RECORDS AND ARCHIVES

Improving the Search Results Apart From Using the Boolean Operators

2011-07-21T04:43:00.000-07:00

Etiwel Mutero

Since the main purpose of an information retrieval system is essentially to capture wanted items and filter out the unwanted ones, it is therefore necessary for an information seeker to know how to improve the search results. In this paper, the author is going to discuss how an online information searcher can improve the quality of search results apart from using the Boolean operators.

According to Harter[1986] an online information retrieval is a computer associated hardware terminals, communication lines and links, modems and disk drives as well as software packages that carry out storage and retrieval functions on databases. It can also be defined as the process of searching remote databases for information using information and communication technologies, or the searching of computerized databases instead of printed indexes.

Apart from using Boolean operators, an online information searcher can use the SocialSimRank Bao et al[2007:501-510]. Bao et al proposed this first approach which ranks pages based on the semantic similarity between queries and pages. Another page ranking approach is called SocialPageRank which is similar to Page is designed to rank returned pages based on the observation that popular pages are usually annotated by popular tags and bookmarked by many active users.

Shepisten et al [2008:259-266] presented a strategy that clusters the entire space of tags to obtain sets of [semantically] related tags. Representing coherent topic areas, the obtained clusters are used to provide personalized item recommendations. Rather than item recommendation, the techniques presented in this paper follow personalized retrieval models applicable to web search, where links of search results are re-ranked according to the user’s preferences.

A re-ranking approach for categorization information retrieval was proposed by Bowen ZHENG et al [2009:1609-1616] to improve precision based on hierarchical feature selection method. The multiple feature selection method is to select features from texts that are organized in the form of hierarchy and we can re-rank information retrieval results with selected multiple features. In addition, they discussed how to use multiple features selected to re-rank information retrieval results. At last, an evaluation model is presented to prove this re-ranking approach.

Jingjing LIU et al [2009:1713-1723] proposed a personalized information retrieval system based on policy agents. For constructing such a system, the first created a personalized information retrieval model and then proposed a policy driven agent framework to implement this model. At the same time, to achieve a reasonable result list, they proposed a simple and effective rank algorithm for returned results.

Weijiang LI et al [2009:1201-1207] investigated a novel retrieval model that aims to concentrate more user’s attention on the parts of the text that possess a high density of relevant information, while, at the same time, to provide enough information to support their retrieval decisions. It is proposed that an automatically generated summary of each document, biased to a user’s query, can provide such a function. Based on the experimental results on TREC collections, it is showed the retrieval model based on summary is more effective than standard one based on document.

A strategy of the summary sentence selection for query-focused multi-documented summarization through extracting keywords from relevant document set was proposed by Liang Ma et al [2008:20-23] It calculated the query related feature and the topic related feature for every word in relevant document set, then obtains the importance of the word by combining the two features. The score of candidate sentence is computed through the importance of words which they contain, and the modified MMR technology is used to adjust the score of the candidate sentence, then the candidate sentence with the highest score is selected as the summary sentence, till the length of the summary is enough.

Worasit Choochaiwattana et al [2009:215-219] examined the use of social annotations to improve the quality of web search. It involved two components. First, social annotations were used to index resources. Two annotations were used to index methods were proposed. Social annotations were used to improve search results ranking. Four annotation-based ranking methods were proposed. The result showed that using only annotation as an index of resources may be appropriate. Since social annotations could be viewed as a high level concept of the content, combining them to the content of resources could add some more important concepts to the resources. The result also suggested that both static feature and similar feature should be considered when using social annotations to re-rank search result.

Punam Bedi et al [2010:343-347] proposed semantically relevant retrieval and ranking of web resources that uses top N resources links returned from the search engine as seed, domain ontology to compute semantic relevance, and data from social Book marking System[SBS] to retrieve additional semantically relevant resources. Finally all retrieved resources are ranked according to the query relevancy using the Vector Space Model [VSM].The proposed approach presented is elucidated in three parts: a method that expands a posted query using semantic relevance by using ontology, an ontology, an algorithm to retrieve semantically relevant web resources by simulating human cognition using SBS, and a new approach to compute social semantic ranking of retrieved web resources. Thus it utilized collective advantages of Social Bookmark Tagging System and Semantic technologies.

Modern web search engines are expected to return a few most relevant results based on an often ambiguous user query and the enormous volume of web documents. Despite the simplicity and efficiency keyword queries always cannot accurately represent user’s real information need. The same keyword query may stand for different meanings for users with different domain backgrounds. Accordingly, users may differ significantly in their opinions about the relevant search results to a keyword query. A solution to this problem is to consider user-specific information during the search process, or the so called personalized search. Researchers have studied many kinds of personal data for personalized search. Other method of improving the search results includes recall, precision, proximity, field and truncation.

This paper proposed social information retrieval methods that improve the quality of search results. An experimental result shows that the proposed social information retrieval based on user interesting mining is effective.

Reference:

Bao,S et al, [2007] Optimizing Web Search Using Social Annotations, Alberta, Canada

Bowen,et al ,2009,A Re-ranking Approach for Categorization Information Retrieval Based on Multiple Feature Selection, JCIS Volume 5

Jingjing, et al, 2009, A Framework of Policy-driven Agent-based Personalized Information Retrieval System, JCIS Volume 5

Shepisten, et al,2008, Personalized Recommendation in Social Tagging Systems Using Hierarchical Clustering, New York, ACM Press

Weijiang, Tiejun 2009, Summary-based Model of Information Retrieval in Language Model Framework, JCIS. Vol.5 [3]

Evaluating the appraisal process of public sector records in Zimbabwe

2011-07-18T00:37:00.000-07:00

An often quoted estimate is, less than five percent of government records are of enduring value and therefore need to be preserved permanently. It is neither practical nor desirable to preserve all records created by every agency. Records must be removed, and records must be destroyed. In this paper the author is going to critically evaluate the appraisal process of public sector records in Zimbabwe and comment whether the process is effective and make recommendations for improvement.

Appraisal is ‘the process of determining the value of records for further use, for whatever purpose ,and the length of time for which that value will continue, also known as evaluation, review or selection’. Griffin [1999:5].Appraisal involves determining what the records are, who creates them and how they relate to the agency’s function and other records, how they are used, when and by whom. It is the aim of appraisal and disposal to ensure that records are either destroyed or transferred to an archival institution at the right time, as a result of systematic implementation of decisions made concerning the continuity utility and enduring value for records. Appraisal helps identify records that aught to be removed and destroyed from records offices.

In Zimbabwean organizations records appraisal is less known due to the fact that there are few records management professionals employed in government departments. Where records management personnel are employed, they are found in junior positions in organization to an extent that they can not influence any positive change as far as records appraisal is concerned.

Records appraisal in Zimbabwean public service is usually taken as an ad-hoc measure. There is no systematic planning records appraisal or records appraisal is never done at all. Sometimes records appraisal is done due to a problem of limited office space which would have been caused by a built up of semi-current records. Officials choose unwanted records in offices to dispose, usually by selling to recycled paper companies. It is actually not records appraisal but a matter of creating office space.

This system is totally not effective because no one in public sector organizations is specifically assigned to manage organizational records. Records personnel employed in the public service are merely records clerks and assistants whose main duties is to receive and file mail, their duties do not involve records appraisal and disposal. The result is that records continue to pile in offices filling up storage equipment and office space.

My advice to improve the records appraisal system in the Zimbabwean public sector is that appraisal and disposal of records should be a continuing and systematic process undertaken in the context of an agreed strategy. There aught to be a government or organizational appraisal strategy which should contribute to the wider organizational business strategy.

The life-cycle appraisal strategy ensures that records are appraised at creation. Such advance appraisal is feasible, because it is possible to identify the value of most records on the basis of importance of the functions they document. Traditionally, the appraisal of records had been handled by Records Managers and Archivists separately but due to the proponents of the Integrated Records Management Program, records managers and archivists have affirmed that management of records throughout their life-cycle must take place as a continuum of care not as a series of discrete phases.

The records life-cycle is a concept that draws an analogy between the life a living organism which is born, lives and dies and that of a records which is created, maintained and used in an organization and then disposed by detraction or transferred to an archival institution.

If records are appraised at creation or at the early stages of the records life-cycle, it would be possible to reduce the appraisal and disposal process to a routine wherever possible, so that it becomes part of the regular activities of the records professionals and administration. The ad-hoc appraisal exercises are a sign of poor record-keeping systems

The basis of appraisal must be at the series level. Item-by-item appraisal is not encouraged though applicable in disorderly managed records systems. Item-by-item is time consuming and labor intensive. When records are properly arranged and when administrative, policy and case files are clearly differentiated, it is easier to make a single appraisal decision that will stand throughout the life-cycle.

As the author had already indicated that situations for item-by-item reviews, some series will certainly contain valuable information, but the quantity will be insufficient in relation to the total volume of records to justify retaining the entire series. In such instances, the selection of individual records is a valid option; thus the only practicable appraisal decision may be undertaken on item by item review.

Appraisal of duplicate sources of information requires that only compact, complete or accessible records should be retained, but there will be exceptions to this rule when the interests of the agency would only partially be met by retaining a single source of the information. Duplicate sources of information means the same version of records can be found in different media, electronic, paper and microform. It also means the same record type is distributed in different locations of the same organization.

Case files may have to be appraised differently from other records. Case files have the same subject matter, but each individual files relates to a different person, institution, place or project. They are also know as particular instances files. Case files are bulky and can rarely be preserved in their nature. However, they contain valuable information for research and statistical analysis. They may contain records of enduring value such as evidential value for transactions. The appraisal of case files involves determining if the value of that record had cease. Those selected for permanent storage are sent to the archival institution.

Most records cease to have long-term utility after a short period of time and records of long term utility are as follows: personnel records, records copies of agency publications, records documenting precedent, legal instrument, records documenting continuing rights or obligations of the state, the agency of third parties under national or international law, records relating to the formulating of legislation or policy. These records are selected for permanent preservation.

For an effective appraisal process to take place there must be a records control mechanism in an agency. The records control measures will include the agency file classification system, correspondence registers; file plans indexes, software manuals and the coding systems.

According to Roper and Miller [1999:29]: ‘ No appraisal decision is perfect, and it may be necessary to re-examine appraisal decisions to determine if a more appropriate decision can be made. Access to the reasoning behind the original decision is essential.’ So the appraisal of records of the Zimbabwean public sector must be improved by following guidelines in this paper.

In conclusion, without appraisal, records and archives management will be insignificant disciplines. Appraisal helps records managers and archivists achieve economy and efficiency in the management of records and archives.

References

Roper and Miller, 1999, Records Appraisal Systems,

, IRMT

Cook, 1991, The Archival Appraisal of Records Containing Personal Information: A RAMP study With Guidelines. UNESCO website Paris

Derek, 1984, Records Surveys and Schedules, A RAMP Study with Guidelines , Paris, UNESCO

Guptil, 1985, Archival Appraisal of Records of International Organizations, Paris, UNESCO

Archival Finding Aids

2011-07-02T01:12:00.003-07:00

Parker [1977:161] says 'finding aids are the signposts which lead the archivists and the researcher to the information they are seeking about or from archives.' In this paper, the author is going to identify and explain the key finding aids used in accessing materials in an archival institution.
Finding aids can be defined as descriptions of the holding of the archival institution so as to establish intellectual control. Intellectual control is necessary because archivists need to know what they have [records], what it contains, and where it is. Researchers need to know what exist in the archival institution, what materials it has on specific topics, and what is in each collection.

Finding aids encompass a range of descriptive media such as registers,lists, guides, inventories and indexes. Parker [1977:159] says finding aids '...establish physical and intellectual control over holdings of an archive and make it possible to retrieve particular records or information from these archives'

One of the finding aids is the accession register. The accession register provides a general description of what it is and where it comes from and a proper housing of the material. Each accession is given an identifying number which, along with a description of the materials, name of the transferring source, the provenance and other relevant details, entered in the accession register. The accession register is the first and most basic finding aid prepared by the archivist. It provides a profile of all incoming material in the order in which it was received by the repository.

Besides the accession register, there is a register of series. The register of series is used to record information about each document or file that is received by, dispatch, or created in an office. Roper [1999:]
The register of series is the master record indicating the group, series and
item numbers that have been allocated. Archives staff will maintain this
register; ideally, the head of the repository is responsible...The register is
maintained in group code order, and within groups in series number order.

As well as providing a master record of group and series, the register of
Series is used to record the last file unit number allocated within each series.
This means it saves as a source of information on the next available file unit
number.

Another archival finding aid is the archives guide. The archives guide is the overall finding aid to the holdings of the archival institution. The guide provides information about archival materials at the group and series level. Cook [1977:122] says the objectives of a guide are two fold;
Firstly, it should give an explanatory over-view set out to convey essential information about provenance and content to user...The main purpose may be the education of users completely new to the operations of an archive office. Secondly it should give a coordinating over-view also of the finding aids and descriptive systems in use in the archives office. In so far as a guide is for identification, it is to enable the user to identify, not actual archives, but those further or more detailed lists or descriptive instruments which he must use in order to find the archives he needs.

A guide in conclusion, is a collected series of entries arranged in predetermined order, each describing a particular series of archives, and displayed according to a set pattern.

The fourth finding aid found in an archival institution is the archival list or the item list. A list assists in locating records. It provides a full inventory of all materials transferred to the archival institution, within their groups and series, assigning to each item a unique reference code. This code enables any partial or item to be identified and found.

The item list help in identifying provenance: list records essential information about the provenance, making it possible to understand and understand the archives. It also helps in describing the content, identifying related material found in the repository, describing the physical condition of the archives. It presents information about the physical character, format and condition of the items on any related issues that might affect their use. Lastly , the list explain conditions of access.

Cook[1977:120] says there are two kinds of lists available to an archivist; one based upon the structure of the archives, and the other based on the needs of users.

Structural lists will only be of direct identification of relevant documents to the obviously relatively few readers whose purpose is the investigation of the historical growth and operation of the administration whose archives are under study. This structural system lists will account for the series and items in an accumulation of archives in an order determined by its original administrative structure.

