः – अत्र तु चलाचलः इति पदप्रयोगः दृश्यते । अत्र चल् इति धातोः अच् प्रत्यये “चरिचलिपतिवदीनां वा द्विर्वचनमाक्चाभ्यासस्य” इत्यनेन सूत्रेण द्वित्वे संजाते आक् आगमे च कृते “चलाचलः” इति रूपं सिद्धति ।
किञ्च वेद इत्यत्र विद् धातोः लटि “विदो लटो वा” इति सूत्रेण णल् (अ) आदेशे कृते वेद इति रूपं सिद्धति ।
मौनम् – मुनेर्भावः मौनम् – मुनि + अण् प्रत्यये कृते मौनम् इति रूपं भवति ।

सप्तषष्ठीतमे श्लोके विशिष्टव्याकरणप्रयोगः परिलक्ष्यते । उच्यते हि तत्र –
क्षणादथैष क्षणदापतिभ्रमः प्रभञ्जनाध्येयजवेन वाजिना ।
सहैव ताभिर्जनदृष्टिवृष्टिभिर्बहिःपुरोऽभूत् पुरुहूतपौरुषः ॥
अत्र विशिष्टरूपेण समासप्रयोगः दृश्यते । यथा – क्षणदापतिप्रभः = क्षणदायाः रात्रेः पतिः क्षणदापतिः, तस्य प्रभा इव प्रभा यस्य सः इत्यत्र बहुव्रीहिसमासः ।
पुरुहूतपौरुषः – पुरुहूतः इन्द्रः तद्वत् पौरुषं सामर्थ्यं यस्य सः अथवा पुरुहूतस्य पौरुषमिव पौरुषं यस्य स इति बहुव्रीहिसमासः ।
जनदृष्टिवृष्टिभिः = जनानां दृष्टयः , तासां वृष्टयः (षष्ठी तत्पुरुषसमासः) जनदृष्टिवृष्टयः ताभिः ।
तत्र तावदस्मिन् सर्गे शताधिक एकतमे श्लोके विशिष्टा काचित् समासप्रक्रिया परिदृश्यते -
तत्र वर्तते समस्तपदम् - प्रतीष्टकामज्वलदस्रजालकम् = ज्वलन्ति अस्त्राणि ज्वलदस्त्राणि (कर्मधारयः) तेषां जालकम् इति ज्वलदस्त्रजालकम् (षष्ठी तत्पुरुषसमासः) , प्रतीष्टं कामज्वलदस्त्रजालकम् येन सः (बहुव्रीहिः) तम् । तत्र वर्तते अपरञ्च पदम् - अर्थान्वितनामताशया = अर्थेन अन्वितम् – अर्थान्वितम् ( तृतीया तत्पुरुषसमासः), अर्थान्वितं नाम यस्य स अर्थान्वितनामा (बहुव्रीहिः) , तस्य भावः अर्थान्वितनामता, तस्याः आशा (षष्ठी तत्पुरुषः) इति अर्थान्वितनामताशातया ।

इत्येताभिः निदर्शनैः समासेन वयं कथयितुं शक्नुमः यत् चिन्तामणिचिन्तनाधिगतविविधवैदुष्यविभूषितोऽयं महाकविः श्रीहर्षः पाण्डित्ये रसच्छन्दोऽलंकारव्याकरणप्रयोगभावादिविधाने समस्तान् कविवरानतिशेते – इति शम्

Sanskrit Movies and Drama in India

2011-02-28T17:35:00.000+05:30

Abstract:

Films are cultural artifacts created by specific cultures, which reflect those cultures, and, in turn, affect them. Film is considered to be an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful method for educating — or indoctrinating — citizens. The visual elements of cinema give motion pictures a universal power of communication.

Some films have become popular worldwide attractions by using dubbing or subtitles that translate the dialogue into the language of the viewer.

The origin of the name "film" comes from the fact that photographic film (also called film stock) has historically been the primary medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms exist for an individual motion picture, including picture, picture show, moving picture, photo-play and flick. A common name for film in the United States is movie, while in Europe the term film is preferred. Additional terms for the field in general include the big screen, the silver screen, the cinema and the movies.

The cinema of India consists of films produced across India, including the cinematic culture of AndhraPradesh, Assam, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra and Orissa , Punjab, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal. Indian films came to be followed throughout South Asia and the Middle East. As cinema as a medium gained popularity in the country as many as 1,000 films in various languages of India were produced annually. Expatriates in countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States continued to give rise to international audiences for Indian films of various languages.

