Hospital All Inforation

Dialysis Introduction Type And Principle Of Peritoneal Dialysis

2012-09-28T21:33:00.000+05:30

Introduction:

Dialysis is the artificial process of getting rid of waste (diffusion) and unwanted water (ultrafiltration) from the blood. This process is naturally done by kidneys. Some people, however, may have failed or damaged kidneys which cannot carry out the function properly - they may need dialysis. In other words, dialysis is the artificial replacement for lost kidney function . Dialysis may be used for people who have become ill and have acute kidney failure (temporary loss of kidney function), or for fairly stable patients who have permanently lost kidney function (stage 5 chronic kidney disease). Dialysis need when people develop end stage kidney failure --usually by the time people lose about 85 to 90 percent of kidney function.

Types Of Dialysis:

There are two main types of dialysis.

1. Hemodialysis:

The blood circulates outside the body of the patient , it goes through a machine that has special filters. The blood comes out of the patient through a catheter (a flexible tube) that is inserted into the vein. The filters do what the kidney's do; they filter out the waste products from the blood. The filtered blood then returns to the patient via another catheter.

Patients need to be prepared for hemodialysis: A blood vessel, usually in the arm, needs to be enlarged. . The enlarged vein makes the insertion of the catheters possible. US researchers have developed a new way of growing blood vessels using patients' own skin cells to seed the growth of tissue and have tested it in dialysis patients with end stage kidney disease.

Hemodialysis usually lasts about 3 to 4 hours each week. The duration of each session depends on how well the patient's kidneys work, and how much fluid weight the patient has gained between treatments. Hemodialysis is either done in a special dialysis center in a hospital.

2. Peritoneal Dialysis :

A sterile (dialysate) solution rich in minerals and glucose is run through a tube into the peritoneal cavity, the abdominal body cavity around the intestine, where the peritoneal membrane acts as a semi-permeable membrane.

The abdomen is the area between the chest and hips , it contains the stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gall bladder, pancreas and spleen. Peritoneal dialysis uses the natural filtering ability of the peritoneum ,the internal lining of the abdomen. In other words, peritoneal dialysis uses the lining of the abdomen as a filter of waste products from the blood.

The dialysate is left there for some time so that it can absorb waste products. Then it is drained out through a tube and discarded. This exchange, or cycle, is generally repeated several times during the day - with an automated system it is often done overnight. The elimination of unwanted water (ultrafiltration) occurs through osmosis - as the dialysis solution has a high concentration of glucose, it results in osmotic pressure which causes the fluid to move from the blood into the dialysate. Consequently, a larger quantity of fluid is drained than introduced.

Although peritoneal dialysis is not as efficient as hemodialysis, it is carried out for longer periods. The net effect in terms of total waste product and salt and water removal is about the same as hemodialysis.

Peritoneal dialysis is done at home by the patient; by a willing and motivated patient. It gives the patient a greater amount of freedom and independence because he/she does not have to come in to the clinic at multiple times each week. It can also be done while traveling with a minimum of specialized equipment. Peritoneal dialysis is said to 'save lives and save money'.

Before having peritoneal dialysis, the patient needs to have a small surgical procedure to insert a catheter into the abdomen. This is kept closed off, except when fluid is being introduced or taken out of the abdomen.

There are two principal types of peritoneal dialysis:

1. Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) :

This requires no machinery and can be done by the patient or a caregiver. The dialysate is left in the abdomen for up to eight hours. It is then replaced with a fresh solution straight away. This happens every day, about four to five times per day.

2. Continuous cyclic peritoneal dialysis (CCPD) :

A machine does the dialysis fluid exchanges. It is generally done during the night while the patient sleeps. This needs to be done every night. Each session lasts from ten to twelve hours. After spending the night attached to the machine, the majority of people keep fluid inside their abdomen during the day. Some patients may require another exchange during the day. A study found that a significant number of patients prefer "dialysis while patient sleep" treatment.

Latest Procedure Of Laparoscopic cholecystectomy

2012-08-05T19:17:00.001+05:30

Procedure:

To begin the operation, the patient is placed in the supine position on the operating table and anesthetized.

Disinfect the skin of patient using antiseptic lotion like savlon,betadin,spirit.

Maintain the sterile technique during procedure.

A scalpel is used to make a small incision at the umbilicus

Using either a Veress needle or Hasson technique the abdominal cavity is entered.

The surgeon inflates the abdominal cavity with carbon dioxide to create a working space.

The camera is placed through the umbilical port and the abdominal cavity is inspected.

Additional ports are opened inferior to the ribs at the epigastric, midclavicular, and anterior axillary positions.

The gallbladder fundus is identified, grasped, and retracted superiorly.

With a second grasper, the gallbladder infundibulum is retracted laterally to expose and open Calot's Triangle (the area bound by the cystic artery, cystic duct, and common hepatic duct).

The triangle is gently dissected to clear the peritoneal covering and obtain a view of the underlying structures.

The cystic duct and the cystic artery are identified, clipped with tiny titanium clips and cut.

Then the gallbladder is dissected away from the liver bed and removed through one of the ports

Recently, this procedure is performed through a single incision in the patient's umbilicus. This advanced technique is called Laparoendoscopic Single Site Surgery or "LESS".

AIDS Definition Defference between HIV and AIDS Symptoms Transmitted And Prevention

2012-08-05T17:57:00.001+05:30

Definition of AIDS:

Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, or AIDS, is a condition that describes an advanced state of HIV infection. With AIDS, the virus has progressed, causing significant loss of white blood cells (CD4 cells) or infections that result from immune system damage.

Difference between HIV and AIDS:

HIV is the virus which attacks the T-cells in the immune system.But AIDS is the syndrome which appears in advanced stages of HIV infection.

HIV is a virus. But AIDS is a medical condition.

HIV testing can identify infection in the early stages. This allows the patient to use prophylactic (preventive) drugs which will slow the rate at which the virus replicates, delaying the onset of AIDS. But AIDS patients still have the HIV virus and are still infectious. Someone with AIDS can pass HIV to someone else.

Symptoms:

Symptoms of early HIV infection may include:

Fever
Chills
Joint pain
Muscle ache
Sore throat
Sweats (particularly at night)
Enlarged glands
A red rash
Tiredness
Weakness
Weight loss

Signs and symptoms of late-stage HIV infection may include:

Blurred vision
Diarrhea, which is usually persistent or chronic
Dry cough
Fever of above 37C (100F) lasting for weeks
Night sweats
Permanent tiredness
Shortness of breath
Swollen glands lasting for weeks
Weight loss
White spots on the tongue or mouth

Transmitted:

HIV can be transmitted through:

Sexual transmission: It can happen when there is contact with infected sexual secretions (rectal, genital or oral mucous membranes). This can happen while having unprotected sex, including vaginal, oral and anal sex or sharing sex toys with someone infected with HIV.

Perinatal transmission: The mother can pass the infection on to her child during childbirth, pregnancy, and also through breastfeeding.

Blood transmission: The risk of transmitting HIV through blood transfusion is nowadays extremely low in developed countries, thanks to meticulous screening and precautions. Among drug users, sharing and reusing syringes contaminated with HIV-infected blood is extremely hazardous.

The virus CANNOT be transmitted from:

Shaking hands
Hugging
Casual kissing
Sneezing
Touching unbroken skin
Using the same toilet
Sharing towels
Sharing cutlery
Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation

Prevention:

Protected sex: Having sex without a condom can put a person at risk of being infected with HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs). HIV can be spread by having unprotected sex (vaginal, oral and anal sex). It can also be caught from sharing sex toys with someone infected with HIV.

Drug abuse nd neeadle sharing: Intravenous drug use is an important factor in HIV transmission in developed countries. Sharing needles can expose users to HIV and other viruses, such as hepatitis C.

Body fluid exposure: Exposure to HIV can be controlled by employing precautions to reduce the risk of exposure to contaminated blood. At all times, health care workers should use barriers (gloves, masks, protective eyewear, shields, and gowns). Frequent and thorough washing of the skin immediately after being contaminated with blood or other bodily fluids can reduce the chance of infection.

Pregnancy: Anti-HIV medicines can harm the unborn child. But an effective treatment plan can prevent HIV transmission from mother to baby. Precautions have to be taken to protect the baby´s health. Delivery through caesarean section may be necessary. Breastfeeding may have to give way to bottle-feeding if the mother is infected. A study by scientists from Columbia University, New York, found that breastfeeding for 6+ months with antiretroviral therapy could help reduce mother-to-child HIV transmission as well as improve chances of infant's survival.