However the majority of users need subject list because their enquiries will be received in terms of subject. Subject lists are arranged according to subjects of the archives.

The last key archival finding aid, I would like to explain is the index. The index is an instrument which allows users to identify particular documents or pieces of information relevant to their search, and it is therefore the means whereby the arrangement and interpretation of archives in series may be modified to make subject-based inquiries possible.

An index will highlight names, place, events and subjects. It is an important tool in pointing readers to relevant holdings. With a good index, the institution can make continuous use of the expertise of the staff that has helped compile it, and readers are able to make quite accurate searches, thus saving everybody time. Roper[2003] says in order to be effective, an index needs to be internally consistent. One member of staff should be in charge of the index from the list.

In conclusion, though I had explained a few finding aid found in an archive, the archivist should construct as many as varied examples of these as are necessary for the full exploitation of the information to be found in his archives.

Bibliography
[1] Cook M- Archives Administration, Dawson & Son Ltd 1977
[2]Pederson-Australia Society of Archivists Inc 1987
[3]Roper-Managing Archives 1999
[4]Parker S., Managing Archives and archival institutions 1980
[5]Cook 'Information Management & ArchEtiwel Mutero works for the National University of Science and Technology[NUST]Bulawayo Zimbabwe.He holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science Management and is Studying for the Bsc Honours Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University.To order a full text of this article contact Etiwel on His Mobile phone +263773614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com.You can also contact him on facebook.This and other articles by the same author can be found on http://recordsandarchivesmanagement.blogspot.com

Establishing A New Records Management Program

2011-07-02T01:11:00.001-07:00

In many developing countries, Zimbabwe included records management systems are not followed or that they had crumbled. Records are in- accessible or that obsolete records had filled a large part of office space, necessitating the implementation of effective new records management systems in many organizations. In this paper the author is going to examine the principles involved in establishing the infrastructure or frame work for a new records management system in an organization.
According to the association of records managers and administrators (ARMA),"Records management is the systematic control of records from their creation or receipt through their processing, distribution, organization and retrieval, to their ultimate disposal." A system is defined by Arn (1991:6) as 'a group of components that function together to achieve certain objectives. The components or parts of a system are subsystems. Records management is subsystem of any information system.'

The need for introducing a new records management system arises after realizing that the current system which is in place is ineffective. Maybe records are not readily available when needed, or that records are not authentic, there is poor records classification systems or that staff are duplicating roles unnecessarily. Any problems faced when dealing with records management may necessitates the implementation of a new records management system.

The first step to take in the implementation of new records management in an organization like Zimpost Pvt Ltd is to get the top management support. The implementation facilitator must be able to explain to the top management problems faced with the current or old records management system. He /she must be able to explain the benefits of good record keeping systems which must include the following; records assist in achieving accountability in organizational, keeping a corporate memory for any business transaction, protecting the organization against any unnecessary legal claims, protecting the rights of both the employees and the organization and the efficient and effective running of all organizational business. The top management aught to be told that good and effective records management helps the organization to get a profit at the end of the year.

After getting a nod by the top management a team responsible for the implementation of the new records system is selected. The facilitator must be the line manager in which the records office falls. He is a respected person who can talk with the top management through out the implementation period. The facilitator is followed by the dream leader and team members. Terms of reference are made and signed, the budget and the time frame of the exercise is also set.

As soon as the team is set, terms of reference signed and the budget set, the team then embarks on the gathering of data. Gold (1995) say the company data can be obtained by studying the organizations mission statement, the mission statement explains "what are we here for." The team can go further and study the organizational charts, telephone lists, annual reports, news letters, house organs and catalogs. Gold[ 1995:18] had this to say, "In the newsletter and house organs you will begin to se certain names over. This will give you an idea of who is most active in promoting the company's welfare."

The gathering of background information goes deeper by conducting a records survey. The records survey helps locating where records are located, who uses these records, the volume of records, identifying the storage equipment, determining the retention periods of all records and locating record for destruction or for transfer to the records centre or for archiving.

During the records survey the team moves around the organizational offices conducting interviews, or making physical checks of all records including confidential records. Roper (1999:6) says "The team members physically examine the records and records office facilities and storage areas, including user's offices. The aim is to determine the physical condition of records, to verify the information gathered in the interviews and obtain further data. The examination should cover the form, quantity, rate of accumulation, frequency of use and physical nature of the records as well as where and how they are stored.

After conducting the records survey, the next step is decongesting the records offices. Usually the records survey is followed by a records appraisal which is according to Griffin (1999:5) "the process of determining the value of records for further use, for whatever purpose, and the length of time for which that value will continue. Also know as evaluation, review or selection."

After appraisal, four types of records emerge. Records that are obsolete and useless, these are recommended for destruction by burning, shredding or whatever method seen fit. The other group of records is active records or current records; these should be retained within the organization. Semi-current records are sent to the records centre while archival records are sent to the archives institution.

After decongesting the record offices the next step is that of interviewing staff, analyzing data and designing the new records system. Interviews are arranged by the team leader with senior personnel. The purpose of the interview according to (roper 1999:11) is to understand. "The functions of the department or division, the nature of the work carried out, the types of records created and used; the nature of the information shared with other division or departs the frequency of use of information, the staffing in the records office."

The interviews are followed by an analysis of information obtained. The team determines how many records offices should be there in an organization depending upon the volume of records found during the records survey. Whether some records offices need to be merged. How many records staff is wanted?

After the analysis of data the team determines the new classification system and the coding system. In addition to that Gold (1995: 18) says this the time to make a comprehensive retention schedule. "A proper records retention schedule describes a specific records series (a collection of documents relating to a single topic) and specifies how long the series should be kept, a well as the legal citation upon which the retention period is based."

After preparing the report the team leader and facilitation then embarks on implementing the new system. All employees are informed of the changes, offices cleared and training of records staff is conducted. The records offices are redesigned and a correct number of records of records staff determined. "The layout of desks and furniture should allow a continuous 'flow ? through' of papers as they are processed. Two way traffic should be avoided" Roper (1999)
It is advisable that the old files should be remain in the records office, stored separately from new files for about three years and then sent to the records centre. Usually the new records management systems is supported by a records management policy usually in form of a records management manual, a guide that informs each staff member of his or her duties. The manual also lists the correct procedures for performing those duties and assists management in standardizing the organization of the system. By using the guide, employees know exactly what to do and how to do it. Tasks are completed effectively and efficiently and costs are thereby reduced" Arn (1991; 129)

The new system should have the correct tools for the job. The organizational chart, job descriptions for records staff, a suitable records office building, storage, equipment, file diary, file transit books, file index, bring up diary, inward correspondence register, outward correspondence register, messenger's dispatch book, file census register, file movement slips etc.

At the end of the project a final report is prepared. This report, which provides an account of the entire exercise, is based on the previous reports. It will include management summary, introduction, body and recommendations.

The purpose of the final report is to give an account of how the exercise progressed, any problems, the outcomes whether the exercise has fulfilled its terms of reference and whether it was completed within budget and within agreed time.

Lastly, the system need to be monitored even after the preparation of the final report, to see if the records staff are adhering to the records management manual and if there are any improvements that maybe needed.

Gold (1995) states that sometimes it might be difficult for the team to advise top management that wrong people occupy records management positions because sometimes these people will be relatives of top management and that management will be aware of this. However the team must make sure that their recommendation makes the new record management system is enforced for the benefit of the organization.

References
1. Arn J.V. "Records Management for an Information age," USA, Delmar publishers Inc. 1991
2. Gold G. "How to set up and Implement a Records Management System," AMACOM, USA 1995
3. Powell S. "Building Records Appraisal system" IRMT, UK, 1999
4. Roper, 'Restructuring current records systems; a procedures manual' IRMT, UK, 1999.Etiwel Mutero works for the National University of Science and Technology[NUST]Bulawayo Zimbabwe.He holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science Management and is Studying for the Bsc Honours Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University.To order a full text of this article contact Etiwel on His Mobile phone +263773614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com.You can also contact him on facebook.This and other articles by the same author can be found on http://recordsandarchivesmanagement.blogspot.com

Five Basic Activities That Define the Archivist's Function

2011-07-02T01:10:00.001-07:00

I fully agree that an archivist is a professional who is responsible for the management of important records. Atherton 1995; 43 say "the archivist serves the needs of the scholar, the historian, and posterity..." In this paper the author is going to discuss five basic activities that define an archivist's function.
An archivist according to Willipedia definition is a professional who assesses, collects, organizes, preserves, maintains control over, and provides access to information determined to have long term value. Atherton (1985; 35) say an "archivist is basically a historian". However I think a comprehensive definition of an archivist is, a person who manages non-current records of any organization.

The first duty of an archivist is acquisition of archival materials. It is the responsibility of an archivist to select and archival records fit for long term preservation. However, selection and appraisal of records are interviewed. Appraisal, is sometimes called 'evaluation' or 'selection'. In short these two duties of an archivist do happen at the same time, as the archivist do records appraisal, he/she will be selecting archival materials. The author is going to explain selection or acquisition of archival material together with records appraisal.

The first two duties of an archivist as l had explained, are to appraise and select archival material. Appraisal is 'the process of determining the value of records for further use, for whatever purpose, and the length of time for which that value will continue.'

First, appraisal involves deciding what records need to be kept and for how long in order to allow the organization to continue with its work. Second, appraisal involves deciding what records are meant permanent preservation as archives. Although it is also the purpose of appraisal to decide which records can be disposed by destruction, it is the selection of identification of records of enduring value which can be transferred to an archival institution that is of interest to an archivist.

Whilst in most cases appraisal is done in an ad-hoc manner, archivists in an operated life-cycle records management system records are appraised as they are created. Cooks{1999:6] had the following to say;

Appraisal should be performed as early as possible in the records life-cycle, informed by an in depth understanding of the functions and activities that led to the creation of the records. The aim should always be to reduce the appraisal and dispatch process to a routine whenever possible, so that it becomes part of the regular activities of the records professional and the administration.

The third duty of archivists after selection and appraisal of records is that of organization and management of archives. The archivist makes sure that the archival institution is accountable for its holdings and that proper procedure is in place for the storage of its holdings.

Archivist makes sure that the storage areas are secure. He/she ensures that no unauthorized access is allowed and that the issue of keys and passes is controlled. In addition to that, archivist ensures that accessioned materials are accessed following the laid procedures. Smoking, eating and drinking are all prohibited from storage areas since fire is a hazard to archival materials and emergency plan is always there in an archival institution.

Archivist ensures physical maintenance of the archival institution by making sure that floors, shelves, equipment are kept clean at all times. An annual stock taking is done in order to locate each record series, the number of items in each series, and to identify items that may need repairs.

The fourth duty of an archivist is that of archives description. Cox (1992;118) defines description as "the effort to establish intellectual control over archival records so that they may be effectively used by researchers". Description is usually preceded by arrangement which is the process of organizing archival records according to elemental archival principles. The concept of arrangement says records are first arranged starting from group which is the primary division in the originating organization. Below the group comes the subgroup which is usually a department of an organization followed by the series which is the level of arrangement of the files and other records of an organization or individual that brings together those relating to the same function or activity or having a common form or some other relationship arising from their creation receipt or use. Below the series come the file and the item.

Description of archival material follows the levels of arrangement. There is a description of the group, the subgroup, the series, file and item. Nancy Sahli as quoted in Cox (1992;129) says "archival description is a cornerstone activity of our profession, for without adequate user access to materials there is little sense in saving them". So description is another important duty of an archivist.

If records are not properly protected, they will deteriorate and all information stored therein lost. So it is also the duty of an archivist to preserve archives under his/her holdings. Conway (1989;47-60) gives a three part definition of archival preservation:
Archival preservation is the acquisition, organization, and distribution of resources (human, physical, monetary) to ensure adequate protection of historical and cultural information of enduring value and access for present and future generations.

Archival preservation encompasses planning and implementing policies, procedures, and processes that together prevent further deterioration or renew the usability of selected groups of materials.

Archival preservation, when most effective, requires that planning precede implementation, and that prevention activities have priority over renewal activities.

Thus archivist ensure that the records environment are good, that is, temperature, relative humidity, light, and that the storage area free from insect infestations etc, so that records are rightly protected from damage.

The last duty of an archivist l would like to describe is that of providing reference to archives under his/her custody. Archival reference ? the activities undertaken to provide information about archival records or, in some cases, from these records ? is, for archivists and their clientele, the raison deter for archival programs Miller (1989;8) says "in the final analysis it is the use of records that makes archives valuable".

To assist users in their references archivists prepares finding aids that assist users to locate relevant records in their researches. Archivists prepare series lists, indexes, archives guides, accession registers, together with descriptions explained earlier aids users in their research. A archivist is aware that archival records are preserved to be used and thus archivists will make archives available for use by his clientel.

In conclusion, the author agrees that an archivist is a professional who is responsible for the management of important records. The archivists duties in short is to locate and appraise archives, organize and manage them, he also preserves, describe, and finally facilitate the use or referencing of archival materials under his/her custody.

References
1. Cox, Managing Institutional Archives, Greenwood Press, London, 1992.
2. Miller, Developing a Premier National Institution. A Report from the user Community to the National Archives" Washington DC, 1989
3. Atherton, Archivaria 21 (winter 1985-86)
4. Cook, Managing Archive. A Procedures Manual, IRMT, UK, 1989Etiwel Mutero works for the National University of Science and Technology[NUST]Bulawayo Zimbabwe.He holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science Management and is Studying for the Bsc Honours Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University.To order a full text of this article contact Etiwel on His Mobile phone +263773614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com.You can also contact him on facebook.This and other articles by the same author can be found on http://recordsandarchivesmanagement.blogspot.com

Professionalism and Professional Activities in the Cataloguing Department

2011-07-02T01:09:00.001-07:00

Accessibility of information when needed is important, in particular in libraries where thousands of books are stocked. In this paper the author is going to discuss professionalism and the professional activities in the cataloguing department
A catalogue according to Ranganathan (2004:33) is to "show what the library has by a given author, on a given subject and in a given kind of a literature" Kumar (1975:1) defines a catalogue as a "work in which contents are arranged in a reasonable way, according to a set plan, or merely word by word" Cataloguing defined by Taylor (1992:3) as "the skill or ant... of organizing knowledge (information) for retrieval" usually cataloguing is done in the cataloguing department by professional cataloguers.