Like films dramas are also very much entertaining. In fact, we have the ancient tradition of drama. Indian drama as a distinct genre of Sanskrit literature emerges in the final centuries BC, although its origins date back to the Rigvedic dialogue hymns of the late2nd millennium BC. Famous Sanskrit dramatists include Śhudraka, Bhasa, Asvaghosa and Kalidasa. Though numerous plays written by these playwrights are still available, little is known about the authors themselves. In this paper we will mention the number of Sanskrit Films which were directed and produced in India and also in the same way we will mention the dramas of ancient Sanskrit playwrights which were staged in India.

Introduction:

India with its rich and varied heritage has had an appealing history in the past. Apart from the history and culture India has been acknowledged as a talented country with its highest applaud given to its art. Indian Art has been classified into various forms and one of the most popular forms is Indian Drama. Indian drama and theatre is perhaps as old as its music and dance. Its origin was during the Vedic

Period.

1. History of Indian Cinema:

The birth of Cinema in India can be attributed to the Lumiere brother’s. Only a few months after the Lumiere brothers introduced the art of cinematography in Paris in 1895, cinema made its presence felt in India. The Lumiere Brothers’ held their first public showing at Mumbai’s Watson’s Hotel on July 7, 1896 and the Times of India glowingly referred to it as the ‘miracle of the century’. Westerners, who were quick to realize the value of India as a site of filmmaking both because of phenomenon did not create much a ripple. The Indian viewer took the new experience as something already familiar to him, thanks to the art of shadow play and the tradition of story-telling with hand-drawn images accompanied by live sound.

The Lumiere brother’s Cinematography fist show was a silent movie for 10 minutes. Six items, each of 17 meters, were included – Entry of cinematography, The Sea Bath, Arrival of a Train, A Demolition, Ladies and Soldiers on Wheels, and Twenty-four items were on, including A Stormy Sea and The Thames at Waterloo Bridge.

Next was F.B.Thanawala, who made his debut in 1900. Two of his films, Splendid New View of Bombay and Taboot Procession generated great interest. The first film explored some outstanding landmarks in the city of Bombay, and the second an annual Muslim procession.

In 1905 film production was linked with exhibition. J.F Madan, who had gained a wide reputation in the theatre world of Calcutta, went on to establish the Elphinstone Bioscope Company. In the years that followed, the Madan Theatre began to exercise great influence both inside India and outside. Madan was the first business to foresee the imminent business possibilities of filmmaking of India.

By 1920, that is seven years after the first Indian cinema appeared to be established on secure foundations- 18 feature films were produced in 1920, 40 films in 1921, and 80 in 1925. As cinema began to grow more and more popular among the masses and a lucrative industry was established, a number of indubitably gifted film directors made their debut; among them Suchat Singh, Dhiren Ganguli, Himansu Rai and V.Shantram, Many good films made during the initial period were greatly inspired by the two celebrated epics- the Ramayana and the Mahabhararata. Many of the directors sought to invest their mythological narratives with a clear social message relevant to contemporary society. The filmmakers associated with this phase in the growth of Indian cinema were Janus faced. They looked back to the past to the past lovingly and sought to reconnect with tradition; at the same time, they sought to draw on the resources and innovations of Hollywood. Until now all films were silent.

The golden period in the history of Indian cinema is attributed to the 1950s. Guru Dutt, Mehboob Khan, Raj Kapoor, Balraj Sahani, Nargis, Bimal Roy, Meena Kumari, Madhubala, Dilip Kumar graced the screens. In south India esteemed actors like Rajkumar, Gemini Ganasan, NT Rama Rao and several other actors and actresses entertained the audiences. Besides them numerous singers, composers, scriptwriters, cameramen and technicians lend a helping hand in making some of the most outstanding films that carved their own niches in the history of Indian cinema.

The fist Sanskrit film was made by eminent South Indian film director Ganapathi Venkatrama Iyer known as G.V Iyer was a well known Indian film director and actor. He was nicknamed “Kannada Bheeshma”, and was the only person who made movies in Sanskrit. His films were well-known for their spiritual themes. He was born in 1917 in Nanjanagud in Mysore district of Karnataka state in South India. His most critically acclaimed film was Bhagwad Gita(1993), which won the National Film Award for Best Film and was nominated for best film at the Bogota Film Festival.