Education. Health education is an important factor in reducing risky behavior.

List Of Latest HIV Medicines

2012-08-05T16:41:00.001+05:30

List of HIV medicine:

Nucleoside analog reverse transcriptase inhibitors- These drugs can block HIV's ability to copy a cell's DNA. Without complete DNA, HIV can't make new virus copies. These HIV medicines include the following:

1. Zidovudine, also known as AZT (brand name: Retrovir)
2. Didanosine, also known as ddI (brand name: Videx)
3. Zalcitabine, also known as ddC (brand name: Hivid)
4. Lamivudine, also known as 3TC (brand name: Epivir)
5. Stavudine, also known as d4T (brand name: Zerit)
6. Abacavir, also known as ABC (brand name: Ziagen

Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor- Also doing same function as above but better way and faster. These HIV medicines include the following.

1. Delavirdine (brand name: Rescriptor)
2. Nevirapine (brand name: Viramune)
3. Efavirenz, also known as EFV

Protease inhibitors- Will prevent infected cells from releasing HIV Medicine into the body. Type of medicinesare following-

1. Saquinavir (brand name: Invirase)
2. Indinavir (brand name: Crixivan)
3. Nelfinavir (brand name: Viracept)
4. Ritonavir (brand name: Norvir)
5. Amprenavir (brand name: Agenerase)

Fusion inhibitors- Prevent HIV from entering in to CD4 cells- Examples-

Enfuvirtide (brand name: Fuzeon)

NOTE:Please to be used after Doctor advice.

Gastroenteritis Definition Cause Symptoms Treatment Prevention And Vaccination

2012-08-05T15:55:00.000+05:30

Definition:
Gastroenteritis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract that involves both the stomach and the small intestine.

Causes:

Gastroenteritis has many causes. Viruses and bacteria are the most common.Gastroenteritis caused by viruses may last 1-2 days. On the other hand, bacterial cases can last a week or more.

Bacteria: These are the most common bacterial causes:

Escherichia coli - Traveler’s diarrhea, food poisoning, dysentery, colitis, or uremic syndrome.
Salmonella - Typhoid fever; handling poultry or reptiles such as turtles that carry the germs.
Campylobacter - Undercooked meat, unpasteurized milk.
Shigella - Dysentery

Viruses: Viral outbreaks (30-40% of cases in children) can spread rapidly through close contact among children in day care and schools. Poor handwashing habits can spread viruses. Common viral causes include the following:

Adenoviruses
Rotaviruses
Caliciviruses
Astroviruses
Norovirus

Parasites and protozoans: These tiny organisms are less frequently responsible for intestinal irritation.May pick up one of these by drinking contaminated water. Swimming pools are common places to come in contact with these parasites. Common parasites include these:

Giardia - The most frequent cause of waterborne diarrhea causing giardiasis.
Cryptosporidium - Affects mostly people with weakened immune systems, causes watery diarrhea

Other common causes: Chemical toxins most often found in seafood, food allergies, heavy metals, antibiotics, and other medications also may be responsible for bouts of gastroenteritis that are not infectious to others.

Medications:

Aspirin
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medicines (such as Motrin or Advil)
Antibiotics
Caffeine
Steroids - Excessive use or a sudden change in frequency or dosage
Laxatives

Symptoms:

Abdominal gas, bloating or belching
Abdominal pain or cramps
Blood-streaked stools
Flu-like symptoms (fatigue, fever, sore throat, headache, cough, aches and pains)
Nausea, which may be described as feelings of wooziness, queasiness, retching, sea-sickness, car-sickness, or an upset stomach
Vomiting including multiple episodes
Watery diarrhea including multiple episodes
Weakness

Treatment:

Treatment generally involves a multifaceted plan that addresses the cause; minimizes the discomfort of nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea; and decreases the risk of dehydration.

Not eating solid foods to rest the stomach and intestines until symptoms have passed.

Drinking plenty of fluids (water or rehydrating fluid, such as Pedialyte) to ensure adequate hydration.

In some cases, medications are used to treat gastroenteritis. Antibiotics may be prescribed when gastroenteritis is caused by a bacterial infection, such as in bacterial food poisoning due to Shigella,Salmonella, or Campylobacter infection.

Treatment of severe gastroenteritis that does not resolve or leads to dehydration may require hospitalization and rehydration with intravenous fluids.

Prevention:

A supply of easily accessible uncontaminated water and good sanitation practices are important for reducing rates of infection and clinically significant gastroenteritis.

Personal measures (such as hand washing) have been found to decrease incidence and prevalence rates of gastroenteritis in both the developing and developed world by as much as 30%. Alcohol-based gels may also be effective.

Breastfeeding is important, especially in places with poor hygiene, as is improvement of hygiene generally.

Breast milk reduces both the frequency of infections and their duration.

Avoiding contaminated food or drink should also be effective.

Vaccination:

Due to both its effectiveness and safety, in 2009 the World Health Organization recommended that the rotavirus vaccine be offered to all children globally Two commercial rotavirus vaccines exist and several more are in development. In Africa and Asia these vaccines reduced severe disease among infants and countries that have put in place national immunization programs have seen a decline in the rates and severity of disease.This vaccine may also prevent illness in non-vaccinated children by reducing the number of circulating infections.Since 2000, the implementation of a rotavirus vaccination program in the United States has substantially decreased the number of cases of diarrhea by as much as 80 percent. The first dose of vaccine should be given to infants between 6 and 15 weeks of age.The oral cholera vaccine has been found to be 50–60% effective over 2 years.

Balance Diet For Tuberculosis Patient Some tips for a balanced diet

2012-07-16T17:53:00.001+05:30

Balance Diet For Tuberculosis Patient

Tuberculosis is a disease caused by an infection of a bacterium known as Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The only way to cure tuberculosis is through a rigorous course of antibiotics prescribed by doctor. The average duration of treatment is around six months to a year. A healthy balanced diet can help prevent of malnutrition .

Some tips for a balanced diet

Consume an adequate amount of fruit and vegetables but stay within the correct calorie level for a healthy weight. On a 2000-calorie diet, eat 2 cups of fruit and 2 and a half cups of vegetables per day. Eat more or less according to calorie needs.

Eat a variety of fruit and vegetables each day. Choose from all five vegetable sub-groups (dark green, orange, legumes, starchy vegetables, and other vegetables) several times a week.

Consume 3 or more ounce-equivalents of whole-grain foods each day, with the rest of the recommended grains coming from enriched or whole-grain products. At least half grains should come from whole grains. Eating at least 3 ounce-equivalents of whole grains per day can reduce the risk of heart disease, may help with weight maintenance, and will lower health risk for other chronic diseases.

Consume 3 cups per day of fat-free or low-fat milk or equivalent milk products. Adults and children can consume milk and milk products without worrying that these foods lead to weight gain. There are many fat-free and low-fat choices without added sugars that are available and consistent with an overall healthy dietary plan. If a person has difficulty drinking milk, ...choose alternatives within the milk food group, such as yogurt or lactose-free milk, or consume the enzyme lactase prior to the consumption of milk products. For people who must avoid all milk products (e.g. individuals with lactose intolerance, vegans), non-dairy calcium-containing alternatives may be chosen to help meet calcium needs.

Eat a variety of protein rich foods, with more fish, beans, peas, nuts and seeds.

Eat less than 2,300 mg (approximately 1 teaspoon of salt) of sodium per day.

Choose low-sodium foods, and do not add salt when cooking. Also, eat potassium-rich foods, such as fruits and vegetables.

Checking Of Vital Sing Definition Purpose And Procedure

2012-07-16T16:59:00.000+05:30

Definition:

Vital signs are the measurement of body temperature, pulse rate, respiration rate, and blood pressure. Vital signs are indicators of one's overall health. They offer clues to diseases and help evaluate progress toward recovery. Vital signs should be taken at rest. Any abnormal findings should be repeated in order to verify the findings.All of these vital signs can be observed, measured, and monitored. This will enable the assessment of the level at which an individual is functioning. Normal ranges of measurements of vital signs change with age and medical condition.