Cataloguers are trained professionals. Professionalism requires them to be honest in their work. There might arise problems during the process of cataloguing, a professional cataloguer does not conceal errors to his/her manager because "concealing problems deprives the department head of the opportunity to consult with his supervisor in a calm and productive context and benefit from his advice."

Sometimes the cataloguing department receives numerous types of materials to be catalogued. A profession cataloguer must be able to set priorities. He/she must be able to decide which materials should be catalogued first depending on priorities settings.

A professional cataloguer strives for quality and quality control. "Issues of quality lie at the heart of everything the catalog department does. It is the other side of the coin from questions of productivity because productivity standards are affected by quality standards. If there are national, regional or international standards professional cataloguers try by all means to adhere with them.

Communication is one of the professional qualities of a cataloguer. Communication offers a change for continuing education, communication facilities administration of the department, communication and communication combats stereo types and self-pity.

Kumar (1975:293) summarizes the qualities of a cataloguer as follows:

"First of all, a qualified and efficient cataloguer should be appointed who should possess the following qualities: He should be a scholar. He should have a working knowledge of a regional language or a foreign language other than English. He should keep himself up to date regarding the latest development in cataloguing and catalogue codes. He should possess a good library hand. He must understand thoroughly the rules of a catalogue code adopted by the library. He must understand the requirements of the users. He should make an attempt to become aware of what is going on in the other department of the library. He should have enough capability and possess flair for accuracy of details".

Duties of cataloguers in the catalog department include descriptive cataloguing, description, access, and subject analysis and authority control.

Taylor defines descriptive cataloguing as phase of the cataloguing process that is concerned with the identification and description of an item, the recording of this information in the form of a cataloguing record, and the selection and formation of access points ? with the exception of subject access points. Descriptive cataloguing describes the physical make-up of an item and identifies responsibility for intellectual contents, without reference to its classification by subject or to the assignment of subject headings, both of which are the province of subject cataloging.

A title is almost always the first identifying element, followed by the name of persons responsible for the contents of the item. Next one looks for information identifying an edition... even the size, the type or number of illustration. When found, all these elements of information are useful in the description of an item.

Another professional activity in the catalog department, it is that of choosing access points for any item. Choice of access points means choosing all names and titles under which the description of an item may be sought by a user. For any one item, one of the access points is chosen as a main entry and the other as added entries.

Wayner (1992:18) had the following to say on access points "After describing an item the cataloguer selects access points. Names of person and corporate bodies associated with a work are chosen according to the cataloguing rules used. Title access points also are chosen in addition to the obvious main title (called title proper) there may be alternative titles, variant titles, series title, and titles of other works related in some way with the work being catalogued."

Cataloguers do what is called subject analysis. Subject analysis involves determining what the subject concept or concepts are covered by the intellectual content of a work. Once this has been determined, as many subject headings as appropriate are chosen from a standard list. Again, an authority file must be consulted into the catalogue with other works covering the same or related subject concepts.

The final step in the process usually is to choose a classification notation from whatever classification scheme used by the library. The cataloguer therefore must choose only the one best place in the classification scheme for the item.

Subject analysis is the part of cataloguing that deals determining what the intellectual content of an item is 'about' translating that about ness into the conceptual framework of the classification or the subject heading system being used, and when translating the conceptual framework being used, and then translating the conceptual framework who the specific classification symbols or specific terminology used in the classification or subject heading system.

Cataloguers also do what is called authority control. Authority control is the process maintaining consistency in the verbal form used to represent an access point in catalog and the further process of showing the relationships among names, works, and subjects. The goal is to make possible the identifying and collocating functions of the catalog.

Wayner (1992:19) says "Authority control is the process of maintaining consistency in the verbal form used to represent an access point and the process of showing the relationships among names, works, and subjects. It is accomplished through use of rules (in case of names and titles) use of subject heading list, and reference to an authority file to create an authority character string called a heading."

In conclusion, the library catalogue is such an important tool in the library. Though materials if rightly arranged on shelves can be found easily, there might be documents absent from shelves owing to various reasons ? loaned out, away in the hands of readers, misplaced by readers. So that cataloguer can reveal the entire resources of the library. So the cataloguer and the catalogue department are of paramount importance in the library.

References
1. Kumar G, (Theory of cataloguing", Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, 1975
2. Ranganathan S.R. (Cataloguing Practice", UBS Publishers Distributors Pvt Ltd, 2004
3. Lal C, "Practical Cataloguing", Ess Ess Publications 2003
4. Wayner B.S. "Introduction to Cataloguing and Classification", Libraries Unlimited, Inc, Colorado,1992Etiwel Mutero works for the National University of Science and Technology[NUST]Bulawayo Zimbabwe.He holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science Management and is Studying for the Bsc Honours Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University.To order a full text of this article contact Etiwel on His Mobile phone +263773614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com.You can also contact him on facebook.This and other articles by the same author can be found on http://recordsandarchivesmanagement.blogspot.com

Causes of Archives and Records Deterioration and Their Methods of Control

2011-07-02T01:08:00.001-07:00

There are many different reasons why records and archives deteriorate and the best most cost effective way to protect records and archives is to ensure the good and orderly physical and administrative management of the entire organization. In this paper, the author is going to explain with typical examples the causes of deterioration to records and archives and their methods of control.
Archives are defined by Roper (1999:4) as "Records, usually but not necessarily non-current records, of enduring value selected for permanent preservation. Archives will normally be preserved in an archival repository." He Roper (1999:19) further defines records as, "a document regardless of from or medium created, received, maintained and used by an organization (public or private) or an individual in pursuance of legal obligations or in the transaction of business of which it forms a part or provides evidence."

The most significant factor is the nature of archival materials themselves is acidity. Acidity is the quality of being acidic or sour. Acidity is the opposite of alkalinity or sweet. Acids contain high levels of positively charged hydrogen ions that can make paper fragile. These hydrogen ions can be introduced during the paper manufacturing process, from writing inks or from poor storage.

Mahapatra (2003:64) goes on to add that "the most common acid deterioration is caused by sulphur- dioxide present in small amount in the atmosphere. The amount of sulphur dioxide is larger in industrial environment. The sulphuric acid, when it reaches to about one percent accumulated in paper and moisture. The traces of iron and copper present in paper or leather binding act as a catalytic agent to change sulphur dioxide gas into sulphuric acid. It causes degradation of cellulose fibers of paper by breaking down the molecular structure.

Mahapatra (2003:65) goes on to say that paper acidity comes from sizing elements of alum and rosin. Cook (1999:13) also says 'size' is added to paper during manufacturing process to add strength and make it less absorbent. Unfortunately, during the process sulphuric acid is formed, and this attacks the cellulose fibers. Acidity in inks, paper adhesives and even in photographic materials.

To minimize the effect of paper acidity, it is therefore necessary to test the pH of paper records and archives, before introducing any materials to the archives institution or records office, if there are concerns about the high acidity. It is also possible to test the pH of archival storage materials to ensure they are as stable and neutral or alkaline as they are supposed to be. It is also possible to avoid any paper that is high in acidity especially when creating an archival record.

Light can affect the stability of archival materials. Light speeds up the oxidation of paper records causing materials to deteriorate faster. Light also has a bleaching action causing coloring papers and inks to whiten or fade. At the same time light can increase the chemical activity in causing changes in color.

Light also generate heat which speed up the chemical reaction/process of degradation of materials. Ultra violent light is the most harmful light because the wave length of ultra violent is very active generating more radiation. Ultra violent light is found in sunlight and florescent light, so both types of light need to be controlled in the archival institution.

Cook (1999:19-20) says it's possible to measure light if there is a serious concern about the level of light, particularly in an archival repository. Light is measured in 'lux' a unit of light intensity. If the room or repository received more light than is required, it is necessary to control it. The effects of light can be reduced by keeping all materials covered boxed when not in use and by providing only the minimum amount of light. Curtains can be placed on windows to control natural light. Fluorescent lights should be avoided in records storage areas and replaced by incandescent light which don't generate the same level of radiation.

Temperature can be to a great extent affect the stability of records and archives. Excessive heat can cause records and archives to deteriorate faster. Bajpai (1999:190) argues that "The rate of increase in the deterioration of paper is even faster, doubling, for every increase of approximately 4 degrees Celsius"

Rapid changes of temperatures can be more harmful than a consistently high temperature says Bajpai (1999:191). The oscillating temperature stress paper which will result in paper damages. When books or paper is exposed to heat, materials becomes brittle and crack easily "It causes dehydration and paper loses its usual strength" Bajpai (1999:191)

To monitor the level of temperature a thermometer is used. It is used to measure fluctuations in temperature. The ideal temperature for paper records is 18-20 degrees. If there is excessive heat fans can be distributed in the records rooms in order to cool down the temperature. Rapid fluctuations should be avoided.

Temperature and Relative humidity work hand in glove in the deterioration of records. Relative humidity is defined by (Cook (1999:15) as "The ration of the amount of water vapor in the air to the amount that would be present at the same temperature were the atmosphere to be fully saturated. Relative humidity is expressed as a percentage"

"Paper materials swell or shrink as relative humidity changes as organic materials are hygroscopic. They may cause water soluble inks to ran and paper which is coated with china clay or chalk to stick" Bajpai [1999:58.]

The recommended relative humidity is 35 -40% and not above 50%. High temperatures combined with a high percentage of relative humidity can encourage the development of algae. It is therefore necessary to monitor both temperature and relative humidity regularly, if not on a daily basis.

A thermo hygrograph is an instrument that records the fluctuations in temperature and relative humidity by means of internal sensing instruments. A data logger can also be used; it requires a dedicated computer and special software which requires power supplies. Lastly a whirling hygrometer and a relative humidity indicator which uses paper indicators used against charts can also be used to detect changes of relative humidity.

It is important to open windows for aeration in conditions where storage areas had high relative humidity. Cook (1999:18) recommends that materials should be stored away from outside walls to allow circulation and that storing materials in basements or areas of high relative humidity should be avoided.

Air pollution can also contribute to the deterioration of records and archives. Air pollution can be a serious hazard to records and archives particularly in urbanized to industrialized areas. Air pollution can also appear within a building, photocopiers, cleaning, paints, untreated wood and certain plastics and adhesives all certain gases that can pollute. These pollutions can also damage equipment and materials, dirt and other particles are also pollutions which then penetrate materials and promote chemical and physical deterioration. Pollutants can also come from paper products especially those made from poor quality materials as newsprint.

While it is difficult to control pollution in especially if the records and archives institution is located in an industrialized environment, filters can be placed to filter out polluting particular. Poor quality paper must be stored separately and that records should be stored in boxes and cabinets to keep out dust and dirt. Sealing untreated wood such as shelving with an interior latex paint to keep wood particles from adhering to records can minimize pollution. Lastly, dusting and cleaning regularly and thoroughly to keep dirt particles at a minimum can also minimize pollution.

Biological agents can also affect the stability of records and archives media. Paper which is organic is subjected to biological infestation by mould spores, insects, rodents and mice. Insects such as silverfish and cockroaches and others, these biological agents are attracted by glues, paper itself, binding adhesives and even sewing thread.

Feather (1996:45) says "The elimination of insect infestation is an expensive undertaking for which specialists would normally have to be employed---The elimination of vegetable matter from the (records and archives) institution and its outer walls is one factor. Planters and flower displays inside, and creepers growing on the outside wall, may be aesthetically pleasing, but can encourage insects---The proper care of all the wooden parts of...(records and archives building) whether structural or in the form of furniture or shelving, is also critical, since termites breed in wood"

Furthermore, foodstuffs and drinks should not be used in a records room, since insects will be attracted to food stuff. Food should be consumed in a room specially assigned for eating and the room should be and the room should be cleaned regularly. Fumigation can also be used if there is an outbreak of insects and fumigation should be done by a trained fumigator.

Lastly, records can deteriorate through abuse and mishandling. Activities that may damage records are, rough handling of paper, poor photocopying practices, excessive use of materials, handling fingers with dirty hands, deliberate acts of vandalism, theft of material, inadequate security, etc

Cook (1999:29) says, "Steps should be taken not only to protect materials in archival storage but also to ensure staff, researchers and office personnel understand the need to handle records and archives carefully... Specifically, it is important to consider the following, make security copies of valuable materials, particularly if originals are being used a great deal. If possible, do not put original materials on display at all but use copies a surrogates. Store fragile or oversized materials appropriately,, ensure there is close supervision of the research area. Screen potential users of records for security concerns. Issue guide-lines for the appropriate use of the materials.

Since preservation is a crucial element in the whole operation of a records program, it is therefore necessary for records managers and archivists to store records in conditions that makes records have a prolonged life. Selecting good quality materials will also help in preventive preservation that also seeks to reduce risks of damage and to slow down the rate of deterioration.

References
1. Cook, Preserving Records, UK, IRMT, 1999
2. Roper, Glossary of Terms, UK, IRMT, 1999
3. Feather J, Preservation and the Management of Library, Collections, London, Library Association Publishing Ltd, 1996
4. Bajpai, Preservation and Management of Lib Col, India, Ess Ess Pub 1999
5. Mahapatra, Preservation in Libraries, Ess Ess Public, India, 1999Etiwel Mutero works for the National University of Science and Technology[NUST]Bulawayo Zimbabwe.He holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science Management and is Studying for the Bsc Honours Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University.To order a full text of this article contact Etiwel on His Mobile phone +263773614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com.You can also contact him on facebook.This and other articles by the same author can be found on http://recordsandarchivesmanagement.blogspot.com

Selection Aids and Internet Resource Aids

2011-07-02T01:07:00.003-07:00

Since it is impossible and unreasoanable for the selection staff to read and review personally the large number of library materials being introduced each year,the selection staff must rely upon the assistance of professionally prepared selection aids.In this paper, the author is going to differentiate between selection aids and internet resource guides justifying their relevence to information science.
Selection aids are resources that assist a librarian in choosing,especially in the aquisition department,the appropriate collection in the library.Selection aids are usually in print form. The internet resource guides function the same as selection aids but these guides are in electronic form.