1.1 Sanskrit films:

G.V Iyer’s been proficient in both Kannada and Sanskrit and was soon to make the first movie in Sanskrit, about the famous philosopher Adi Shankaracharya (1983). The movie received the National Film Awards for Best Film, Best Screenplay, Best Cinematography and Audiography and has been known as a masterpiece. It is believed that the movie made a great impact on Iyer. It was remarked that he stopped wearing footwear after making the movie. He later went on to make a movie a Madhavacharya in Kannada and Ramanujacharya in Tamil. He also made a remarkable Sanskrit movie Bhagavad Gita (1993), which won Best Film at the National Film Awards of 1993. The film was also nominated for the Best Film at the Bogota Film Festival.

The pride of Kannada filmdom veteran director KSL Swamee is following the footsteps of his mentor G V Iyer. Now KSL Swamee has taken up a film ‘Prabodha Chandrodayam’ in Sanskrit based on the 11th century work of ‘Krishnayathi-Mishra’ play. Sri Bharathi Thirtha Mahaswami launched the film in the religious way after performimg ‘Sahasra Modhaka Mahaganapathi Homam. Sri Ramakrishna Vidya Samsthe CS Krishnaswamy donated Rs.1 lakh for the project jointly produced by Sanathana Dharmavardhini Trust.

This is a film in Sanskrit taken up at accost of Rs. 100 lakhs for 100 minutes duration. The Managing Trustee of ‘Sanathana Dharmavardhini’ CVL Shastry has urged the Sanskrit and Peace lovers to sponsor 15 seconds at the rate of Rs.25000.

Recently a Sanskrit film has hit the theatres in Jaipur. The full length feature film is based on the ancient Sanskrit drama Mudrarakshasam, and shares the title with the dramatic piece, written byVishakhadatta around the 4th century B.C.

Mudrarakshasam tells the story of the overthrow of the Nandas by the famous stateman Chanakya, along with his disciple Chandragupta. The appeal of the film lies in the engrossing political drama that tells a tale of intrigue, design and espionage in the succession to the throne.

Producer-Director Umesh Sharma made the film hoped to make a film that would popularize the language held to be sacred by Brahminical Hindus.

2. Sanskrit Drama:

Indian drama as a distinct genre of Sanskrit literature emerges in the final centuries BC, although its origins date back to the Rigvedic dialogue hymns of the late2nd millennium BC. Famous Sanskrit dramatists include Śhudraka, Bhasa, Asvaghosa and Kalidasa. Though numerous plays written by these playwrights are still available, little is known about the authors themselves.

2.1 The Nãtyasãtra of Bharata

The Natya Sastra is an ancient Indian treatise on the performing Arts, encompassing theatre, dance and music. It was written during the period between 200 BC and 200 AD in classical India and is traditionally attributed to the sage Bharata.

The Natya Shastra is incredibly wide in its scope. While it primarily deals with stagecraft, it has come to influence music, classical Indian dance, and literature as well. It covers stage design, music, dance, makeup, and virtually every other aspect of stagecraft. It is very important to the history of Indian classical music because it is the only text which gives such detail about the music and instruments of the period. Thus, an argument can be made that the Natya Shastra is the foundation of the fine arts in India. The most authoritative commentary on the Natya Shastra is Abhinavabharati by Abhinavagupta.

The text, which now contains 6000 slokas, is attributed to the muni (sage) Bharata and is believed to have been written during the period between 200 BC and 200 AD. The Natya Shastra is based upon the much older Gandharva Veda (appendix to Sama Veda) which contained 36000 slokas. Unfortunately there are no surviving copies of the Natya Veda. Though many scholars believe most slokas were transmitted only through the oral tradition, there are scholars who believe that it may have been written by various authors at different times.

The document is difficult to date and Bharata's historicity has also been doubted, some authors suggesting that it may be the work of several persons. However, Kapila Vatsyayan has argued that based on the unity of the text, and the many instances of coherent reference of later chapters from earlier text, the composition is likely that of a single person. Whether his/her name really was Bharata is open to question near the end of the text we have the verse: "Since he alone is the leader of the performance, taking on many roles, he is called Bharata" (35.91), indicating that Bharata may be a generic name. It has been suggested that Bharata is an acronym for the three syllables: bha for bhāva (mood), rā for rāga (melodic framework), and ta for tāla (rhythm). However, in traditional usage Bharata has been iconified as muni or sage, and the work is strongly associated with this personage.