Purpose:

The purpose of recording vital signs is to establish a baseline on admission to a hospital, clinic, professional office, or other encounter with a health care provider. The health care professional has the responsibility of interpreting data and identifying any abnormalities from a person's normal state, and of establishing if current treatment or medications are having the desired effect.
Abnormalities of the heart are diagnosed by analyzing the heartbeat (or pulse) and blood pressure. The rate, rhythm and regularity of the beat are assessed, as well as the strength and tension of the beat, against the arterial wall.
The vital signs are recorded and compared with normal ranges for a person's age and medical condition. Based on these results, a decision is made regarding further actions to be taken.
All persons should be made comfortable and reassured that recording vital signs is normal part of health checks, and that it is necessary to ensure that the state of their health is being monitored correctly.

Procedure Of Vital Checking :

Body temperature

Body temperature is taken with a thermometer.In general, the normal oral temperature is 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit (or 37 degrees Centigrade).The most common places to measure temperature include:

The mouth (oral temperature)
Under the arm (axillary temperature)
The anus (rectal temperature)

To record the temperature using mercury thermometer, one should shake down the thermometer by holding it firmly at the clear end and flicking it quickly a few times, with the silver end pointing downward. who is taking the temperature should confirm that the alcohol or mercury is below a normal body temperature.

To record an axillary temperature, the silver tip of the thermometer should be placed under the right armpit. The arm clamps the thermometer into place, against the chest. The thermometer should stay in place for three to four minutes. After the appropriate time has elapsed, the thermometer should be removed and held at eye level. During this waiting period, the body temperature will be measured The mercury will have risen to a mark that indicates the temperature of a person.

To record an oral temperature, the axillary procedure should be followed, except that the silver tip of the thermometer should be placed beneath the tongue for three to four minutes, then read as described previously.

In both cases, the thermometer should be wiped clean with an antiseptic and stored in an appropriate container to prevent breakage.

To record a rectal temperature, a rectal thermometer should be shaken down, as described previously. A small amount of water-based lubricant should be placed on the colored tip of the thermometer. Infants must be placed on their stomachs and held securely in place. The tip of the thermometer is inserted into the rectum no more than 0.5 in (1.3 cm) and held there for two to three minutes. The thermometer is removed, read as before, and wiped with an antibacterial wipe. It is then stored in an appropriate container to prevent breakage, because ingestion of mercury can be fatal.

Pulse rate and rhythm

Checking pulse rate is counting the number of times your beats in a minute. Pulse checks can be taken at the wrist (radial pulse) or at the neck (carotid pulse). Do not use your thumb; instead use your index and middle fingers. A resting adult heart rate should be between 60 and 90 beats a minute, average is 72 beat a minute. Athletes may have lower rates. Children, depending on their age, will have higher pulse rates.

Respiratory rate

Checking respiratory rate is counting the number of times take a breath in a minute. The best time to check the respiratory rate is at rest. To do this, count the number of times the chest rises for one full minute while breathing normally. The normal adult rate is 16 to 20 breaths per minute. Children breathe faster.

Blood pressure

The average blood pressure is 120 millimeters of mercury (systolic-the upper number), over 80 millimeters of mercury (diastolic-the lower number). A resting blood pressure of over 90 diastolic is considered mildly elevated; over 100 may require treatment.

If the blood pressure is monitored manually, a cuff is placed level with the heart and wrapped firmly but not tightly around the arm one inch above the elbow over the brachial artery. Wrinkles in the cuff should be smoothed out. Positioning a stethoscope over the brachial artery in front of the elbow with one hand and listening through the earpieces, the cuff is inflated well above normal levels (to about 200 mmHg), or until no sound is heard. Alternatively, the cuff should be inflated 10 mm Hg above the last sound heard. The valve in the pump is slowly opened. Air is allowed to escape no faster than 5 mmHg per second to deflate the pressure in the cuff to the point where a clicking sound is heard over the brachial artery. The reading of the gauge at this point is recorded as the systolic pressure.

The sounds continue as the pressure in the cuff is released and the flow of blood through the artery is no longer blocked. At this point, the noises are no longer heard. The reading of the gauge at this point is noted as the diastolic pressure. "Lub-dub" is the sound produced by the normal heart as it beats. Every time this sound is detected, it means that the heart is contracting once. The noises are created when the heart valves click to close. When one hears "lub," the atrioventricular valves are closing. The "dub" sound is produced by the pulmonic and aortic valves.

Seizure Disorder Definition Type Cause treatment And Prevention

2012-07-10T21:30:00.000+05:30

Seizure Disorder

Definition
A seizure is a sudden disruption of the brain's normal electrical activity accompanied by altered consciousness and/or other neurological and behavioral manifestations. Epilepsy is a condition characterized by recurrent seizures that may include repetitive muscle jerking called convulsions.

Type Of Seizure Disorder

There are two basic types of seizures:

Epileptic: These seizures have no apparent cause and occur repeatedly. These seizures are called a “seizure disorder” or “epilepsy.”
Nonepileptic: These seizures are triggered (provoked) by a disorder or another condition that irritates the brain. In children, a fever can trigger a nonepileptic seizure.

Causes

The origin of 50-70% of all cases of epilepsy is unknown.

Head trauma resulting from a car accident, gunshot wound, or other injury.
Alcoholism
Brain abscess or inflammation of membranes covering the brain or spinal cord
Phenylketonuria (PKU, a disease that is present at birth, often is characterized by seizures, and can result in mental retardation) and other inherited disorders
Infectious diseases like measles, mumps, and diphtheria
Lead poisoning, mercury poisoning, carbon monoxide poisoning, or ingestion of some other poisonous substance
Suddenly discontinuing anti-seizure medication
Hypoxic or metabolic encephalopathy (brain disease resulting from lack of oxygen or malfunctioning of other physical or chemical processes)
Acute head injury
Blood infection caused by inflammation of the brain or the membranes that cover it

Symptoms:

Chew or smack the lips involuntarily
Move the hands, arms, and legs in strange, purposeless ways
Utter meaningless sounds
Have severe muscle spasms and jerking throughout the body
Fall down
Forcefully turn their head to one side
Clench their teeth
Bite their tongue (often occurs)
Drool or froth at the mouth
Lose bladder control

Treatment:
Long-term anticonvulsant drug therapy is the most common form of epilepsy treatment.
Medication
A combination of drugs may be needed to control some symptoms, but most patients who have epilepsy take one of the following medications:

Dilantin (phenytoin)
Tegretol (carbamazepine)
Barbita (phenobarbital)
Mysoline (primidone)
Depakene (valproic acid, sodium valproate)
Klonopin (clonazepam)
Zarontin (ethosuximide).

First aid for seizures:

A person having a grand mal seizure should be helped to lie down.
Tight clothing should be loosened.
A soft, flat object like a towel or the palm of a hand should be placed under the person's head.
Forcing a hard object into the mouth of someone having a grand mal seizure could cause injuries or breathing problems.
If the person's mouth is open, placing a folded cloth or other soft object between his teeth will protect his tongue.
Turning his head to the side will help him breathe.
After a grand mal seizure has ended, the person who had the seizure should be told what has happened and reminded of where he is.

Prevention:

All Natural Supplementary

Eating properly.
Getting enough sleep.
Controlling stress and fevers can help prevent seizures.
A person who has epilepsy should be careful not to hyperventilate.
A person who experiences an aura should find a safe place to lie down and stay there until the seizure passes.
Anticonvulsant medications should not be stopped suddenly and, if other medications are prescribed or discontinued, the doctor treating the seizures should be notified.
In some conditions, such as severe head injury, brain surgery, or subarachnoid hemorrhage, anticonvulsant medications may be given to the patient to prevent seizures.

Name Of Oral Drugs For Neuropathic Pain

2012-06-28T23:28:00.000+05:30

Name Of Oral Drugs For Neuropathic Pain

Neurontin Oral

Effexor XR Oral
Tramadol Oral
Neurontin Oral
OxyContin Oral
Pristiq Oral
Gabapentin Oral
Lamictal Oral
amitriptyline Oral
Ultram Oral
Morphine Oral
Nortriptyline Oral
Venlafaxine Oral
Kadian Oral
lamotrigine Oral
Roxicodone Oral
Avinza Oral
Ultram ER Oral
Pamelor Oral
Imipramine HCl Oral
Tofranil Oral
Lamictal ODT Oral
Ryzolt Oral

Gabapentin Oral

Lamictal XR Oral
Desipramine Oral
Lamictal Starter (Blue) Kit Oral
Norpramin Oral
Desvenlafaxine Oral
Gralise Oral
ConZip ER Oral
Fanatrex Oral
Oxecta Oral

NOTE:Please to be used after Doctor advice.

