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Telangana Prehistoric Age Notes: Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic & Megalithic Period Complete Guide with Quick Review

noreply@blogger.com (Estudies4you) — Fri, 02 Oct 2026 09:39:24 +0000

Prehistoric Age & Historic Age: Complete Telangana History Study Notes

Chronological Overview: The prehistory of Telangana traces human culture from unifacial pebble tools along river beds to organized megalithic settlements marked by iron metallurgy, secondary urn burials, and rock art. This guide covers all key periods from Lower Paleolithic to Megalithic Age with important sites, tools, and burial practices.

Telangana Prehistoric Age

Prehistoric age means the age without written evidence.
The period of the last 2300 years, for which written evidence is available, is called the Historic Age.
The first site related to the prehistoric age (Megalithic age) in Telangana was Valigonda in Nalgonda district. The person who researched it was Robert Bruce Foote.
The Hyderabad Department of Archaeology was established in 1914.
The tool used by humans in the Neolithic Age – Copper.
The tools used by humans in the Rakshasagulla (Megalithic) Age – Iron tools. Therefore, this period is also called the Ayo (Iron) Age. In this age, small kingdoms, script, and symbols of civilization began. Hence, this age is called the "Prehistoric Age," "Historic Age," "Proto-Historic Age," or "Purā-Chāritraka Age."
The prehistoric age is also named based on the tools they used.

Examples: Tool-based Classification

Age / Period	Tools Used
Lower Paleolithic Age	Quartzite stone tools
Middle Paleolithic Age	Flake stone tools
Upper Paleolithic Age	Scraper tools
Mesolithic Age	Small stone tools
Neolithic Age	Polished tools
Megalithic Age	Iron metal tools

Lower Paleolithic Age (3 to 1.30 lakh years ago)

Early Pleistocene – Middle Pleistocene

Important sites belonging to this age

Both and Pochchera Waterfall in Adilabad district
Godavarikhani and Ramagundam in Karimnagar district
Palvancha in Khammam district
Rayavaram, Eleswaram, and Nagarjuna Konda in Nalgonda district
Chandragupta Town and Erla Dinne in Mahabubnagar district

Large-sized hand axes, choppers, circular stones were used by the people of this age for hunting and food gathering.
The weapons of this age resemble the weapons of the "Acheulian" region in Africa.

Middle Paleolithic Age (1 or 0.5 lakh years ago)

Flake Industry Tradition

The first site where cattle skeleton remains were found – during excavations conducted near Yapalapadu in Mahabubnagar district. From this, it is understood that the humans of this age had a relationship with cattle.
Tools used by the humans of this age – small-sized hand axes, cleavers, scrapers.

Upper Paleolithic Age (20,000 – 10,000 BCE)

Late Pleistocene – Terminal Boundary

The people who lived in this age used blade tools, side-edged blade tools, and in some places tools made of bone.
They learned to paint colored pictures in rock caves.
This indicates the beginning phase of the "Holocene."

Mesolithic Age (8500 – 3000 BCE)

Early Holocene Epoch

Belongs to the "Early Holocene" age in terms of geological climate.
In this age, very small (microlithic) stone weapons were used.
This age is also called the "Microlithic Age."
In the caves belonging to this age, more than 150 figures are visible in the colored paintings.
Among these, mainly deer, ear-cat, hyena, fox, dog, tortoise, geometric patterns are found in limestone and granite rock hill caves.
The most important among these is the deer painting.

Neolithic Age (3000 – 1500 BCE)

Polished Stone & Agro-Pastoral Revolution

In the later phase of this age, they learned to make tools with copper and bronze. With their help, they learned to dig the earth, plant and grow plants, and cultivate crops.
Due to this, they established permanent settlements. Thereby, family, society, and village came into existence.
To store the harvested crops, vessels became necessary. This led to the making of pots and large storage jars. Initially, pots were made by hand; later, the potter's wheel was invented. The concept of personal property arose and led to the formation of rich and poor society.
They domesticated animals. Crop production led to the origin of trade.
In Karimnagar district, at the Thogarrai settlement, a center for making tools was found near protruding granite hills.
Clay pots mostly had red color decoration.
The economic system of this age mainly depended on animal husbandry and agriculture.
The site where ash mounds and some wild animal or cattle pens were found – Utnur in Mahabubnagar district.
Humped bull terracotta figurines and palm-leaf paintings came to light in Budhagadi in Karimnagar district, Pandavula Gutta in Warangal district, Rachakonda in Nalgonda district, Nallamudi in Khammam district, Duppadu Gutta and Dongala Gattu in Mahabubnagar district, and other areas.
During this period, people mainly cultivated jowar, pulses, and paddy. Crops were mainly cultivated through rain-fed farming.
In the Neolithic Age, the heads of the deceased were placed facing north and buried.
At Nagarjunakonda, evidence was found of two infants buried in a pot in the settlement area.

Megalithic Age (1500 BCE – 300 CE)

Ayo Yugam (Iron Age) – Proto-History

Because iron objects were used in this age, it is called the Ayo (Iron) Age.
The skeletal remains of the deceased were placed in a coffin or a stone pit and buried, and large stones were arranged in a circle around that pit. Hence, this age is called the Megalithic Age. Local people also call these Pandavula Gullu (Pandava pits) or Veerulapadu.
The beloved pet animals (dog) of the deceased person were also buried along with him.
The megalithic burial in the campus of the University of Hyderabad is the first of its kind in the country.
Megalithic burials can be classified into 4 types based on their construction. They are:

Types of Megalithic Burials

Burial Type	Description
1) Pit Burials	A pit is dug, and the skeleton is buried either in a clay coffin or in a room made of rectangular stone slabs, and large stones are arranged in a circle around it – this is called a pit burial.
2) Cist Burials	A rectangular stone chamber is not completely buried, but is buried in such a way that about one arm's length of it is visible above the ground surface, and a stone slab is placed on top of it – this is called a cist burial.
3) Chamber Burials	If the entire stone burial is above the ground surface, it is called a chamber burial.
4) Cave Burials	Circular caves are carved into hills, and the dead are placed in them and covered – these are called cave burials.

In the pit burial at Uppalapadu in Mahabubnagar district, a boat-shaped coffin was found. On the cist burial at Chinnamarur, mat marks were visible.
In the burials at Veerapuram in Mahabubnagar district, many varieties of 'food grains' were found. Among them, the important ones are paddy, barley, and minor millets like korralu (finger millet).
Ragi (finger millet) was found in the burial at the University of Hyderabad.
In the line drawings carved on cave rocks, mainly a trident, a trident piercing through a wheel, and a spear are visible.

Additional Useful Content

Note on Robert Bruce Foote

Robert Bruce Foote (1834–1912) was a British geologist and archaeologist who is often called the "Father of Indian Prehistory."
He discovered the first Paleolithic tool in India at Pallavaram (near Chennai) in 1863.
His research in Telangana, particularly at Valigonda, laid the foundation for prehistoric studies in the region.

Note on Geological Ages

Pleistocene: The geological epoch spanning from about 2.6 million to 11,700 years ago, characterized by repeated glaciations. The Lower, Middle, and Upper Paleolithic ages fall within this epoch.
Holocene: The current geological epoch, beginning approximately 11,700 years ago after the last major ice age. The Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Megalithic ages fall within this epoch.

Note on Acheulian Tools

Acheulian tools are named after Saint-Acheul in France, where they were first identified.
They are characterized by large, bifacially worked stone tools, particularly hand axes and cleavers.
These tools are associated with Homo erectus and early Homo sapiens.

Note on Microliths

Microliths are small stone tools, typically less than 3 cm in length.
They were often used as components of composite tools, such as arrowheads, harpoons, or sickles.
Their presence indicates a more advanced hunting and gathering strategy.

Note on Megaliths

Megaliths (from Greek: "mega" = large, "lithos" = stone) are large stone structures used for burial or commemorative purposes.
They are found across various parts of the world, including Europe, Asia, and Africa.
In India, megalithic cultures are associated with the Iron Age and are found predominantly in South India.

Note on Archaeological Sites in Telangana

Nagarjunakonda: An important Buddhist site and ancient city, located in Nalgonda district (now submerged under Nagarjuna Sagar reservoir).
Ramagundam: Known for its prehistoric sites and coal deposits.
Valigonda: The first prehistoric site identified in Telangana.
Utnur: Known for ash mounds, indicating early pastoral settlements.
Pandavula Gutta: Known for rock paintings and megalithic burials.

Note on Pottery

Pottery is one of the earliest inventions of humans and is a key indicator of cultural development.
Red ware, black ware, and painted pottery are common in prehistoric and protohistoric sites.
The potter's wheel was a significant technological advancement, allowing for mass production of pottery.

Note on Burial Practices

Burial practices reflect the beliefs of ancient people about death and the afterlife.
The orientation of the body, the inclusion of grave goods (pottery, tools, ornaments, food), and the construction of the burial structure provide insights into social organization, religion, and trade.
Megalithic burials often contain iron objects, pottery, and sometimes gold or bronze ornaments, indicating social stratification.

⚡ Quick Review: Telangana Prehistory at a Glance

Prehistoric Age: No written evidence. Historic Age: Last 2300 years with written records.
First prehistoric site in Telangana: Valigonda (Nalgonda district) – researched by Robert Bruce Foote.
Hyderabad Archaeological Department: Established in 1914.
Neolithic tool: Copper. Megalithic tool: Iron → hence called Ayo (Iron) Age.
Lower Paleolithic: 3–1.3 lakh years ago; large hand axes, choppers; sites: Both, Pochchera, Godavarikhani, Ramagundam, Palvancha, Rayavaram, Eleswaram, Nagarjunakonda, Chandragupta Town, Erla Dinne. Tools resemble Acheulian (Africa).
Middle Paleolithic: 1–0.5 lakh years ago; first cattle skeleton at Yapalapadu (Mahabubnagar); small hand axes, cleavers, scrapers.
Upper Paleolithic: 20,000–10,000 BCE; blade tools, bone tools; rock cave paintings; beginning of Holocene.
Mesolithic: 8500–3000 BCE; Early Holocene; microliths (small stone tools); also called Microlithic Age; 150+ figures in caves; deer, ear-cat, hyena, fox, dog, tortoise; deer painting most important.
Neolithic: 3000–1500 BCE; copper & bronze tools; agriculture, permanent settlements, family/society/village; pottery (hand → wheel); rich-poor divide; animal domestication; trade origin; Thogarrai (Karimnagar) tool-making centre; red clay pots; ash mounds at Utnur; humped bull figurines & palm-leaf paintings at Budhagadi, Pandavula Gutta, Rachakonda, Nallamudi, Duppadu Gutta, Dongala Gattu; crops: jowar, pulses, paddy (rain-fed); burial: head facing north; two infants buried in pot at Nagarjunakonda.
Megalithic (Rakshasagulla) Age: 1500 BCE–300 CE; iron tools → Ayo Age; skeletal remains in coffin/stone pit with large stones in circle; locally called Pandavula Gullu / Veerulapadu; pet dog buried with owner; first megalithic burial in India at University of Hyderabad campus.
4 Burial Types: Pit Burials, Cist Burials, Chamber Burials, Cave Burials.
Key Finds: Uppalapadu pit burial → boat-shaped coffin; Chinnamarur cist → mat marks; Veerapuram burials → paddy, barley, korralu; Univ. of Hyderabad burial → ragi; cave rock drawings → trident, trident piercing wheel, spear.
Robert Bruce Foote: Father of Indian Prehistory; discovered first Paleolithic tool at Pallavaram (1863).
Geological Ages: Pleistocene → Paleolithic; Holocene → Mesolithic, Neolithic, Megalithic.
Telangana: Formed 2 June 2014; bounded by Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka; Godavari & Krishna rivers.

Temples of the Kakatiya Period and their Characteristics

noreply@blogger.com (Estudies4you) — Thu, 01 Oct 2026 05:22:17 +0000

Kakatiya Temples & Architecture | Thousand Pillar, Ramappa, Ghanapuram Temples

Temples of the Kakatiya Period and their Characteristics

1163–1323 CE Kakatiya temples are known for their distinctive art and architectural features, blending Chalukyan and local Telangana styles.

      Key architectural characteristics: 1. High Adhisthana, 2. Pillars with many sculptures, 3. Wall parapets of mandapas having Jalies (checkers), 4. Entrance (Torana) Pillars, 5. High vimanas, 6. Ranga mandapas, 7. Mukha mandapas.
    

Temples of the Kakatiya Period

S.No.	Temple Name	Place it centred / constructed	Other details
1	Anumakonda Thousand Pillar temple, Rudreshwaralayam	Rudradeva built in A.D. 1163	This is a Trikutalaya; Rudra, Vasudeva and Surya are main deities. Declaration of Kakatiyas' Sovereignty is supported by the inscription of A.D. 1163, found in the temple.
2	Ramappa temple or Rudreshwaralayam	Palampet village, Mulugu tq, Warangal district; built in A.D. 1213 by Ganapatideva's general Recherla Rudradeva	Constructed on a six and half ft height upa pitha; Pradakshina patha is ten feet wide; had four storeyed Vimana; entrance doors on three sides. In the interior Nandi sculpture is there. The temple is constructed with faded red color hard stones. In the temple the decorated tiles and sculptures are seen as bold and fresh. In this temple the female figures known as 'Madanika' with full ornamentation are carved. These female figures are in tri bhangima postures with the legs either constricted or in allied feet. The sculptors carved them as per the styles of Jayapasenani's Nrityarathnavalli. The serpent figures are beautifully carved. On the walls the sculpted figures of Musicians, the singer of bhakti songs, and on the wall of Rangamandapa sculptures on the pillars and the scene of Gopika vasthrapaharanam, and rasa kreeda from Bhagavatam, shows the expertise skill of the sculptors.
3	Ghanapuram Fort temple	Warangal	Ghanapuram fort temple in the Rangamandapa, beautiful Nayika (heroine) sculptures were wonderfully carved by the sculptor. The Nayikas in different poses playing the various music instruments were carved on the temple pillars. In the temple, Nandi sculpture decorated with beads garland looks full and awesome, is an example of the superior art of the Kakatiyas.
4	Nagulapadu Trikutalayam (1234), Kameshwaralayam (A.D. 1256)	Nagulapadu	Rangamandapam had beautiful carved pillars, with the scenes of Ravana sabha is very soothing.
5	Swayambhulingo temple (A.D. 1254)	Warangal fort	Destroyed during the Muslim attacks, at present is in a dilapidated condition in the Warangal fort.
6	Pillalamarri Erakeshwaralayam (A.D. 1208)	Nalgonda	Mukkanteeshwaralayam (A.D. 1195), Nameshwaralayam (A.D. 1203).
7	Soumyanachalayam	Nandaluru	Here the sculpture of Visvakshena is carved in a wonderful way.
8	Pachala Someshwaralayam	Panugallu, Nalgonda	Built during A.D. 1015–1042, Kalyana Chalukyas.
9	Ramlingeshwaralayam	Nandikandi, Medak District	A.D. 1015–1042.

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Significance of Temples in Medieval Period

"As a land lord, owner, consumer of goods and services, as banker, as a school, Museum, theatre, to say in word it is a center of excellent arts and civilization, a model of righteous human values and an instrument of controller of them, in the medieval history of India, the role played by a temple, in the history of mankind is an important event."
— K.A. Neelakantha Sastry, 'The Cholas', p. 654, 1955

Under the patronage of Kakatiyas, in Andhradesha, many temples flourished with lime light, their income resources and wealth are in plenty. For example Pratapaclaritra of Ekamranatha mentions that in the kingdom of Prataparudra II there were 5,500 Saiva temples, 1,300 Vaisnava temples, Mallaradeve had 2,400 temples, Bhairava, Durga, and Ganapati together had 4,400 temples (op cit G Andjaiah, p12). To the Srisailam Mallikarjuna Swamy temple in A.D. 1313 (in Prataparudradeva II time) had fifty two villages. The income from these villages was spent for the Daily poojas, services, by the temple employees and Priests (Ibid p 132). During this period different caste people and traders, donated some share from their income to the temples. To the temple lands special tax exemption was there. To various temples, the Perikas (the transporters) carried on bulls and bullock carts the daily needed fruits and goods, the kings and their officers exempted tax on these is mentioned in the Tripuranthakam inscription.

      Temple wealth (Prataparudra II period): 5,500 Saiva temples, 1,300 Vaisnava temples, 2,400 temples of Mallaradeve, and 4,400 temples of Bhairava, Durga and Ganapati together. Srisailam Mallikarjuna Swamy temple had 52 villages in A.D. 1313.
    

Kakatiya Legacy

The Kakatiyas got the credit of establishing a first large empire in the present Telangana. They developed unity among the Telugu speaking people, brought them together. They gave a politically strong and friendly administration. In literature, art and architecture and religious field the Kakatiyas were highly successful. In their time society was peaceful and economically very strong. Their irrigation policy and Religious policy was excellent role model for the present generation.

Quick Review

Architectural features: High Adhisthana, sculpted pillars, Jalies on mandapa parapets, Torana pillars, high vimanas, Ranga mandapas, Mukha mandapas.
Thousand Pillar temple (Anumakonda): Built by Rudradeva in A.D. 1163; Trikutalaya with Rudra, Vasudeva and Surya as main deities.
Ramappa temple (Palampet): Built in A.D. 1213 by Recherla Rudradeva; four-storeyed Vimana; Madanika figures in tri bhangima postures; sculptures as per Jayapasenani's Nrityaratnavalli.
Ghanapuram Fort temple: Nayika sculptures playing music instruments; decorated Nandi sculpture.
Nagulapadu: Trikutalayam (1234) and Kameshwaralayam (A.D. 1256); Rangamandapam with Ravana sabha scenes.
Swayambhulingo temple: Warangal fort, A.D. 1254; destroyed during Muslim attacks.
Pillalamarri: Erakeshwaralayam (A.D. 1208), Mukkanteeshwaralayam (A.D. 1195), Nameshwaralayam (A.D. 1203) – Nalgonda.
Soumyanachalayam: Nandaluru; wonderful sculpture of Visvakshena.
Pachala Someshwaralayam: Panugallu, Nalgonda; A.D. 1015–1042 (Kalyana Chalukyas).
Ramlingeshwaralayam: Nandikandi, Medak District; A.D. 1015–1042.
Temple wealth: 5,500 Saiva temples, 1,300 Vaisnava temples (Prataparudra II period); Srisailam temple had 52 villages (A.D. 1313).
Legacy: First large empire in Telangana; united Telugu-speaking people; strong administration; excellent irrigation and religious policy.

Note: Kakatiya temples are a synthesis of art, religion and economy – serving as landlords, banks, schools and centres of culture.

Kakatiya Dynasty, Temples and Architecture | Telangana Culture

Religion under the Kakatiya Period

noreply@blogger.com (Estudies4you) — Sat, 26 Sep 2026 07:10:50 +0000

Kakatiya Religion, Language, Literature & Architecture | Jainism, Saivism, Vaishnavism

Religion under the Kakatiya Period

1163–1323 CE Prior to the rise of Kakatiya power in Telangana, the people had shown some liking towards Jainism and Buddhism.