The discourse is set in a frame where a number of munis approach Bharata, asking him about nāṭyaveda (lit. nāṭya=drama,performance; veda=knowledge). The answer to this question comprises the rest of the book, which is thus loosely a dialogue. Bharata says that all this knowledge is due to Brahma. At one point he mentions that he has a hundred "sons" who will spread this knowledge, which suggests that Bharata may have had a number of disciples whom he trained. A still from Shakuntalam of Kalidasa

The Natya Shastra ranges widely in scope, from issues of literary construction, to the structure of the stage or mandapa, to a detailed analysis of musical scales and movements (murchhanas), to an analysis of dance forms that considers several categories of body movements, and their impacts on the viewer.

Bharata describes 15 types of drama ranging from one to ten acts. The principles for stage design are laid down in some detail. Individual chapters deal with aspects such as makeup, costume, acting, directing, etc. A large section deals with meanings conveyed by the performance (bhavas) get particular emphasis, leading to a broad theory of aesthetics (rasas).

Four kinds of abhinaya (acting, or histrionics) are described - that by body part motions (angika), that by speech (vAchika), that by costumes and makeup (AhArya), and the highest mode, by means of internal emotions, expressed through minute movements of the lips, eyebrows, ear, etc. (sAttvika)

Ø List of the Chapters of Bharata Natyashastra:

§ Origin of drama

§ Description of the playhouse

§ Puja (offering) to the Gods of the stage

§ Description of the karana dance

§ Preliminaries of a play

§ Sentiments (rasas)

§ Emotional and other states

§ Gestures of minor limbs

§ Gestures of hands

§ Gestures of other limbs

§ Cari moveme

§ Different gaits

§ Zones and local usages

§ Rules of prosody

§ Metrical patterns

§ Diction of a play

§ Rules on the use of languages

§ Modes of address and intonation

§ Ten kinds of play

§ Limbs of the segments

§ Styles

§ Costumes and make-up

§ Harmonious performance

§ Dealings with courtezans

§ Varied performances

§ Success in dramatic performances

§ Instrumental music

§ Stringed instruments

§ Time measure

§ Dhruva songs

§ Covered instruments

§ Types of character

§ Distribution of roles

§ Descent of drama on the Earth

Natyashastra remained an important text in the fine arts for many centuries; so much so that it is sometimes referred to as the fifth Veda. Much of the terminology and structure of Indian classical music and Indian classical dance were defined by it. Many commentaries have expanded the scope of the Natya Shastra; most importantly we may include Matanga's Brihaddesi (5th-7th c.),Abhinavagupta's Abhinavabharati (which unifies some of the divergent structures that had emerged in the intervening years, and outlines a theory of artistic analysis) and Sharngadeva's Sangita Ratnakara (13th c. work that unifies the raga structure in music). The analysis of body forms and movements also influenced sculpture and the other arts in subsequent centuries. The structures of music outlined in the Natya Shastra retain their influence even today, as seen in the seminal work Hindustani Sangeetha Padhathi by Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande from the early 20th century. The theory of rasa described in the text has also been a major influence on modern Indian cinema especially in the Malayalam Film Industry.

Ø Performances of the Sanskrit Plays in India:

While describing the performances of the Sanskrit plays in India, first of I recall the name of the famous drama group in Southern India, named ‘Bhasabharati’.¹

Bhasabharati has produce en number of Sanskrit plays.

The following list will show the names of the Sanskrit plays which Bhasabharati has produced.

1. Madhyama Vyayogam (1979) of Bhasa and directed by Kavalam Narayana Panikkar

2. Sakunthalam (1982) of Mahakavi Kalidasa and directed by Kavalam Narayan Panikkar

3. Vikramorvasiyam (1982) of Mahakavi Kalidasa and directed by Kavalam Narayana Panikkar

4. Karnabharam (1984) of Mahakavi Bhasa and directed by Kavalam Narayan Panikkar

5. Urubhangam (1987) of Mahakavi Bhasa and directed by Kavalam Narayan Panikkar

6. Swapna Vasavadattam (1993) of Mahakavi Bhasa and directed by Kavalam Narayan Panikkar

7. Vikramorvasiyam (1996) of Mahakavi Kalidasa and directed by Kavalam Narayana Panikkar

8. Prathima (1999) of Mahakavi Bhasa and directed by Kavalam Narayana Panikkar

9. Charudattam (2004) of Mahakavi Bhasa and directed by Kavalam Narayana Panikkar

10. Vikramorvasiyam (2005 New version) of Makavi Bhasa and directed by Kavalam Narayana Panikkar

11. Malavikagnimitram (2006) of Mahakavi Kalidas and directed by Kavalam Narayana Panikkar

_______________________________________________

http://www.bhasabharathi.com/sopanam_productions.htm

The Nātyashāstra delineates a detailed theory of drama comparable to the Poetics of Aristotle. Bharata refers to bhavas, the imitations of emotions that the actors perform, and the rasas (emotional responses) that they inspire in the audience. He argues that there are eight principal rasas: love, pity, anger, disgust, heroism, awe, terror and comedy, and that plays should mix different rasas but be dominated by one.