Hair Care Tips

2012-06-28T22:24:00.000+05:30

Washing And Drying

Hair should be washed around 2 – 3 times a week.

Shampoo is applied to the scalp and allowed to run down the hair.

Conditioner is applied from the ends up, avoiding the scalp.

During shampooing, massage your scalp gently, rather than rubbing vigorously

To avoid irritating the scalp, or damaging hair roots, which may attribute to hair loss.

Avoid using water that is too hot.

Remember: hair is most fragile when wet. Avoid too much manipulation until it has dried partially at least.

Use a hair dryer as soon as you’re out of the shower.

It is best to pat the hair dry. Avoid excessive rubbing with the towel.

When possible, opt for air drying rather than heat drying.

When heat drying, start out with a lower heat setting and then go higher gradually.

When hair is wet, water is actually inside the hair. If heated too quickly, water starts boiling inside the hair, leading to bubble formation and hair rupture.

Do not sleep with your hair wet ..

Applying direct heat to the scalp can cause burns, damage hair roots, or in the least irritate the scalp enough to cause itching and flaking.

Try to start about an inch away from the roots.

Brushing

Never brush too harshly or pull on the hair when tied or in a roller to prevent damaging the follicle which may lead to hair loss.

Contrary to a popular myth, boar bristle brushes are not better for hair.

It is best to stick to the more readily available plastic brushes.

Teasing or backcombing should be kept to a minimum as it damages the hair.

Do not allow the comb to hit or scratch the scalp.

Avoid scratching, which can damage the hair.

Cutting

To keep hair looking healthy, it should be trimmed often: about half an inch every 2 months.

Very short hair should be trimmed more frequently to keep the short style looking tidy (every 1 – 2 months).

To grow hair out, trimming still has to be done, but trims should be kept further apart (every 2 -3 months).

Coloring

The more permanent the hair dye is, the more damaging it is to the hair.

As a general rule, going darker is less damaging than going lighter.

Hair that is dyed or bleached is fragile, dull, dry, and more easily affected by humidity.

Always condition hair to give it back some of its luster and strength and to avoid breakage.

Hair Care Tips, Prevention Of Hair Loss

2012-06-28T21:00:00.000+05:30

Prevention Of Hair Loss

Getting proper nutrition is essential for healthy hair.

Water, protien, biotin (part of the vitamin B complex), vitamins A, B6, B12, C, copper, iron, omega 3 fatty acids, zinc, calcium, folic acid, and magnesium all play a part in maintaining a healthy scalp, skin, and hair.

Using fingertips to massage scalp will increase circulation in scalp which is important for hair growth.

Gentle combing or brushing of hair will help break up hardened oils that clog pores. It is recommended that comb or brush 100-200 strokes in the morning and at night.

Avoid excessive wind, sun, and heat (such as from hair dryers, hot showers, and curling irons) on hair.

Tight fitting caps and hats will cause poor circulation in scalp and will also cause build-up of sweat and grime.

Try to reducing stress by taking some time out daily just to relax, excessive stress is believed to induce hair loss.

Limit coloring it to once every 2 months hair coloring damages hair and the less frequently color it the better.

Avoid putting too much physical stress on hair, brush/comb hair gently, don't pull hair when brush and avoid braids and ponytails if possible, they place constant stress on hair.

Get enough sleep.

Use a conditioner and trim any split ends.

Latest Skin Care Tips

2012-06-27T22:51:00.000+05:30

Beautiful Skin

To make or keep skin beautiful, it's best to work from the inside.
Eating the right kind of food can do more good than any medicine.
Go a long way in helping body's own healing forces.
Eat a balanced diet that includes raw foods, plenty of yellow and orange vegetables (they contain beta carotene - a precursor to vitamin A).
Foods high in sulfur such as garlic, onions, asparagus and eggs.
Include fruits, seeds, grains and nuts.
Many find Stevens Skin Softener Cream very helpful for these situations.

Dry Skin

Blend together one ounce safflower oil, one ounce avocado oil and two ounces of sesame oil.
Apply this to dry skin areas.
An excellent facial mask can be made with stewed and mashed apricots.
Apply to freshly cleaned face and leave for 20 minutes or longer.
Rinse away with warm water, and blot dry.
One application will help sallow, dead skin tones, but applying this 3 or 4 times a week will do wonders.

Itchy Skin

Softener Cream

A compress made with skim milk or powdered milk or soak the affected area in a colloidal bath made with oatmeal, corn starch or baking soda.
Homemade Skin Lotion
Mix one teaspoonful of honey, one teaspoon of lemon juice and a half cup of water.
Massage into skin after bathing.
Many find Stevens Skin Softener Cream very helpful for these situations.

Mayonnaise for dry Facial

For a tendency towards dry facial skin, a gentle daily massage with mayonnaise will do wonders.

Can use lemon juice, egg and safflower or other such oil to make your own dry skin lotion.

Oily Skin

Here is a cleansing stimulating facial treatment that is very helpful for those with oily skin.
Mash together the pulp of one garden ripe tomato and enough fuller's earth (should find it at most pharmacies) to make a smooth paste.
Rub it into skin and leave it on until it dries completely (note: do not apply to eye area).
Rinse with warm water, then splash face with cold water. Blot dry.

Rashes

Whether it's diaper rash, chicken pox, measles, insect bites or hives, corn starch can provide relief.

For measles and chicken pox, bathe in a tub of water to which a large handful of cornstarch has been added. For the other rashes rub the cornstarch on as a powder.

Softening Of Skin

Avocado oil used regularly is an excellent skin softener. It is in rich in vitamins and minerals, especially the skin vitamins A, C and E.

Teenagers

Many teenagers have to deal with embarrassing skin problems. taking supplements of zinc and Vitamin A will go a long way in helping them relieve these problems.Many find Stevens Skin Softener Cream very helpful for these situations.

Ulcers

Leg ulcers are more likely to develop in persons with poor circulation, thrombophlebitis and/or varicose veins. To speed healing, apply vitamin E oil to the sore and bandage it lightly with a sterile gauze pad. Change the bandage daily until the sore is healed.

Vitamins and Skin

Vitamins are essential to the health of skin, especially vitamins A, B, C and E. Vitamin E is especially helpful to improve your complexion when applied externally.

Winter Care

The air inside your house can get very dry in the winter.
This will play a major part in aggravating dry skin condition.
To add humidity the dry air in house, put a little extra water in the kettle when boiling water. Leave the kettle on the burner as it cools. It will continue to steam for 10 to 15 minutes, making life a whole lot more comfortable.

Asthma Definition Causes Symptoms Diagnosis And Medication Of Asthama

2012-06-23T20:02:00.000+05:30

Definition:

Asthma is a disease affecting the airways that carry air to and from lungs. People who suffer from this chronic condition (long-lasting or recurrent) are said to be asthmatic.The inside walls of an asthmatic's airways are swollen or inflamed. This swelling or inflammation makes the airways extremely sensitive to irritations and increases susceptibility to an allergic reaction.As inflammation causes the airways to become narrower, less air can pass through them, both to and from the lungs. Asthma is Incurable disease.

Causes Asthma:

The exact cause of asthma isn't known. Researchers think some genetic and environmental factors interact to cause asthma. These factors include:

An inherited tendency to develop allergies, called atopy.
Parents who have asthma.
Certain respiratory infections during childhood.
Contact with some airborne allergens or exposure to some viral infections in infancy or in early childhood when the immune system is developing.

Symptoms:

Coughin
Wheezing (a hissing sound while breathing)
Chest tightness
Breathing problems( Shortness of breath.)