      Key highlight: Kakatiyas respected all religious sects and followed a policy of religious tolerance, which sowed the seeds of harmony among Saiva, Vaishnava and Jaina sects in Andhradesha.
    

Jainism

During the western Chalukyas period Jainism got special patronage of the people in Telangana. Nizamabad (Bodhan), Karimnagar (Vemulawada), Medak (Kolcharam, Patancheruuv), Nalgonda (Kollipaka/Kolanupaka), and Warangal (Anumakonda) are important Jaina centres. Among the Kakatiya rulers belonging to the first generation, followed and patronized Jainism. Eastern Chalukyas rulers being the patron of Vedic religion, Jainism got shelter in Anumakonda. The Orugallu Kaifyat informs that, Eastern Chalukyas king Rajaraja Narendra, indulged in violence against Rushbhanatha, the Jain ascetic went to Anumakonda and got shelter. Prolarja's Anumakonda inscription begins with the prayer to Jinendra. Slowly Jainism and Buddhism lost the patronage of the local people and the kings, Saivism and Vaisnavism became close to them.

Vemulawada Chalukyas patronized Jainism. Their court poets Jaina scholar Somadevasuri wrote 'Yashastilaka', Poet Pampa wrote 'Adipuranam'. Sanigaram inscription mentions the donation made to Yudhamalla Jinalaya by Betaraju I. Betaraju II made donations to Jaalna Jaina basadi. Prolaraju's A.D.1117 Padmakshi temple Warangal, inscription mentions that Prolaraja's wife Mailamma made donations for the construction of the Kadalaraya Jaina basadi. Jaina poet Appayyarya wrote Jinendra Kalyanabhyudayam during the Prataparudradeva's period.

Saivism

Saivism got the patronage of the Kakatiyas. During their period Kalamukha, Pashupata, Aradya, and Veersaiva were the sub-sects of saivism. Early Kakatiyas followed the Kalamukha and patronized them. Anumakonda inscription informs that Betaraju II was the disciple of Rameshwara pandita, head of Seelamatham in Srisailam. Betaraju donated Vaijanapalli village (sivapuram). Rameshwara pandita was a great scholar of 'Lakuleshwara Agama Mahasiddantam'. He gave Siva diksha to Betaraju's sons Durgaraju and Prolaraju II. The Kalamukha saivas of Karnataka consider Srisailam as their center and Rameshwara Pandita as their teacher (guru), shows the importance of Srisailam. Lakuleshwara or Sakuleshwara was the founder of Kalamukha saiva philosophy. Sources inform that Rameshwara Pandita was the Sthanapati of the Draksharamam temple. Kakatiya kings maintained friendly relations with Kalamukha teachers. Alampur which is on the banks of Tungabhadra River in the present Mahaboobnagar district is famous Saiva kshetra. In Alampur the Sthanapatis in the Brahmeshwara temple were very pious teachers, scholars. Agastheshwaram near Alampur is another center of Kalamukha Saiva ascetics. Among the Sthanapatis of the Brahmeshwara Matham, Lokabharanam pandita, Someshwara bhattaraku, Brahmarishi bhattaraka, and Dharindrasi pandita were great scholars. Vemulawada in present Karimnagar district was once a great Saiva kshetra in Telangana region. This place got patronage of kings from the period of Kalyana Chalukyas. Tailapa II gave donations to Maheshvara Shakti pandita of Kalamukha matham. Mahamandaleshvara Rajaditya gave donations to the main deity of Rajarajeshwara Swamy matham. Prolaraja II's teacher Rameshwara pandita settled in Kaleshwaram of Warangal district. In Kaleshwaram Rameshwara Pandita consecrated the Siva linga. During the Kakatiya period in Telangana, Dharmapuri(Karimnagar), Anumakonda(Warangal), Ainavolu(Warangal), Panagallu(Nalagonda), Nizamabad, Nandikandi(Medak), Sanigaram(Karimnagar), are the important Kalamukha Saiva kshetras.

In Rayalaseema, Pushpagiri near Kadapa was a great Kalamukha kshetra. In the coastal region Amaravati, Samarlkota, Bheemavaram, Palkollu, Draksharama Bheemeshwara temple are the great Kalamukha Saiva kshetras, these are mentioned by M.Krishnakumari (Pancharamas in Medieval Andhradesha, p 69, 1989, Delhi). During the Kakatiya period second important Saiva sect was Pashupatas or Saiva sidhantas. Agamas are the main sources for them. They followed the Yoganisthas, and were attached to the Siva temples. Mattamayura, a branch of Golakhi matha, formed into an organization and tried for royal patronage along with Vedic Brahmins. The Kalachuri kingdom spread around Jabalpur in Madyapradesh became the prominent centre of Saiva sidhanta. Rannad, Kadwaha mathas are the early Saiva mathas. The Kalachuri kings Yashakarma, Gajagama, Narasimha, Jayasimha, Vijayasimha, etc.. Had close relations with Pashupata Siva yogis. Sadasivayogi, Purandhara yogi, Prabhasiva yogi, were acted as the teachers of Kalachuri kings. In 13th century when there was political disturbance and unstability in the Kalachuri kingdom, the Saiva teachers of the kingdom migrated to Andhradesh. Dharmasiva came to Draksharama earlier to A.D.1234 and settled there. He was the teacher of Ganapatideva. According to the opinion of the American historian 'Cynthia Talbot', during A.D.1243-1247, Dharmasiva developed relations with the Tripuranthakam, Warangal and Draksharamam kshetras and had large followers.

During the time of Ganapatideva, in the temples which were under the control of the Kakatiyas, like Tripuranthakam, Bhattiprolu, Eleshwaram(Nalagonda), Manthena, Mandadam, Kaleshvaram(Karimnagar), Malkapuram(Guntur), Somasila(Mahaboobnagar), Visveshwara Sivadeshika established Saiva Golaki mathas(S.I.I. Vol. X, no. 400). He was elevated to the position of Rajaguru. He was the Rajaguru to Ganapatideva and his daughter Rudramadevi. As per the Rudramadevi's Malkapuram inscription of A.D. 1261, on the wish of her father Rudramadevi, donated Mandam village to Visveshvara shambu, which is on the banks of Krishna River in the Velanati vishaya. In this village Visveshvara shambu constructed a Sudha Saiva matham, food feeding house and a Sivalaya. This became popular as the Golaki matham. In inscriptions these Sivacharyas of Golaki mathas, are refered as belonging to Golaki dynasty, children of biksha matham. In Mandama village they made arrangement for many Brahmins settlement. This was called as Visveshvara Golaki matham. In this there were three teachers to teach Vedas to students, five teachers to teach Logic, literature and Agamas. Free boarding and logding facility was provided to studednts, all mentioned in the inscriptions (S.I.I. Vol.No. 759,769,751,1036, S.I.I. vol. nos. 1193,1194, in medieval Andhra desh Religious Institutions(1300-16000 transl.- G Anjaia,p170). In this Golaki matham, there was Hospital with delivery room). Common people and the royal members were also influenced by the teaching of the heads of these Golaki mathas. In Srisailam there was Abhinava Golaki matham in this period. For its maintainence Kayastha Jannigadeva made some donations. Visveshvara shambhu established one Sivalaya and Upala matha, on the banks of Godavari River in Kaleshvaram (Karimnagar district). The branches of Golaki mathas were established in Pushpagiri, Sriparvatam, Tripuranthakam, Alampur, Draksharamam, Bhattiprolu, etc. The head or Sthanapatis of these mathas were all Sivacharyas only The Golaki mathas enjoyed lime light up to the period of Prataprudra deva and later got downfall. Srisailam and its entry kshetras Umamaheshvaram, Alampur, Tripuranthakam, Pushpagiri, got the royal and people's patronage. The temple Poojaris called Maheshvarlu became very powerful. The policy of religious tolerance of the Kakatiyas towards other religions helped in sowing the seeds of tolerance among all religious sects of the period. During that time in Karnataka, conflicts and disturbances between the Veersaiva and Saiva sects developed and the same we don't find in the Andhra desha because of the tolerance policy of the Kakatiyas. The Kakatiya rulers and their royal teachers preached religious harmony and peaceful living, which people followed and are the ideal path makers for the present generation.

Vaishnavism

Kakatiya rulers gave their people complete religious freedom. On the signs and coins the Varaha insignia (Boar symbol), erected Vaisnava idols in temples they constructed, shows their religious tolerance. Rudradeva built Trikuta (Rudreshwara temple) temple in Anumakonda, erected the Idol of Vasudeva. His minister Vellanki Gangadhara erected Prasann Keshava swamy and constructed a big temple in Anumakonda. Ganapatideva's Sister Rani Mylamba built the temple for Gopalakrishna in Inugurti and made several donations for its maintenance. Prataprudra II's army general Devari Nayaka, on the orders of his king donated Sakalveedu village to the Ranganatha Swamy temple on the banks of Kaveri River.

The last ruler of the Kakatiyas Prataprudra II, in A.D.1321, gave some donations to Chenna Keshava swamy, is mentioned in inscriptions. His queen Lakshmidevi donated some gifts to the Ramanatha temple in Elleda. During the Kakatiya period in the Telugu region at Simhachalam, Sarpavaram, Macherla, Ahobilam, Dharmapuri, Tirupati, Srikurmam, Mangalagiri, Ponnuru, Nelluru, Nandaluru, Kopparam, Karempudi, Kalvakulaku (Mahaboobnagar), Munigadapa, Godaliparti, Kondapaka(Medak), are the places many Visnumurthy temples were constructed. The battle of the Palanadu, known as, the Palanati Veera Charitra, belong to this period, in reality it's a war between the supporters of Veervaisnava sect Brahmanaidu and Saivite leader Nayakuralu Nagamma. Macherla Chenna Keshavaswamy temple was a great Vaisnava Kshetra in those days. Here in this temple Brahmanaidu preached the casteless and Jati less, universal Vaisnavism, and organized and encouraged the common dining, known as 'chapakudu'.

Like this Kakatiya kings respected all religious sects, understood the essence of all, and encouraged religious tolerance among their people. Their authority spread into Telangana, Andhra and Rayalaseema regions.

Kakatiyas Service to the Language

Kakatiya kings, ministers and the Officie put all efforts for the development of Sanskrit and Telugu languages. Reference to educational institutions and scholars are found in the inscriptions of the period. A.D.1261 Malakapuram inscription (S.I.I. vol. X, No.395) informs the conditions of the educational buildings and their activities. Visveshvara Sivacharya was the rajaguru to Ganapatideva and Rudramadevi. He received from Rudramadevi, Mandaram village as agrahara. In that he built a new village called Golaki. Established one Saiva math and constructed one Vidya mandapa (educational building). Here Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, Grammar, Logic, and Literature were taught. Srisailam and Pushpagiri were the other Vidya mandapas. Teaching took place more in Sanskrit language. Prataprudra II's court poet Vidyanatha was a great Sanskrit poet. His famous writing was 'Prataparudriyam' or 'Prataparudra Yashobhushanam'. Shalakyamalla kavi was another great poet belongs to this period. His works are 'Udaatha raghavam' and 'Neeroshte Ramayanam'. Rudradeva's uttareshvara inscription mentions the name of Viddanacharya. His work was 'Prameyacharchamrutam' which is not available today.

Vidyanatha in his work praised his emperor Prataprudra II, in Alankara shastra. Kalinga, Pandya, Seuna (Yadava), conquests and the victories over them is mentioned. Another popular Sanskrit scholar in the court of Prataparudra II was Gundayabhattu. He wrote commentary to the Sri Harsha's 'Khandana khanda khadyam' an advaita work. Jayapa belonging to the ayyavamsha, was appointed by Ganapatideva as Gajasahini, wrote 'Nrityaratnavalli'. In this he described wonderfully all the dance and drama forms existing in Anadhradesha in that period. Nirtyaratnavalli has eight prakarnas. Today it is translated into many languages. It is a standard text book to the dance and drama teachers. On the walls of the Palampet Ramappa temple bit by bit, the poses mentioned in the book are carved. Some mention that Jayapa senani had written 'Geetaratnavalli' on music and 'Vaadyaratnavalli' on music instruments, but these works are not available today.

Ramappa Temple, Palampet, Warangal

Telugu Literature

In the evolution of Telugu language, made the beginning with some words in the 'Gaathasapta shati' of the Satavahana period, and by Eastern Chalukaya period evoleved completely. In the Kakatiya period the people of Telangana, Andhra and Rayalaseema were united, Telugu was popular as the peopl's language. In the local dialect (Jana Telugu), the Saiva and Vaisnava poets wrote their works. Telugu language was used in the inscriptions of that period. The popular Telugu poets of that period were, 'Tikkanna Somayaji', 'Palkuriki Somanatha', 'Baddena' 'Kolanu Ganapatideva', 'Rudradeva' 'Ekamaranatha' and Kase Sarvappa are important. The important Telugu works of the period are Andhra Mahabharatam, Nirvochanottara Ramayanam, Andhra Dashakumara Charitam, Purushartha saram, Jainendra Kalyanabhyudayam(Appayyarya was a Jaina poet), Panditaradya Charitam, Basavapuranam, Sivayoga saram, Neetisaram, Neetisarmuktavalli, Pratapa charitra, Siddeshwara charitra, Kreedhabhi ramam, are some important one.

Jaina Sculpture Earlier to Kakatiya Period

Earlier to the expansion of Kakatiya power, in Telangana during Rashtrakuta, Chalukya, periods Jainism became popular among the people. They built many Jaina basadis. Chiikuru, Kulcharam (Medak), Patancheruuv, Kolanupaka, Hanumakonda, Polavasa, had the sculpttures of the Jaina Thithankaras. The Parshavanatha sculpture found at Kulcharam (Medak district) is more beautiful, its height is Nine feet, was under the shadow of seven headed Nagaraju (serpent). The idol with serene face having hands upto the knees was carved very delicately. On the base of the sculpture, 'Sri Chalukya kula tilakam Tailavarasan' is inscribed. To this the historians dated as belonging to Tailapa II (A.D.973-995), period. The scuptures found at Chilkuru and Putancheruuv are in a dilapidated condition and preserved in the state Archaeology Museum Hyderabad.

Architecture and Monuments of the Kakatiya Period

As the successors of Rashtrakutas and Kalyana Chalukyas, Kakatiyas built wonderful temples forts and entrance doors (Toranas) in Telangana and Andhra regions. Their feudatories, ministers, army chiefs, regional rulers got inspiration from their overlords, and built many beautiful temples. The forts built during the Kakatiya period are Golkonda, Orugallu, Deverakonda, Rachakonda, Bhuvanagiri etc... For the protection of the Orugallu built a strong fort. Orugallu fort has three walls, it First wall is constructed with mud, its height is ten feet, surrounded the Kazipeta and Anumakonda. Second one is out side the Orugallu fort is also mud fort. Earlier this had four entrances on four sides it important places. At present in the mud fort has the old city. After passing through this fort in a furlong distance is the Masonery fort, and this is called as Kanchu Kota (Broze fort). Inside the fort the temple of Swayambhunatha is there. Infront of this four wonderful Toranas are constructed. The sculptural art of this temple was totally destroyed during the Muslim attacks.

Important Kalamukha Saiva Kshetras in Telangana

S.No.	Kshetra	Present District	Importance
1	Dharmapuri	Karimnagar	Important Kalamukha Saiva kshetra
2	Anumakonda	Warangal	Important Kalamukha Saiva kshetra
3	Ainavolu	Warangal	Important Kalamukha Saiva kshetra
4	Panagallu	Nalgonda	Important Kalamukha Saiva kshetra
5	Nizamabad	Nizamabad	Important Kalamukha Saiva kshetra
6	Nandikandi	Medak	Important Kalamukha Saiva kshetra
7	Sanigaram	Karimnagar	Important Kalamukha Saiva kshetra

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Kakatiya Forts

S.No.	Fort	Region	Details
1	Golkonda	Telangana	Built during Kakatiya period
2	Orugallu	Warangal	Three walls; first mud wall 10 ft high; masonry fort = Kanchu Kota (Bronze fort)
3	Deverakonda	Nalgonda	Built during Kakatiya period
4	Rachakonda	Nalgonda	Built during Kakatiya period
5	Bhuvanagiri	Nalgonda	Built during Kakatiya period

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Quick Review

Religion: Kakatiyas followed a policy of religious tolerance; respected Jainism, Saivism and Vaishnavism.
Jainism: Centres – Nizamabad (Bodhan), Karimnagar (Vemulawada), Medak (Kolcharam, Patancheruuv), Nalgonda (Kolanupaka), Warangal (Anumakonda); Jaina poet Appayyarya wrote Jinendra Kalyanabhyudayam.
Saivism sub-sects: Kalamukha, Pashupata, Aradya, Veerasaiva.
Kalamukha: Founder Lakuleshwara or Sakuleshwara; Rameshwara Pandita was teacher of Betaraju II and Prolaraju II; centre Srisailam.
Pashupata / Saiva sidhanta: Kalachuri kings patrons; Dharmasiva came to Draksharama (A.D. 1234) and was teacher of Ganapatideva.
Golaki mathas: Established by Visveshwara Sivadeshika, Rajaguru to Ganapatideva and Rudramadevi; branches at Pushpagiri, Sriparvatam, Tripuranthakam, Alampur, Draksharamam, Bhattiprolu.
Vaishnavism: Varaha insignia on coins; Rudradeva built Rudreshwara temple (Anumakonda) with Vasudeva idol; Palanati Veera Charitra war between Brahmanaidu (Veeravaishnava) and Nayakuralu Nagamma (Saivite).
Sanskrit scholars: Vidyanatha (Prataparudriyam / Prataparudra Yashobhushanam), Shalakyamalla kavi (Udaatha raghavam, Neeroshte Ramayanam), Gundayabhattu, Jayapa (Nrityaratnavalli).
Telugu poets: Tikkanna Somayaji, Palkuriki Somanatha, Baddena, Kolanu Ganapatideva, Rudradeva, Ekamaranatha, Kase Sarvappa.
Telugu works: Andhra Mahabharatam, Nirvochanottara Ramayanam, Andhra Dashakumara Charitam, Purushartha saram, Basavapuranam, Neetisaram, Pratapa charitra, Kreedhabhi ramam.
Jaina sculpture: Parshavanatha sculpture at Kulcharam (Medak) – 9 ft high, under seven-headed Nagaraju; dated to Tailapa II (A.D. 973–995).
Architecture: Forts – Golkonda, Orugallu, Deverakonda, Rachakonda, Bhuvanagiri; Orugallu fort had three walls, Kanchu Kota (Bronze fort) and four Toranas.

Note: Kakatiya rulers and their royal teachers preached religious harmony and peaceful living, making them ideal path makers for the present generation.