Each rasa experienced by the audience is associated with a specific bhava portrayed on stage. For example, in order for the audience to experience srngara(the 'erotic' rasa), the playwright, actors and musician work together to portray the bhava called rati (love).

The Government of India’s Ministry of Human Resource Development has recently took a initiative of performing Sanskrit plays. The Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan, Deemed University under the Ministry of Human Resource Development, is organizing Vasantotsava, the Sanskrit drama competitions for the students of its various Campuses on 23-24 February, 2006, in Kamani Auditorium, Copernicus Marg, New Delhi from 10.00 a.m.

The plays which were performed are following:

1.Dootghatotkacham

2. Dehi Padapallavam

3.Mrichhakatikam

4.Mattavilasprahasnam

5.Snushavijayam

6.Bhukailasam

7.Naganandanam

8. Subhadraharanam

9. Madhyamvyayogaha

10. Ablasamarthyam

In 10^th December 2010 Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies , JNU organized a drama on Mahakavi Bhasa’s “Karnabharam” on the eve of the 4^th International Sanskrit Computational Linguistics Symposium. The students of the Sanskrit Centre participated in the play and finally it was applauded well by the audience.

Web References:

1. http://www.sangeetnatak.org/deshparva/natyadarshan/sakuntalam.htm

2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natya_Shastra

3. http://www.bhasabharathi.com/sopanam_productions.htm

4. http://sanskrit.jnu.ac.in/conf/4iscls/index.jsp

5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film

6. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinema_of_India

7. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._V._Iyer

8. www.digi-help.com/.../sanskrit-film-mudrarakshasam-jaipur.asp

9. http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/kannada/article/54366.html

http://www.digi-help.com/movies/sanskrit-film-mudrarakshasam-jaipur.asp

The concept of Dharma in Indian Philosophical Aspect

2010-11-28T09:57:00.000+05:30

Introduction:

Indian thinkers viewed philosophy as a practical necessity that needed to be cultivated in order to understand how life can best be led. It became a custom for Indian writers to explain at the beginning of philosophical works how it serves human ends (puruṣārtha). ). Having the same or rather intertwined origins, all of these philosophies have a common underlying theme of Dharma, and similarly attempt to explain the attainment of emancipation.

In this article, we will discuss on the concept of Dharma in Indian philosophical aspect. We will show how the Vedas define the term Dharma. As well as, we will mention how the Dharmasastra defines the term dharma, the school of Nyaya Vaisesika define the term Dharma. How the Buddhists explain Dharma and how the Jainas narrate the term Dharma.

Dharma is a multivalent term of great importance in Indian Philosophy and religions. In the context of Hinduism, it means one's righteous duty.1

In traditional Hindu society, dharma has historically denoted a variety of ideas, such as Vedic ritual, ethical conduct, caste rules, and civil and criminal law. It’s most common meaning however pertains to two principal ideals: that social life should be structured through well-defined and well-regulated classes (Varna), and that an individual's life within a class should be organized into defined stages called ashrama.

The word dharma translates as that which upholds or supports, and is generally translated into English as law. It is a derivation from Proto-Indo-Iranian root dhar- ("to fasten, to support, to hold"), in turn reflecting Proto-Indo-European root dʰer- ("to hold")], which in Sanskrit is reflected as class-1 root √dhṛ.2

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1. Carol Henderson Garcia Culture and customs of India. 2002, page 31
2. An article on Dharma, www.en.wikepedia.org

Etymologically it is related to Avestan √dar- ("to hold"), Old Persian √dar- ("to hold, have"), Latin frēnum ("rein, horse tack"), Lithuanian derė́ti ("to be suited, fit"), and Lithuanian dermė (agreement), darma ("harmony"). Classical Sanskrit word dharma would formally match with Latin o-stem firmus PIE dʰer-mo-s "holding", were it not for its historical development from earlier Rig-Vedic system.

Now we will discuss on Dharma according to various philosophical aspects.

Dharma according to Rig-Veda:

Dharma is the essence of truth and is indeed the eternal factor of strength and force by which human qualities develop in an individual. Dharma makes the action of the individual pure and pious whilst elevating the qualities of humanity and social awareness in an individual. Dharma inspires a person to possess and practice those virtues and values, which eventually make him a good human being.