Causes of Asthma Symptoms To Occur:

Many things can trigger or worsen asthma symptoms. Triggers can include:

Allergens from dust, animal fur, cockroaches, mold, and pollens from trees, grasses, and flowers
Irritants such as cigarette smoke, air pollution, chemicals or dust in the workplace, compounds in home décor products, and sprays (such as hairspray).
Medicines such as aspirin or other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and nonselective beta-blockers
Sulfites in foods and drinks
Viral upper respiratory infections, such as colds
Physical activity, including exercise

Diagnosis:

Allergy testing to find out which allergens affect .
A test to measure how sensitive airways are. This is called a bronchoprovocation (brong-KO-prav-eh-KA-shun) test. Using spirometry, this test repeatedly measures lung function during physical activity or after receive increasing doses of cold air or a special chemical to breathe in.
A chest x ray or an EKG (electrocardiogram). These tests will help find out whether a foreign object in airways.

Medication Of Asthama:

Medications used to treat asthma are divided into two general classes: quick-relief medications used to treat acute symptoms; and long-term control medications used to prevent further exacerbation.

Short acting beta2-adrenoceptor agonists (SABA), such as salbutamol are the first line treatment for asthma symptoms.
Anticholinergic medications, such as ipratropium bromide, provide additional benefit when used in combination with SABA in those with moderate or severe symptoms.Anticholinergic bronchodilators can also be used if a person cannot tolerate a SABA
Older, less selective adrenergic agonists, such as inhaled epinephrine, have similar efficacy to SABAs.
Glucocorticoids are generally considered the most effective treatment available for long term control.Inhaled forms are usually used except in the case of severe persistent disease, in which oral steroids may be needed.It is usually recommended that inhaled formulations be used once or twice daily, depending on the severity of symptoms.
Long acting beta-adrenoceptor agonists (LABA) have at least a 12-hour effect. The FDA has issued a public health advisory recommending that these drugs should not be used without an accompanying steroid due to an increased risk of severe symptoms, including severe exacerbation of asthma in both children and adults.
Leukotriene antagonists (such as zafirlukast) are an alternative to inhaled glucocorticoids, but are usually not preferred. They may also be used in addition to inhaled glucocorticoids but in this role are second line to LABA.
Mast cell stabilizers (such as cromolyn sodium) are another non-preferred alternative to glucocorticoids.
Medications are typically provided as metered-dose inhalers (MDIs) in combination with an asthma spacer or as a dry powder inhaler. The spacer is a plastic cylinder that mixes the medication with air, making it easier to receive a full dose of the drug. A nebulizer may also be used. Nebulizers and spacers are equally effective in those with mild to moderate symptoms however insufficient evidence is available to determine whether or not a difference exists in those severe symptomatology.

When asthma is unresponsive to usual medications, other options are available for both emergency management and prevention of flareups. For emergency management other options include:

Oxygen is used to alleviate hypoxia if saturations fall below 92%.
Magnesium sulfate intravenous treatment has been shown to provide a bronchodilating effect when used in addition to other treatment in severe acute asthma attacks.
Heliox, a mixture of helium and oxygen, may also be considered in severe unresponsive cases.
Intravenous salbutamol is not supported by available evidence and is thus used only in extreme cases.
Methylxanthines (such as theophylline) were once widely used, but do not add significantly to the effects of inhaled beta-agonists.
The dissociative anesthetic ketamine is theoretically useful if intubation and mechanical ventilation is needed in people who are approaching respiratory arrest.

Name Of Antibiotic For Acute Upper Respiratory Infection (URI)

2012-06-22T22:31:00.000+05:30

Drugs List:

Cap. Penicillin

Penicillin

Penicillin is a antibiotic. It is used to treat certain kinds of bacterial infections. It will not work for colds, flu, and other viral infections.

Erythromycin

Erythromycins, also called macrolides, are a group of antibiotics , medicines that kill bacteria or prevent their growth.

Amoxicillin

Treatment of acute otitis media (AOM). AAP, AAFP, CDC, and others recommend amoxicillin as drug of first choice for initial treatment of AOM, unless patient has severe illness (moderate to severe otalgia or fever ≥39°C) or the infection is suspected of being caused by β-lactamase-producing Haemophilus influenzae or Moraxella catarrhalis , in which case the fixed combination of amoxicillin and clavulanate is recommended for initial treatment. Those who fail to respond to amoxicillin should be retreated with amoxicillin and clavulanate.

Tetracycline

Antibacterial antibiotic derived from Streptomyces aureofaciens or produced semisynthetically from oxytetracycline.

Tab. Cefuroxime

Doxycycline

Antibacterial; antibiotic derived from Streptomyces aureofaciens or produced semisynthetically from oxytetracycline.

Cefuroxime

Treatment of AOM caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae , Haemophilus influenzae (including β-lactamase-producing strains), Moraxella catarrhalis (including β-lactamase-producing strains), or S. pyogenes .

Cephalexin

Treatment of AOM caused by susceptible S. pneumoniae , Haemophilus influenzae , M. catarrhalis , or staphylococci or streptococci.

Tab. Minocycline

Minocycline

Antibacterial; semisynthetic tetracycline antibiotic

Cefpodoxime
Sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim.
Demeclocycline
Clarithromycin

Medication For Respiratory Disease

2012-06-22T21:18:00.000+05:30

Name Of Respiratory Disease And Drugs:

Accolate:Treatment for asthma(Tab. zafirlukast, 10 mg and 20 mg )
Azmacort (triamcinolone acetonide) Inhalation Aerosol :Treatment for asthma.
Adcirca (tadalafil);For the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension
Aldurazyme (laronidase):For the treatment of Mucopolysaccharidosis.
Allegra (fexofenadine hydrochloride):Treatment for seasonal allergy symptoms.
Allegra-D:Treatment for nasal congestion due to seasonal allergy.
Alvesco (ciclesonide):For the maintenance treatment of asthma as prophylactic therapy in adults and adolescents.
Arcapta (indacaterol maleate inhalation powder):For the treatment of airflow obstruction resulting from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
Astelin nasal spray:Treatment for seasonal allergic rhinitis.
Atrovent (ipratropium bromide):Treatment for runny nose due to allergies and the common cold.
Augmentin (amoxicillin/clavulanate):Treatment for infections involving drug-resistant bacteria.
Avelox I.V. (moxifloxacin hydrochloride):Injectable antibacterial agent for adults with susceptible strains of bacterial infections.
Biaxin XL (clarithromycin extended-release tablets):For Acute Bacterial Exacerbation of Chronic Bronchitis (AECB) and Acute Maxillary Sinusitis.
Brovana (arformoterol tartrate):For the treatment of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease.
Cafcit Injection:For the short term treatment of apnea of prematurity in infants between 28 and <33 weeks gestational age.
Cayston (aztreonam for inhalation solution):For the treatment of cystic fibrosis patients with Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Cedax (ceftibuten):Treatment for chronic bronchitis, acute bacterial otitis media, pharyngitis/tonsillitis
Cefazolin and Dextrose :Treatment for Respiratory tract infections
Ceftin (cefuroxime axetil):Treatment of secondary bacterial infections of acute bronchitis
Cipro (ciprofloxacin HCl):Treatment for acute sinusitis
Clarinex:treatment of allergic rhinitis and chronic ideopathic urticaria.
Claritin RediTabs (10 mg loratadine rapidly-disintegrating tablet):Treatment for seasonal allergy symptoms.
Claritin Syrup (loratadine):Treatment for children with seasonal allergies
Daliresp (roflumilast):For the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
DuoNeb (albuterol sulfate and ipratropium bromide):For the treatment of bronchospasm associated with COPD.
Infasurf:For the prevention and treatment of Respiratory Distress Syndrome (RDS) in premature infants.
Iressa (gefitinib):For the second-line treatment of non-small-cell lung cancer.
Ketek (telithromycin):For the treatment of infections caused by bronchitis, bacterial sinusitis and Community-acquired pneumonia.
Letairis (ambrisentan):For the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension.
Priftin:Treatment for pulmonary tuberculosis.
Sclerosol Intrapleural Aerosol:Treatment for malignant pleural effusions.
Singulair:Treatment for asthma.
Spiriva HandiHaler (tiotropium bromide):For the treatment of bronchospasm associated with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
Synagis:Treatment for the prevention of serious lower respiratory tract disease in infants.
Teflaro (ceftaroline fosamil):For the treatment of bacterial skin infections and bacterial pneumonia.
Xalkori (crizotinib):For the treatment of ALK+ non-small cell lung cancer.

NOTE:Please to be used after Doctor advice.