Kakatiya Dynasty, Religion, Language and Architecture | Telangana Culture

Taxes and Tolls during the Kakatiya Period

noreply@blogger.com (Estudies4you) — Fri, 25 Sep 2026 21:10:01 +0000

Kakatiya Taxes and Tolls | Land, Industrial, Professional & Commercial Taxes

Different Types of Taxes and Tolls during the Kakatiya Period

1163–1323 CE During the Kakatiya period names of different types of taxes are mentioned in the inscriptions, which can be divided into four types.

      Four main types: 1. Land tax, 2. Industrial tax, 3. Professional tax, 4. Commercial tax.
    

Taxes and Tolls of the Kakatiya Period

S.No.	Name of the Tax	Collected from Item or Occupation	Rate	Details / Sources
1	Pannu, Pangamu, Kanika, Darshanamu, Siddayam (collected in cash)	Land related	--	Collected on all types of lands. Warangal district Matedu inscription 1310 A.D. (IAP Wg. No. 86)
2	Ari, sankamu, Pannu, Kanika, Puttimanika, Netamaggaluvaru, Nuncganugaluvaru	Taxes on industries	Production and Sale, right of God's share	Rudramadevi period Durgi inscription A.D. 1269. S.I.I. Vol X No. 422.
3	Srimangali, Netavaru, Gollavaru	Professional tax, per weaver and per house.	1 chinnam	PVP Shastry. Telugu p214
4	Kummari, ayyagandru, Karanalu, Soldiers	Per house, Per head, per head, Per head.	1 Chinam, 2 chinnams, 1 chinnam, 1 addaga	-
5	Addagattu or Angadi sunkam, Madiga sunkam, Kolaga sunkam on oil	Trade related tax, collected on shops	-	Levied on Oil.
6	Mudar	Tax on salt bags	--	-
7	Ellari (House)	House tax	2 rukas	A.D. 1314 Prataparudra II. S.I.I. Vol. IV No. 311
8	Wealth Tax (Pullari)	On cattle: 50 Cows	25 rukas Yearly 2 gadyas 5 rukas	S.I.I. Vol. IV No. 329

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Tax Collection Officers and Market Regulations

P.V Parabrahma Sastry has mentioned that the Kakatiya rulers appointed special officers, government servants and market officers, for the collection of the taxes and tolls. These officers were appointed in the markets where the sale and purchase of goods were taken place. Of them Sunkamanyagadu, Teerpari, Kolagadu and Karanam are important officials. The first officer purchased the right to collect the tax from the markets or shops (Angadi, or Penta or Adda), the government's share of such collected tax, was immediately remitted to the Karanam. The karanam, prepared systematically, and collected the tax dues from the traders credited to the government treasury. The Teerpari, made the assessment of exact value of the goods, sold and purchased in the markets and the tax they are supposed to pay on the transactions. Measurement of goods sold and purchased in the market is the job of the Kolagadu. His job was to measure the items without any fraud. Among the above four, Karanam and Teerpari were the govemment employees, Sunkamanyagadu and Kolagadu were the private employees. This information is found in the Tripuranthakam inscription of A.D.1296 (S.I.I. Volume X No.480). Some inscriptions mention that along with the king, the market officers also made donation of their share to the local temples. In the inscriptions of the Kakatiya period mention some taxes like, Burra sunkam, Madiga sunkam, Pelli pannu(marriage tax), Gandi sunkam(on the pulley well), Puttuperu sunkam(tax on the occasion of naming ceremony), Revu sunkam(port tax), Alamu(tax on vegetables), Antharayam(tax on Arecanut gardens), Kilaramu(tax on sheep hoard) etc.

      Key officials: Sunkamanyagadu, Teerpari, Kolagadu and Karanam. Among them Karanam and Teerpari were government employees; Sunkamanyagadu and Kolagadu were private employees (Tripuranthakam inscription A.D. 1296).
    

Trade Permission and Market Samayas

The inscriptions inform us that trade and commerce was carried on with the prior permission of the government. For example A.D.1282 Tripuranthakam inscription (S.S.I. VoL. IX, No 473, PVP Shastry Telugu p226) Nanadeshi Pekkandru Samaya, submitted a request to the local officer (Sthanapati) for trading permission. The Ganapatideva's Warangal fort inscription mentions different trades of the Samayas, selling and purchasing of goods and the markets. These are explained by PVP Shastry (PVP Sastry, p228).

Angadi / Santha / Penta and Their Samayas

S.No.	Name of the Angadi / Santha / Penta	Samaya	Sold items / goods
1	Cheeremareya	Swadeshi-Paradeshi	All types of clothes
2	Pokamathiya	Swadeshi-Paradeshi	Arecanuts
3	Sugandh Dravyalu (Spices)	Ubhaya nanadeshi	Sandal wood, camphor, Kasturi, and other spice items
4	Ratnalu, Dantam (Jewel and Ivory)	Ubhaya nanadeshi	Pearls, Bangles and Beads
5	Noolu malega	Ubhaya nanadeshi	Cotton & wool
6	Uppu penta	Swadeshi-Paradeshi	Salt
7	Aakupenta	Saasirbaru	Betel leaves
8	Metal implements	Tagaramvaru	Tin, Copper, Lead and other metals
9	Noovula penta	Swadeshi-Paradeshi	Sesamum, Wheat, Pulses, Millets Oils and grains.

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Trade and commerce though was concentrated in the hands of the Vaisyas, People of other castes were also found in this. Rachasettis reference is found in the inscriptions. The Salevaru (weavers), Perikalu (goods trasnporters on bulls), Kummarlu (Potters), Vadrangulu (carpenters) provided their services to the Vaisyas.

Quick Review

Four tax types: Land tax, Industrial tax, Professional tax, Commercial tax.
Land taxes: Pannu, Pangamu, Kanika, Darshanamu, Siddayam (Warangal Matedu inscription, 1310 A.D.).
Industrial taxes: Ari, sankamu, Puttimanika, Netamaggaluvaru (Durgi inscription, A.D. 1269).
Professional tax: Srimangali, Netavaru, Gollavaru (1 chinnam per weaver/house).
Commercial taxes: Addagattu or Angadi sunkam, Madiga sunkam, Kolaga sunkam, Mudar (salt bags).
Other taxes: Ellari (house tax, 2 rukas), Pullari (wealth tax on cattle), Pelli pannu (marriage tax), Revu sunkam (port tax), Alamu (vegetables), Antharayam (arecanut gardens), Kilaramu (sheep hoard).
Tax officers: Sunkamanyagadu, Teerpari, Kolagadu, Karanam.
Government employees: Karanam and Teerpari; Private employees: Sunkamanyagadu and Kolagadu.
Market permission: Trade carried on with prior permission of government; Nanadeshi Pekkandru Samaya requested Sthanapati (A.D. 1282 Tripuranthakam inscription).
Market Samayas: Cheeremareya, Pokamathiya, Sugandh Dravyalu, Ratnalu & Dantam, Noolu malega, Uppu penta, Aakupenta, Metal implements, Noovula penta.
Trade castes: Vaisyas dominated; Rachasettis mentioned; Salevaru, Perikalu, Kummarlu, Vadrangulu served the Vaisyas.

Note: Tax collection was systematic and well-regulated, with separate government and private officers for assessment, measurement and remittance.

Kakatiya Dynasty, Taxes and Tolls | Telangana Culture

Kakatiyas Economic System: Rule and Developments

noreply@blogger.com (Estudies4you) — Fri, 25 Sep 2026 21:01:30 +0000

Kakatiya Economic System | Agriculture, Irrigation, Industries & Trade

Kakatiya Economic System

1163–1323 CE Agriculture, irrigation, village economy, industries, guilds (Shrenis) and flourishing inland and foreign trade under the Kakatiyas of Orugallu.

      Key highlight: Kakatiyas built a chain system of tanks (Golusukattu cheruvulu), encouraged Shrenis (guilds), and issued the famous Abhaya sasana at Motupalli to protect foreign traders.
    

Economic System

During the early days, when Kakatiya kingdom was established in the Deccan Plateau, they have scanty water resources and less fertile lands of Telangana region. Ganapatideva with his military victories brought the fertile coastal Andhra under his authority. Through the agricultural taxes and taxes on trade and commerce, lot of income reached the treasury. The contemporary historians and travelers', Barani, Isami, Ferishtha and Marco Polo have mentioned About the Kakatiyas wealth and richness in their writings. Kakatiya rulers and their feudatories had shown special interest for the development of agriculture. They constructed the tanks and canals. In some places they cleared the forests and converted it into agricultural land. There are no sources to know their income and expenditure. Along with agriculture, internal and external trade, and industries were developed.

Agriculture

Agricultural land was divided into two types, Magani (wet land) and Metta (dry land), is known from some sources. In the Magani, Neeru nela (water land) and Thota (garden land), in Metta (dry land), rain dependent crops like Maize, Mustard seeds, Castor seeds and sessamum are grown. Irrigated lands were known as 'Acchu Kattu' lands. The crops grown on these lands, government treasury collected land tax. When land was given for lease, the agreement between the owners of the land the leaser was made by exchange of Tambulam (Betel leaves).

Villages were more in number during the Kakatiya period. Majority of the People's occupation was agriculture. Many inscriptions of the period mention that Kakatiya and their feudatories built many new villages. Inscriptions of the period mentions that Manthena, Chennuru, Kaleshwaram, Narasampeta, Achampeta, Khammammetta and Kothagudem etc. Were built by them. The Kakatiya rulers and their feudatories not only built new villages but also constructed new tanks. For example, during the period of Ganapatideva one feudatory, Prolaraju, ruling over Chennuru rajya, to build a new village and built a tank, for this he collected for every marutur land one sixteenth of a ruka, which is one visa as god's portion of the share. A.D.1303 Katakuru inscription of Prataparudra. (A.D.1303) mentioned this. Among the agricultural crops Paddy, Cotton, Ulavalu(telugu), oilseeds, Millets(Jonnalu), vegetables chilies, black gram, green gram, Ginger, Sugarcane, wheat, onions and Blue(Neeli) dye are some important crops. Flowers and fruits are grown in special gardens. Agricultural taxes are Siddayam, oir Pangamu, Pannu, Kanika, Darshanamu, Vennu Pannu, Neeruveedi, Ardhayam, Pullari (tax on grass land), are the some names of the taxes found in the inscriptions. The tax is collected either in cash or kind. Tax is exempted on the lands given to the Brahmins, Temples and village servants. Manthena inscription (IAP KN No28, Kakatiyas Telugu p 185), mentions that Brahmin Manchibhattu, whoi was a Rajapurohita, donated a wide land, taking permission from the king. Like this Ganapatideva's Kaleshwaram inscription mention that lord Budhadeva son of Rudra donated four nivartanas of land near the village tank (IAP KN.No32). Many villages are named after the Kakatiya kings and queens who built them. Ganapavaram built by Ganapatideva, Mahadevapuram by Mahadeva, Rudravaram by Rudra, Bayyaram by Bayyaladevi, Muppavaram by Muppamamba, which are some of the popular villages. There is difference of opinion among the historians and scholars during the Kakatiya period, on who was the owner of the land, King or the people? The A.D.1311 inscription from Mellacheruvu in Nalgonda, district mentions that the king had all rights on Rachapolamu, regadi or veligadu or sand soil. King as per his wish can distribute these lands to Brahmins or farmers. P.V. Parabrahma Shastry and other historians opined that people had personal rights over the lands. In case of some necessity, if the king wants to take the personal lands, he did by paying due compensation. During the period of Kakatiyas, building of villages and excavation of tanks was considered as a meritorious (Poonya), deeds by the society. Ganapatideva's sister, Kundamamba built 'Kundavaram village in the Chennuru taluqa of Adilabad district and excavated a tank, called after her as 'Kunda Samudram', which is mentioned in the inscription found near the tank. In the same way Ganapatideva's teacher (Guru) 'Visweshvara sivacharya' purchased forest land for 850 gadyanas, cleared the forest land and built a village in his name called 'Visvanathapura' and also excavated a tank there. This fact is mentioned by P.V.Parabrahma Shastry (Kakatiyas pp189-190). The king gave special tax exemptions to the land around the newly built villages to encourage cultivation.

During the Kakatiya period the Nayankara ministers, army chiefs, Karanams and village servants and Ayyagars were given tax free lands, in those villages where they live is mentioned in the inscriptions. Ganapatideva's daughter Ganapamba's Mogalutla inscription (E.A. Vol IV p97, P.V.P. Kakatiyas p 191) mentioned that Kammarlu (blacksmiths), Kummarlu (Potters), Chakali (washermen), etc. The village servants, from their cultivated land have to donate half of its income to donee. Rachapolam or Racha bhumulu (kings' lands) are mentioned in the Mellacheruvu inscription. Newly cultivated land is known as 'Podu'. Inscriptional evidence shows that some tax exemptions were given to these newly cultivated lands.

Irrigation System

Kakatiyas took special care to provide water to the agricultural lands. During this period excavation of tanks took place briskly. Big tanks were called 'samudram'; were constructed as a chain system. When the upper tanks are filled with water, the extra water is flowed into the tanks at the lower level, hence called Golusukattu cheruvulu (tanks constructed in a chain system). The important tanks of the period can be seen in the following table. Motupalli and Bayyaram inscriptions give detail of the tanks of the period.

Important Tanks / Samudrams of the Kakatiya Period

S.No.	Tank / Samudram	Builder	Place	Details / Speciality
1	Kesamudram or Kesari samudram	Prolaraju I or Prolaraju Arigajakesari	Mahboobabad taluqa in Warangal district	Prolaraju built on the name of his title
2	Settikeriya cheruvu or kesuri samudram	Betaraju II	Warangal district	Erected a statue of Varuna deva as per Hanmakonda inscription
3	Anumakonda cheruvu	Rudradeva	Hanmakonda	--
4	Pakala cheruvu or Pakalacheruvu inscription	Ganapatideva's minister Bayyana Nayaka's son Jagadalumum madi	Narasampet tq. Maneru Basin	On four sides of the tanks forest is covered, even today irrigating 9,037 acres of land. Explains the rules to be followed in constructing the tank and choosing of land for building of the tank
5	Ramappa Cheruvu	Ganapatideva's army chief Recherla Rudra in A.D.1213.	Palampeta village in Mulugu taluka.	Inscription in the Siva temple gives all details. The Ramappp temple also built during the construction of the tank is the opinion of the historians. Irrigating even today 4,350 acres of agricultural land
6	Ghanpur tank	Ganapatideva's period	Warangal district	Even today irrigating agricultural land of 350 acres in Ghanpur village.
7	lakhnavaram	--	--	--
8	Bayyaram cheruvu	Mailamba Ganapatideva's sister and wife of Natavadi Rudra	Bayyaram village Khammam district.	--
9	Kunda samudram	Another sister of Ganapatideva Kundamamba	Kundavaram, Adilabad district	--
10	Chounda samudram	Ganapatideva's army general Mallyala Chounda	Kondaparti village Warangal district.	-

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During the Kakatiya period along with tanks, water springs canals played important role in supplying water to the agricultural lands. The inscriptions of the period mention water springs, like 'Gosugu canal', 'Ravipati canal' Moosati canal, Aleti canal, Kuchineni canal, Bommakanti canal (PVP Kakatiyulu Telugu p195). Not only tanks, samudrams but also with Etams, Pulleys (a type of water drawing from the wells), and water is drawn from the wells. A.D.1254 Dosapadu inscription of Ganapatideva's period mentions that along with bulls, wood required for making pulley or etams they were also donated (PVP Kakatiyulu Telugu p195). Maintenance of these tanks and canals special arrangement was made by Kakatiyas. The tanks and canal were repaired every year. Drudging and repairs were carried out every year. Persons were appointed to look after all these works, and they were paid one kuncha of grain for every putti of grain produced in the fields under these canals. They ordered and executed this system known as Dashbandha or Dashavandha manyam. Some land was also given as manyam to the persons who carried out these works.

The efforts and care put by the Kakatiyas rulers for irrigations was not continued after them. During Kakatiya period the farmers used to worship the bulls and their ploughs and other agricultural implements', before beginning of the agricultural activities and celebrated them as festivals. Even today 'Eruvaka' and Samkranti are the big festivals for the farmers.

Village Economy during the Kakatiya Period

The Kakatiyas had ruled for more than two and half centuries with Anumakonda and Warangal as their capital cities in the Telangana region. Village remained as the base of Administration and Economy. Contemporary literature and inscriptions give details of village economic system, Handicrafts, caste occupations and both internal and foreign trade. Agricultural land was divided into 'Magani' (wetland) and 'Metta' (dryland). The Magani land was sub divided into Neerunela and Tontanela. Neerunela means crops growing land and Tonta means garden land. In the dry land Sesamum, Castor seeds, Blue dye, (Neelimandu), Ragulu are grown. The lands which are tilled with ploughs are called as 'Achukattu nela'. Achukattu means one type of tax called 'Ari' is collected from these lands. There were many varieties of paddy mentioned. In the Orugallu region scented variety of paddy is grown. According to B.S.L. Hanumanthrao, yellow gram (Kandulu) was began, to be consumed by people during this period only. Coconut, Guava, Mango, Banana, and Betel leaves gardens were common. Jaggery Sugar and Oil pressing, industries were found compulsorily in every village. As per the inscriptional data, the number of cows donated to the temples, show the cattle wealth of that period.

Industries, Inland and Foreign Trade

Along with agriculture, many industries also developed. Palkuriki Somanatha in his Basavapuranam mentions that there were 20 varieties of clothes. Marco Polo wrote that in Mysolia or Machilipatanam clothes of high quality, appreciable by the kings were weaved. In Warangal Ratnakamballu (quality woolen blankets) and Makhmal (fine variety of cloths) clothes were weaved. Many handicrafts made of different metal alloys (pancha lohas) were made. Inscriptions of that period mention the metal lamps, Bronze hand lamps, plates, and hand bells are few examples. Palanati Veera charitra mention's that Brahmanaidu erected a panch loha flag post (pillar) in the Tripuranthakam temple. Guttikonda and Palanatiseema are famous for Iron industries. The weapons used in the wars of the period were locally manufactured. The swords made at Nirmal in Adilabad district, became popular even in foreign countries. Marco Polo also mentioned that there were diamond mines in the Golconda region. Diamond mines were there in Rayalaseema too. The carpenter made colorful Ratnas (water Pulleys) and ivory boxes. In Andhra Pradesh, the wax dolls (Lakka Bommalu) and other sport items were made. In those days coloring of Puppets used in the Puppet shows became a major industry. During the Kakatiya period important commercial centres were Orugallu, Panagallu, Jedcherla, Alampur, Maktal, Manthena, Peruru, Velpuru, Tripuranthakam, Penugonda, Kocherlakota, Pedaganjam, Nelluru, Ghantasala, Gudivada, Durgi, Macherla, Tangeda, Enamadala, Lebaka, Nandaluru, Upperapalle, Mopuru and Dornala. The Warangal fort inscription of Ganapatideva informs about the various businesses done by the traders in market yards. These traders formed into Shrenis (guilds).