In the Rig-Veda, the word appears as an n-stem, dhárman-, with a range of meanings encompassing "something established or firm" (in the literal sense of prods or poles), figuratively "sustainer, supporter" (of deities), and semantically similar to the Greek ethos ("fixed decree, statute, law").

Dharma according to Mahabharata:

The worldview of the dharmic traditions is that while scriptures can be very helpful, Truth cannot be found by scripture alone but by a path of experiential realization and Self-discovery – and in that sense religion is not conclusive. It is also not separative and exclusive in the sense of dividing the world into believers and non-believers. The dharmic worldview is that there are many tribes throughout the world, and many teachers and teachings.

Thus in Mahabharata explains dharma as:-

धारणाद् धर्ममित्याहुर्धर्मो धारयते प्रजाः।
यत् स्याद् धारणसंयुक्तं स धर्म इति निश्चयः॥ महाभारतम् कर्णपर्वः ६९.५९

Dharma according to Mimamsa:-

Mimansa means a reverent study leading to a scientific quest of truth. This search for truth leads us to the solution of the great problems of life, and has engaged us for thousands of years. In Arthasamgraha, a famous book of Purva Mimansa, it is said:

“वेदबोधितेष्टसाधनताको धर्मः यथा यागादिः।”

Dharma is that which is described by the Vedas as the means for achieving the desirable; for example sacrifices etc.

Hence in the next line Logakshi Bhaskara narrates in Arthasamgraha:
“अथ को धर्मः किं तस्य लक्षणानि चेत्। उच्यते यागादिरेव धर्मः। तल्लक्षणं वेदप्रतिपाद्यः प्रयोजनवदर्थो धर्म इति।”

Dharma according to Smruti:

Among many sacred sm•uti scriptures the Manu sm•uti is very well known. In this sacred book Manu tried to describe the term Dharma in his own way. According to Manu the Veda, the sacred tradition, the customs of virtuous men, and one’s own pleasure, they declare to be visibly the fourfold means of defining the sacred law.

Thus he says:
वेदः स्मृतिः सदाचारः स्वस्य च प्रियम् आत्मानः।
एतच चतुर्विधं प्राहुः साक्षाद् धर्मस्य लक्षणम् ॥ २.१२

Manu, in his book tried to mention the tenfold law of Dharma. In the sixth chapter of his book he wrote the ten virtues which a man must follow to maintain the moral code of Dharma.
The verse which indicates the tenfold law follows:

धृतिः क्षमा दमोऽस्तेयं शौचमिन्द्रियनिग्रहः।
धीर्विद्या सत्यमक्रोधो दशकं धर्मलक्षणम् ॥ ६.९२

Contentment, forgiveness, self-control, abstention from unrighteouly appropriating anything, (obedience to the rules of) purification, coercion of the organs, wisdom, knowledge (of the supreme Soul), truthfulness, and abstention from anger, (form) the tenfold law.

Dharma according to Buddhist Philosophy

Dharma in the Buddhist scriptures has a variety of meanings, including "phenomenon", and "nature" or "characteristic”. Dharma also means ‘mental contents’, and is paired with citta, which means heart/mind. In major sutras (for example, the Mahasatipatthana sutra), the dharma/citta pairing is paralleled with the pairing of kaya (body) and vedana (feelings or sensations, that which arise within the body but experienced through the mind).Dharma means the source of things and Truth.

Dharma is also used to refer to the teachings of the Buddha, not in the context of the words of one man, even an enlightened man, but as a reflection of natural law which was re-discovered by this man and shared with the world. A person who lives their life with an understanding of this natural law is a "dhammic" person, which is often translated as "righteous".

"Dharma" may be seen as an ultimate and transcendent truth which is utterly beyond worldly things, somewhat like the Greek logos, seeing the dharma as referring to the "truth" or ultimate reality or "the way things are".

The Dharma is one of the Three Jewels of Buddhism in which practitioners of Buddhism seek refuge (what one relies on for his/her lasting happiness). The three jewels of Buddhism are the Buddha (mind's perfection of enlightenment), the Dharma (teachings and methods), and the Sangha (awakened beings who provide guidance and support).

In this context, I would like to mention a verse from Sarvadarsana Samgraha of Maadhavacharya where the moral code of Bauddhas has been mentioned.