Name of Cardiac Medications

2012-06-22T19:42:00.000+05:30

Inj. Heparin

Name of Cardiac Medications

Anticoagulants:(Also known as Blood Thinners)

Dalteparin
Danaparoid
Enoxaparin
Heparin
Tinzaparin
Warfarin

Antiplatelet Agents:

Aspirin
Ticlopidine
Clopidogrel
Dipyridamole
Angiotensin

Enzyme (ACE) Inhibitors:

Tab.Captopril

Benazepril
Captopril
Enalapril
Fosinopril
Lisinopril
Moexipril
Perindopril
Quinapril
Ramipril
Trandolapril

Blockers or Inhibitors:

Candesartan
Eprosartan
Irbesartan
Losartan
Telmisartan
Valsartan

Beta Blockers:

Tab.Metoprolol

Acebutolol
Atenolol
Betaxolol
Bisoprolol
Bisoprolol
Carteolol
Metoprolol
Nadolol
Propranolol
Sotalol
Timolol

Calcium Channel Blockers:

Amlodipine
Bepridil
Diltiazem
Felodipine
Nifedipine
Nimodipine
Nisoldipine
Verapamil

Diuretics:

Tab.Hydrochlorothiazide

Amiloride
Bumetanide
Chlorothiazide
Chlorthalidone
Furosemide
Hydrochlorothiazide
Indapamide
Spironolactone

Vasodilators:

Isosorbide dinitrate
Nesiritide
Hydralazine
Nitrates
Minoxidil

Digitalis Preparations:(Also known as Digoxin and Digitoxin

Lanoxin

Statins:

Common types of cholesterol-lowering drugs include statins, resins and nicotinic acid (niacin), gemfibrozil and clofibrate.

Definition And Nursing Management Of Post Operative Care

2012-06-18T22:31:00.000+05:30

Definition:

Post operative care is the management of a patient after surgery. This includes care given during the immediate post operative period in post anesthesia care unit (PACU), as well as during the days following surgery.

The goal of post operative care is to prevent complications such as infection, to promote healing of the surgical incision, and to return the patient to a state of health.

Nursing Management:

After the surgical procedure, and anesthesia reversal and extubation the patient is transferred to the PACU. The length of time the patient spends there depends on the length of surgery; the type of surgery; the status of regional anesthesia (for example, spinal anesthesia); and the patient's level of consciousness. Nursing management is most important for post operative patient.

Keep the patient in comfort and safety position.
Monitor vital signs including Blood pressure, Respiration, Pulse rate , and Temperature, 15mins for first hour, 30 mins for next 2hours, Then if stable 4 hourly during 24hrs and maintain record chart.
Assess resp rate, oxygen saturation and administer supplemental oxygen as prescribed.
Assess the surgical site and wound drainage systems.
Assess level of consciousness, orientation and ability to move extremities.
Assess Intravenous sites for patency and infusions for correct rate and solution.
Maintain fluid input and output and fluid balance chart.
Chaked Urinary catheter – position, patency, hourly urine output/volume, colour and concentration.
Assess pain level, pain characteristics (locationand quality) and timing, type and route of administration of last pain medications.
Administer analgesics as prescribed and assess their effectiveness in relieving pain
The patient should be turned every two hours, and should at least be sitting on the edge of the bed by eight hours after surgery.
Patients should be kept NPO (nothing by mouth) as ordered by the surgeon, at least until their cough and gag reflexeshave returned.
Body temperature must be monitored, since patients are often hypothermic after surgery and may need a warming blanket or warmed IV fluids.
Patients often have a dry mouth following surgery, which can be relieved with oral sponges dipped in ice water or by applying lemon ginger in mouth swabs.
The patient should be encouraged to splint chest and abdominal incisions with a pillow to decrease the pain caused by coughing and moving.
Provide information to patient and family.

Intensive Care Units Definition And Nursing Management

2012-06-16T23:22:00.000+05:30

Intensive Care Units Definition:

Intensive care units (ICU) are places in the hospital where the most seriously ill patients are cared for by specially trained staff. The staff consists of doctors, nurses, respiratory therapists, nutritionists, physical therapists, pharmacists. They work closely together as a team to provide the best possible humane care. Two things that make care in the ICU different than in a regular hospital care area are the nursing support and the special type of equipment in use. The level of nursing care in the ICU is higher than care in other parts of the hospital. ICU nurses are specially trained to care for the most ill patients. The second thing that distinguishes an ICU is the use of advanced technology. The ICU team uses a number of specialized machines and devices, called monitors, to frequently check the heartbeat, blood pressure and breathing. There are machines that help patients breathe called mechanical ventilators. While it can be overwhelming to see so many machines, wires and tubes, like intra-aortic balloon pumps , extracorporeal membrane oxygenation circuits , each does its job to help the patient. To the casual observer, the ICU would seem a good place for patients to stay all the time they are in hospital because of the high level of care.

Nursing Management Of ICU( Intensive care units ):

Taking regular blood tests.
Changing the patient’s treatment in line with test results.
Giving the drugs and fluids the patient that the doctors have prescribed.
Recording a patient’s blood pressure, heart rate and oxygen levels.
Clearing fluid and mucus from the patient’s chest using a suction tube.
Turning the patient in his or her bed every few hours to prevent sores on the skin.
Cleaning the patient’s teeth and moistening the mouth with a wet sponge.
Daily spongeing the patient in bed.
Changing the bed sheets.
Changing a patient’s surgical stockings, which help circulation when he or she is inactive (lying still) for a long time.
Putting drops in the patient’s eyes to make it easier to blink.

Latest Laparoscopic Instrument Name And Image

2012-06-15T22:06:00.002+05:30

TROCAR AND CANNULA

LAPAROSCOPIC CAMERA

STRAIGHT SCISSOR 10mm*330:

GRASPER:

MONOPOLAR SCISSOR:

RIGHT ANGLE FORCEP:

SUCTION TUBE:

DISPOSABLE BIPOLAR FORCEP:

BIPOLAR ELECTRO FORCEP:

NEEDLE HOLDER:

DISPOSABLE BIPOLAR DISSECTING FORCEP:

HEMOSTATE CLAMP:

Scabies Definition Symptoms Treatment And Prevention

2012-06-15T19:28:00.000+05:30

Definition:

Scabies is a contagious skin infection that occurs among humans and other animals. It has been classified by the WHO as a water-related disease. It is caused by a tiny and usually not directly visible parasite, the mite Sarcoptes scabiei, which burrows under the host's skin, causing intense allergic itching. The infection in animals is called sarcoptic mange.

The disease may be transmitted from objects but is most often transmitted by direct skin-to-skin contact, with a higher risk with prolonged contact It can also be spread through contact with other objects, such as clothing, bedding, furniture, or surfaces with which a person infected with scabies might have come in contact. As with lice, scabies can be transmitted through sexual intercourse.Typically appear in-on the elbows,round the nipples,near the genitals,in-between the fingers and toes,the axillae ,ankles,groin etc.

Symptoms:

Mite tunnels

These may be seen on the skin as fine, dark, or silvery lines about 2-10 mm long. They most commonly occur in the loose skin between the fingers ,the inner surface of the wrists, and the hands.

Itching.

This is often severe and tends to be in one place at first and then spreads to other areas. The itch is generally worse at night and after a hot bath.

Rash

The rash usually appears soon after the itch starts. It is typically a blotchy, lumpy red rash that can appear anywhere on the body. The rash is often most obvious on the inside of the thighs, parts of the abdomen and buttocks, armpits, and around the nipples in women. The appearance of the rash is often typical. However, some people develop unusual rashes which may be confused with other skin conditions.

Scratching

Scratching due to intense itching can cause minor skin damage. In some cases the damaged skin becomes infected by bacteria - a secondary skin infection. If skin becomes infected with bacteria it becomes red, inflamed, hot, and tender.

Aggravation of pre-existing skin conditions

Scabies can worsen the symptoms of other skin conditions, particularly itchy skin problems such as eczema, or problems such as psoriasis. Scabies can be more difficult to diagnose in these situations.

Treatment:

Permethrin

Permethrin is the most effective treatment for scabies. It is applied from the neck down usually before bed time and left on for about eight to fourteen hours, then showered off in the morning. One application is normally sufficient for mild infections. For moderate to severe cases, another dose is applied seven to fourteen days later.Permethrin causes slight irritation of the skin, but the sensation is tolerable.