The Shrenis or guilds are formed during the Satavahana period, flourished in Andhra. During Satavahana period occupational guilds (craft guilds), and trade guilds played an important role in trade and commerce. A.D.1282 Tripuranthakam inscription mentions that 'Nanadesi Pekkandru' a trading guild got permission for trading from the king. During the Kakatiya period both occupational guilds and trading guilds unitedly carried on the business. Every guild elected a head, who is called 'Shresthi' or Setti. The problems of the members of the guild are solved by the guild itself. Each guild had an official insignia, and each guild maintained army for its protection. The business man is called 'Behari' and the business is called 'Vyavaharam'. Two types of trade are carried by these guilds, Swadeshi (inland) and Paradeshi (foreign) trade. The first type is called the 'Nakaram' and the second type is called 'Nanadeshi Pekkandru, Ubhaya nanadeshi pekkandru are the names mentioned in the inscriptions. Aiyyavole-500 guild during Kakatiya period did not have good reputation in Telugu area. Guilds donated some share of their profit to god. The Vaisyas were superior in business. In some inscriptions mention Vaisyas with Reddy, Naidu, Boyas, and Dasaris with Vaisya guilds. The Veerabananja Samaya (shreni) got permission to trade in Pakanadu, Vengi, and Anumakonda cities.

The names of the guilds found in the inscriptions are, Swadesi, Paradesi, Vaadalavaru, Saasar booru, Tagarambur, Ubhaya Nanadessi etc. Trade and commerce was centered on the Vaisya community in those days. In these vaisyas are known as Chettis or settis or Shresttis. Baddena in his Neetisastramuktavalli mentioned the importance of the Vaisya community; vaisyas was like a breath to a city, as water is to a crop, a trunk to an elephant, same way Vaisya is to a city. Kings also encouraged vaisyas for their trade and commerce. In A.D. 1268, Mahaboobabad inscription of Rudramdevi mentions one Preggada Daram Govindasetti. The Draksharamam inscription of kulothunga Gonkaraja's setti, Surapa setti is mentioned. In another inscription mentions Ayyapareddy son of Reddy Sunkana. From this it can be understood that Reddys also appointed as Raja Settis. Unless there is permission from the king trader cannot do any trade. With the growth of inland trade, foreign trade also prospered during this period. The commercial centres during the Kakatiya period were well connected to the ports by high ways, like Motupalli, Machilipatanam, Andhra and Karnataka were well connected by high ways from Motupalli to Bellary via Tripuranthakam. From Palanadu connecting Nalagonda, vai Nakarekall reached Orugallu, this trade route is mentioned in the Kridhabhirammam. Based on the inscriptional references of the taxes levied on the ports, it can be understood that Rivers Krishna and Godavari were used as water ways Motupalli was the centre of foreign trade. Other important ports of foreign trade include, Krishnapatnam, Hamsaladeevi, and Machilipatanam. Giving assurances to the foreign traders, (Ganapatidve issued at Motupalli the Abhaya sasana). The Motupalli inscription gives details of imports and exports from that port. Elephants, Horses, Gold, Jewel, sandalwood, Jewaji, camphor, camphor oil, rose water, ivory, copper, Tin, lead, Mercury, Silk, Ruby, and other Sughandha dravallu. Trade was conducted with China, Persia, Arabia, Ceylon and east India islands. The rate of tax was fixed on the basis of the quality of the goods. For example, if 30 elephants were traded one elephant as tax, must be paid. Ganapatideva assured that the taxes will be lesser to the traders.

As mentioned above Kakatiya rulers followed a liberal policy and encouraged both inland and foreign trade, by this Andhradesha could flourish with wealth and richness. The Kakatiya ruler took care that the government officials do not exploit the traders and ensure that traders carried on their trade ethically without cheating people.

Quick Review

Land types: Magani (wet) and Metta (dry); Magani sub-divided into Neerunela and Tontanela.
Irrigated land: Acchu Kattu; newly cultivated land = Podu; king's land = Rachapolam.
Tanks: Big tanks called Samudram; chain system = Golusukattu cheruvulu; Ramappa Cheruvu (4,350 acres), Pakala Cheruvu (9,037 acres).
Maintenance: Dashbandha or Dashavandha manyam; paid one kuncha grain per putti.
Crops: Paddy, Cotton, Millets, Sugarcane, oilseeds, Blue dye; scented paddy in Orugallu.
Taxes: Siddayam, Pannu, Kanika, Darshanamu, Pullari etc.; exempted for Brahmins, temples, village servants.
Industries: 20 varieties of cloth; Ratnakamballu and Makhmal in Warangal; Nirmal swords; Golconda diamond mines; pancha loha handicrafts.
Guilds (Shrenis): Head = Shresthi or Setti; Swadeshi (Nakaram) and Paradeshi (Nanadesi Pekkandru); Aiyyavole-500 guild.
Foreign trade: Motupalli main port; Abhaya sasana by Ganapatideva; trade with China, Persia, Arabia, Ceylon.
Tax example: If 30 elephants traded, 1 elephant paid as tax.

Note: Kakatiya rulers followed a liberal trade policy and protected traders from exploitation by officials.

Kakatiya Dynasty, Economic System | Telangana Culture

Kakatiya Administration

noreply@blogger.com (Estudies4you) — Fri, 25 Sep 2026 20:49:16 +0000

Kakatiya Dynasty History | Administration, Army, Judiciary & Social Conditions

Kakatiya Dynasty History

1163–1323 CE Orugallu (Warangal) was the capital of the Kakatiyas. Their administration, military system and social structure left a lasting legacy in Telangana.

      ⚡ Key highlight: Kakatiyas followed decentralised administration, introduced the Mandala system, and their Nayankara system became the precursor to Vijayanagara’s Amara Nayaka system.
    

Kakatiya Age – Rule and Developments

Kakatiya Administration

Kakatiyas ruled from A.D. 1163 to 1323, Orugallu as capital city. On the form and nature of their administration there are different opinions among the historians. Kakatiyas followed the earlier existing traditional system of administration in India and south India. Like in all Hindu kingdoms, son had the hereditary right to succeed the throne after death of the father. Though sudras, Kakatiyas followed ancient Raja Dharma and Raja Neeti as suggested by the ancient law writers. Ganapatideva had no sons, so he trained his daughter Rudramadevi in political administration and declared her as his successor, thus started a new tradition. The Mandala system is a new system in the central government introduced by the Kakatiyas. They encouraged the powerful Mandalikas and made friendship with them. Rudramadevi declared her grand son Prataparudra as her successor, and he ascended the throne after Rudramadevi.

There is an opinion that Kakatiyas followed the hereditary despotic political system, but according to Parabrahma sastry, who has done comprehensive research on Kakatiyas, Kakatiyas administration was built on decentralization of power. The proof of its decentralization is the strengthening of feudatories or feudal system. Whether this feudatory system strengthened the Kakatiya administration or weakened it, there are different opinions. On the nature of the Kakatiya administration, C.V Ramachandra rao's opinion was that, it was very near to segmentary state, as proposed by the American historian Burton Stein's 'Segmentary state'. But that is not true, like the Mauryan administration which was a metropolitan state, Kakatiyas was also a metropolitan state, as proposed by Romila Thapar. Among these entire opinions most acceptable one was the decentralized system, Kakatiyas was the decentralized administration.

Similarly decentralized administration was related to not only to Kakatiyas, their seventy two niyoga system, is clearly following of the western Chalukyas administration. The Nayankara system of the Kakatiyus is the precursor to the Vijayanagara period's administration of Amara nayaka system, is said by Parabrahma sastry. Kakatiya administrative structure moved from the down to upward moving step by step, from village, district, state and central government. The powers are clearly mentioned at different levels at central, state district and village; central government had supervision on all level. But along with these different levels of administration, feudatories also played important role in the administration.

During the Kakatiya period, the emperor had all powers with him, but the Kakatiya rulers did not call themselves as Maharajadhiraja, Parameshwara etc. Not only this, they had taken the simple titles of their feudatories like 'Samadigata Panch mahasabda', 'Mahamandaleshwara' only. They did not rule like autocrats thinking themselves as the sovereign monarchs. As per P.V. Parabrahma sastry's opinion 'Kakatiyas introduced a new type of administration, in which they dominated in the internal administration of the feudatories, and saw that the feudatories power never became powerful, and made appointment of the administrative officials through out the empire.

During the Kakaatiya period feudatories rebelled, only once i.e. in A.D.1290, Kayastha Ambadeva. The reason for this is they considered the feudatories as co rulers. Another thing is Kakatiyas respected the local traditions and continued them in the conquered regions. Like this Kakatiyas showed political wisdom and foresight, and never displayed their proud as supreme monarchs. Kakatiyas did not take any action on their feudatory Cheruku family, who did not mention the Kakatiyas as their Sovereigns.

The inscriptions and literature of the Kakatiya period inform that the king administered through council of ministers. The Kakatiyas respected and followed the concept that the State consists of seven limbs (saptanga samanvita). The ministers were selected on the basis of their experience and faithfulness to the state. We have no source to know the exact number of the ministers. Contemporary works like Neetisaram, Neeti sastra muktavalli, Prataprudra Yoshobhusanam discuss the duties and role of the king in political affairs, his authority over the administration, the Raja-Dharma, the ministers, high officaiulas and forts, safety etc... Are some the facts mentioned by the woks. The council consisted of ministers, Amatyas Preggadss, feudatories, Dandanayakas etc... The portfolios and the authorities are not known clearly. Malyala Hemadri reddy was the Mahapradhani during Ganapatideva's period; where as Muppidi Nayaka was the mahapradhani during Prataprudra's period. The contemporary work 'Purushanrtha saram' written by Siva Devayya, of Ganapatideva period mentioned that every day the king had meeting with all the ministers and discussed on various issues of the administration. All the affairs of administration (both civil and military) were divided into 72 Niyogas (classes). The official controlled all these Niyogas is known as Niyogadhipati. During Ganapatideva's period Kayastha Gangayya sahini, during the Rudramamba's period Tripuri and Ponka Malllaya Pragada acted as Bahattar Niyogadhipati. In the central administration during the Kakatiya period, the king, council of ministers and Bahattar Niyogadhipati played important role.

Regional Administration

The Kakatiyas divided their empire into Rastra, Sthala, Seema, Nadu Bhumi and Garma, for administrative convenience. Names of these divisions are found in some of the inscriptions issued during the Ganapatideva's and Prataparudra's period. Srisailam inscription(S.I.I. X. 504) of Prataparudra II mentioned the names, Naravadi nadu, Motavadi, Pakanadu, Renadu, Mulikinadu, Are Bhumi, Kandurunadu, Venginadu, Velanadu, Natavadi, Eruvanadu, Sakalinadu, Prolinadu, are some names mentioned. Sihalam is an area having twenty four villages. Sthalams are more in number. In the Warangal inscription, Anumkonda, Mattewada, and Orugallu together are in sthalam. (IAP, Wg p184). What type of control the central government had on the officials of the Rastra is not available in any source.

Village Administration

During the Kakatiya period, the village was the lowest level of administration, like the earlier period. Village's officers all together are known as Ayyagars. The Ayyagar system was already established in the villages prior to the Kakatiyas. There number was twelve. Among the village officials 'Karanam', Reddy, Talari, Purohita, Kammari, Kamsali, Vadrangi, Kummari, Chakali, Mangali, Vetti, Charmakara and Niruduvadu etc. ...Names are found in the inscriptions. They all are given tax free land for performing their services. In this Karanam, Reddy and Talari are the government officials. They were also given some share in the crops.

Army Administration

Kakatiyas maintained a well trained big army. Their victories in various wars with the contemporary rulers like Yadavas, Hoyasalas, Pandyas and Muslims support this view. The contemporary works on politics also help to know the army administration during the Kakatiyas period. The information from the contemporary works like Neetishastra muktavalli written by Baddena, Madiki Singhana's Sakala Neeti Sammatam, cannot be complete imagination, because the authors were holding important positions of administration. The Kakatiya rulers spent more time in safeguarding the empire from the internal as well as the external enemies of the empire. In the protection of the empire forts played very important role. The political thinkers of the period opined that it was very difficult to defeat, a ruler who had a strongly fortified. Neetisaram of Prataparudra mentions that the safety of the empire lies in the group of forts it has. As mentioned in the Neetisaram, there were four types of forts in the Kakatiya empire-Sthala (land), Jala (water), Vana (forest) and Giri (Hill), were there as mentioned in the inscriptions. The forts built by Kakatiyas like Orugallu, Raichuru, Golakonda, Bhuvanagiri, Rachakonda, Devarakonda, Nalagonda, and Panugallu were invincible.

Nayankara System

The administrative system was shaped accordingly keeping in view the military needs. The Kakatiyas distributed their lands to the military officials called Nayakas. The village or villages given to a Nayaka is known as Nayakasthala or Nayakasthala vritti. There was no clear definition of Nayakas characteristics or their responsibilities. In this Neetisara of Prataparudra was little helpful. To maintain the fourfold army (Chaturanga balas), and also fill the treasury, the king should keep the big villages yielding more income and give small villages to the subordinates, said Prataparudra. Here Nayakas means subordinates. The villages given to them are of two types. Small villages are given to them for their maintenance, no salary is paid, the income from the big villages, some income was paid to the king as tribute, and remaining is spent for the keeping an army for the service of the king. The Nayakas are supposed not to maintain the soldiers more than stipulated to them.

Kakatiya kings maintained with discipline and efficiently, Ashwa (Horse), Gaja (Elephant), Ratha (charioteers) and Kalbala (foot soldiers). Contemporary works have mentioned above forces. The army of Prataparudradeva consisted of 100 elephants, 20,000 horses and nine lakh foot soldiers. These officials are known as Gaja sahini and Ashwa sahini. The Nalgonda inscription of Ganapatideva informs that Kayastha Gangaya sahini was brought from North India for the maintenance of horse force of Ganapatideva. Induluri Annaya led the five lakh foot soldiers. Juyapa senani was Gaja sahini during Ganapatideva's period where as Bendapudi Annayya was Gajabaladhyksha during Prataprudra's period.

During Kakatiya period in the army, there were two types of military, first type was called the Moolabalam (main force) or Sthirabalam (standing army), second type was subordinate army. The main force or the Moolabalam was under the direct control and maintenance of the king or the officials appointed by him. Such officials were those mentioned earlier like Gaja sahini and Ashwa sahini. Along with army strength, Kakatiyas gave importance to forts also in the protection of the kingdom. In those days Vana, Giri, Sthala, and Jala forts existed. Neetisaram explains the importance of the forts protection. Prushartha saram also explains the importance of forts. Probably officers to these forts might have been appointed. Fighting ferociously and heroically with the army of the Delhi Sultans is the ample proof of the Kakatiyas armies' strength and valor.

Judicial System

Kakatiya rulers followed the judicial code which was in existence in the South India since ages. Some inscriptions explain different types of legal disputes. For example an inscription from Duggirala in Guntur district belonging to the Ganapatideva's period A.D.1214 describes the dispute of village boundaries. After conquering Velanadu, Ganapatideva was camping in that region, the people of Poondi, Mormapoondi, and Eevani villages requested the king to solve their boundary dispute. Then Ganapatideva ordered his ministers Mallavaraju and Rudraraju to solve the dispute. Then the ministers heard the arguments of the people from three villages, and asked the opinion of the Mahajanas. Sooravaraju of Evani village (probably Karanam of that village) was selected, as he had clear understanding of the boundaries. So they made use of his experience and fixing the boundaries solved the problem. Mahajanas and Karanams are recognized as a judicious person is known from this inscription. The judicial meeting held outside the capital city, in a village in the presence of ministers, can be called as Aprathisthista sabha according to Parabrahma sastry.

In the similar way inscription of Ganapatideva's period, A.D.1246 from Karimnagar (IAPKM Appendix, P.V.P Sastry Telugu, p182) mentions the dispute between the two villages over the village tank. In the 'Nedhapur' village rights over the water canal is the dispute. The local officials of that place, Ravidattu, Nathadeva and Hingadeva explained the dispute to Ganapatideva. Ganapatideva gave the responsibility of resolving the dispute to Manchiraju who was the minister of Jayapa senani. Manchiraju visited the village. He discussed with the Mahajanas and elders of the villages Chamanapally, Kummarikunta, Devanapally, and Katlakolapally, which are also related to the dispute. Then he submitted the report to the king Ganapatideva. Ganapatideva discussed the matter with the representative of that area, Akshoyadeva. Discussing the issue from all angles, finally he ordered that his Judgment may be informed to the People and the local officials. The people were not happy with the judgment of the emperor, accepted the judgment of the Akshayadeva. Being satisfied by this, Ganapatideva engraved the judgment on the copper plates and executed it. He declared that, on the rights over the canal, the Mahajanas of Chamanapally had the over all rights, other villages do not have right over the water in the canal. The above two judgments reveal us how righteous were the judgments in those days. Here the emperor himself gave the judgment; Parabrahma Sastry calls this as Shashita Aprathisthita Sabha. During the Kakatiya period in giving judgments the opinion of the villagers was given more importance.

Social Conditions

Kakatiyas belong to the early medieval period. Before we discuss about the social conditions of that period, we must remember that the influence of religion was more on society during that period. The changes and upheavals in the religion had a lot influence on the society. The relations and associations of different classes of people, their place in the society, the social distance among the various classes, in all these aspects, the ideals of the society have been influenced by religion. Another character seen in the medieval period is, along with the four Vamas, many castes and sub-castes have emerged. Sub-castes were formed on the basis of the occupation. Many occupations were required to fulfill the social needs. The hereditary occupations became the castes. To every caste there were rules and restrictions. To regulate these rules there formed the caste associations known as 'Kula Samayas'. These Kula Samayas had tremendous influence on the life of the castes of that Samaya. The friction developed between the Saiva, Vaishnava and Jaina religious sects, created disunity in the society and acted as obstruction for the unity of various groups.

Caste System

Before we discuss the social system of the period, we must know exactly to which caste Kakatiyas belonged to. After achieving political power, Kakatiyas declared themselves as Kshetrtyas. The Cholas and Chalukyas declared themselves as Kshetrtyas, but many ruling families in Andhra region proudly declared them selves as belonging to the fourth caste ie.. Chaturtha kulajas, but never said that they were Kshetrtyas, nor they tried to tell that they have relations with the Kshetrtyas. Kakatiyas also till Ganapatideva's period never came forward to tell that they were Kshetrtyas. Ganapatideva after he became a great conqueror, with his dareness and boldness winning many kingdoms, becoming the emperor, by uniting the whole Andhradesh politically he declared himself as Kshettya. But there is no Kshettrya caste in south India as accepted by the historians and sociologists. Kakatiyas did not mention clearly about their caste. In the Ganapatideva's inscriptions they were mentioned as Suryavamsha (Solar) Kshetrtyas, Vidyanatha wrote that Prataparudra's dynasty excelled that of Surya (Solar) and Chandra (lunar) vamsha Kshetrtyas.