रागादिज्ञानसंतानवासनोच्छेदसम्भवा ।

चतुर्णामपि बौद्धानां मुक्तिरेषा प्रकीर्तिता ॥
कृतिः कमण्डलुमौण्ड्यं चीरं पूर्वाह्नभोजनम् ।
सङ्घो रक्ताम्बरत्वं च शिश्रिये बौद्धभिक्षुभिः ॥ (विवेक विलास, ८।२६५-७५)

Later, Buddhist philosophers like Nāgārjuna would question whether the dharmas (momentary elements of consciousness) truly have a separate existence of their own.

Dharma according to Jainism:

According to Jainism, Universe and its constituents are uncreated and everlasting. These constituents behave according to the natural laws and their nature without interference from external entities. Dharma or true religion according to Jainism is vatthu sahāvo dhammo translated as "the intrinsic nature of a substance is its true dharma." Kārtikeyānupreksā (478) explains it as: “Dharma is nothing but the real nature of an object. Just as the nature of fire is to burn and the nature of water is to produce a cooling effect, in the same manner, the essential nature of the soul is to seek self-realization and spiritual elevation.

The word Dharma encompasses the following meanings in Jainism:
1. The true nature of a thing.
2. Rationality of perception, knowledge and conduct.
3. Ten virtues like forgiveness, etc. also called ten forms of Dharma.
4. Ahimsa – protection to all living beings.
5. Two paths – of the monks and the laity.
6. Dharma as a dravya (substance or a reality) (the principle of motion).

Samyak Darsana or rational perception is the rational faith in the true nature of every substances of the universe. Samyak Jnana or rational knowledge is the right knowledge of true and relevant knowledge of the reality, the tattvas. It incorporates the two principles of Anekantvada or non-absolutism and Syadvada or relativity of truth. Right knowledge must be free from three main defects: doubt, delusion, and indefiniteness. Samyak Caritra or rational conduct is the natural conduct of a (soul) living being. It consists in following austerities, engaging in right activities and observance of vows, carefulness and controls.
The following ten virtues are mentioned in Jaina philosophy to constitute true Dharma:-1.
1. Supreme forgiveness
2. Supreme humility
3. Supreme straightforwardness
4. Supreme truthfulness
5. Supreme purity
6. Supreme self-restraint
7. Supreme penance
8. Supreme renunciation
9. Supreme non-possessiveness
10. Supreme celibacy

In the Sarvadarsana Samgraha of Maadhavacharya it is said:

सर्वथावद्ययोगानां त्यागश्चारित्रमुच्यते ।
कीर्तितं तदहिंसादिव्रतभेदेन पञ्चधा ॥
अहिंसासूनृतास्तेयब्रह्मचर्यापरिग्रहः ॥

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1. Varni, Jinendra; Ed. Prof. Sagarmal Jain, Translated Justice T.K. Tukol and Dr. K.K. Dixit (1993). Samaṇ Suttaṁ. New Delhi: Bhagwan Mahavir memorial Samiti. verse 84

Dharma according to Navya Nyaya Methodology:

The Nyaya system of Indian philosophy has two phases: (i) ancient and (ii) modern. The first phase marks the beginnings of the Christian era and continues almost up to 10th century A.D. The second phase though began around 10th cent. A.D, reached its best around 14th cent. A.D when the magnum opus of Gangesopadhaya, namely the Tattvacintaamani was written.

However, in this article we will discuss on Dharma according to the neo logicians’ point of view. Neo logicians define Dharma as property. According to them, which is contained, which resides, which exists is called a property. Everything exists somewhere or the other, therefore, everything is called a property. Whatever exists somewhere is called a property of that. Is this case they give the example a substance. In a substance reside universal, quality and action so universal, quality and action are properties of a substance.

In the threads i.e. parts exists ‘the whole’ substance, namely, cloth, therefore, the cloth, though a substance is called a property of threads. Also they showed the example of water and pot. ‘Water’ is contained in a ‘pot’ so ‘water’ is the property of pot.

According to the neo logicians the property primarily is of two types: (i) universal and (ii) an extraneous property.

Universal (jati) is that property, by which, substances of same type, though different of each other in appearance, are included in the same class. For example, human beings, belonging to different regions, different in shape, appearance and nature are included in the same class by the universal human-being hood.