Ivermectin

Ivermectin is an oral medication. It is effective in eradicating scabies. Ivermectin is a single dose. It is the treatment of choice for crusted scabies and is often used in combination with a topical agent.It has not been tested on infants and is not recommended for children under six years of age.

Others

Other treatments include lindane, benzyl benzoate, crotamiton, malathion, and sulfur preparations.

Prevention

The first thing is Hygiene. Ensure that one follows the practices of good hygiene. One should always wash the body properly and bathe daily. Use of clean towels and napkins and washing hands with hand wash or soap is recommended.
Do not wear clothes that have been worn by other people. Do not share your clothes with other people.
Ensure that you avoid physical contact with people who have been diagnosed with scabies.

Sterilization Of laparoscopy Instruments

2012-06-14T00:33:00.000+05:30

How laparoscopy Instruments sterilized:

After finished the procedure the instrument should clean properly.A method of cleaning that is ultrasonic cleaning . This method is the most efficient and effective. In fact, ultrasonic cleaning is 16 times more efficient than hand-cleaning. The instruments are placed in the ultrasonic unit for 10-15 minutes and use a neutral pH solution. Attention should be given to the following points during ultrasonic cleaning:

Before placing into the ultrasonic unit, the instruments are cleaned of all visible debris.
It’s preferable not to mix instruments made of dissimilar metals (such as aluminum and stainless) in the same cycle.
As with all types of cleaning, all instruments should be opened so ratchets and box locks are fully exposed to the cleaning process.
Upon completion of the cycle, the instruments are removed immediately and rinsed.

After cleaning The instruments should be dried and rinsing cycle before they are packed for sterilization.

ETO

This is ideally achieved by using an air gun that blows all the water droplets off the surfaces of instruments. . Then the instruments packaged and submitted to sterilization by ethylene oxide .Using ethylene oxide (EO) would work for all disposable instruments, insulated hand instruments and tubings employed for gas, suction and irrigation. Endoscopic instruments may be sterilized with either cold or warm EO gas, with respect to the manufacturer’s instructions. With cold gas, the temperatures are set at 85 0C and also the instruments are subjected for 4 hours and 30 minutes. Aeration must then follow for 12 hours. Warm gas sterilization happens at 145 0C for 2 hour 30 minutes, followed by 8 hours aeration. The benefits of EO are the items aren't damaged, it's non-corrosive to optics also it permeates porous material. Its main disadvantages are its cost, toxicity, the requirement for aeration and being a longer process.

The laparoscopy instrument may be sterilized by 2% glutaraldehyde, 6% stabilized hydrogen peroxide and per acetic acid (acetic acid/hydrogen peroxide). Fibreoptic light cords and telescopes have to be soaked in 2% glutaraldehyde not less than Ten minutes. Soaking should not exceed Twenty minutes. The endocamera could also disinfected by 10 minutes submersion in 2% glutaraldehyde. Care must be come to leave the plug end of the cord away from solution. Alternately, sterile drape over the camera and cord may be used. Soakage of other metallic instruments, including trocars, and hand instruments, has become recommended for An hour, to avoid infection with atypical mycobacterial infection. Formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde from phenolic derivatives, iodophors, hypochlorites, phenolics and quartery ammonium compounds are unpopular and it has been condemned. Formaldehyde is potentially cancer causing and very irritating to the skin, eyes, nose, and respiratory tract. Furthermore, its efficacy is found wanting, and for that reason, routine utilization of formaldehyde for sterilizing instruments and other items isn't recommended.

STERRAD

One of the newer sterilizer system - STERRAD (Johnson & Johnson) - uses hydrogen peroxide vapor and low-temperature gas plasma to sterilize most devices quickly with no toxic residues. Usually, the process takes about 75 minutes for wrapped and dry instruments and devices. Within the chamber, a deep vacuum is drawn. Fifty-nine percent aqueous peroxide is vaporized into the chamber. The product will be enveloped within the peroxide vapor. Following a diffusion of the gaseous peroxide with the load, chamber pressure is reduced, permitting the generation of low-temperature gas plasma. Rf (RF) energy is put on the chamber via an RF amplifier, inducing the plasma state. Reactive species are generated in the peroxide on this state, reacting with materials and every other. When the high-energy species have reacted, they recombine to form water vapor, oxygen, along with other non-toxic by products. Upon completion of sterilization, instruments are dry for immediate use or sterile storage. Thus, recontamination risk is minimized, and given that they remain sterile until their next use, money and time is saved by avoiding reprocessing instruments when the case in canceled or delayed. This system occupies minimal space and requires no venting or water hookup. The only utility requirement is electrical hookup.

Tuberculosis Definition Types Symptoms Diagnosis Prevention Risk factor And Treatment

2012-06-13T20:55:00.000+05:30

Definition:

Tuberculosis is a specific disease caused by infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis.The tubercle bacillus which can affect almost any tissue or organ of the body.The most common site of the disease being the lungs.

It is spread through the air when people who have an active TB infection cough, sneeze, or otherwise transmit their saliva through the air.Most infections are asymptomatic and latent, but about one in ten latent infections eventually progresses to active disease. When a person breathes in TB bacteria, the bacteria can settle in the lungs and begin to grow. From there, they move through the blood to other parts of the body such as the kidney, spine,brain etc.People with TB disease are most likely to spread it to people they spend time with every day. This includes family members, friends, and co-workers.

Types of Tuberculosis:

Active Tuberculosis:

Active TB means the bacteria are active in the body. The immune system is unable to stop these bacteria from causing illness. People with active TB in their lungs can pass the bacteria on to anyone they come into close contact with. When a person with active TB coughs, sneezes or spits, people nearby may breathe in the Tuberculosis bacteria and become infected .

Inactive Tuberculosis:

Inactive TB infection is also called latent TB. If a person has latent TB it means their body has been able to successfully fight the bacteria and stop them from causing illness. People who have latent TB do not feel sick, do not have symptoms and cannot spread tuberculosis.

Symptoms:

A cough lasting for more than 2-3 weeks
Chest Pain
Discolored or bloody sputum
Fatigue
Loss of appetite
Night sweats
Pain with breathing
Severe Headache
Shortness of breath
Slight fever with Chills
Tiredness or weakness
Weight loss

Diagnosis:

Injection of Protein:

By injecting a protein found in TB bacteria into the skin of an arm. If the skin reacts by swelling then the person is probably infected with tuberculosis.

X-ray:

Diagnosis of tuberculosis in the lungs may be made using an X-ray.

Sputum test:

Sample of sputum is test in laboratory to diagnos the TB.

Bacteria: A culture of TB bacteria can also be grown in a laboratory.

Risk factors of Tuberculosis:

Alcoholism
Crowded living conditions
Diseases that weaken the immune system
Health care workers
HIV infection
Malnutrition

Treatments:

Active TB disease can almost always be cured with a combination of antibiotics.
Avoid nutrient deficiencies and imbalances.
Streptomycin, a drug that is given by injection, may be used as well, particularly when the disease is extensive.
The patient should take his/her pills under the guidance of someone who can supervise the therapy. The approach is called DOTS (Directly Observed Treatment, Short Course).
Surgery on the lungs may be indicated to help cure TB when medication has failed.
The patient should take healthy and hygienic diet.

Preventions:

Preventive measures include strict standards for ventilation, air filtration etc.
A vaccine, BCG, is available and has been of some benefit in preventing TB.
Covering of mouth by a mask is helpful in prevention from TB.
Exercise regularly to immune system healthy.
Get adequate amounts of sleep.
Eat plenty of healthy foods.
A drug called Isoniazid can be used as a preventative therapy for those who are at high risk of becoming infected with tuberculosis.

Different Methods of Surgical Instrument Sterilization

2012-06-12T23:55:00.000+05:30

How surgical instrument Sterlized :

All instruments and other equipment used to perform surgery must be sterilized prior to use.Instruments, with or without an instrument tray, may be packed inside a folded cloth or paper wrap and sealed with autoclave tape for steam sterilization. A sterilization indicator is placed inside the pack. Instruments may be packed in a self sealing envelope with one side made of clear plastic. Referred to as peel packs, these may be used for steam or gas sterilization. The sterilization indicator is part of the package.