Selection aids consists of the following;professional library journals such as book lists,library journals,school library journals and publisher's weekly.Magazines of general interests such as Time,Newsweek,American Heritage etc.They include journals in specific fields for retrospective purchases such as Public Library Catalog and Children's Catalog,publisher's catalogs and fliers.

Internet resource guides may include organisational websites,these sites provide information on the authority and reputation of the work including the coverage.Personal home pages are also internet resource guides.A personal home page is a www page ,or a collection of pages which is maintained by an individual author which relates to his or her personal interests. Personal home pages often include materials relating to a specific subject area. The author may include the types of books published by himself or herself. There are also subject-based www sites which are a collection of pages which have a particular subject focus.

Electronic journals and magazines are used widely as internet guides.Publication such as newspapers,flyers,annual reviews,are now produced only in electronic format.Image based information sources are sources which primarily rely upon the use of images as a source of information,for example,to illustrate work,for presentations,to suppliment other textual materials.Thus promotional materials may be presented in this form which assist the librarian in selecting materials for the library.A book database such as Amazon may be used as a selection aid.These types of databases produce a graphical image of the book,the size and even the cost of the material

Depending on the collection development policies which are used as a guide for selecting appropriate materials for the library,selection aids and internet resource guides are so usefull in selecting the actual materials for the library.

Collection development policies that include analysis of the present collection and long-term plans and goals assist in building a collection that benefits the current and future users of the library.Selection aids assist in choosing the appropriate format of the materials ,whether electronic or print.For example some academic institutions prefer electronic materials than print due to limited storage space.

Sometimes book marketers donate sample copies of the sold books so that library users may assess the relevancy of the book.The books are displayed in the library and the actual acquisition is made only after users recommend them.These sample copies are also selection aids.

Selection aids help the librarian to acquire materials that meet the needs of the collection users,fulfill the organisation's mission statement and that meet the institution's budgetory allocation.

If quality,accuracy and relevance is of a great importance in the acquisition of library materials,selection aids and internet resource guides will continue to be relevent in information science.

REFERENCEES

1-COOK,Authoratitive guide to Evaluating Information on the internet,Neal-Schuman Publishers,1999.
2-Vernon,Information Sources in Management and Business 2nd Ed ,Butterworths,1984
3-www.arma.org,information management journal
4-Baca,Introduction to Metadata:Pathways to digital Information,Los Angels,1998
5-Chapman,Digital Imaging for libraries and Archives,Ithica,1996Etiwel Mutero works for the National University of Science and Technology[NUST]Bulawayo Zimbabwe.He holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science Management and is Studying for the Bsc Honours Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University.To order a full text of this article contact Etiwel on His Mobile phone +263773614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com.You can also contact him on facebook.This and other articles by the same author can be found on http://recordsandarchivesmanagement.blogspot.com

Managing Institutional Archives

2011-07-02T01:06:00.001-07:00

'Management" and its synonym "administration" are familiar words to archivists, almost always referring to the application of the principles of archival and records management to particular collections or bodies of records. In this paper, the author is going to discuss with relevant examples the essential elements for managing institutional archives that are also common to the administration of all archives.
Institutional archives are archives that belong to a single body such as a University, hospital, army etcetera. As the author had indicated, the words management and administration are related .Administration according to the Random House Webster's College Dictionary is the management and direction of a government, business, institution, or the like. Management, by the same source, is "first the act or process of managing.'
The elements that are essential to the management not of institutional archives are; management, which includes leadership, organisational structures, planning human resource management, financial management, managing archival facilities and public relations.
Management includes planning. It is essential that the archives manager possess planning qualities. She/he should have short and long term plans for the institutional archives. Plans encourage institutional integration, that is, the whole institution works towards the same goal. The archives manager should have a vision and use the leadership vision to achieve goals.
The institutional archive should have a good organisational structure. Organisational structure reflects both internal and external institutional relationships and policies such as the archives placement within its parent organisation, its internal hierarchy, and its relationship with auxiliary structures such as advisory boards. It should clearly show the chain of command that means the informal networks had to be discouraged.
Another element is that of human resource management. The archives institution should have a human resource policy. The policy explains the qualification of the archives staff. It showed the job description of all the archives staff. The archives manager should know all issues related to recruitment and selection of staff within good business ethics applied.

It is essential that the archives manager be involved in supervising all the archives staff under him. Supervision involves applying personnel resources to the issues for which a manager's unit or organisation is responsible. Employees must be informed of the organisations objectives and their duties in relation to these objectives. Performance evaluation is also conducted in order for the archives staff to be motivated in their work endeavours. Standards had to be set so that targets may be set for each staff.
Training and development of staff is also a critical element of the archive management. Employee development programs can encompass extensive training efforts, conference, and seminars. The benefits of career development should be especially attractive to archival institutions, which invest heavily in skills development only after long experience with a collection, its donors, and its researchers. The archives institution should encourage staff to advance themselves through hands on training or through convectional courses.
The archives facilities should be managed efficiently, I speak of the general facility management. The facility should meet the minimum conditions of an ideal archival facility. It should have a constant temperature and humidity. The archives building should be located away from swamps, dumb areas or not located near known natural hazards. The building should be well light and that protection from unlawful entry must be there. It should be located near the archives clientele and that fire detectors must be there and fire fighting equipment must be in place and staff trained in fire fighting.
The archives have to be divided into offices, technical services, public services, common areas and record storage areas. Borrowing and reference rules have to be followed. There aught to be a supply of archives needs, such as stationary and storage equipment.
The archives manager should be able to budget for the institution archives. He should be able to plan how the archives institution should get funds for the day to day business of the institution. There could be fundraising activities organised.
Lastly public relations is also an essential element in the management of institutional archives. Public relations refers to the communication or dialogue which a repositionary has with individual or groups inside and outside its institutional setting intended to convey information about services and goals.
Public relation promotes advance the archival image. It also involves dealing with the clientele and marketing of archival services. Poor public relations would result in failing to achieve the archival mission statement.
Planning leadership, organisational structures, human resources management, archives facilities management financial management and public relations are essential elements for managing institutional archives that are also common to the administration of all archives programmes.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Wilsted T, Managing Archival and Manuscript Reposition," . The society of American Archivist, Chicago 1991.
2. Ropar, Managing Archives, IRMT, 1991
3. www.findarticales.com
4. www.Thefreelibrary.com
5. Dalt.Organisation Theory and design, St Paul Publishers, 1986.Etiwel Mutero works for the National University of Science and Technology[NUST]Bulawayo Zimbabwe.He holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science Management and is Studying for the Bsc Honours Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University.To order a full text of this article contact Etiwel on His Mobile phone +263773614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com.You can also contact him on facebook.This and other articles by the same author can be found on http://recordsandarchivesmanagement.blogspot.com

Records Control Measures

2011-07-02T01:05:00.001-07:00

Records are an important element in the efficient and effective management of an organization, such that recordkeeping and record control systems must not be looked down upon. In this paper the author is going to discuss the concept of recordkeeping and clearly explain how one would control all the records generated in any organization. Recordkeeping are all the activities involving the reception or creation of records of an individual or organization, the use and storage of that document up until its disposal. The storage of that record should help an organization achieve its mission.The author is going to discuss three basic concepts of record- keeping or records management, that is the concept of lifecycle and the continuum concept
The principle of respect des fonds means respect the creator of records. This principle is broken down into two sub concepts namely, provenance and original order. Provenance means the organization or individual that created or received and maintained and used records while they were still current. Original order means that records have to be maintained in the order which they were created, arranged and maintained by the office origin. The concept of respect des fond means that records of two separate organizations should be managed separately; they must not be combined even if the two organizations were related. Secondly records must not be rearranged but maintained in the order of the creating agency, that is, according to the classification, filing and retrieval methods established by the organization.

The second concept of record keeping is the life cycle concept. The life cycle draws an analogy between the life of a biological organism, which is born, lives and dies, and is then disposed of by destruction or by transfer to an archival institution. Effective management of records through out their life cycle is an issue paramount in the reform of any organization. Without the life-cycle concept vast quantities of inactive records will continue to clog up expensive office space, and it is virtually impossible to retrieve important administrative financial and legal information. Such a situation undermines the accountability of the state and endangers the rights of the citizen.

The record life-cycle concept goes on as follows; The document is created or received by an organization and enters what is called the current phase. Current records are used for the day to day business of an organization and kept in registries or records offices. From the current stage, the record enters the semi ? current phase. In this phase, the record is infrequently used and semi- current records are kept in records centers pending their ultimate disposal by destruction and those of continuing value are sent to the archives centre. The lifecycle concept has been used to promote a sense of order, a systematic approach, to the overall management of recorded information.

The records continuum concept which some say grew out of the life-cycle concept is according to the Australian Standard 4390 "----a consistent and coherent regime of management process from the time of the creation of records (and before, in the design of record keeping systems) through the presentation and use of records and archives. All stages of records are interrelated forming a continuum in which both records managers and archivists are involved to varying degrees, in the ongoing management of recorded information.
Athenhon (1985-45) says a major concern of the continuum concept as a whole must be administration efficiency. It also provides a graphical tool for farming issues about the relationships between records managers and archivists, past, present and future.

RECORDS CONTROL is also important in the management of organizational information. The aim of control is to identify and organize records produced by record keeping systems so that they can be easily accessed, stored and retrieved for appropriate use by authorized persons for as long as they are required. There primary and secondary records controls. Primary level control i.e. where records are controlled at a file and series level. Secondary records control includes records registration, classification, indexing, records trading, appraisal and disposal.

At primary level records are organized into files. A file is the basic intellectual entity that brings together records related to the same function or activity. Files are then organized into series. A series is the level of arrangement of the records of an organization or individual that brings together those relating to the same function or activity or having a common form. Secondary level records control includes registration of records. Mail recording is one example of registration. It includes the use of the incoming mail registers or giving numbers of seculars, memos and bulleting.

Classification is used to aid quick retrieval of records. It is the process of identifying and arranging records and archives in categories according to logically structured conventional methods and procedural rules represented in a classification system.

Indexing is another records control measure which helps identify records according to subject while records tracing is a means of control that records the movement of a record from one office to another, either by the transit slip or any other means.

Finally, records appraisal and disposal assist in cleaning offices of absolute records by identifying useless records and those of archival value and remove them out of offices thereby increasing accessibility of active records.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. United Kingdom. Committee on Department Records. Report. Cmnd. 9163 London,1954
2. Roper, Building Records Appraisal Systems, IRMT 1999.
3. Surplusing, DS.Records Retention Procedures. Denver 1990
4. Arma. Developing and Operating a records Retention Programme,ARMA 198Etiwel Mutero works for the National University of Science and Technology[NUST]Bulawayo Zimbabwe.He holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science Management and is Studying for the Bsc Honours Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University.To order a full text of this article contact Etiwel on His Mobile phone +263773614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com.You can also contact him on facebook.This and other articles by the same author can be found on http://recordsandarchivesmanagement.blogspot.com

Information Storage Databases and Database Management Systems

2011-07-02T01:04:00.001-07:00

This article differentiates between a database and a database management system.It also gives type of databases used by organisations such as centralised and distributed databases.Hirachichal,relational and the network databases are also explained.The article further explaines the uses of a database management system.A full text of this article is 1024 words 5 pages long.
In managing information, organizations are moving from file management systems to a better and efficient database management system. In this paper the author is going to differentiate between a database and a database management system [DBMS] and fully explain the types of databases used in various organizations.

A database is a collection of organized data with easy access and preserved over a long period, or a collection of interrelated data. Turban[2003:131]defines a database as a ''collection of related files, and where those related files can greatly affect user accessibility, query response times, data entry, security, and cost''. A database consolidates records previously stored in separate files so that a common pool of data records serves as a single central file or database for many data processing applications.

O''brian considers the following points as reasons for database processing. He says databases helps in eliminating data redundancy because independent data files include a lot of duplicated data. Secondly databases integrate data stored in a computer .Data can also be accessed faster from any point within the organization and users can access different portions of databases concurrently.

A database can be centralized or distributed. A centralized database has all the related files in one physical location. A decentralized database has complete copies of a database, in more than one location. There are two types of decentralized databases: replicated and partitioned-Turban [2003:132]. A replicate database has complete copies of the entire database in many locations, primarily to alleviate the single-point-of-failure problems of a centralized database as well as to increase user access responsiveness. A partitioned data base is subdivided, so that each location has a portion of the entire database.

A database management system controls all use of the databases of a computer using organization. It works in conjunction with the data management control programs of the operating system which are primarily concerned with physical input, output, and storage of data during processing.
The software program [or group of programs] as a database
management system [DBMS].The [DBMS] permits an organization to
store data in one location, from which it can be updated and
retrieved, and it provides access to the stored data by various
application programs. The DBMs also provides mechanisms for
maintaining the integrity of stored information, managing security
user access, recovering information when the system fails, and
accessing various database functions from within an application
written in a third generation, fourth generation, or object-oriented
language. The DBMS provides users with tools to add, delete,
maintain, display, print, search, and upgrade data.
Turban [2003:136] Introduction to Information Technology.
A DBMS removes the database from the control of individual programmers and computer users and places responsibility for it in the hands of the database administrator. This improves the integrity and security of the database.

There are three major types of data bases used in different organizations, namely the hierarchical structure, network structure, and the relational structure.

In the hierarchical structure, the relationship between records forms a hierarchy or tree structures. In this structure, all records are dependent and arranged in multi-level structures consisting of one root record and any number of subordinate levels. Thus, all of the relationships between records are one-to-many, since each data element is related to several records below it, but only one data element above it. The data elements or records at the highest level of the hierarchy is called the root and is the point of entry into the hierarchy. Data elements are stored and located by moving progressively downward from a root and along the branches of the tree until the desire record is located.

The advantage of a hierarchical database approach is the speed and efficiency with which it can be searched for data. This speed is possible because so much of the database is eliminated in the search with each ''turn'' going down the tree.

The second type of a database is the Network database. This type of a database views all records as sets. Each set is composed of an owner record and one or more member records. The network implements the one-to-many record structure. Unlike hierarchical data structures that require specific entrance points to find records in a hierarchy, network data structure can be entered and traversed more flexible.