During the Kakatiya period the society was in a transition phase. There were severe religious conflicts, class wars and fights in the social system. Those were the days of socio religious jealousy clouding over the society. Various classes tried to increase their influence in the political economical and cultural fields. As per Prataparudra charitra For example when Prataprudra donated golden Cows to some learned Brahmins, some Brahmins who did not receive gold cows instigated some chandalas to agitate, those to get the dead cows. Similarly the Visva Brahmins, Saiva Brahmins and Vaidiki Brahmins fought among themselves in the presence of the king to say that they have sole authority over Astrology and tried to prove that they are superior. Poetess Molla, who belonged to the fourth caste, wrote Ramayana and tried to dedicate her work to king Prataprudra, which was obstructed by Brahmins. They came forward to read Bhaskara Ramayana rather than Molla Ramayan. In a helpless condition Prataparudra simply honoured Molla without taking the dedication of the work. In those days the Bhakti movement reached an extreme state that, one Chakrapani Ranganatha a vaisnava preacher got himself blinded, to avoid seeing the Tripuranthakam (Saiva) temple gopuram. Veera Saiva preacher Palkuriki Somanatha, abused the Vaidiki Brahmins as karma chandalas, vrata bhrasthas and Pashukaras, and to vaisnavas he called them as 'Namala Kukkalu' (dogs of Namas). Jaina and Buddhism should be destroyed. Pratapa Charitram and Siddeshwara Charitram inform that clashes took place between Veerasatva scholars and Jaina, and Buddhist scholars. Against this attitured, as the above mentioned differences but there was extreme tolerance shown by some one like Swamy Dandanayaka and Bekkallu Malliroddy, who called themselves as 'Chatussamaya summuddaranalu'. Against the extreme Saiva and Vaisnava attitude, Poet Tikkana Somayaji preached Harihara tatvamu (combination of Vaisnava and Saiva philosophy).

Above mentioned religious intolerance obstructed the social unity and also influenced the contemporary Socio-political systems. Kakatiya rulers appointed people of all castes in the government services. In the moolabalam (main army) and also Nayankara (sub-ordinate) army, also importance is given to all communities as much as possible. Prataparudra had given more importance to Velamas, feeling bad on this and to make Prataprudra realize this, in one of wars Terala Bhoj reddy, along with his followers left the war. In such war situation, they must protect the king and kingdom by this they can enhance their importance. But their aim did not fulfill and they lost both the king and the kingdom like this we see there were no peace in the society and the unrest added to the down fall of the Kakatiya kingdom. This social unrest due to the caste conflicts led to the establishment of Bahamani kingdom after the down fall of the Kakatiyas.

The uniqueness of the society during Kakatiya period was caste associations. These are known as 'Samayas'. The Brahmin Samaya is known as 'Mahajanas' and the Vaishya Samayas are known as 'Nakara'. 'Sanimunnuru', 'Telikivepuru' and 'Panchanam' were some other samayas. In the inscription mention of 'Uru' (village) samayas and 'Sthala' (local) shows that the samayas were at different levels. These Samayas had special powers. They safeguarded and collected taxes, resolve disputes'etc... of the people of that caste. The 10th and 11th century inscriptions mention Ashtadash (eighteen samyas) in the society. Among the Brahmins along the Vaidiki (ritualistic) some were seen in the government services also. During this period the political importance of Brahmins had come down and the prominence of fourth caste increased. The fourth caste enhanced their social respect and raised their social hierarchy, the ruling class made matrimonial relations with the influential people. The caste system was not strong and rigid. Bad habits had increased in all castes. Child marriages, Varasulka, forced widowhood and Sati sahagamanam were seen frequently. Common people are far away from education. Drinking, Playing, Cockfights and Bull fights were common.

Kakatiya Administrative Structure – Quick Glance

Level / System	Key Features	Important Officials / Terms
Central	King, council of ministers, 72 Niyogas, Saptanga	Mahapradhani, Niyogadhipati, Bahattar Niyogadhipati
Regional	Rastra, Sthala, Seema, Nadu, Bhumi, Garma	Mandalikas, feudatories
Village	Ayyagar system (12 officers)	Karanam, Reddy, Talari, Purohita, Kammari, etc.
Military	Nayankara system, forts (4 types)	Nayakas, Gaja sahini, Ashwa sahini, Moolabalam
Judicial	Local disputes, Mahajanas, Karanams	Aprathisthista sabha, Shashita Aprathisthita Sabha

← Scroll horizontally to view full table on mobile →

⚡ Quick Review

Capital: Orugallu (Warangal) – rule 1163–1323 CE.
Administration: Decentralised; Mandala system; 72 Niyogas; council of ministers; Saptanga.
Nayankara system: Land to military officials (Nayakas) → precursor to Vijayanagara Amara Nayaka system.
Army: 100 elephants, 20,000 horses, 9 lakh foot soldiers (Prataparudra); forts – Sthala, Jala, Vana, Giri.
Judicial: Aprathisthista & Shashita Aprathisthita Sabha; village elders’ opinion valued.
Society: Caste conflicts, Kula Samayas, Bhakti movement, Molla Ramayana, Harihara tatvamu.
Key rulers: Ganapatideva, Rudramadevi, Prataparudra.
Decline: Social unrest + Muslim invasions → Bahamani kingdom.

📌 Note: Kakatiya administration was most accepted as a decentralised system with strong feudatory integration.

Kakatiya Dynasty – History & Administration | Telangana Culture

Sovereign Kakatiyas / Independent Kakatiyas (A.D.1163-1323)

noreply@blogger.com (Estudies4you) — Wed, 23 Sep 2026 12:20:49 +0000

Sovereign Kakatiyas (A.D.1163-1323) | Rudradeva to Pratapa Rudra II | Telangana

Sovereign Kakatiyas / Independent Kakatiyas (A.D.1163-1323)

Rudradeva to Pratapa Rudra II - Rise and fall of the Kakatiya empire

Rudradeva who ascended the throne in A.D.1158 remained feudatory of Kalyana Chalukyas till 1162 and declared independence in 1163 (1000 pillar temple inscription of Anumakonda). Among the independent Kakatiyas Rudradeva (A.D.1163-1195), Mahadeva (A.D.1195-1199), Ganapatideva (A.D.1199-1262), Rudramadevi (A.D.1262-1289) and Prataprudra II (A.D.1289-1323), are important rulers. They had ruled Warangal as their capital and for one hundred and sixty years, today's Telangana and Andhra Pradesh areas. Kakatiyas united the Telugu speaking people under one banner, doing unique service to the Telugu culture, earned permanent fame in the history of medieval Telangana and Dakshinapatha. The Sovereign Kakatiyas rulers fought against the contemporary Hindu kings like Yadavas, Hoyasalas and Pandyas. And their rule came to an end finally by the attacks of Delhi Sultans.

Rudradeva (A.D.1158-1162 & 1163-1195)

Rudradeva's period is special one among the Kakatiya rulers, and has historical importance. His ruling period is divided into two phases. First phase was from A.D.1158 to 1163 as feudatory position and second phase from A.D.1163 to 1195 as independent ruler. His thousand pillar temple inscription of Anumakonda (A.D.1163), informs that in 1163 A.D, Rudradeva declared his complete independence, and established a very large kingdom in Telangana. Rudradeva's mother was Muppamamba and father was Prola II. Rudradeva ascended the throne after his father in A.D. 1158. His minister Inangala Brahma reddy's Draksharamam inscription mention him as a great warrior, and Chalukya Chola king second Raja Raja was his contemporary. In this inscription he was known as Anumakonda Rudra.

The Thousand pillar temple inscription of Anumakonda informs that Rudradeva defeated the rulers of Nagar (Karimnagar Naganuru) Dommaraja, Polavasa ruler second Medaraju, Myligadeva, ChodoUdaya etc. and established his dominance in Telangana. According to P.V. Parabrahma sastry, Rudradeva first defeated Mylagideva then he attacked Kalachuris. After the occupation of Kalachuri kingdom, his kingdom expanded in the north up to the banks of the river Godavari. Sabbinadu was also came under the control of Kakatiyas. Excited by these victories Rudradeva marched his army towards the Kanduri Cholas. After the death of Tailapdeva his successors Kanduri Choda Bheema (his capital was at Vardhamanapura). In Panugallu Kanduri Udayachoda contested for the throne Rudradeva took this opportunity and conquered the Kanduri kingdom and merged it into his kingdom. Rudradeva with his Political vision appointed Udaychoda as his feudatory to that kingdom and married his daughter Padmavati. A.D.1202 Jammaluru inscription of Cheruku Bollayya mentions that Rudradeva handed over the vast forest area of Srisailam to his friend Cheruku Bollayya. By these victories Rudradeva's influence extended to today's Nalgonda and Mahaboobnagar areas. By this the boundaries of kingdom extended to Godavari River in the north, Bidar in the west and Srisailam in the south. Rudradeva as a mark of these victories issued a 'Vijaya sasana' (victory inscription), in Anumakonda and built a great temple by consecrating the idols of Rudreshvara, Vasudeva and Suryadeva in that temple.

Rudradeva declared war on those who were responsible for the death of his father. This is known as 'Palanati war'. Nalagamaraju requested the help of Rudradeva, which gave him a great opportunity for the war. At this same time the Chalukyas of Pithapuram sought his friendship. Rudradeva made plans for the occupation of the kingdom of the Velanati Chodas, and attacked their feudatories Kondapadarnatis. Tripuranthakam inscription supports the above details. During the period of Rudradeva, the armies of the Kakatiyas fought with the armies of the Yadavas, it was an attempt of Rudradeva to expand his area towards west, and in the war of A.D. 1195, with the Yadava king Jaitugi (Jaitrapala), the Kakatiya army got defeated and Rudradeva lost his life.

Rudradeva's Greatness

Rudradeva established the Sovereign power of Kakatiyas, with Warangal as the capital city. He was a great warrior, able administrator and politician, and ruled with the aim of serving his subjects. He had in his court, people of trustworthy who are able administrators and helped him in his administration. Among them most able one was Gangadhara of Vellanki family, his inscription from Karimnagar, issued in A.D. 1170 explains this. Gangadhara joined as army chief under Prola II, and was responsible for the administration of Anumakonda. Later he joined Rudradeva as army chief and participated in many wars with his patron, and sometimes took the administration of Sabbinadu. In Anumakonda he excavated a water tank and built Prasanna Keshava swamy temple. Rudradeva was a great patron of arts and built many temples. Thousand pillar temple was built by him. He for the convenience of civil and military needs built, near Anumakonda new city of Warangal or Orugallu fort. This became the new capital of the Kakatiyas. He was also patron of poets and literature. He was like 'Kalpa taruvu' to the scholars and these facts are mentioned in the Nayareddy's 1196 A.D. Pillalamarri inscription (PSR.p.148). Draksharamam inscription mention him as Vinayabhusana. In a poem in Neetisaramuktavalli written by Baddena, the author of Neetisastra was Rudradeva. Rudradeva was childless and succeeded by his brother Mahadeva in A.D.1195. This fact is supported by Khandavalli copper Plates (Parabrahma sastry, P.V. P 103; E.A.IV P-109).

Mahadeva (A.D.1195-1199)

Mahadeva was the son of Prolaraja II. He is the elder among the brothers of Rudradeva. His reign was from (1155-1199 A.D.). Very less information is available from both inscriptions and literature. We have two inscriptions of Mahadeva's period, one is Sundela village in Peddapalli taluqa of Karimnagar of A.D. 1197, and second is the damaged one from the Warangal fort, has no date. Mahadeva fought only one war in his whole life. The war against the Yadavas, and got defeated and also lost his life. According to Parabrahma Sastry, based Paithan copper plates of Yadava Ramachandradeva, the Yadava king Jaitrapala defeated the Trilingadhipati in a war and released young Ganapatideva from the prison and put him on the throne of Warangal. The facts are also supported by some literary works like Pratapa Charitra and Somadeva rajiyam. During his period the feudatory ruler rebelled against him.

Bayyamba was Mahadeva's Queen, and they had a son Ganapatideva, and two daughters, Mailamba and Kundamamba. Mahadeva was a follower of Saivism. His teacher was Dhruveshwara Pandita (PSRp149). Among his army chief Recherla Rudra was the ablest and faithful one. When the army of Kakatiyas got defeat with Yadavas, and the kingdom was in critical condition, Recherla Rudra acted cleverly in protecting the Kakatiya rule.

Ganapatideva (A.D.1199-1262)

Ganapatideva greatest among the Kakatiya rulers ascended the throne in 1199. His parents were Bayyamba and Mahadeva. His father died in the war with the Yadava king Jaitugi, and young Ganapatideva became prisoner. With the efforts made by the Recherla Rudra, Jaitugi released Ganapatideva, anointed him on to the throne attempted to suppress the internal rebellions and enemies like Mallyala Chounda.

Ganapatideva united all Telugu speaking people and ruled more efficiently for long sixty-three years (A.D.1199-1262). He made Warangal as his capital, and ably administered both Telangana and Andhra regions. Manthena inscription first inscription belonging to his period is in Karimnagar, issued on December 26 1199 A.D. (Inscriptions of Andhra Pradesh, Karimnagar, and No.28).

There are different opinions among the historians on why Yadava king Jaitugi released Ganapatideva from the prison. Many historians opine that Hoyasala king Ballala II, thought of taking advantage of the situation at Warangal and expand his kingdom towards that region, and if it happens, the prestige of the Hoyasalas will increase, Yadavas being their strong enemies, did not like this and wanted to check the Hoyasalas expansion. So Jaitugi released the young Ganapatideva from the prison made him to sit on the Kakatiya throne, this historians thought to be a political game played by the Yadavas. Moreover Jaitugi gave his daughter Somaladevi to Ganapatideva and performed their marriage.

Ganapatideva - Contemporary Yadava Rulers - Relations

S.No	King	Dynasty	Ruling period	Details
1	Jaitugi (Jaitrapala)	Yadavas (Devagiri)	A.D.1193-1199	Ganapatideva's father died in the war with Jaitugi.
2	Singhana	Yadavas	A.D.1200-1247	War with Hoyasalas and victory
3	Krishana	Yadavas	A.D.1246-1261	-
4	Mahadeva	Yadavas	A.D.1261-1271	War with Hoyasalas
5	Ramachandradeva	Yadavas	A.D.1271-1311	War with Hoyasalas and defeat. Delhi Sultans attack and defeat of Yadava army, Ramachandradeva's acceptance for subordination.
6	Shankera deva	Yadavas	A.D.1311-1313	Attack on Yadava kingdom by Mallik Kafur, defeat and death of Shankeradeva.
7	Harapala	Yadava	A.D.1313-1317	Allauddin Khilji's son Mubarka shah's attack on Yadava kingdom, defeat of Harapala and death and downfall of Yadava kingdom.

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Ganapatideva - Contemporary Hoyasala Rulers - Relations

S.No.	King	Dynasty	Ruling period	Details
1	Bhallala II	Hoyasala	A.D.1170-1220	Yadava king Billalmadeva's defeat
2	Narasimha II	Hoyasala	A.D.1220-1254	-
3	Narasimha III	Hoyasala	A.D.1254-1295	War with Yadava Ramachandradeva victory and got defeat by Pandya king Kulashekara
4	Bhallala III	Hoyasala	A.D.1295-1342	Attacked the Yadava kingdom in A.D. 1305, and defeated Ramachandra's army.

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Ganapatideva's Victories - Importance

Ganapatideva was great warrior, establisher of an extensive kingdom. During his long rule of sixty-three years, he achieved victories ably assisted by army chiefs Recherla Rudra, Malyala Chounda. All the conquered kingdoms were merged into his empire. Some of them are recognized as feudatory rulers. With some he made matrimonial alliances. With great political foresight maintained diplomatic relations. By the time Ganapatideva ascended the Kakatiya throne, in the coastal region the earlier ruling families like Eastern Chalukyas, Chola-Chalukya, and Kalyana Chalukyas became weak. Among them Velanati kingdom was powerful, and its ruler Prudhvishwara who was the grand son of Chola Rajendra II. Prudhvishwara was a great warrior made the neighboring, ruler as feudatories by defeating them. Among his feudatories Kolanu kings (Kolleru), Kotas of Guntur, and Prakasham Konidena Telugu Cholas, in Nellore, Kadapa, and Chengalpattu region by Telugu Cholas, in the Krishna Bank Gudimetta Chagis, in the north of Krishna River i.e. in Khammam district Natavadi kings were ruling. In the coastal region some areas were under the rule of Kalinga Gangas.

Ganapatideva thought of establishing his authority over the coastal region which was ruled by small ruling families, he invaded on the coastal region in A.D.1201. The 1201 A.D., Bezawada inscription (E.I.Vol.VI p159) issued by Nattavadi Rudra, Brother-in-law of Ganapatideva mentions that, the army of Ganapatideva won over the army of Prudhvishwara. During this conquest Kakatiya army invaded the areas of Kota Nayakas of Dharani Kota. Made them his feudatory, Later he invaded Divi Seema ruled by Ayyavamsha rulers. The ruler of this Divi Seema Pinna Choda fought ferociously against the Kakatiyas but got defeated. After this conquest Ganapatideva's army chief Malayal Chounda took the titles 'Dwipiluntaka', and 'Divichoorakaara' (PSR Andhradesha Charitra Samskruti, AD.1336, p151, Telugu Academy 2009). As a political foresight, Ganapatideva handed over back the Divi seema to Pinna Choda, to take support of Divi Seema rulers, in the expansion and stability of Kakatiya kingdom. This helped in the development of matrimonial relations between the Kakatiyas and Ayyavamshas. Ayyavamsha Pinnachoda gave his two daughters, Naramba and Peramba in marriage to Ganapatideva. Pinna choda's son Jaayapa was appointed as Gajashahini in the Kakatiya army. After Ayyavamshas became the feudatory of Kakatiyas, the strength of the Prudhvishwara was weakened. Nellore Tikkaraju and others also joined on the side of Ganapatideva. Prudhvishwara lost his life in the war. Ganapatideva was mentioned in his inscriptions as "prudhvishwara shirah Kanduka kreeda Vinodah" (Played with the Prudhvishwara's head as ball). Anantha, the treasurer of Prudhvishwara's inscription of A.D.1206 from Sri Koormam (S.I.I. Vol. NO. 1254- P.V.Parabrahma Sastry p108) being the last inscription of the Ayyavamsha, it may be inferred that Prudhvishwara might got defeat by Ganapatideva and died. Ganapatideva appointed Jayapa Senani as the Viceroy of this region.