Methods of Sterilization:

Steam Sterilization (Autoclave) :

Steam or autoclave sterilization is the most common method of instrument sterilization. Instruments are placed in a pack and exposed to steam under pressure. A sterilization indicator such as autoclave tape or other indicator strip is used to clearly identify instruments that have been sterilized.Never lock an instrument during autoclaving. It will not be sterile as steam cannot reach the metal to metal surfaces. The

instrument will develop cracks in hinge areas because of heat expansion during the autoclave cycle.Do not over load the autoclave chamber as pockets may form that do not permit steam penetration. Place towel on bottom of pan to absorb excess moisture during autoclaving. This will reduce the chances of getting wet packs. Make sure the towels used in sterilization of instruments have no detergent residue and are neutral if

immersed in water. This can be a real problem as laundries frequently use inexpensive but high detergents and do not properly rinse out or neutralize those detergents in the final wash/rinse cycle.

Ethylene Oxide:

Ethylene oxide gas may be used to sterilize items that may not be exposed to high temperature and or steam. Ethylene oxide is highly toxic. Items sterilized with ethylene oxide must be aerated before use to allow the toxic gas to dissipate. A sterilization indicator is used to clearly identify instruments that have been sterilized. Most peel packs have a built in indicator for both steam and gas sterilization. The two most important ethylene oxide sterilization methods are:

1. The gas chamber method

2. The micro-dose method.

EtO has traditionally been delivered by flooding a large chamber with a combination of EtO and other gases used as dilutants (usually CFCs or carbon dioxide). This method has drawbacks inherent to the use of large amounts of sterilant being released into a large space, including air contamination produced by CFCs and/or large amounts of EtO residuals, flammability and storage issues calling for special handling and storage, operator exposure risk and training costs.

Dry Heat Sterilization:

Dry heat can be used to sterilize items, but as the heat takes much longer to be transferred to the organism, both the time and the temperature must usually be increased, unless forced ventilation of the hot air is used. The standard setting for a hot air oven is at least two hours at 160 °C (320 °F). A rapid method heats air to 190 °C (374 °F) for 6 minutes for unwrapped objects and 12 minutes for wrapped objects.Dry heat has the advantage that it can be used on powders and other heat-stable items that are adversely affected by steam (for instance, it does not cause rusting of steel objects)..

Boiling Sterilization:

Boiling in water for fifteen minutes will kill most vegetative bacteria and inactivate viruses, Boiling does kill most vegetative microbes and viruses, it is useful for reducing viable levels if no better method is available. Boiling is a simple process, and is an option available to most people, requiring only water, enough heat, and a container that can with stand the heat; however, boiling can be hazardous and cumbersome.

Chemical sterilization:

Chemicals are also used for sterilization. Although heating provides the most reliable way to rid objects of all transmissible agents, it is not always appropriate, because it will damage heat-sensitive materials such as biological materials, fiber optics, electronics, and many plastics. Low temperature gas sterilizers function by exposing the articles to be sterilized to high concentrations of very reactive gases (alkylating agents such as ethylene oxide, and oxidizing agents such as hydrogen peroxide and ozone). Liquid sterilants and high disinfectants typically include oxidizing agents such as hydrogen peroxide and peracetic acid and aldehydes such as glutaraldehyde and more recently o-phthalaldehyde. While the use of gas and liquid chemical sterilants/high level disinfectants avoids the problem of heat damage, users must ensure that article to be sterilized is chemically compatible with the sterilant being used. In addition, the use of chemical sterilants poses new challenges for work place safety. The chemicals used as sterilants are designed to destroy a wide range of pathogens and typically the same properties that make them good sterilants makes them harmful to humans.

Boil Definition Cause Symptoms Types Treatment Complication And Prevention

2012-06-12T17:40:00.000+05:30

Definition:

Boil is a skin abscess that forms at a hair follicle infected with pus-forming bacteria. Boils are sometimes called furuncles. A carbuncle is formed when several furuncles merge to form a single deep abscess with several heads or drainage points. This is an abscess in the skin usually caused by the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus.

Cause Of Boil:

Ingrown hair
Any break in the skin, such as a cut or scrape, can develop into an abscess should it become infected with bacteria.
Diabetes
Problems with the immune system
Poor nutrition
Poor hygiene
Exposure to harsh chemicals that irritate the skin

Symptoms of Boils:

The skin around the boil becomes infected. It turns red, painful, warm, and swollen.
More boils may appear around the original one.
A fever may develop.
Lymph nodes may become swollen.
Fatigue
Fluid leakage from the boil, which may crust over
Itching feeling
White or yellow centers in the boil
Allergies or immune system disorders, including HIV infection
Alcoholism or drug abuse

Types Of Boil:

Furuncle or carbuncle
Cystic acne
Hidradenitis suppurativa
Pilonidal cyst
Bartholin's gland

Treatment:

Apply warm compresses and soak the boil in warm water. This will decrease the pain and help draw the pus to the surface. Once the boil comes to a head, it will burst with repeated soakings. This usually occurs within 10 days of its appearance.A warm compress can make by soaking a wash cloth in warm water and squeezing out the excess moisture.
When the boil starts draining, wash it with an antibacterial soap or solution until all the pus is gone. Apply a medicated ointment and a bandage. Continue to wash the infected area two to three times a day and to use warm compresses until the wound heals.
Do not pop the boil with a needle. This could make the infection worse.
In serious cases of infection, antibiotics may be used. However, the majority of boils heal on their own without medical treatment.

Complication Of Boil:

Abscess formation
Encephalitis
Endocarditis
Meningitis
Osteomyelitis
Permanent scarring
Sepsis
Spread of infection

PreventionOf Boil:

Prevention is better than cure.

Keep the body clean. Wash very well with antiseptic soap so that skin surface remains germ free. It is always recommended to go for a shower rather than a tub bath. In shower get running water, which is not the case for as bath taken in a tub.
To use own belongings like towels, cosmetics and such. Sharing of such products with somebody else may result the incidence of the infection. So, as a precautionary step should use own equipments and never should use others as will get infected with the germ in case the other person is affected with boils.
Another very important method for prevention of boils is to maintain a proper diet. It would be always beneficial for take up food products that are of less oil and non greasy. Fatty foods like junk foods should always be avoided and proper nutritious food like leafy green vegetables, fresh fruit juices and whole some cereals should be included in balanced diet schedule.
The boils are very contagious. so while treating them must always touch them with washed hands. Some people have the tendency of sneezing the boils nodules. This act would rather aggravate the infection and cause tremendous pain. Usage of unclean hands to deal with the boils is strictly to be avoided, especially for a boil developed on the skin surface of face.
While selecting the agents for washing and cleaning purposes to use antiseptic soaps rather than using beauty soaps,can also use a good shower gel as this would help to keep the skin clean, fresh as well as germ free and ultimately would promote boils prevention.

Typhoid Definition Symptoms Diagnosis Treatment Prevention And Complication

2012-06-11T23:54:00.000+05:30

Definition:

Typhoid fever is a bacterial disease.Caused by Salmonella typhi. It is transmitted through the ingestion of food or drink contaminated by the faeces or urine of infected people. It is also known as enteric fever.

Symptoms:

High fever
Malaise
Headache
Constipation
Diarrhoea
Rose-coloured spots on the chest
Enlarged spleen and liver
Stomach pain
Nonproductive cough
Slow heart rate
Anorexia

Diagnosis:

Blood test ( Widal test)
Bone marrow test
Stool for cultures

Treatment:

Wash your hands carefully with soap and water after using the bathroom, and do not prepare or serve food for other people. This will lower the chance that will pass the infection on to some one else.
Fluids and electrolytes may be given through a vein (intravenously), or may be asked to drink uncontaminated water with electrolyte packets.
Appropriate antibiotics are given to kill the bacteria,eg.Tab.or Inj. Ciprofloxacin ,Tab.or Inj.Ceftriaxone,Tab.or Inj.Cefixime,Tab.or Inj.Cefotaxime etc.

Prevention:

Sanitation and hygiene are the critical measures that can be taken to prevent typhoid.
Careful food preparation and washing of hands are crucial to preventing typhoid.

There are two vaccines licensed for use for the prevention of typhoid

Oral Ty21a vaccine (sold as Vivotif Berna)
Injectable Typhoid polysaccharide vaccine (sold as Typhim Vi by Sanofi Pasteur and Typherix by GlaxoSmithKline)

Complications:

Intestinal hemorrhage
Intestinal perforation
Kidney failure
Peritonitis
Cholecystitis
Endocarditis
Osteitis
Encephalitis