The third type of a database is the relational model. It was developed in an attempt to simplify the representation of complex relationships between data elements within the database are viewed as being stored in the form of simple tables. Tables allow quick comparisons by row and column, and items are easy to retrieve by finding the point of intersection of a particular row and column.

In a relational database, these tables are called relations, and the model is based upon the mathematical theory of sets and relations. In this model, each row of data is equivalent to a record, and each column of data is equivalent to a field. In the relational model terminology, a row is called a tuple , and a column is called an attribute. The relational model is currently the most popular of the three common database structures because it provides the most flexibility and ease of use.

A database coupled with the database management system, can eliminate many of the problems associated with traditional file environment. Therefore, data redundancy, data isolation, and data inconsistency are minimized, and data can be shared among all users in the organization.

Bibliography
1 -Turban ''Introduction to information technology 2nd Ed'' 2003 John Willey & Sons
2- O''Brien ''Information Science Systems for You'' 2003
3-Barata Kimberly, ''Understanding Computers: An Overview for Records and Archives Staff'' '' IRMT 1999.
4-White, ''How Computers Work,How it Works Series'' Emeryville 1998
5-Parsons ''Computer Concepts'' Cambridge 1999

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------Etiwel Mutero works for the National University of Science and Technology[NUST]Bulawayo Zimbabwe.He holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science Management and is Studying for the Bsc Honours Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University.To order a full text of this article contact Etiwel on His Mobile phone +263773614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com.You can also contact him on facebook.This and other articles by the same author can be found on http://recordsandarchivesmanagement.blogspot.com

Benefits of Cross-Cultural Communication

2011-07-02T01:03:00.001-07:00

his article defines cross-cultural communication and explaines the its benefits to organisations.A full text of this article is 1049 and 7 pages long.Formal organizations are becoming bigger and bigger. Organizations that used to trade in a single cultural society are now spreading their wings internationally thereby demanding that they study the science of cross-cultural communication. In this paper the author is going to discuss the importance of cross-cultural communication in formal organizations.

Cross-cultural communication by definition is "A form of communication between people from different culture; both an interactive process whereby we refer back to our culture when in contact with another, and a source of misunderstanding stemming from the different meanings given to a particular massage, be it verbal or non-verbal"-www.akteos.com According to www.wikipedia.org cross-cultural communication "...is a field of study that looks at how people from different cultural backgrounds communicate, in similar and different ways among themselves, and how they endeavor to communicate across cultures" www.wikipedia.org

Cultural influences are an inherent aspect of all communications. The term 'culture' refers to the sum of language, values, beliefs, habits and practices shared by a large group of people. These characteristics comprise the cultural context of communication. Cultures sometimes correspond with political boundaries of nations, but this is not always the case. For instance, countries like the USA and Soviet Union are pluralistic societies, meaning more than one culture exist within their boarders. That means organization working in these territories need to use cross-cultural communication.

According to Vengesai [1993:52] the biggest cross-cultural communication method used by organizations is advertising. It has been proven that organizations that advertise maximize their profits due to the promotion and broadening of their customer basis. Vengesai says advertising is a cross-cultural communication because it originated in western consumer societies where advertising can be seen as information as well as a producer of symbolic meaning. Advertising had the capacity to bring foreign life-style and development to primitive and underdeveloped societies by changing people's beliefs, norms, inclinations and attitudes. Golding [1974:43] suggest '...that static societies are brought to life by outside influences, technical aid, knowledge, resources and by diffusion of ideas.'

Cross-cultural communication encourages international team working which is a key to the promotion of the principles of formal organizations. For example, it promotes the sharing of information and experiences as well as assisting in the dissemination of methodologies adopted by the organizations. Furthermore, the heterogeneity of cross-cultural teams had been found to encourage innovation

Cross-cultural communication benefits formal organization in sharing common goals. It ensures that everyone remain focused on the same goals and objectives keeping up- to-date. Encouraging individuals to collaborate internationally, rather than working only within their home country, helps the organization ensures that all of its members are sharing knowledge. Access to this wide range of information helps everyone to keep their work up-to-date and of high quality.

Members in a formal organization benefit experience from others through cross-cultural communication. Chen[2006] says:
There are potentially many sources of diversity in teams
[Milliken/Martins1996] but one of the clearest distinguishing features
of global teams is that team members are drawn from different
countries and will often speak different languages...One of the most
common reasons for global teams is to leverage the knowledge and
skills of diverse team members [Lagerstrom/Anderson2003].In skilled
tasks, a team with diverse skills will generally outperform teams that
lack certain skills or are unable to coordinate them successfully. For
instance in decision making, research suggests that diversity in
membership increases the number of solutions offered and alternatives
considered. Chen S. Management International Review Dec 2006

Members in a formal organization help each other to avoid duplication and maximize economy of effort. Having people from different backgrounds working together on projects and reviewing each other's work helps to minimize bias.

Research shows that heterogeneous groups are more creative than homogenous groups. Heterogeneous groups tend to consider issues from a broader range of perspectives than homogeneous groups and so generate wider range of ideas. Hence cross-cultural communication promotes greater creativity in organizations.

Cross-cultural communication promotes continuous improvement. Heterogeneous groups often question each other more than homogenous groups; frequent challenge of the status quo helps to ensure that opportunities for improvement are always considered.

Cross-cultural communication is not only important to an organization but to its clients as well. Research has shown that cross-cultural communication promotes team working and helps to increase the flexibility and responsiveness of the organization. International teams should help to ensure that the organization is focusing on the most appropriate products at an international level, and that appropriate considerations are given to local needs and requirements. They also help to ensure that these products are addressed and presented in a way that is relevant to people-thus cross-cultural communication make organizations improves greater relevance of its products to its clients.

Cross-cultural communication or international team working promotes the work of an organization at an international level that has a direct impact on dissemination of the organization's output. Not only is it likely to influence availability of information, it is also likely to impact on the way in which information is presented. In short, cross-cultural communication promotes access to organization information.

Despite the benefits of cross-cultural communication people of different cultural backgrounds are likely to have different attitudes toward hierarchy etcetera. However, it has been proved that the advantages of cross-cultural communication far outweigh the setbacks. Organizations are developing strategies to counter these setbacks. For example, to counter the lack of a common language between societies, a lingua franca is used as a means of communication between different communities. This is to prove that cross-cultural communication is important in formal organizations.

Bibliography
1- Rosenbaum T. 'Effective Communication Skills', Cornell Local Roads Program 2005
2- 'The Guide to Employee Communication' Pitman ,1990
3- Kuhudzai 'Introduction to Communication' ZOU 1999
4- Fiske,J 'Introduction to Communication Studies' London: Rout ledge 1982
5- Holliday, M.A.K 'Language as Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language & meaning .' London: Edward 1978

Etiwel Mutero holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science Management and is Studying for the Bsc Honors Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University. You can contact Etiwel on His Mobile phone 263913614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com. You can also contact through the facebook
Etiwel Mutero works for the National University of Science and Technology[NUST]Bulawayo Zimbabwe.He holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science Management and is Studying for the Bsc Honours Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University.To order a full text of this article contact Etiwel on His Mobile phone +263773614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com.You can also contact him on facebook.This and other articles by the same author can be found on http://recordsandarchivesmanagement.blogspot.com

Integrated Records Management

2011-07-02T01:02:00.001-07:00

In an endeavor to make records accessible to both the government and to citizens, researchers and records professionals recommend an integrated records management program. In this paper the author is going to examine the rationale for developing an integrated records management program.
An integrated records management program according to Millar[1999:20] '...recognizes that records follow a life-cycle and acknowledges the importance of caring for those records through a continuum of concept.' The Australian Standard 4390 as quoted from www.findarticles.com defines a records continuum as '...a consistent and coherent regime of management processes from the time of their creation of records...through to the preservation and use of records as archives.' This definition suggests an ideal integration for documents, records, and archives management. The continuum concept seeks to break the barrier between records managers and archivists and bring them together to work together from current records to archival stages. Thus it brings uniformity in the care of records.

An integrated records management program is there to ensure the creation and maintenance of authoritative and reliable records in an accessible, intelligible and usable form for as long as they are required to support the business and accountability requirements of an organization. For a record to be authoritative and reliable it must be '...fixed and must not be susceptible to change.' This kind of record protection can be fully achieved where an integrated records management is in place.

On the same issue of maintaining an authoritative and reliable records make me remember the story of the global political agreement GPA which was negotiated and finally signed on the 15th of September 2008.It is said prior to the signing ceremony representatives of the Zimbabwe's three political parties agreed to a document was supposed to be signed by the party principals, it is said the document was left as a soft copy in the hands of someone. After the signing ceremony some parties claimed that the original document was manipulated. Had the three party negotiators been aware of the integrated records management they should have sought to fix the GPA document as soon as the negotiations were over to avoid any unofficial manipulation.

The integrated records management program ensures efficiency and economy in the management of records through eliminating duplication effort, creating and maintaining only those records that are needed, systematizing retention and disposal, and so on. With integrated records management, policies are in place which details retention periods of records found in records offices, records centers and archives. A periodic appraisal of records ensures that offices do not continue to be crammed and jammed with obsolete records.

'Appraisals make it possible to dispose of records promptly when their continuity utility for business purposes has expired, whether that disposal is by destruction or by transfer for archival preservation. In order to balance economy with good administration it is necessary that records are neither disposed of too late or too early in their life-cycle.'

Records appraisal and disposal of obsolete ensures efficiency in retrieval of records since records offices will only retain few current records of an organization. In addition to that, the organization will limit the storage and equipment costs. Improved access to records and archives enhances sound decision making, the effective delivery of government programs and services.

The identification of archives of enduring historical and cultural value is another objective of the integrated records management program. After identification of these archives integrated records management ensures the safe transfer of such archives to an archival institution. It is the integrated records management program that promotes the arrangement of archives in accordance with archival principles so as to preserve their contextual information. Without an integrated records management these archives may be mistakenly be destroyed or they may continue to occupy office space instead of them being transferred to an archival institution.

The integrated records management seeks to promote the preservation of records and archives. Preservation is the positive protection of archival materials in which no physical or chemical treatment to the item occurs, it is the totality of process and operations involved in the protection of records against damage and deterioration. A preservation management program is the best and most cost effective way to protect records and archives. The preservation plan will assist even in the selection of good quality equipment in offices or repositories which will result in good services which will not assist the users but also minimizes the damage done to records and archives as a result of their use.

In conclusion, the integrated records management Atherton as quoted at www.findarticles.com says all stages of records are interrelated, forming a continuum in which both records managers and archivists are involved, to varying degrees in the ongoing management of recorded information. The continuum model which is all about integrated records management provides a graphical tool for framing issues about relationships between records managers and archivists, past, present, and future, and for thinking strategically about working collaboratively and building partnerships with other stakeholders.

Bibliography
[1] Artherton ?www.findarticles.com
[2]Miller L.-Management of Public Sector Records Principles 1999 ,IRMT
3 Wallace P. 'Records Management' 1980
4 Penn 'Records Management Handbook' 1978
5 Bloomfield,P. 'Records Management 8' 1983Etiwel Mutero works for the National University of Science and Technology[NUST]Bulawayo Zimbabwe.He holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science Management and is Studying for the Bsc Honours Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University.To order a full text of this article contact Etiwel on His Mobile phone +263773614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com.You can also contact him on facebook.This and other articles by the same author can be found on http://recordsandarchivesmanagement.blogspot.com

Records Preservation Measures

2011-07-02T01:01:00.001-07:00

This article defines the word preservation and explain components that are critical in the implementation of the preservation plan.Components identified and explained in this article are;getting top management support,conducting a conservation assessment,establishing preservation standards,setting priorities and choosing the suitable preservation solution.A full text of this article is 1575 words and 7 pages long
Preservation is essential to records management in order to prevent information loss due to the deterioration of the records media. Roper [1999:37] says, "Preservation planning is essential to good records and archives management. It is better to focus on preventative preservation measures and ensure adequate environmental and physical controls than to focus on conservation treatments for one object to the exclusion of others in the institution. Preservation policies and plans need to be coordinated with other organizational requirements. " In this article the author is going to discuss the components that are critically important in the implementation of an effective preservation planning of an archive institution.

Preservation may be viewed as the totality of processes and operations involved in the protection of records and archives against damage or deterioration. Roper [1999:36] defines preservation as "...the passive protection of archival material in which no physical or chemical treatment to the item occurs."

Preservation planning is a process by which general and specific collections care needs are determined, priorities established and resources for implementation are identified. The main purpose is to outline a path or define a course of action that will allow you to set present and future preservation agendas. It identifies the actions an institution will take and those it will never take so that resources can be allocated appropriately. The steps that are more important in the implementation of a preservation program are; winning the support of the organizational top management, conducting a preservation survey, setting up goals and standards, assessment of preservation needs and the selection of documents, identifying priorities, choosing the appropriate preservation solution and setting up a disaster preparedness plan.

When setting up a preservation program, it is important to ensure that "stakeholders" are on board. Planning takes time and sometimes money. Try to sell the need for such planning to the organizational top management. The records manager or archivist should be able to sell the idea quiet convincingly, he/she should present the preservation plan as a good plan that will make business operations more efficient, effective and economical, plus its an ethical approach to the responsibility of managing a collection.

After getting management support the next step is to conduct a preservation survey. The preservation survey ensures that you have got a good grasp of the size and nature of the collection. In studying the nature of the collections, questions such as the following will be answered. What subjects are collected? Why are they collected? What are the components of the collection? What formats of material do they contain? Etcetera . Roper (1999:5) says:
"Such a survey is important because it is not possible to provide complete conservation treatments for all materials in an archival institution. Copying and repair of archival materials is expensive. One of the questions that must be considered is what should be preserved. The establishment of standards helps ensure the materials used to create records and archives are of the best quality possible.... It is important to recognize that decisions will have to be made about what to spend resources on and what will receive more passive care.