Upadhi (the other type of property), is also of two types: divisible and indivisible. That which has part is divisible and that which cannot be divided into parts is called an indivisible property. 1

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1. A primer of navya nyaya language and methodology, Ujjwala Jha.
Thus Mahesh Chandra Nyayaratna wrote in his book Navya Nyaya BhasaPradipa:

“धर्मः ध्रियते तिष्टति वर्तते यः सः धर्मः। आकाशादिकं विना सर्व एव पदार्थाः यत्र कुत्रचिदपि वर्तन्त इति सर्व एव धर्माः इत्युच्यते। यत्र यः वर्तते सः तस्य धर्माः ।”

In another text he mentioned the types of Dharma:

“धर्मश्च प्रथमतः द्विविधः जातिरुपाधिश्च। येन परस्परं विभिन्नरूपमपि एकजातीयद्रव्याणामेकश्रेण्यान्तर्भावो भवति, स धर्मो जातिः। यथा विभिन्नदेशीया मनुष्या विभिन्नाकाररूपस्वभावा अपि एकया मनुष्यजात्या एकश्रेण्यामन्तर्भाविताः। जातिश्च सामान्यं नाम कणादोक्तश्चतुर्थः पदार्थः।
उपाधिरपि पुनः सखण्डोपाधिरखण्डोपाधिश्चेति द्विधः। खण्डेन (अंशेन) सह वर्तते इति सखण्डः। यश्च अंशतः विभक्तुं शक्यते स सखोण्डोपाधिधर्म इति यावत्।”

Till now we have discussed the term Dharma according to Navya Nyaya. Now we will mention how dharma is defined in Vaisesika Sutras.
In Vaisesika Sutrasar it is said:-

“यतोऽभ्युदय निःश्रेयससिद्धिः स धर्मः”

Through Dharma one can uplift oneself and can attend the Ultimate.

The relevance of Dharma on the personal level lies deeply in the welfare and happiness of an individual. It is deeply seated in his liberation from illusion, Maya or mental impurities which finally helping him in attaining a state of salvation or mukti. This is state of pure bliss. Dharma purifies one’s consciousness and sublimates the human instincts which impart the feeling of compassion and affinity towards other beings.

Conclusion:

In this way, we have discussed a vast topic on dharma in Indian philosophical aspect. First of all, we have mention how the Vedas define the Dharma and then we discussed the mimansa, the smriti, the Buddhist, the Jaina, and not last but least the Nyaya philosophical aspect on Dharma.

However, we have to remember that Dharma is universal; it transcends race, religion, gender and even species. Human beings have the unique ability to follow Dharma or negate it. Negation of Dharma inflicts misery on the planet while following Dharma brings fulfillment to life.

Time and time again different religions scriptures have defined the true meaning of Dharma. Dharma or religion as described in different scriptures is the innate, instinctive and universal laws. The observance of these laws enables humans to be contented and happy. Dharma supports in saving human being from ruin and suffering and lifts them up from the abyss of eternal despair.

Sanskrit : Our Mother Tounge

2010-10-30T13:00:00.000+05:30

Sanskrit literature is exceptionally rich both in form and content, and one is amazed to have a look at the diverse forms that originated in the early hours of human civilization and also at the analysis made of these diversities by literary theoreticians. Sanskrit literary theory has described Rasa as the center of gravity of Poetic Art, and in introducing the nature of this element has explained in as total fragmented beauty, the experience of which generates delight, because Beauty and Bless conjointly constitute part and parcel of Absolute, the Infinite, even the partial reflection of which inducts special charm to a specimen of Art and makes its pleasurable and enjoyable.
The sacred literature of India, inferior to none in variety of extent, is superior to many in nobility of thought, in sanctity of spirit and in generality of comprehension. In beauty or proximity, it can vie with any other literature ancient and modern despite the various impediments to the steady development of the language, despite the successive disturbances, internal and external, which India had to encounter ever since the dawn of history, she has successfully held up to the world her archaic literary map, which meager outline itself favorably compares with the literature of any other nation of the globe. The beginnings of her civilization are yet in obscenity Relatively to any other language of the ancient world, the antiquity of Sanskrit has an unquestioned priority “Yet such is the marvelous continuity” says Max Muller “between the past and the present of India, that in spite of repeated social convulsions, religious reforms and foreign invasions, Sanskrit may be said to be still the only language that is spoken over the whole extent of the vast country.
So says Mr. Winternitz “Sanskrit is not a ‘dead’ language even today. There are still at the present day a number of Sanskrit periodicals in India, and topics of the day are discussed in Sanskrit pamphlets. Also, the Mahabharata is still today rears aloud publicity. To this very day poetry is still composed and works written in Sanskrit, and it is language in which Indian scholars converse upon scientific questions. Sanskrit at the least plays the same part in India still, as Latin in the Middle Ages in Europe, or as Hebrew with the Jews”

2010-02-14T15:42:00.000+05:30