Ganapatideva's Southern Conquests (A.D.1207-1209)

Ganapatideva waged two southern expeditions. Contemporary political conditions are the main cause of the conquests. Especially during the medieval period the establishment of the rule of Telugu Chodas of Nellore (region consisting of Nellore, Kadapa and Chengalput districts), and the political situation was the cause of this conquests. Telugu Choda king Nallasiddi ruled Nellore kingdom Vikramasimbapuri as capital. He declared independence taking advantage of the emperor Chola Rajadhiraja II (A.D.1173) became weak. After Nallasiddi, his successors Betaraja I, and Errasiddi ruled. Errasiddi had two sons, Manumasiddi I and Tammasiddi. In this period, Chola emperor Kulathonga III (A.D.1178-1216) interfered in the politics of Telugu Chodas. When Manumasiddi I ascended the throne Kulothunga III invaded on the Nellore kingdom and defeated the Manumasiddi I. Kulothunga III handed over Nellore throne to Nallasiddi, who accepted his suzerainty. The inscriptions of Kulothunga III available from A.D.1187-1204 mention that Nallasiddi ruled Nellore as the feudatory of Kulothunga III. After Nallasiddi his brother ruled Nellore. In the time Manumasiddi I son Tikka Bhupala desired to occupy the throne and sought the help of Ganapatideva. Due to this reason Kakatiya emperor with his army invaded the Nellore Choda kingdom in A.D.1207-1208, and defeated Tammasiddi and put Tikkabhupala as the ruler of Nellore. He was an able and capable administrator. Later Ganapatideva's army attacked Kanchi the capital of the Chola kingdom. This first southern victory is also supported by the information in the Chebrolu inscription of A.D. 1228 and A.D.1231 Jayapasenani's Ganpeshwaram inscription (Parabrahma Sastry, Telugu translation pp108, 109).

Kalinga Conquest (A.D.1211-1212)

After the victories over the Velanadu and Nellore Telugu Choda kingdoms Ganapatideva sent his armies to the Kalinga land which was earlier under the rule of Prudhvishwara. Ganapatideva's army chief Induluri Somaya mantri led the forces to victory. The contemporary writing like Sivayoga saram confirms the same (PSR p153). Induluri Somaya mantri was appointed as the ruler of Kolanu rastrra. Kalinga king Aniyanka Bheema III faced the Kakatiyas army, but no side was victorious as per the information given in the inscriptions. The Kalinga conquest did not gave Ganapatideva the expected result. At the same time, Ganapatideva made matrimonial relations with those rulers. He married his elder daughter 'Ganapaamba' to Kota Rudra's son Myna Beta. Second daughter Rudramadevi was married to Needadavolu Chalukya king Veerabhadra. Vengi region was conquered by Induluri Somanna. After Aniyanka Bheema, his son Narasimhadeval's period Kakatiya army attacked Vengi and Kalinga kingdoms and conquered them, (A.D.1238).

In A.D. 1248 Ganapatideva's friend Choda Tikkaraju died. His son Manumasidde II (Veera ganda gopala) lost his kingdom in the war with his Dayadis. He sent his minister and court poet Tikkana somayaji as emissary to the Ganapatideva's court seeking his support. Ganapatideva sent his army under the leadership of Samantha Bhoja as a support to Manumasiddi. In the attack by the Kakatiya army, Manumasiddi's enemies Bayyana and Akkana died. Kakatiya army entered the Dradidadesha, and occupied Kanchi the capital of Kulothunga (Rajendra III) Chola. Later Samantha Bhoja's army defeated the combined army of Dravida and Karnataka at Palleyuru in Tanjore district. By A.D.1250 defeated Vijaya Ganda Gopala (enemy of Manumasiddi), and put Manumasiddi II on the throne of Telugu Chodas of Nellore. After that Kakatiya army defeated Vaidumba king Rakkasi Gangadi. In this war Manuma Siddi's chief of the army Kayastha Gangaya Sayani had participated. Ganapatideva handed back the occupied kingdom back to them. And recognizing the capability of Gangaya Sayani Ganapatideva appointed him as Bahattar Niyogadhipati (supervisor over the seventy two Niyogas). This fact is supported by the Tripurantakam inscription of A.D. 1250.

Kakatiya - Yadava Relations

Ganapatideva maintained friendly relations with his contemporary Yadava king Singhana. No evidence is available on any war taking place between the two. For the period A.D.1199-1262, Yadava king Singhana's son Permadideva lived in the court of Ganapatideva for some period; this is the opinion of some scholars. Information from the Peruru inscription of A.D.1159 from Nalgonda district support to this view. Peruru inscription informs that Permadideva gave some land donation to the Brahmins (according to Parabrahma sastry, Kakatiyas, p 113). During Ganapatideva's war with the Pandya king, Yadava king sent his army supporting Kakatiyas.

War with Jataverman Sundar Pandya A.D.1257

Ganapatideva during his last days of rule fought war with the Pandya king Jataverman Sundar Pandya. By A.D. 1257, Pandya kingdom was ruled by Jataverman Sundar Pandya. He was a great warrior. He invaded the Nellore Telugu Choda kingdom, which was earlier a feudal kingdom of Cholas, marched with huge army on Manuma siddi II. Knowing the capacity and ability of Pandya king Kanchi king Vijaya Ganda Gopala accepted his over lordship. Imagining the future danger Manumasiddi II requested the army help of Kakatiya, Yadava and Bana kings, but the Pandya king Planned a dual strategy, and divided his soldiers into two divisions. One division was sent under the leadership of Koppera Zingana towards Draksharamam. But lost war with the Kakatiyas army, and Koppera Zingana accepted Ganapatideva as his over lord. At the same time Pandya king strategically sent his second division of the army on Manumasiddi II, on Nellore. By A.D. 1263, Pandya army reached Muthukuru near Nellore, under the leadership of Jataverman. In this war the army of Kakatiyas and their allies got defeated in the fierce battle. Veera Ganda gopala lost his life. Manumasiddi died in the war. His allies went back. Nellore became a part of Pandya kingdom. In his long career of sixty two years, Ganapatideva never faced a defeat, which he did in the Muthukoor war. The defeat relieved Ganapatideva from active administration. He handed over the responsibility of administration to his daughter Rudramadevi.

The Importance of Ganapatideva

He was a great emperor, Political strategist with great foresight. He strived very hard for the stability of the kingdom, saved the Kakatiya kingdom from the internal disturbances, rebellions and attacks from outside kings. He strengthened his political power through matrimonial alliances. He transferred the capital from Anumakonda to Warangal during his rule. He completed the construction of the new capital city Orugallu, which was began by his grand father Prola and uncle Rudradeva. And his successors made it a beautiful city and invincible by the enemy.

Among his feudatories and army chiefs important ones are, Recherla, Malyala Nayakas, Recherla Rudra his army chief was known for his faithfulness and valour. Recherla Rudra saved the Kakatiyas kingdom during its critical period from disintegration. Among the Malyala feudatories who stood with the Kakatiya emperor was 'Malyala Choda', his son 'Katama', they played an important role in Ganapatideva's Divi seema conquests. Jayapa of Divi Seema joined the service of Ganapatideva and did great service, was appointed to the post of 'Gajasahini'. Nellore Telugu Choda king Manuma siddi was a good friend of Ganapatideva. Induluri Somaya mantri was important among the Ganapatideva's ministers. Somaya mantri played crucial role in the war of Kalinga (A.D.1212). Prolabhima Nayaka was another great minister of Ganapatideva. He had titles like 'Aru vela Dooshaka', 'six thousand dooshaka'. Kanchi Choora Kara. Kayastha Gangaya sahini was the head of Bahattar (seventy two) Niyogadhipathi. Ganapatideva did not have sons, so he trained his daughter Rudramadevi in all fields and declared her as his successor and handed over the administration to her in A.D.1262.

Rudramadevi (A.D.1262-1289)

Rudramadevi was considered as the meritorious administrator in the history of medieval India, especially south India. She was the daughter of Somamba and Ganapatideva. Under her father's supervision, she learnt the running the political administration, army affairs. Defeated by the army of Pandyas in the muthukuru war, Ganapatideve took leave of the administration and handed over that responsibility to his daughter. Rudramadevi ruled up to A.D. 1289. To know her administration, sources like the inscriptions, literature and contemporary writings help us. Especially, Marco Polo of Venice city visited India during the period of Rudramadevi. He got down at the Motupalli Port. He praised a lot about the capabilities of Rudramadevi, and the trade and commerce, export and import taking place there, the duties of the port officials, the care taken of to the foreign traders and the arrangements by Rudramadevi.

General Conditions in the Kingdom

By the time Rudramadevi took over the administration, Kakatiyas power was in danger. Main causes for this were feudatories, and administrators' rebellions, defeat given by the Pandyas at the Moothukuru war. On the other hand, the Yadava king Mahadeva (A.D. 1262-1271) planned to occupy the Kakatiyas areas. During this critical situation, the responsibility of protecting the Kakatiyas kingdom was taken by Recherla Prasadaditya. The Velugoti Vamshavali mentions him with the titles 'Kakatiya vamsha sthapanacharya', 'Rayapithamahanka', etc. (Parabrahma sastry p118). Kayastha Jennigadeva, Kayastha Tripurari, Malyala Gundiya Nayaka, Madaya Nayaka, Mahapradhana Kandara Nayaka, stood as guards to Rudrama Devi.

Rudrama Devi fought many wars during her ruling period. According to Ekamranatha's Pratapa Charitra, when Rudramadevi ascended the throne, her step brothers, Harihara, and Murari deva rebelled against her. Rudramadevi suppressed these rebellions with the support of her able army chiefs. By the time Rudramadevi ascended throne, her neighboring Kingdom were Yadavas, Eastern Gangas and Pandyas were ruling. Among them Eastern Ganga king Narasimha deva invaded the Vengi kingdom and occupied it. But in A.D. 1274, Narasimhadeva's son Bhanudeva I invaded the Kakatiyas kingdom. This time Rudramadevi's army chiefs Potinayaka, Proli nayaka defeated the enemy army. This fact is supported by the information given in the Draksharamam temple inscription. River Godavari became the border between the Kakatiyas and Ganga kingdoms.

Yadava Invasion on Kakatiyas Kingdom

During the suppressing of internal rebellions by Rudramadevi Yadava king Mahadeva, invaded. Rudramadevi with her army faced the Yadava raja, and in the fierce battle got victory, and shunted out the enemies up to Devagiri fort. In this war Rudramdevi's army chief Sindhu Bhairava played an important role. The inscription found at Bidar fort describes this information (Kakatiyas, Telugu p 119). Recently found inscription from 'Allapadu' mentions that Yadava king Ellanadeva married Rudramadevi's daughter. By this Hemadri in his writing 'Vratakhandam' did not mentioned intentionally, that his lord got defeated in the hands of a lady. Rudramadevi, as a symbol of her historical victory over the Yadavas, took the title 'RayaGaja kesari', constructed Ranga mandapam to the Swayambhu temple in the Warangal fort. Rayagaja Kesari is mentioned in her Bidar fort inscription also. (Kakatiyas, p 120).

Rebellion by the Kayastha Ambadeva

Kayastha Ambadeva made a great rebellion, during the fag end of her rule, and is mentioned in Tripuranthakam and Nandahuru inscriptions. During the rule of Rudramadevi Kayastha Jennigadeva was her most faithful subordinate. He ruled Nandluru region in Kadapa district. On the orders of Rudramadevi, in A.D. 1264, he brought an end to the administration of the Pandyas. After Jennigadeva his younger brother Tripuranthaka became the ruler of this region. He during the period A.D. 1270-1272 ruled this region as faithful to Rudramdevi. After Tripuranthaka his younger brother Ambadeva became the ruler of the region. He did not accept Rudramadevi's subordination and rebelled against her. Moreover defeating the feudatories of Rudramadevi made them his subordinates. He made friendship with Rudramadevi's enemies, Pandyas and Yadavas. According to Tripuranthakam inscription (A.D. 1290, S.I.I. Vol.X. 465), ambadeva established his domination over the Pandyas and Yadavas, took the titles 'Pandya rajanya-priya-preshita-chandavedanda-Turugasthaara-viraajmaana-samshoshita-souhaardra', and 'Devagiri-rajaprasarpita-praabhrutamani-kanakabhushana', etc. Ambadeva defeated Rudramadevi's reagent (Guntur region) Sripati Ganapati in A.D. 1273, took the title 'Raya Sahasra malla' and occupied the Valluru under the rule of Pandyas. By A.D. 1287, Ambadeva occupied Gandikota, Mulikinadu, Renadu, Perakkallu, Sakilinadu, Pottapinadu etc. And was ruling from Vallura as capital and this information is mentioned in the Attirala inscription. (Kakatiyas, p 122). Like this Ambadeva expanded his ruling areas in all directions. This resulted in a grave danger to the Rudramadevi's power. In A.D. 1286 Ambadeva defeated the Pandyas. Defeated Pandya king Maraverman Kulashekara ran away from the war field. With this victory Ambadeva became more powerful.

Death of Rudramadevi

Ambadeva's Tripuranthakam inscription describes his victories. As per the information given in the recently found inscription in the village Chandupatla Nalgonda district, A.D. 1289, November 27, Rudramadevi and her chief Mallikarjuna rayalu lost their life while suppressing the rebel Ambadeva. Mallikarjuna's servant Puvvalamummadi donated some lands to the Somanatha temple in the Chandupatla village. Chandupatla inscription does not mention details of when and where Rudramadevi died. By this even today, there is no complete historical source of information to know the death of Rudramadevi. Overall, majority of the historians' opinion is that while suppressing the rebellion of Ambadeva, she might have died before, 27th November 1289, A.D. because we do not have her inscription later than 27th November 1289.

Greatness of Rudramadevi

Rudramadevi ruled very efficiently, from Orugallu as capital. Though a woman, got training under the supervision of her father conducted the administrative affairs thoroughly. With the aim of welfare of the people. She faced daringly the attacks of enemy kings. She had faithful and ablest army chiefs and feudatories, who stood with her. The only failure was the rebellion of Ambadeva.

Among her army chiefs and feudatories, important one is Malyala, Recherla Gona family, Reddy Nayakulu, Velama families. In Velama families Recherla Prasaditya earned name during the period of Rudramadevi. Kayastha kings, who ruled prior to Ambadeva, protected the South West region of the kingdom. Among them protected Kakatiyas kingdom from the enemy attacks.

Rudramadevi's husband was Chalukya Veerabhadra, of Nidadavolu branch. In the employees of Rudramadevi, Devagiri king Singhana's son Sarangapani was important. Ranaka Gopadevaraju of 'Are' community was also in her employment. Rudramadevi had three daughters, Mummadamma, Rudrama and Ruyyamma. Due to no male child, her daughter Mummadamma's son Pratapanadra II was declared, as her successor. Mummadamma's husband was Mahadeva of Kakatiya prince (E.C Vol.XII Tumkur NO 14; Kakatiyas telugu, p 126). Her second daughter was married to Yadava prince Ellanadeva. Youngest daughter's husband was Induluri nayaka. In the medieval history of Deccan, Rudramadive ruled prior to Chanda Bibi, and HayatBakshi Begum, and earned permanent fame.

Pratapa Rudra II (A.D.1290-1323)

In Kakatiya dynasty Pratapa Rudra II was the last ruler. Prior to Ambadeva's rebellion, Rudramadevi declared Pratapa Rudra II as her successor. He took over the reigns of the Kakatiya administration, Since in A.D. 1290, he ruled with two main aims. They are 1. To finish of the danger aroused due to the rebellion of Ambadeva, 2. Protection to the Kakatiya kingdom from the enemy attacks. To fulfill these two aims he required a strong and disciplined army. For this he overhauled the army. He handed the army to the Nayakas. Totally he appointed 77 Nayakas, explained them how many soldiers do they need to maintain, how much land and villages under their control. He arranged for the special training of the army.

He prepared three phase strategies to face the Ambadeva and his friends Yadavas and the Pandyas. In A.D. 1291 he sent a huge army on Tripuranthakam the centre of Ambadeva, under the leadership of Manumagannayya son of Kolani Somana mantri, and Ayyadeva son of Induluri Pedda Gannayya mantri. In this war Kakatiya army got a big victory, this information is mentioned in the Tripuranthakam inscription issued, by Induluri Annayya, in the year A.D.1291. Same view is expressed by Parabrahma sastry. After A.D. 1291, we do not find any inscription of Ambadeva, in Tripuranthakam. Ambadeva's son and successor Murari II ruled independently from Mulkinadu. To attack Murari Prataparudra II sent huge army under Maharaya Patta Sahini Somaya and Induluri Annaya. This war which took place before A.D. 1304, the Kakatiya army had great victory. Kayastha kingdom was merged into the Pratapa Rudra II kingdom. Soma Nayaka was appointed as administrator.

Attacks of Delhi Sultanate on Orugallu

During the period of Pratapa Rudra II, Kakatiya kingdom, faced the attacks from Delhi Sultanate, like other contemporary kingdoms of Yadava, Hoyasala, and Pandyas. Unexpectedly Delhi Sultan Jalaluddin Khalji sent huge army under the leadership of his son-in-law, Garshasp-I-Malik in A.D. 1295 on Yadava Ramachandra's capital Devagiri. Yadava army got defeated by the Khalji army; Ramachandradeva accepted Khaljis overlorship and gave huge money and gold, made peace settlement. The defeat of Yadava Ramachandra put other Hindu kings' identity in danger. Pratapa Rudra II made his army, and the defense of the kingdom very strong, Prepared his infantry, war horses, elephants, archers and infantry very strong.

First Muslim attack on Telangana (A.D.1303)

In A.D. 1296, Garshasp Malik treacherously killed Jalaluddin Khalji, his uncle and Sultan of Delhi and ascended the throne as Allauddin Khalji, ruled upto A.D.1316. For the first time sent his army on Trilinga or Telangana or Orugallu in A.D. 1303. Delhi sultan's army chiefs, Malik fakruddin Jana and Zhujas of Kara entered Telangana with their army. In the historic battle took at Upperpalli village in Karimnagar district, Kakatiya army chiefs Potuganti myli, Venna son of Recherla Prasadaditya, showed their talent and dareness, courage sent back the army of the Sultan. This fact is mentioned in the Velogotivari Vamshavali a Telugu writing.

Second Attack on Orugallu by Delhi Sultanate

Allauddin Khalji desired of a large empire. The failure of his army attack on Telangana developed a strong will in him. Filled with revenge, he in A.D.1309 sent huge army under the leadership of Malik Kafur and Khwaja Haji, on Telangana. Starting in the month of October 1309 A.D. Sultan's contingent entered Warangal via Devagiri. In A.D. 1310 February, ferocious battle took place between the two sides, but finally Kakatiya emperor accepted the defeat and made peace settlement. Till Allauddin Khalji's death Pratapa Rudra paid the tribute every year and remained a faithful to the Delhi Sultan.

Prataparudra's feudatories rebelled against him, for the defeat and accepting the subordination of Delhi Sultan. In the southern part of Kakatiya kingdom Nellore Telugu Chola king Ranganatha rebelled against the emperor Prataprudra. Vaidumba head Mallideva, also rebelled, Gandikota was his centre. To suppress these rebels Prataparudra sent army under the leadership of Juttayalenka Gonkayareddy. By defeating Mallideva, Juttayalenka Gonkayareddy got the appreciation of his emperor. He was appointed as the king's reagent of Gandikota and near by areas by Prataparudra. In A.D. 1311 Delhi Sultan attacked the Pandya kingdom, on the request of Sultan; Prataprudra participated in the war with his army. Sultan's chief Malik Kafur's army marched up to Madurai. The internal wars among the Pandya kings continued for a long time. As friend of Sultan, Kakatiya emperor's army participated in the war. Prataprudra's chief Muppidi Nayaka took important role in this wars. In A.D.1316 Allauddin Khalji died and his army went back to Delhi. By this, Prataprudra's army had to fight with the Nellore ruler, Ballala III of Hoyasala and Pandya king Veera Pandya.