The preservation survey goes on to examine the records building and the storage conditions and materials. Bajpai 1999:206 argues that "The general condition of the building as a whole is the starting point. The concern is not so much to discover serious structural or material defects, but rather to assess the general suitability of the building for its purpose. The materials that are used-wood, brick or stone, for example will affect weather proofing and heat insulation. A flat roof can lead to difficulties with water seepage in heavy rain. Unfitting doors and windows can admit both water and animal life"

The survey should also look at issues of environmental conditions of the conditions of the storage areas. It is necessary to know the humidity and temperature of storage areas. The preservation survey will note by what systems the building is heated, cooled and ventilated, how the systems are actually used, and how effective they are. The overall cleanliness, maintenance, storage and exhibition furniture, pest monitoring, access and retrieval practices should also be put into account.

The next step after the preservation survey is the setting up of goals and standards. Very serious problems revolve around standards. One should not underestimate the problem of creating standards targets. Standards helps use choose the right storage media to use, the type of paper, type of microfilm or types electronic media to use to store records. There are national and international standards such as those published by the International Council on Archives (ICA) Budd 2000;57 states "the conformity of foreign and domestic standards when crating preservation masters will be of paramount importance since state vaults will require adherence to domestic specifications of the storage of (records)"

The next step in the preservation planning is the assessment of the preservation needs and the selection of documents. Roper 1999;51 writes that "Indeed some materials may not require any more complex treatment" That"s the conservation assessment may be carried out using a questionnaire and Roper [1999;51] continues to say, "completed questionnaires will assist for projecting funding requirements for replacement, repair and copying over the long term"

There are tools that enable us to assess both the condition of a records building and physical conditions of its serials. Periodic diagnostic check of the completeness of its serial files should be carried out. Lists of missing and damaged issues are then compiled to complete the sets. In connection with this activity, lists are prepared enumerating titles for potential binding or microfilming. Section of materials for preservation is done with the help of staff working with records such as records clerks, registry clerks and supervisors.

Once various materials have been assessed, it is possible to establish conservation priorities. These priorities will relate not only to the physical state of the materials but also to its relative importance to the archival institution, its age, legal values and other concerns. Roper (1999:40) says some of the questions that may need to be answered when establishing the priorities are as follows: what are the general conditions of the records and archives? Are the items badly damaged or deteriorating? Will the items be heavily used? Are there signs of mould, insects, rodents, or acidic damage? Etceteras.

From establish the preservation priorities we move on to choosing the appropriate preservation solution. The nature and the degree of damage on a record help a records manager or an archivist to apply the necessary preservative and conservative measures. Roper (1999:57) says "As the preservation evaluation questionnaires indicates, there are a wide variety of possible actions that can be fallen to preserve records and archives. Some actions require minimal effort and expense, such as replacement through purchase or photocopying. Other actions demand considerable resources, such as extensive treatment of originals or microfilming"

The last aspect in the preservation planning is an emergency planning. Emergency plans are policies and procedures developed by an organization to be used during an emergency or disaster to prevent or minimse damage to an organization, its people and its resources.

Miller 1999:5 says should be able to assess the risk factors of an organization "what hazards could endanger an institutions records and archives? How much damage could be done in the event of a disaster? All organizations should identify and assess possible risks to buildings, facilities and records"

Types of emergencies could be natural, environmental, political, incited or technology related such as a malfunctioning of hardware and/or software, viruses from damage or corrupted computer files electromagnetic interference, power failures and/or fluctuations, theft of computer hardware/
software.

Millers (1999:21) say "Regardless of the long-term required or the level of emergency planning underway, it is possible to take steps to prevent a potential emergency from becoming a disaster. A number of changes can be instituted to protect records, ensuring their safety on a day to day basis as well as in the event of unforeseen circumstances. Each institution will have to determine the best course of action to take, depending on its resources, needs and potential risks. The common actions involve protecting records from damage caused by water, fire, hazards such as armed conflicts and abuse or mishandling"

Preservation is therefore a crucial element in the whole operation of a records program. As Roper puts it, "The aim of archival preservation is to prolong the usable life of useful research information in two ways". If the necessary steps in preservation planning are followed, the records of an organization will be adequately preserved and their life prolonged.

References

1 Miller L, Preservation Records, uk, IRMT 1999
2 Miller L, Emergency Planning For Records and Archives Services, Uk, IRMT 1999
3 Saur K,G. Managing and Preservation of Periodicals and Newspapers
4 Mahapatra P.K., Preservation in Libraries Perspectives Principles and Practice,New New Delhi, Ess Ess Publications 1999.
5 Bajpai S.K,Preservation and Management of Library Collections,New Delhi,Ess Ess Publication 1999.

Bibliography

1 Ritzeenthaler, Preserving Archives and Manuscripts, Chicago, Society of American Archivists,1993.
2Miller L,Preserving Records,UK,IRMT,1999.
3 Harvey,Preservation in Libraries,Austr,1993
4 Miller L, Emergency planning for records,UK,IRMT,1999.
5 Saur K,G,Managing the Preservation of Periodicals and Newspapers,Netherlands,IFLA,2000
Etiwel Mutero holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science Management and is Studying for the Bsc Honours Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University.You can contact Etiwel on His Mobile phone +263773614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com.You can also contact him on facebookEtiwel Mutero works for the National University of Science and Technology[NUST]Bulawayo Zimbabwe.He holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science Management and is Studying for the Bsc Honours Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University.To order a full text of this article contact Etiwel on His Mobile phone +263773614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com.You can also contact him on facebook.This and other articles by the same author can be found on http://recordsandarchivesmanagement.blogspot.com

The Role of Communication in Peace Building

2011-07-02T01:00:00.000-07:00

This article defines the word communication and explains how communication can help achieve peace and stability in the world.The article explains how communication especially the print and electronic media help in creating and exchanging meanings,and show that there is intereletionships between media and conflict.It goes on to say the media can be a good peace builder if rightly used.A full text of this article is 1366 words and 6 pages long.
The Role of Communication in Peace Building

The world is bedeviled with conflicts. Analysts indicate that there seem to be an increase in these conflicts over the last hundred years. The million dollar question is, how can these conflicts be resolved? In this paper the author is going to explain the role of communication in peace building.

To start with, the word communication can be defined as ''...the creation and exchange of meaning'' Dimbleby [1992]. Show J.W. 1992 defines communication as ''...a symbolic process whereby reality is produced, maintained, repaired, and transformed''. However Martins gives what the author consider as a better communication definition. He says; ''communication is a transactional, symbolic process which allows people to relate to and manage their environment by establishing human contact, exchange information, reinforcing the attitudes and behavior of others, and changing the attitudes and behavior of others'' Martins [1980:8]

It is true that communication can be used as a medium of peace building. Since communication in all its forms can be used to create and exchange meaning, it can be used to achieve peace through peace talks and negotiations. Although other forms of communication can be exploited to achieve peace in societies, the mass media and the Information Communication Technology [ICT] had been proved to be significant instrument of peace building.

The mass media communication is defined as a process of mediated communication between an institutional source and a large, diverse, dispersed audience via a mechanical device. Examples of the mass media are newspapers, radio broadcasts and the television.

A thematic assessment published by ''The Institute for the studies on Free Flow of Information'' July [2004] indicate that there are interrelationships between media and conflict.
''The media is a double edged sword. It can be a frightful weapon of
violence when it propagates messages of intolerance or disinformation t
that manipulates public sentiment...but there is another aspect to the
media . It can be an instrument of conflict resolution, when the
information it represents is reliable, respects human rights, and
represents diverse views. It''s the kind of media that enables a society
to make well informed choices, which is a precursor of democratic
governance. It is a media that reduced conflict and foster human
security.''
From the above quote it is clear that the media can reinforce and even change the attitudes of the masses. If the media talks issues of inclusiveness, unity and tolerance it becomes a useful tool in conflict resolution. However if it reports propaganda and the media is one sided that same media may also fuel tensions and provoke conflicts. A media which is controlled by personnel who apply professional ethics combined with diverse access to information can contribute to societal reconciliation, alter misperceptions and broaden understanding of the causes and consequences of conflict.

There are structural considerations for the media to be an effective peace builder such as policy and the media environment. The degree to which policy and legislation provides a space within which the media can operate, and the degree to which judiciary can regulate are crucial. The assessment I had mentioned before says if the legislation is used to silence the media or the courts are easily influenced and corrupted, then its function as the ''fourth estate'' and its role in conflict prevention and resolution will be significantly hindered.

The issue of structure makes me recall peace building in Zimbabwe. It is no secret that we are striving for peace and national healing. With few newspapers and only two government controlled daily newspapers, radio and television ,our media is not diverse and not independent which means our media will not at all promote peace and reconciliation but help to fuel tensions and conflict.

However, this is not to say the media policy environment must be too loose or self-regulatory. A too loose policy may allow rogue media, whose aim is to disseminate hate speech and provoke conflict. Such kind of media may spawn views and dogmas that are favorable only to their religious sects, tribes, races or their political parties at the expense of others.

A media with wide coverage and accessible is effective in influencing the masses. There need to be a variety of information flow.

''Homogeneous and heterogeneous media communities-the religious ethnic and political composition of the media community can be
instrumental in defining its orientation and possible vulnerability to
bias. Without diversity there is risk that the media will fail to reflect
the needs of the other.'' [2004]Thematic Assessment

The media should not keep on talking about historical conflicts telling people that current possible conflicts are unavoidable but it should talk words of tolerance and peace, in its contents the media should create an image that the outbreak of conflict can be amicably resolved and the return to peace is a number one priority of the society.

The Information and Communication Technology can also be a huge aid in the effort to build lasting peace by helping people communicate, view information that help make decisions and understand each other.

Peace is not created with a one time act hence communication through the ICTs is of paramount importance. True peace is built over time with many different processes and approaches that move parties into lasting, peaceful relationships. Activities includes arbitration, mediation, negotiations, reconciliation, conflict prevention, post conflict reconstruction, monitoring and advocacy etcetera. ICTs ?hardware and software helps people communicate, understand data, and learn, via tools such as computers, the internet, mobile phones, and more can be a tremendous help in implementing these peace building methods.

Cole and crowford [2007] in their article titled ''Building Peace Through Information and communications Technologies'' says in the Philippines, large scale demonstrations organized via cell phones and SMS were a major factor in forcing President Joseph Estrada to resign, thus bringing change without large-scale violence. The US Army is piloting a hand held system that contains maps and descriptions of civilian and militia inhabitant to help them gain a deeper understanding of the communities they are serving as peacekeepers.

In general ,Information and Communication Technologies can be used in peacemaking efforts in six different ways; to provide information, to help people process information, to improve decision making, to reduce scarcity, to support relationships and to help people understand each other.

The internet increases chances of information sharing, mobile technologies such as cell phones can dramatically increase the flow of information .For example the UmNyango Project in SA uses a SMS to allow those with cell phones to access information and report violations against women and children. Email discussion lists and forums can connect communities and encourage ongoing discussions over the internet. With a skilled facilitator and communication guidelines the internet relay chat can be a very effective method to allow groups to anonymously conduct negotiations or discuss sensitive issues.

The online Dispute Resolution Tools frame arguments and help participants to resolve conflicts peacefully using online debates, negotiation and mediation tools. For instance, the virtual command centers can allow many people spread across different continents to look at the same information. This can help in building peace across continents.

ICTs can be a tremendous help to those trying to maintain or form new relationships. The ability to communicate through the written word, photos, sound clips, and web cameras can keep people connected regardless of how far apart they are geographically.

ICTs can help people understand each other even people of different cultural backgrounds and go a long way in reducing conflicts. Through the ICTs translation software can help people plunge into deeper understanding.

While it''s true that media and technologies can''t create peace, but they can contribute to an environment where people can more easily communicate, understand current situations, visualize the implications of their actions, and understand each other''s point of view. Thus, communication can help peace building efforts.

]

Bibliography
1 Cole And Crawford ''Building Peace Through Information And Communication Technology [2007]
2 The Institute for the Studies on the Free Flow of information [2004]
3 Martins ''Communication, principles, concepts and skills'' [1980]
4 Vengesai ''Introduction to communication'' ZOU Module

Etiwel Mutero holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science Management and is Studying for the Bsc Honours Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University.You can contact Etiwel on His Mobile phone +263773614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com.You can also contact him on facebook.This and other articles by the same author can be found on http://recordsandarchivesmanagement.blogspot.comEtiwel Mutero works for the National University of Science and Technology[NUST]Bulawayo Zimbabwe.He holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science Management and is Studying for the Bsc Honours Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University.To order a full text of this article contact Etiwel on His Mobile phone +263773614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com.You can also contact him on facebook.This and other articles by the same author can be found on http://recordsandarchivesmanagement.blogspot.com

2011-07-02T00:58:00.001-07:00

This article defines the continuum and the life-cycle concepts.It explains what the continuum concept is all about and gives the benefits of the continuum concept in records management.The benefits includes a partnership between two groups of records professional,the records manager and the archivist,administration efficiency etc.The life-cycle had been explained as concept which give a sense of order among a host of its advantages in records management.A full text of this article has 1480 words and 7 pages long.
Providing coherent and consistent service that meets user's needs has long been a challenge for records managers and archivists worldwide. It is even more challenging in a digital world. Timely access to accurate, reliable, authentic, complete, and readable records over time is always difficult for both users and custodians. In this paper, the author is going to highlight and explain the two key principles that govern the care of records and archives. The two principles are the records lifecycle concept and the continuum concept

As defined in Australia Standard 4390, a records continuum is '...a consistent and coherent regime of management processes from the time of the creation of records [and before creation, in the design of recordkeeping systems] through to the preservation and use of records as archives.' The International Council on Archives defines the continuum concept as 'A consistent and coherent process of records management throughout the life of records, from the development of recordkeeping systems through the creation and preservation of records, to their retention and use as archives.' The above definitions suggest an ideal integration for documents, records and archives management.

According to Atherton [1985], all stages of records are interrelated forming a continuum in which both records managers and archivists are involved, to varying degrees, in the ongoing management of recorded information. She explained how the lifecycle stages that records supposedly underwent were infect a series of recurring and reverberating activities within both archives and records management. The underlying unifying or linking factor in the continuum was the service function to the creators and all users.

Xiami Phd says the records continuum as a model was formulated in the 1990s by Australian archival theorist Frank Upward based on four principles. The first is a concept of 'record' inclusive of records of continuing value[archives] stresses their use for transactional, evidentiary, and memory purposes, and unifies approaches to archiving/recordkeeping, whether records are kept for a split second or millennium. The second is, there is a focus on records as logical rather than physical entities, regardless of whether they are in paper or electronic form. The third is the institutionalization of recordkeeping profession's role requires a particular emphasis on the need to integrate recordkeeping into business and societal processes and purposes. The fourth point is that archival science is the foundation for organized knowledge.

Sue McKlemmish writes 'the model[continuum concept] provides a graphical tool for framing issues about the relationship between records managers and archivists, past, present and future, and for thinking strategically about working collaboratively and building partnerships with stakeholders'

Atherton says a major concern of the continuum concept as a whole must be administration efficiency. Records are not created to serve the interests of some future archivists or historian, or even to document for posterity some significant decision or operation. They are created and managed to serve immediate operational needs.

Miller says the continuum model is a unified model which reflects the pattern of the continuum. She says four actions continue to recur through the life of a record and cuts across the traditional boundary between records management and archives administration. The actions are the creation or acquisition of records, classification or description, its appraisal for continuing value and its maintenance and use.

The continuum approach means the end of the traditional demarcation between the functions of the records manager and the archivist. The division of activities into records management and archival phases, with the consequent division of responsibility between the records manager and the archivists is seen by some as artificial and restrictive.

Sarah Flynn explains that the records continuum model is significant because it broadens the interpretation of records and recordkeeping systems offered by the lifecycle. Such broadening is helpful, given the variety of context in which archivists and records managers operate and in which archives and records are used.

The continuum model reminds us that records [including archives] are created and maintained for use as a result of business and administration functions and processes, rather than as ends in themselves.

The continuum model emphasizes cooperation beyond the walls of repositories, especially between closely related, if occasionally estranged, professions of archives administration and records management-a cooperation that is more important than ever in the contemporary climate of outsourcing and cross- sectoral working.

On the other hand the lifecycle is a concept that draws an analogy between the life of a biological organism, which is born, lives and dies, and that of a record, which is created, is used for so long as it has continuing value and is then disposed of by destruction or by transfer to an archival institution.

Miller says the effective management of records throughout their lifecycle is a key issue in civil service reform. Without the lifecycle concept, vast quantities of inactive records clog up expensive office space, and it is virtually impossible to retrieve important administrative, financial and legal information. Such a situation undermines the accountability of the state and endangers the rights of the citizen.

Without a management program that controls records through the earlier phases of their lifecycle, those of archival value cannot be identified and safeguarded so that they can take their place in due course as part of the nation's historical and cultural heritage.

The records lifecycle goes on as follows: the document is created and enters what is called the current stage. Current records are records regularly used for the conduct of the current businesses of an organization or individual. They are also known as active records. Current records are normally kept near the place of origin or the registry or records office. From the current stage the record goes on to the semi-current stage. Semi-current records are records required only infrequently in the conduct of the current business. Semi-current records will normally be maintained in a records centre pending their ultimate disposal. From semi-current phase, some records are selected as archives. Archives are records, usually but not necessarily non-current records, of enduring value selected for permanent preservation. Archives will normally be preserved in an archival institution.

The lifecycle concept has been useful in promoting a sense of order, a systematic approach, to the overall management of recorded information. However, juxtaposition of the records continuum and the lifecycle model shows that the records continuum models advantages outweighs the advantages of the lifecycle concept. Peter Marshall states that the records continuum's primary focus is the multiple purpose of records. It aims for the development of record keeping systems that capture, manage, and maintain records with sound evidential characteristics for as long as the records are of value to the organization. It promotes the integration of record keeping into the organization's business systems and processes.

According to McKemmish records managers and archivists are brought together under an integrated recordkeeping framework with the same goal: to guarantee the reliability, authenticity, and completeness of records. The framework provides common understanding, consistent standards, unified best practice criteria, and interdisciplinary approaches in recordkeeping and archiving processes for both paper and digital worlds. It provides sustainable recordkeeping to connect the past to the present and the present to the future. It can coherently exist in a broader dynamic, changeable context that can be influenced by legal, political, administrative, social, commercial, technological, cultural and historical variables across time and space.

The continuum purpose-oriented, systems approach to records management fundamentally changes the role of recordkeeping. Instead of being reactive, managing records after they have been created, recordkeeping becomes proactive.

Amongst the two concepts, the continuum concept is the best practice for managing both electronic and paper records when the aim is to improve responsiveness, increase efficiency, and satisfy user's requirements. The records continuum model's ideal integration can be viewed as a best framework for managing records in a broader context of archival science to connect the past to the present and the present to the future.

Bibliography
1 Jay Atherton, From lifecycle to continuum, Canada 1985.
2 Xiaomi An, PhD, 'An integrated approach to records management:...' ARMA 2003
3 Miller, The Managing of Public Sector Records, Principles &context IRMT 1999
4 Marshall, 'Lifecycle vs. Continuum-what's the difference?' Information Quarterly, 16,no2, 200
5 AS 4390. Standards Australia, 1996Etiwel Mutero works for the National University of Science and Technology[NUST]Bulawayo Zimbabwe.He holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science Management and is Studying for the Bsc Honours Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University.To order a full text of this article contact Etiwel on His Mobile phone +263773614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com.You can also contact him on facebook.This and other articles by the same author can be found on http://recordsandarchivesmanagement.blogspot.com

Archival Apraisal Process

2011-05-17T06:30:00.000-07:00

Parker [1977:161] says 'finding aids are the signposts which lead the archivists and the researcher to the information they are seeking about or from archives.' In this paper, the author is going to identify and explain the key finding aids used in accessing materials in an archival institution.

Finding aids can be defined as descriptions of the holding of the archival institution so as to establish intellectual control. Intellectual control is necessary because archivists need to know what they have [records], what it contains, and where it is. Researchers need to know what exist in the archival institution, what materials it has on specific topics, and what is in each collection.

Finding aids encompass a range of descriptive media such as registers,lists, guides, inventories and indexes. Parker [1977:159] says finding aids '...establish physical and intellectual control over holdings of an archive and make it possible to retrieve particular records or information from these archives'

One of the finding aids is the accession register. The accession register provides a general description of what it is and where it comes from and a proper housing of the material. Each accession is given an identifying number which, along with a description of the materials, name of the transferring source, the provenance and other relevant details, entered in the accession register. The accession register is the first and most basic finding aid prepared by the archivist. It provides a profile of all incoming material in the order in which it was received by the repository.

Besides the accession register, there is a register of series. The register of series is used to record information about each document or file that is received by, dispatch, or created in an office. Roper [1999:]
The register of series is the master record indicating the group, series and
item numbers that have been allocated. Archives staff will maintain this
register; ideally, the head of the repository is responsible...The register is
maintained in group code order, and within groups in series number order.

As well as providing a master record of group and series, the register of
Series is used to record the last file unit number allocated within each series.
This means it saves as a source of information on the next available file unit
number.

Another archival finding aid is the archives guide. The archives guide is the overall finding aid to the holdings of the archival institution. The guide provides information about archival materials at the group and series level. Cook [1977:122] says the objectives of a guide are two fold;
Firstly, it should give an explanatory over-view set out to convey essential information about provenance and content to user...The main purpose may be the education of users completely new to the operations of an archive office. Secondly it should give a coordinating over-view also of the finding aids and descriptive systems in use in the archives office. In so far as a guide is for identification, it is to enable the user to identify, not actual archives, but those further or more detailed lists or descriptive instruments which he must use in order to find the archives he needs.

A guide in conclusion, is a collected series of entries arranged in predetermined order, each describing a particular series of archives, and displayed according to a set pattern.

The fourth finding aid found in an archival institution is the archival list or the item list. A list assists in locating records. It provides a full inventory of all materials transferred to the archival institution, within their groups and series, assigning to each item a unique reference code. This code enables any partial or item to be identified and found.

The item list help in identifying provenance: list records essential information about the provenance, making it possible to understand and understand the archives. It also helps in describing the content, identifying related material found in the repository, describing the physical condition of the archives. It presents information about the physical character, format and condition of the items on any related issues that might affect their use. Lastly , the list explain conditions of access.

Cook[1977:120] says there are two kinds of lists available to an archivist; one based upon the structure of the archives, and the other based on the needs of users.

Structural lists will only be of direct identification of relevant documents to the obviously relatively few readers whose purpose is the investigation of the historical growth and operation of the administration whose archives are under study. This structural system lists will account for the series and items in an accumulation of archives in an order determined by its original administrative structure.

However the majority of users need subject list because their enquiries will be received in terms of subject. Subject lists are arranged according to subjects of the archives.

The last key archival finding aid, I would like to explain is the index. The index is an instrument which allows users to identify particular documents or pieces of information relevant to their search, and it is therefore the means whereby the arrangement and interpretation of archives in series may be modified to make subject-based inquiries possible.

An index will highlight names, place, events and subjects. It is an important tool in pointing readers to relevant holdings. With a good index, the institution can make continuous use of the expertise of the staff that has helped compile it, and readers are able to make quite accurate searches, thus saving everybody time. Roper[2003] says in order to be effective, an index needs to be internally consistent. One member of staff should be in charge of the index from the list.

In conclusion, though I had explained a few finding aid found in an archive, the archivist should construct as many as varied examples of these as are necessary for the full exploitation of the information to be found in his archives.

Bibliography
[1] Cook M- Archives Administration, Dawson & Son Ltd 1977
[2]Pederson-Australia Society of Archivists Inc 1987
[3]Roper-Managing Archives 1999
[4]Parker S., Managing Archives and archival institutions 1980
[5]Cook 'Information Management & Arch
Etiwel Mutero holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science Management and is Studying for the Bsc Honours Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University.You can contact Etiwel on His Mobile phone +263773614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com.You can also contact him on facebook.This and other articles by the same author can be found on http://recordsandarchivesmanagement.blogspot.com

Etiwel Mutero published a booklet of his articles titled Records,Archives &Information Science-College and University Articles.Articles found on this blogg and others are also included in the book which is found as a hard copy CD or as an ebook.To order the book or a single article please contact Etiwel Mutero through his phone 263773614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com or address letters to NUST Library P O Box AC939 Ascot Bulawayo Zimbabwe

Professionalism and Professional Activities in the Cataloguing Department

2011-05-17T06:25:00.000-07:00

Accessibility of information when needed is important, in particular in libraries where thousands of books are stocked. In this paper the author is going to discuss professionalism and the professional activities in the cataloguing department
A catalogue according to Ranganathan (2004:33) is to "show what the library has by a given author, on a given subject and in a given kind of a literature" Kumar (1975:1) defines a catalogue as a "work in which contents are arranged in a reasonable way, according to a set plan, or merely word by word" Cataloguing defined by Taylor (1992:3) as "the skill or ant... of organizing knowledge (information) for retrieval" usually cataloguing is done in the cataloguing department by professional cataloguers.

Cataloguers are trained professionals. Professionalism requires them to be honest in their work. There might arise problems during the process of cataloguing, a professional cataloguer does not conceal errors to his/her manager because "concealing problems deprives the department head of the opportunity to consult with his supervisor in a calm and productive context and benefit from his advice."

Sometimes the cataloguing department receives numerous types of materials to be catalogued. A profession cataloguer must be able to set priorities. He/she must be able to decide which materials should be catalogued first depending on priorities settings.

A professional cataloguer strives for quality and quality control. "Issues of quality lie at the heart of everything the catalog department does. It is the other side of the coin from questions of productivity because productivity standards are affected by quality standards. If there are national, regional or international standards professional cataloguers try by all means to adhere with them.

Communication is one of the professional qualities of a cataloguer. Communication offers a change for continuing education, communication facilities administration of the department, communication and communication combats stereo types and self-pity.

Kumar (1975:293) summarizes the qualities of a cataloguer as follows:

"First of all, a qualified and efficient cataloguer should be appointed who should possess the following qualities: He should be a scholar. He should have a working knowledge of a regional language or a foreign language other than English. He should keep himself up to date regarding the latest development in cataloguing and catalogue codes. He should possess a good library hand. He must understand thoroughly the rules of a catalogue code adopted by the library. He must understand the requirements of the users. He should make an attempt to become aware of what is going on in the other department of the library. He should have enough capability and possess flair for accuracy of details".

Duties of cataloguers in the catalog department include descriptive cataloguing, description, access, and subject analysis and authority control.

Taylor defines descriptive cataloguing as phase of the cataloguing process that is concerned with the identification and description of an item, the recording of this information in the form of a cataloguing record, and the selection and formation of access points ? with the exception of subject access points. Descriptive cataloguing describes the physical make-up of an item and identifies responsibility for intellectual contents, without reference to its classification by subject or to the assignment of subject headings, both of which are the province of subject cataloging.

A title is almost always the first identifying element, followed by the name of persons responsible for the contents of the item. Next one looks for information identifying an edition... even the size, the type or number of illustration. When found, all these elements of information are useful in the description of an item.

Another professional activity in the catalog department, it is that of choosing access points for any item. Choice of access points means choosing all names and titles under which the description of an item may be sought by a user. For any one item, one of the access points is chosen as a main entry and the other as added entries.

Wayner (1992:18) had the following to say on access points "After describing an item the cataloguer selects access points. Names of person and corporate bodies associated with a work are chosen according to the cataloguing rules used. Title access points also are chosen in addition to the obvious main title (called title proper) there may be alternative titles, variant titles, series title, and titles of other works related in some way with the work being catalogued."

Cataloguers do what is called subject analysis. Subject analysis involves determining what the subject concept or concepts are covered by the intellectual content of a work. Once this has been determined, as many subject headings as appropriate are chosen from a standard list. Again, an authority file must be consulted into the catalogue with other works covering the same or related subject concepts.

The final step in the process usually is to choose a classification notation from whatever classification scheme used by the library. The cataloguer therefore must choose only the one best place in the classification scheme for the item.

Subject analysis is the part of cataloguing that deals determining what the intellectual content of an item is 'about' translating that about ness into the conceptual framework of the classification or the subject heading system being used, and when translating the conceptual framework being used, and then translating the conceptual framework who the specific classification symbols or specific terminology used in the classification or subject heading system.