Prataparudra's army chief defeated, Hoyasala, Ballala III and his friend Shambuvaraya king of Padaiveedu, and Chandragiri ruler Yadavaraya in a fierce battle. Kanchi city was occupied. According to Parabrahma sastry, this fact is mentioned in the Draksharamam temple inscription, which was preserved in the Mackenzie manuscripts (Kakatiyas, p 131). In these conditions, when Pandya army faced the Kakatiya army, Prataprudra took the charge personally, and led the army. Kakatiya chiefs like Muppidi Nayaka, Recherla Eradacha, and Manaveera and Deveri nayaka supported him. Finally Kakatiya army was victorious and they put Sundara Pandya on the Pandya throne. As a mark of victory, Deveri nayaka made some donations to Ranganatha god of Salakalaveedu village in the Kaveti Island. Some inscriptions of Deveri nayaka, which are found here, mention the above fact. Like this Prataprudra extended his domination in the Dakshinapatha during A.D.1312 to 1316.

Prataparudra II and Politics of Delhi Sultans (A.D.1316-1317)

After the death of Allauddin Khalji in A.D 1316, his army chief Malik Kafur put Sultan's son Shahboddin on the throne, and continued the administration. But after few days Malik Kafur was murdered. Taking this as advantage Prataprudra stopped payment of yearly tribute. In the similar way in Yadava kingdom Ramachandradeva's son-in-law Harapaladeva rebelled against the Sultan. In this changed political situation Allauddin Khalji's another son Qutubuddin Mubarak Shah dethroned Shiehbuddin and ascended the throne of Delhi Sultanate. He sent army on the Dakshinapatha, on those kings who were earlier feudatories under his father. In A.D.1318, he invaded first on Devagiri kingdom, defeated Harapala and killed him. Devagiri came under his control, immediately he sent his army chief Khusru Khan on the Kakatiya kingdom. There are different opinions are expressed by contemporary historians like Amir Khusru and Isami. On the whole mutually agreed settlement took place, and Prataparudra accepted to be feudatory of Mubarak Shah and paid the tribute.

Prataparudra fought a war with Kampili ruler Kumara Rama in A.D.1318. Main reason for this war was, Kumara Rama insulted Prataparudra and also he did not like Prataparudra helping Bhallala III of Hoyasala dynasty. Regarding the result of the war, in the Kannada work Kumara Ramana Charitra and Telugu work Bheemeshwara Puranam different versions are found. It seems that both might have won every war (PSR, p174).

Ghiyasuddin Tughluq ascended the Delhi Sultanate in A.D. 1320

In A.D.1318 in Delhi court group Politics reached to height. In this Khalji dynasty was the loser. Allauddin Khalji's son Qutubuddin ordered his chief of the army Khusru Khan to invade Mathura, (meanwhile). At last Khusru Khan was murdered. The Turkey nobles appointed Ghiyasuddin Tughluq as Delhi Sultan, who ascended the throne in A.D.1320. From then onwards Tughluq dynasty started to rule. Ghiyasuddin Tughluq's son was Ulug Khan. Ulug Khan was sent by his father to invade on Warangal, first time in A.D.1323. Ulugh Khan failed in his first attempt, but on the orders of his father, made the second attack on Orugallu in the same year. Prataparudra II and his army fought ferociously but the result was nil. Ulug Khan got the victory. The wealth and Warangal fort became the target of the Sultanate army. While taking to Delhi as captive, Prataparudra escaped and committed suicide by jumping into the Narmada River. This fact is mentioned in the Vilasa copper plate inscription of Masunuri Prolaya Nayaka. By the death of Prataparudra II Kakatiya dynasty came to an end. Telangana and Orugallu were merged into the Delhi Sultanate Empire, and Orugallu's name was changed to Sultanpur.

Prataparudra II's feudatories, Army chiefs and Ministers

Kayastha Mallideva, Recherla Mummadi Nayaka, Recherela Venna son of Recherla Prasadaditya, his grand children Eradacha, Nalladacha, is his supporters. Prataparudra made the army strong and fought wars heroically.

Delhi Sultanate army's attacks on Dakshinapatha - Downfall of Kakatiya Kingdom

Under the rule of Kakatiyas today's Telangana and Andhra regions were united. Language and Culture Progressed. But the contemporary Deccan Hindu kingdoms like Hoyasala, Pandya, Yadava and Kakatiya kingdoms ended in the attacks of Delhi Sultans. As a result foundations were laid for the spread of Islam and Turkish political authority in the Dakshinapatha.

Muslim attack on North India started almost around A.D.950, where as on South India they were started in A.D.1303. The Slave dynasty ruled north India between A.D.1206-1294, due to the attacks from the Mongols and busy in conquering the North Indian rulers, not cutting of their relations with Afghanistan, the Delhi Sultans did not try for the south Indian conquests. But the Khalji dynasty began with Jalaluddin and by the time his son-in-law Allauddin Khalji's time Mongols were taken under control and the Rajputs were completely defeated. Camping at Kara Alllauddin Khalji thought that the way to meet the expenses of the army is conquering the south. By that time Devagiri was occupied, hence the second step fell invariably on Andhra. The south Indian kingdoms during the Muslim attacks had no idea to neither work together, nor consider it as a common disaster and face them, lacking such a thought was a pathetic condition in the Indian politics.

Ekamranatha's Pratapa Charitra, Masunuri Prolaya nayaka's Vilasa copper plate, Anitally, Kaluvacheruvu copper plate and other local histories mention that during the Prataprudra II Period, there were Eight Turkish attacks, but Muslim historians mention only five. In A.D.1303, Malik Fakruddin Juna, and Zaju the chiefs, on the orders of Allauddin Khalji for the first time came via Bengal and attacked Telangana. The two armies fought near Upperapalli in Karimnagar district, in which Kakatiya chief's Recherla Venna, Potuganti Myli led the army of Kakatiya. In the first attack Khalji army got defeat by the Kakatiya army.

Second invasion on Orugallu took place in A.D.1309. Contemporary historians like Amir Khusru and Barani had explained this war. Khalji army was led by Maliknaib Kafur and Khwajahaji. In the beginning the Khalji army reached Devagiri, from there crossing Basirghar, Kunarbal reached Anumakonda. The attack continued for a month, then and occupied Anumakonda. First they took over the mud fort, later attacked the stone walled fort, while attacking this Muslim army burnt the near by villages, in this helpless situation Prataperudrall agreed for as treaty, paying huge amount yearly as tribute with Malik Kafur. After the death of Allauddin Khalji, Prataparudra stopped payment of tribute. Qutbuddin Mubarak the Sultan of Delhi at that time, sent Khusru Khan on Orugallu. In the third attack also Prataparudra was defeated and accepted to pay the tribute, by making a peace treaty. Fourth attack took place in A.D.1321-22. As per Tariq-i-Faristha written by Faristha, in 1320 Khalji's rule came to an end and Tughluqs rule began at Delhi. Ghiyasuddin Tughluq was the first ruler of Tughluq dynasty, wanted to build a Muslim rule in the south, instead of collecting tribute. For this his son Juna khan reached Orugallu via Devagiri attacked for six months. According to Isami's Futwut Salatin, Faristha's Tariq-i-Faristha and Velugotivari Vamshavali, when Tughaluqs army was about to win, poet Ubaid spread a rumor of death of the Delhi Sultan, two army chiefs Taimur and Tigrin rebelled and began discussions with Prataprudra. Juna Khan stopped the attacks and went back to Delhi. While the Delhi army was going back, the Kakatiya army caused them great loss and created trouble. Fifth attack took place in A.D.1323. Juna khan reached Devagiri. With additional force coming from Delhi, he occupied Bidar and Bodhan and then attacked Orugallu. The seizing continued for five months. By Muslim attacks, Prataprudra's treasury became empty, Muslim's wanton destruction of the villages created fear and panic among the people. They lost will power, lose faith in the lord and God. In addition to this the jealousy among the Velamas and Reddy's reached the peak. Prataprudra, showing respect to the Velamas was not liked by the Reddys. According to Prataprudra Charitra, army chief Bobba reddy left the war with his army. The protection of Kakatiya kingdom was fractured due to caste differences. Prataprudra was defeated by Juna Khan and became captive. While taking to Delhi, Prataparudra escaped and committed suicide by jumping into the Narmada River. Kakatiya kingdom became a part of Delhi Sultanate, Orugallu popularly known as 'Andhra nagari' was changed to Sultanpur.

The Sovereign Kakatiya rule (A.D. 1163-1323) united the Telugu speaking people, enriched Telugu culture, and left behind magnificent monuments. Their downfall came through the repeated attacks of the Delhi Sultanate.

Quick Review

Sovereign Kakatiya Rulers

Rudradeva (A.D.1163-1195)
Mahadeva (A.D.1195-1199)
Ganapatideva (A.D.1199-1262)
Rudramadevi (A.D.1262-1289)
Pratapa Rudra II (A.D.1289-1323)

Rudradeva Highlights

Declared independence in A.D.1163
1000 pillar temple inscription, Anumakonda
Defeated Dommaraja, Medaraju, Myligadeva
Built new capital Orugallu (Warangal)
Died in war with Yadava Jaitugi (A.D.1195)

Ganapatideva Highlights

Ruled 63 years (A.D.1199-1262)
United all Telugu speaking people
Conquered Velanadu, Nellore, Kalinga
Matrimonial alliances with Ayyavamshas
Handed administration to Rudramadevi

Rudramadevi Highlights

First great woman ruler of medieval South India
Defeated Yadava king Mahadeva
Took title 'Raya Gaja Kesari'
Faced Ambadeva's rebellion
Died A.D.1289 suppressing Ambadeva

Pratapa Rudra II Highlights

Last Kakatiya ruler (A.D.1290-1323)
Appointed 77 Nayakas for army
Defeated Ambadeva's son Murari II
Faced repeated Delhi Sultanate attacks
Died A.D.1323; Kakatiya dynasty ended

Delhi Sultanate Attacks

First attack: A.D.1303 (defeated by Kakatiyas)
Second attack: A.D.1309 (Malik Kafur)
Third attack: A.D.1318 (Khusru Khan)
Fourth attack: A.D.1321-22 (Juna Khan)
Fifth attack: A.D.1323 (Orugallu fell)

Key points from Telangana History - Culture (Kakatiya age, pages 175-189)

Telangana History & Culture - Kakatiya dynasty overview

Early history of Kakatiya Dynasty

noreply@blogger.com (Estudies4you) — Wed, 23 Sep 2026 07:07:57 +0000

Kakatiyas Identity & Early History | Feudatory Kakatiyas | Telangana

Kakatiyas - Identity and Early History

Magallu inscription to Prolaraja II - Feudatory phase (A.D. 956 - 1162)

Many inscriptions and literary works reveal some information on the identity and early history of the Kakatiyas, and this information led to two different types of opinion among the historians. In the Eastern Chalukyan king Danarnava's Magallu inscription (A.D.956), for the first time Kakartya Gundyana and his preceding three generations are mentioned. Some historians argued that he is the founder of the Kakatiya dynasty. There is no unanimity on the birth place of the Kakatiyas. According to some historians, Kakatipuram village was their early home and with that they got the name Kakatiya, however some historians opposed this version. As per the second group, the Kakatiyas worshipped 'Kakati', the local mother goddess (Jain Goddess), and hence they got the name.

Kumaraswamy Somapeethi, the commentator on the Prataparudriyaya of Vidyanatha, who lived in the 15th century mentioned that because they worshipped Kakati goddess, one of the forms of goddess Durga, they got the name Kakatiyas ('Kakatiyas', p.29). The author of Kridhabhiramam, Vinukonda Vallabharaya, in his work mentioned the idol of Kakati goddess (Kridhabhiramam poem no.128). Sitabkhan's inscription of the 16th century (IAP Wgp296 Vol II 132-136), mentions that Sitabkhan reinstated the idol of Kakati in the Warangal fort, when the idol was destroyed by the army of Delhi Sultans. Though Kakati is not mentioned in the Hindu puranas as one of the forms of Goddess Durga, but many of the village goddesses were accepted as the forms of Durga, hence Kakati was considered as one of the forms of Durga, and she is worshipped along with Ekaveera, a village goddess.

Kakatiyas as Feudatories

Historians describe the early members of the family as feudatory Kakatiyas. Among them first was Kakartya Gundyana, whose name is mentioned for the first time in the Danarnava's Magallu inscription. Starting from Kakartya Gundyana to Rudra I or Rudradeva, that means from A.D. 956 to A.D. 1162, and the rulers of the areas of present Karimnagar, Warangal and Khammam, were known as Feudatory Kakatiyas. Among them Kakartya Gundyana, Rastrakuta, Eriya Rastrakuta, Betaraja I (A.D.995-1052), Prolaraja I (A.D.1052-1076), Betaraja II (A.D.1076-1108), Prolaraja II (A.D.1116-1157), Rudradeva (A.D.1158-1162) are important. In this the last ruler Rudra's rule from A.D.1158-1162 is considered as Feudatory phase and from A.D. 1163-1195 is considered as independent Sovereign Kakatiya rule.

Kakartya Gundyana played a crucial role in the conquest of Bezawada fort under the Rastrakuta Krishna II, but lost his life in the Peruvangooru battle with the Vengi Chalukyas. Impressed by the faithfulness and courage of his feudatory, Rastrakuta emperor appointed Kakartya Gundyana's son Eriya as the administrator of Kurivadi (Warangal) seema, which was ruled by the Mudigonda Chalukyas. The Rastrakutas aimed to get their dominance over the area between the Vengi Chalukyan and the Rastrakutas, for this they kept the Mudigonda Chalukyas under their control. After the appointment of Eriya Rastrakuta as the administrator of Kurivadiseema, the rule and the relations with the people of Telangana by the Kakatiyas started for the first time.

Betaraja I

When Kakartya Gundyana died, Betal was a small child, and the responsibility of protecting the kingdom fell on his maternal aunt Kamasani and her husband, Veeriyala Errabhupati. Errabhupati reinstated Betal in Kakatipuram after defeating Betal's enemies in fierce battle and saved the throne, and expanded the rule of Betal to Koraviseema. Veeriyala ErraBhupati's death gave the enemies of Betal one more chance to finish him off. Expecting the danger from the attack by the Vengi Chalukya, Kamasani advised Beta to accept the Kalyana Chalukya king as his overlord. As a feudatory of Kalyana Chalukyas, with their help Betal was prepared to face the attack from the Vengi rulers. Betal had the title "Kakatipuradhinatha".

Prolaraja I (A.D.1050-1075)

Prolaraja I was the son of Betaraja I. The Khajipeta, Pillalamarri, and Palampeta inscriptions inform his great achievements. He had set right the chakrakuta, conquered the Konkana Mandala, killed Gonaaraja of Purukuta, and defeated the Bhadranagapuradeeshvara. Appreciating his achievements, Kalyana Chalukya Someshvara I appointed him as feudatory ruler of Anumakonda Vishaya, with hereditary rights. Though Anumakonda was under his rule, recognition from the overlord enhanced the status of Prola I.

Prolaraja I's majority victories are related to the battles of his overlord. According to Bilhana's Vikramankadeva charitra, Someshvara I sent an army to conquer the Chola kingdom under the leadership of his son Vikramaditya. Vikramaditya's army conquered Konkan, moved through Kerala and Pandya kingdoms and reached Gangaikondapuram, and occupying Gangaikondapuram reached Kanchipuram and occupied it. From there the army moved to Vengi and reached Chakrakuta. Prola I fought Konkana, Gangaikonda, and Kanchi wars along with the king moving to Chakrakuta handed over it to his overlord. He defeated its ruler Bhadrangapura located on the banks of Indravati River, and killed the Purakuta king in the battle. All these wars are related to the conquests of Kalyana Chalukyas. Later he defeated the Kodavarti Duggaraju (ruling near Warangal) and occupied it.

Betaraja II (A.D.1075-1108)

After the death of Prolaraja I, his son Betaraja II ascended the throne. His Anumakonda inscription (A.D. 1070-80) does not mention his title "Tribhuvanamalla", whereas his Khajipeta inscription of A.D.1090 mentions this title with another one "Vikramachakriya". Nelaturi Venkata Ramanayya explains that in the internal war between Kalyana Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI and his brother Someshvara II, Vikramaditya took action on Beta II and put him in a dangerous situation, finally Beta II surrendered to Vikramaditya, then Vikramaditya VI gave him Sabbi sayera mandala. But this argument of Venkataramanayya was not acceptable to many historians.

During this period there was a fierce enmity between the Chola Chalukyas and Kalyana Chalukyas, and to occupy Vengi Vikramaditya might have sought the help of Kakatiya Betaraja. In helping and conquering Vengi Betaraja's minister Vaizadandanatha played an important role. Feeling happy over this king Vikramaditya VI handed over Sabbi Mandala to Betaraja which enhanced his respect. Betaraja took the titles like Mahamandaleshvara, Tribhubanamalla, Vikramachakri etc. His spiritual Master (guru) was Rameshwara Deekshitha. As per available sources, in A.D. 1108 when Beta II died his son Durgnrupati ascended the throne.

Prolaraja II (A.D. 1115-1157)

He was the strongest ruler among the feudatory Kakatiyas, ruled from A.D. 1115 to 1157, ascending the throne after his brother Durgaraju. Immediately after ascending the throne, he defeated the feudatory rulers of Kalyana Chalukyas in the wars, who were on the border with his kingdom, and this fact is supported by his son Rudradeva's famous thousand pillar temple inscription at Anumakonda. Paramara Jaggadeva, ruler of Kolanupaka was defeated by Prolaraja II. In A.D. 1137 Kalyana Chalukyan king Jagadekamalla II, who was the friend of Prolaraja II, and both their armies together attacked the army of Kanduri Chodas and defeated Tailapa, who had earlier defeated Bheema Choda and killed him. He marched his army up to Srisailam and erected the pillar of victory.

During his period, friction developed between the Polavasa lords and Kakatiyas, though both of them were the feudatories of the Kalyana Chalukyas. Whenever there were family feuds over inheritance, both took the opposite side, and sometimes took the same side. Prolaraja made war with Rajendra Chola. In Telangana Prolaraja II was successful in putting a stop to the importance of the Kalyana Chalukyas and made the Kakatiyas a strong force. In the last Prolaraja II was killed by the enemy forces and was succeeded to the throne by his son Rudradeva, who ascended the throne in A.D.1158, remained as feudatory until A.D.1162 and declared independence.

The feudatory phase (A.D. 956 - 1162) laid the foundation for the Kakatiyas' rise as an independent sovereign power under Rudradeva in A.D. 1163.