Cataloguers also do what is called authority control. Authority control is the process maintaining consistency in the verbal form used to represent an access point in catalog and the further process of showing the relationships among names, works, and subjects. The goal is to make possible the identifying and collocating functions of the catalog.

Wayner (1992:19) says "Authority control is the process of maintaining consistency in the verbal form used to represent an access point and the process of showing the relationships among names, works, and subjects. It is accomplished through use of rules (in case of names and titles) use of subject heading list, and reference to an authority file to create an authority character string called a heading."

In conclusion, the library catalogue is such an important tool in the library. Though materials if rightly arranged on shelves can be found easily, there might be documents absent from shelves owing to various reasons ? loaned out, away in the hands of readers, misplaced by readers. So that cataloguer can reveal the entire resources of the library. So the cataloguer and the catalogue department are of paramount importance in the library.

References
1. Kumar G, (Theory of cataloguing", Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, 1975
2. Ranganathan S.R. (Cataloguing Practice", UBS Publishers Distributors Pvt Ltd, 2004
3. Lal C, "Practical Cataloguing", Ess Ess Publications 2003
4. Wayner B.S. "Introduction to Cataloguing and Classification", Libraries Unlimited, Inc, Colorado,1992Etiwel Mutero holds a National Certificate in Records and Information Science Management and is Studying for the Bsc Honours Degree in Records and Archives Management through the Zimbabwe Open University.You can contact Etiwel on His Mobile phone +263773614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com.You can also contact him on facebook.This and other articles by the same author can be found on http://recordsandarchivesmanagement.blogspot.com

Etiwel Mutero published a booklet of his articles titled Records,Archives &Information Science-College and University Articles.Articles found on this blogg and others are also included in the book which is found as a hard copy CD or as an ebook.To order the book or a single article please contact Etiwel Mutero through his phone 263773614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com or address letters to NUST Library P O Box AC939 Ascot Bulawayo Zimbabwe

Constitution of The Records and Archives Management Student Association of Zimbabwe [RAMSAZ]

2011-05-16T02:04:00.001-07:00

Constitution of The Records and Archives Management Student Association of Zimbabwe [RAMSAZ]

Preamble
We, the members of Records and Archives Management Students Association of Zimbabwe do hereby establish this Constitution in order that our purpose be realized to its fullest extent.
Article I - Name
The name of the organization will be Records and Archives Management Students Association of Zimbabwe henceforth referred to as RAMSAZ
Article II - Purpose
RAMSAZ is established for the expressed purpose of:-
1 –Networking all Records, Archives and Library and Information Science students and staff from colleges, polytechnic and universities in Zimbabwe

2 -Organizing social and sporting activities for records, archive and Information Science students and professionals.

3 -Help Records and Archives Management Students share essays and assignments through the publication of a student bulletin.

4 -Advocate for the recognition of the records and archives management as a profession, equal to other Information Science Management disciplines in Zimbabwe.

5 -Assist member to get study attachments.

RAMSAZ understands and is committed to fulfilling its responsibilities of abiding by The Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education Zimbabwe rules and regulations.
Article III - Membership
-Active membership shall be limited to persons officially connected with the Zimbabwean Colleges, Polytechnics and Universities as faculty, staff or registered students from the departments of Records, Archives or Library and Information Science Management.
-Each training institution will constitute a chapter, which shall affiliate to the National Organization, only members from affiliated institution will be legible for election.
-Payment in full of financial obligations as determined by RAMSAZ
-Attendance of at least 75% of all meetings during a given semester.
-Active participation in all activities sponsored by RAMSAZ unless the activity interferes with either scholastic or financial constraints.
RAMSAZ openly admits students to its membership and does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, creed, sex, sexual orientation, marital status, personal appearance, age, national origin, political affiliation, physical or mental disability.
Article IV - Officers
RAMSAZ will be governed by the following means:
An elected President will preside at all meetings of RAMSAZ the President will maintain the power to appoint all committee chairpersons, shall present all motions to the body present and shall be present at 90% of the meetings of RAMSAZ
RAMSAZ shall also maintain a Vice President. The Vice President's duties shall be to preside at all meetings and functions that the President cannot attend.
The founding president shall elect a Secretary-Treasurer who will handle all dues, accounts, new members, rule observances at stated meetings, protocol, etc.
The role and duties of the advisor[s] shall include attending meetings, providing counsel to the organization's officers.
The social and Sporting Activities Coordinator will be responsible for organizing all social and sporting activities of the organization.
The Editor will be responsible for the publication of the association’s bulletin.
Other officers may be elected as determined by the Executive Committee .
There shall be a Council of Elders who shall ratify all the decisions all Executive Committee. The council of Elders shall comprise of the founding members of the society.
Article V - Operations
1. Voting Eligibility
Those members meeting all requirements of active membership as set forth in Article III will be granted voting privileges.
2. Election Process
All officers shall be elected by a majority vote of eligible voting members of RAMSAZ .All elections will be held on an annual basis during the month of December
The President will take nominations from the floor, the nomination process must be closed and the movement seconded. The nominated parties will be allowed to vote.
All voting shall be done by secret ballot to be collected and tabulated by the Secretary-Treasurer and one voting member of RAMSAZ appointed by the outgoing President.

3. Removal
Any officer of RAMSAZ Executive Committee member in violation of the Organization's purpose or constitution may be removed from office by the following process:

a. A written request by at least three members of the Organization.
b. Written notification to the officer of the request, asking the officer to be present at the next meeting and prepared to speak.
c. A two-thirds (2/3) majority vote of the Executive Committee Members is necessary to remove the officer.
4. Meetings
All meetings will occur as announced by RAMSAZ and will follow the procedure set forth below:

Attendance
Report by the President
Committee reports
Vote on all committee motions and decisions
Any other business put forward by the members of the club
Dismissal by the President

Article VI - Finances
RAMSAZ will finance the activities it engages in by the following means:
Membership dues
RAMSAZ will also look for donor funding

Article VII - Amendments

The constitution is binding to all members of the RAMSAZ. But the constitution is not binding unto itself.
Amendments to the constitution may be proposed in writing by any voting member of RAMSAZ at any meeting at which 2/3 of the voting members is present at chapter level or at the national level.
These amendments will be placed on the agenda for the next regular meeting of the executive council or other officer grouping.
Proposed amendments will become effective following approval of two-thirds (2/3)-majority vote of active members at Annual Congress of RAMSAZ in December and ratified by the Council of Elders.

Etiwel Mutero published a booklet of his articles titled Records,Archives &Information Science-College and University Articles.Articles found on this blogg and others are also included in the book which is found as a hard copy CD or as an ebook.To order the book or a single article please contact Etiwel Mutero through his phone 263773614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com or address letters to NUST Library P O Box AC939 Ascot Bulawayo Zimbabwe

Records Preservation Planning

2011-03-31T07:44:00.000-07:00

ARTICLE SUMMARY
This article defines the word preservation and explain components that are critical in the implementation of the preservation plan.Components identified and explained in this article are;getting top management support,conducting a conservation assessment,establishing preservation standards,setting priorities and choosing the suitable preservation solution.A full text of this article is 1575 words and 7 pages long

INTRODUCTION
Preservation is essential to records management in order to prevent information loss due to the deterioration of the records media. Roper [1999:37] says, 'Preservation planning is essential to good records and archives management. It is better to focus on preventative preservation measures and ensure adequate environmental and physical controls than to focus on conservation treatments for one object to the exclusion of others in the institution. Preservation policies and plans need to be coordinated with other organizational requirements. ' In this article the author is going to discuss the components that are critically important in the implementation of an effective preservation planning of an archive institution.

ARTICLE BODY

Preservation may be viewed as the totality of processes and operations involved in the protection of records and archives against damage or deterioration. Roper [1999:36] defines preservation as '...the passive protection of archival material in which no physical or chemical treatment to the item occurs.'
Etiwel Mutero published a booklet of his articles titled Records,Archives &Information Science-College and University Articles.Articles found on this blogg and others are also included in the book which is found as a hard copy CD or as an ebook.To order the book or a single article please contact Etiwel Mutero through his phone 263773614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com or address letters to NUST Library P O Box AC939 Ascot Bulawayo Zimbabwe

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The Role of Communication in Peace Building

2011-03-31T07:28:00.000-07:00

The Role of Communication in Peace Building

Article Summary
This article defines the word communication and explains how communication can help achieve peace and stability in the world.The article explains how communication especially the print and electronic media help in creating and exchanging meanings,and show that there is intereletionships between media and conflict.It goes on to say the media can be a good peace builder if rightly used.A full text of this article is 1366 words and 6 pages long.

Introduction
The world is bedeviled with conflicts. Analysts indicate that there seem to be an increase in these conflicts over the last hundred years. The million dollar question is, how can these conflicts be resolved? In this paper the author is going to explain the role of communication in peace building.

To start with, the word communication can be defined as '...the creation and exchange of meaning' Dimbleby [1992]. Show J.W. 1992 defines communication as '...a symbolic process whereby reality is produced, maintained, repaired, and transformed'. However Martins gives what the author consider as a better communication definition. He says; 'communication is a transactional, symbolic process which allows people to relate to and manage their environment by establishing human contact, exchange information, reinforcing the attitudes and behavior of others, and changing the attitudes and behavior of others' Martins [1980:8]

It is true that communication can be used as a medium of peace building. Since communication in all its forms can be used to create and exchange meaning, it can be used to achieve peace through peace talks and negotiations. Although other forms of communication can be exploited to achieve peace in societies, the mass media and the Information Communication Technology [ICT] had been proved to be significant instrument of peace building.

The mass media communication is defined as a process of mediated communication between an institutional source and a large, diverse, dispersed audience via a mechanical device. Examples of the mass media are newspapers, radio broadcasts and the television..................................................

Etiwel Mutero published a booklet of his articles titled Records,Archives &Information Science-College and University Articles.Articles found on this blogg and others are also included in the book which is found as a hard copy CD or as an ebook.To order the book or a single article please contact Etiwel Mutero through his phone 263773614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com or address letters to NUST Library P O Box AC939 Ascot Bulawayo Zimbabwe

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Benefits of Cross Cultural Communication

2011-03-31T07:15:00.000-07:00

Article summary

This article defines cross-cultural communication and explaines the its benefits to organisations.A full text of this article is 1049 and 7 pages long.

Introduction
Formal organizations are becoming bigger and bigger. Organizations that used to trade in a single cultural society are now spreading their wings internationally thereby demanding that they study the science of cross-cultural communication. In this paper the author is going to discuss the importance of cross-cultural communication in formal organizations.

Article body
Cross-cultural communication by definition is "A form of communication between people from different culture; both an interactive process whereby we refer back to our culture when in contact with another, and a source of misunderstanding stemming from the different meanings given to a particular massage, be it verbal or non-verbal"-www.akteos.com According to www.wikipedia.org cross-cultural communication "...is a field of study that looks at how people from different cultural backgrounds communicate, in similar and different ways among themselves, and how they endeavor to communicate across cultures" www.wikipedia.org

Cultural influences are an inherent aspect of all communications. The term 'culture' refers to the sum of language, values, beliefs, habits and practices shared by a large group of people. These characteristics comprise the cultural context of communication. Cultures sometimes correspond with political boundaries of nations, but this is not always the case. For instance, countries like the USA and Soviet Union are pluralistic societies, meaning more than one culture exist within their boarders. That means organization working in these territories need to use cross-cultural communication.

According to Vengesai [1993:52] the biggest cross-cultural .................................................

Etiwel Mutero published a booklet of his articles titled Records,Archives &Information Science-College and University Articles.Articles found on this blogg and others are also included in the book which is found as a hard copy CD or as an ebook.To order the book or a single article please contact Etiwel Mutero through his phone 263773614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com or address letters to NUST Library P O Box AC939 Ascot Bulawayo Zimbabwe

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The Records Life-Cycle and Continuum Concepts

2011-03-31T07:03:00.000-07:00

ARTICLE SUMMARY

This article defines the continuum and the life-cycle concepts.It explains what the continuum concept is all about and gives the benefits of the continuum concept in records management.The benefits includes a partnership between two groups of records professional,the records manager and the archivist,administration efficiency etc.The life-cycle had been explained as concept which give a sense of order among a host of its advantages in records management.A full text of this article has 1480 words and 7 pages long.

INTRODUCTION
Providing coherent and consistent service that meets user's needs has long been a challenge for records managers and archivists worldwide. It is even more challenging in a digital world. Timely access to accurate, reliable, authentic, complete, and readable records over time is always difficult for both users and custodians. In this paper, the author is going to highlight and explain the two key principles that govern the care of records and archives. The two principles are the records lifecycle concept and the continuum concept.

ARTICLE BODY

As defined in Australia Standard 4390, a record continuum concept is '...a consistent and coherent regime of management processes from the time of the creation of records [and before creation, in the design of recordkeeping systems] through to the preservation and use of records as archives.' The International Council on Archives defines the continuum concept as 'A consistent and coherent process of records management throughout the life of records,........................................................................................
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Etiwel Mutero published a booklet of his articles titled Records,Archives &Information Science-College and University Articles.Articles found on this blogg and others are also included in the book which is found as a hard copy CD or as an ebook.To order the book or a single articles please contact Etiwel Mutero through his phone 263773614293 or email etiwelmutero@yahoo.com or address letters to NUST Library P O Box AC939 Ascot Bulawayo Zimbabwe

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	TYPE OF RECORD	ZIMBABWE PRICE	AFRICA PRICE	OTHER COUNTRIES PRICE
ALL ARTICLES	E-document	US$3-00 EACH	US4-00 EACH	US$5-00 EACH
ALL ARTICLES	CD read	US$3-00 EXCL.POSTAGE	US4-00 EACH EXCL.POSTAGE	US$5-OOEACH EXCL.POSTAGE
ALL ARTICLES	Hard copy	US$5.OO	US6.00	US10-00
A Compilation of 16 articles	E-record CD read Hard Copy	US$5-00 US$5-00 US$6-00	US$6-00 US$6-00 US$10-00	US$10-00 US$10-00 US$15-00