Quick Review

Identity & Origin

Magallu inscription (A.D. 956) - first mention of Kakartya Gundyana
Name from Kakatipuram village OR goddess 'Kakati'
Kakati = local mother goddess, form of Durga
Worshipped with village goddess Ekaveera

Feudatory Phase (A.D. 956-1162)

Under Rashtrakutas, then Kalyana Chalukyas
Ruled Karimnagar, Warangal, Khammam areas
Eriya Rastrakuta - first administrator of Kurivadiseema
Independent rule begins A.D. 1163

Key Feudatory Rulers

Kakartya Gundyana - founder figure
Betaraja I - title 'Kakatipuradhinatha'
Prolaraja I - got Anumakonda Vishaya
Betaraja II - got Sabbi Mandala
Prolaraja II - strongest feudatory ruler

Prolaraja II Highlights

Defeated Paramara Jaggadeva of Kolanupaka
Allied with Jagadekamalla II (A.D. 1137)
Marched to Srisailam, erected victory pillar
War with Rajendra Chola
Killed in battle, succeeded by Rudradeva

Key points from Telangana History - Culture (Kakatiya age, pages 173-175)

Telangana History & Culture - Kakatiya dynasty overview

UNIT 9: Kakatiya Dynasty

noreply@blogger.com (Estudies4you) — Wed, 23 Sep 2026 01:47:56 +0000

Kakatiya Dynasty History | Telangana Culture & Sources

Kakatiya Dynasty History

Rule & developments (10th - 13th c. AD) - Telangana & Andhra - Sources, identity, early history

From the 10th to 13th century AD, the Deccan and Telugu region was ruled by the Kakatiyas, while the Kannada region was under the Hoyasalas, the Maratha region under the Yadavas, and the Tamil region under the Pandyas. These dynasties were known for their service to the people, protection of Hindu culture, and tolerance towards other religions. Despite their valor and devotion to their motherland, internal disunity led to their downfall and opened doors for Delhi Sultanate attacks. The Kakatiyas began as army officials under the Rashtrakutas, later serving the Kalyana Chalukyas, and eventually became independent with capitals at Anumakonda and Orugallu. They ruled Telugu-speaking areas for over three centuries and sowed the seeds of today's Telangana culture.

Sources of Kakatiya History

Two main types: Archaeological (inscriptions, coins, monuments) and Literary (Telugu, Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian). Inscriptions reveal socio-economic conditions, wars, and military details. Coins include Kesari Gaddyana, Nishka, Madas, Pati-Varas. Monuments like the Orugallu fort, Kakatiya Toranas, thousand pillar temple (Anumakonda), Ramappa temple (Palampet), and temples at Pillalamarri, Nagulapadu, and Ghanapuram showcase exquisite sculpture and drapery designs.

Archaeological sources - key inscriptions

S.No	Inscription / author	King / officer	Time / period	Historical importance
1	Magallu inscription	Eastern Chalukyan King Danarnava	A.D. 956	Donation of Magallu village to a Brahmin by Kakartya Gundana
2	Anumakonda 1000 pillar temple inscription	Rudradeva	A.D. 1063	Declaration of independence in 1063 by Rudradeva
3	Draksharamam temple inscription	Prola II's minister Inangala Brahmireddy	A.D. 1158	Prola II's son Rudradeva's accession to the throne
4	Bayyaram Inscription	Ganapatideva's sister Mailamba	A.D. 1219	Digging of Bayyaram Tank by Mailamba (Khammam district)
5	Motopalli inscription	Ganapatideva	A.D. 1244	Remissions to foreign merchants
6	Malkapuram inscription	Ganapatideva	A.D. 1261	References to Vidyamandapas
7	Chandupatla inscription	Rudramadevi's servant Puvvulamummadi	A.D. 1289	Rudramadevi lost her life suppressing Ambadeva's revolt; land donation for her sadgati
8	Tripurantakam inscription (Nellore)	Ambadeva, Rudrama's official	A.D. 1291	Victories of Ambadeva
9	Salakalaveedu inscription	Pratapa Rudra II	A.D. 1317	Deveri Nayaka donated Sakalaveedu village to God Kaveri Ranganatha after victory over Pandyas; mentions many taxes
10	Kolunupalli inscription (Mahaboob nagar)	Pratapa Rudra II	A.D. 1321	Donations to Chenna Keshavawamy and Narasimha Swamy temples

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Literary sources of Kakatiya history

S.No.	Book	Author	Language	Details
1	Pandiradya Charitam, Basavapuranam	Palkurki Somanatha	Telugu	Conditions of Saivism and other religions during Kakatiya period
2	Neetisaram / Neeti Sastramuktavali	Baddena	Telugu	Explains Raja neeti and Raja dharma
3	Shivayogosaram	Kolanu Ganapatideva	Telugu	History of Indaluri Nayakas
4	Kridhabhiramam	Venukonda Vallabharaya	Telugu	Description of life of people in Warangal fort
5	Prataparudriyam / Prataparudra Yahsho bhushanam	Vidhyanatha	Sanskrit	Court poet of Prataparudra II
6	Nrutyarathnavali	Jayapa Senanai	Sanskrit	Explains characteristics of Nrutya and Natya
7	Andhra Mahabharatam	Tikkana Somayaji	Telugu	Ganapatideva's friend Nellore King Manumasiddi's court poet
8	Nirvachanottara Ramayanam	Tikkana Somayaji	Telugu	Viraata Parvam

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Other language writings

Arabic & Persian: Tariq-i-Farishtha (Farishtha), Fut-wut-salatin (Isami), Barani's Tariq-i-Ferozshahi, Rehalla (Ibn Battuta). European: "The Travels" by Marco Polo mentions foreign trade at Motupalli during Rudramadevi's period. Telugu works like Pratapacharitra (Ekamranatha), Siddeshwara Charitra (Kashe Sarvappa), and Neetisaram also inform Kakatiya administration.

Kakatiyas - Identity and Early History

Many inscriptions and literary works reveal information on the identity and early history of the Kakatiyas, leading to different opinions among historians. In the Eastern Chalukyan king Danarnava's Magallu inscription (A.D. 956), for the first time Kakartya Gundyana and his preceding three generations are mentioned. Some historians argue he is the founder of the Kakatiya dynasty. There is no unanimity on the birthplace: some believe Kakatipuram village gave them the name, while others oppose this. According to the second group, the Kakatiyas worshipped 'Kakati' (the goddess) -

The early history remains debated, but the Kakatiyas rose from local chiefs to a powerful dynasty that shaped Telugu culture and architecture.

Quick Review

Dynasties (10th-13th c.)

Kakatiyas - Telugu region
Hoyasalas - Kannada region
Yadavas - Maratha region
Pandyas - Tamil region

Archaeological sources

Inscriptions (10 key ones listed)
Coins: Kesari Gaddyana, Nishka, Madas, Pati-Varas
Monuments: Orugallu fort, Ramappa temple, 1000-pillar temple

Literary sources

Telugu: Pandiradya Charitam, Neetisaram, Kridhabhiramam
Sanskrit: Prataparudriyam, Nrutyarathnavali
Persian/Arabic: Tariq-i-Farishtha, Ibn Battuta

Early identity

Magallu inscription (A.D. 956) - first mention
Kakartya Gundyana - possible founder
Birthplace: Kakatipuram (disputed)
Worshipped goddess 'Kakati' (per some historians)

Key points from Telangana History - Culture (Kakatiya age)

Telangana History & Culture - Kakatiya dynasty overview

UNIT 8: Rashtrakuta Dynasty

noreply@blogger.com (Estudies4you) — Mon, 21 Sep 2026 07:36:38 +0000

Rashtrakutas: Comprehensive Exam Study Notes

Introduction

Rashtrakutas occupied the most prominent place in the history of South India. Remaining as feudatories of the Chalukyas of Badami, they after the decline of the Badami Chalukyas, established an independent and vast empire. Many districts of Telangana used to be under the rule of the Rashtrakutas. Manyakheta in Karnataka region remained as their capital.

Origin

There are different opinions among the historians regarding the origin of the Rashtrakutas. While some scholars held the view that their political life started in Maharashtra, others argue that their original homeland was Karnataka.

Dr. Fleet felt that Rashtrakutas belonged to the Rathor descendents of Northern India.
R.G Bhandarkar is of the opinion that the Rajjakas (provincial governors) of the Mauryan days only might have become Rashtrakutas.
Dr. Barnal has informed that Rashtrakutas were Telugu people and after sometime, they were called as Reddis.
Mallampalli Somasekhara Sarma has also held the opinion that remaining as Rattadi or Charriot-drivers, the Rashtrakutas were those who later became Reddis of Telugu land.
A.S. Altekar tells that the term 'Rashtrakuta', remained the name of employer and later as they established independent kingdom, that became established as their dynastic name.

The word Rashtrakuta was not the name of race. As 'gramakuta' means a village official in the ancient days, so also it could be said that 'Rashtrakuta' indicates employer name. During the Mauryan period, person known as 'Rashtriya' used to be the viceroy of bigger regions, such as Gujarat and Kathiawar. In the first centuries of A.D., Rathikas and Maharathikas governed small regions in Maharashtra and Berar and when central government became weak, they established independent kingdoms.

It is being learnt that the word 'Rashtrakuta' has been adopted as their dynastic name. Among the Rashtrakutas who became independent, important were those, who became the chiefs of Lattaluru. The present day Kannada-speaking Latur in Bidar district is only this Lattaluru. Hence, their mother tongue must have been Kannada only.

During the time of Badami Chalukyas, they remained as their feudatories. They might have belonged to the Rathika family in Maharashtra areas or to the Reddi family in Andhra and Karnataka regions. In their dynastic anecdotes, Rashtrakutas claimed themselves to have originated from Satyaki, the brother of Sri Krishna. Ruling Bidar and Maharashtra areas, these Rashtrakutas cooperated for keeping the prestige of the Badami Chalukya Kingdom and when that kingdom got disintegrated they established that independent kingdom and within a short time, became the emperors of Dakshinapatha of South India.

Political Developments

Rashtrakutas ruled nearly for 200 years. The brother of Nannaraju, who ruled Ellichpur area in 631 A.D., is considered as the ancestor in their dynasty.

Indra Raja - I (696 - 710 A.D.) was the founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. They ruled Manyakheta and Western Telangana areas as the feudatories of the Badami Chalukyas. After them Govindaraja or Varma - I (710 - 725 A.D.), Kanakaraja - I (725 - 735 A.D.) and Indraraja - II (735 - 748 A.D.) used to be the feudatories of Badami Chalukyas.

Dantidurga (748 - 758 A.D.)

Independent Rashtrakuta kingdom was established by Dantidurga. He was the son of Indraraja II. He was highly courageous and of keen temperament. Dantidurga has defeated Kirtivarma - II (753 A.D.), Badami Chalukyan king and established independent Rashtrakuta kingdom. Greater part of Telangana used to be in their empire.

Earlier as the feudatory of Western Chalukyan ruler, Vikramaditya - II, has participated in several expeditions and conquered Pallava, Malwa and Gujarat areas. In the battle that was fought in 738 A.D., he has severely defeated the Arabs. Getting happy over this great victory, Vikramaditya - II gave the titles of 'Prithvivallabha' and 'Khadgavaloka' to Dantidurga. The later has occupied Nasik, Poona, Satara and Kolhapur districts. Becoming the overlord of entire Maharashtra, he assumed the titles of 'Maharajadhiraja', 'ParamaMaheswara' and 'ParamaBhattaraka'. By 757 A.D., he has conquered Kanchi, Kalinga, Kosala, Srisailam, Malwa, Lata and Sindhu areas.

Vayamgadh inscriptions and the inscriptions at Dasavatara temple in Ellora of Dantidurga are describing his great war victories. He has invaded Malwa and conquered it and in its capital Ujjaini, he made 'Hiranyagarbha' donation and declared his victory. He has given his daughter in marriage to Pallava king Nandivarma - II. In his short period of rule itself, he has established an extensive Rashtrakuta empire and died in 758 A.D.

Krishna - I (758 - 772 A.D.)

After Dantidurga, Krishna - I ruled Rashtrakuta kingdom. He has carried conquests that were started by Dantidurga. He has occupied Southern Konkan and sent crown-Prince Govinda-II to Vengi. The latter has defeated Vengi Chalukyan ruler Vishnuvardhana - IV and occupied some territory. During the time of Krishna - I rivalry started between the Vengi Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas. Krishna had the titles of 'Subhatunga' and 'Akalavarshudu'. He was also a great patron of art. He has built the Kailasanadha temple (Rock-cut) at Ellora. The construction of this temple nearly went on for hundred years. It has received recognition as world heritage site.

Govinda - II (772 - 780 A.D.)

After Krishna - I, Govinda - II ruled between 772-780 A.D. He won victory in the battle of Gangavadi. He was called as 'Suvarna Govindaraja' and 'Prabhuta Varsha'.

Dhruva Raja or Dhruva (780 - 792 A.D.)

Dhruva killed his brother Govinda - II, ascended the throne and defeated the kings of Kanchi, Gangavadi, Vengi and Malwa. He has defeated the Eastern Chalukyan ruler Vishnuvardhana - IV and married his daughter Seelamahadevi. He had great courage and capacity. Not only Dakshinapatha or South India, he has conquered North India and made the rulers there, as his feudatories. He was the first Rashtrakuta ruler who entered into Tripartite wars. Tripartite wars took place between Pala, Pratihara and Rashtrakuta dynasties. He has defeated Pratihara Kanauj ruler Vatsaraja and as a mark of his victory, he adopted 'Ganga-Yamuna torana' as his kingdom's emblem.

Rashtrakuta kingdom which remained a local kingdom was extended to North India and created a special place for the Rashtrakutas in the history of India. He had the titles of 'Srivallabha', 'Nirupakelivallabha' and 'Daranarva'. As a result of the victories in this expedition, the military strength of the Rashtrakutas and prestige of Rashtrakuta kingdom rose immensely. During his thirteen year rule, Dhruva has expanded Rashtrakuta Kingdom into a vast empire. In all these wars, his sons Stambha, Karka, Govinda and Indra helped him.

Govinda - III (793 - 814 A.D.)

After Dhruva, his son Govinda III, assumed power. He was the greatest among the Rashtrakutas. He had titles like 'Prabhutavarsha', 'Rajadhiraja', 'Rajaparameswara', 'Tribhuvanadhavali', 'Sri Vallabha', 'Janavallabha' and 'Kirthinarayana'.

In Sanjan inscription, his greatness and victories are mentioned. He has fought wars with Pallava, Western Ganga, Ghurjara Pratihara and Pala kings and achieved success. He has defeated Pratihara King, Nagabhata - II. He has ruled for 22 years. He has spent his entire life time in waging wars only. His conquests extended to Chitrakuta, Ujjaini, Bengal, Kalapriya and Ganga-Yamuna coastal plain. The ruler of Simhala country became his friend. Broach ruler, Sribhavana also maintained good relations with him. When Govinda was in Northern expedition, Pallava, Pandya, Kerala and Ganga kings have formed themselves into a confederacy against him. Knowing this, he made lightning attacks on them and by 802 A.D this confederacy was broken. In this way, Govinda III became famous as a great warrior, commander-in-chief and statesman among the Rashtrakuta emperors. During his period, the name and fame of the Rashtrakutas has reached highest level.

Amoghavarsha (814 - 880 A.D.)

After Govinda III, his only son Amoghavarsha has ruled. His original name was Saru. As he happened to be a minor when he came to the throne, his uncle Indra's son, Karka has, as his protector, took up the administrative responsibility of the kingdom.

Amoghavarsha's reign was filled with rebellions, internal conflicts and wars. He has defeated the Vengi king, Gunaga Vijayaditya. In South Indian politics, through marriage alliances, he has strengthened his relations with some royal dynasties. In the South, Gangavadi king, Nitidurga declared his independence. Amoghavarsha defeated him and with political foresight gave back his kingdom to the latter and he gave his daughter Chandrabbalachhen, in marriage to the Ganga king's son Butuga. Another daughter of him Renuka (Revaka) Nirmadi (Sankha) was given in marriage to the Pallava king, Nandi Varma. He gave his sister in marriage to the Vengi - Crown - Prince Vishnuvardhana VII. Eastern Chalukyan ruler, Gunaga Vijayaditya became his feudatory. Not only in political and military fields, but also in religious and literacy fields, Amoghavarsha's contribution has been great.

He was a great poet. He has written 'Kavirajamarga' the first 'alankara' work. He also wrote another work, 'PrasnottaraRatnamalika'. He had the title 'Kaviraja'. Jain poets of his period - Mahavira Acharya and Saktyana wrote respectively 'GanitasaraSangraha' and 'Amoghavritti'.

Amoghavarsha built Manyakheta (Malkhed) city and made it his capital. Arab traveller, Suleman describing the activities of Amoghavarsha has praised him as one of the four great emperors in the world. In order to put a stop to the famine and pestilence in his kingdom, Amoghavarsha has offered his left hand finger as a sacrifice to Mahalakshmi goddess at Kolhapur. Amoghavarsha adopted Jainism. He has observed 'Sallekhanavrata' and died.

Krishna II (880 - 914 A.D.)

After Amoghavarsha, his son, Krishna II, became the king. From his time onwards, the decline of the Rashtrakutas has started. Continuous wars were fought with Pratihara, Kalinga, Ganga and Magadha kingdoms. GhurjaraPratihara king, MihiraBhoja, swooped on Rashtrakuta kingdom.

Eastern Chalukya Kings GunagaVijayaditya has invaded Rashtrakuta kingdom and put Kiranapura, Achalapura and Chakrakuta cities to destruction. He clashed with Chola King, Parantaka and got defeated. Krishna II gave his daughter in marriage to Chola King Aditya - I. The reign of Krishna-II, who has faced defeats in many wars, has shaken the very foundations of the Rashtrakuta Empire.

Later Rashtrakutas

After Krishna II, Indra III (914 - 928 A.D.) ruled. During his time, Arab traveler Al-Masudi visited Rashtrakuta kingdom. Later Amoghavarsha II (928 - 929 A.D.) and Govinda-IV (930 - 936 A.D.) ruled Rashtrakuta kingdom. Govinda IV got disgusted with the rebellions of Mudigonda Chalukyas, gave up the kingdom and ran away. As a result, Amoghavarsha III (936 - 939 A.D.), Govinda IV and Krishna III (939 - 966 A.D.) etc. ruled the Rashtrakuta kingdom.

During the time of Krishna III, Rashtrakuta prestige was restored. He has invaded the Chola kingdom, crown-prince Rajaditya was killed and assumed the title 'Tanjavoor Konda'. In the Takkolam battle, Parantaka Chola I was defeated and victory Pillar was erected at Rameswaram. Not only this, Northern Indian expedition was made and Ujjain ruler, Mahipala was defeated.

After Krishna III, his brother Khottiga became the ruler. He ruled between 967 - 972 A.D. When Malwa king Harshaseyaka has defeated Khottiga and destroyed Manyakheta, Khottiga got highly grief-struck over this insult and died.

Among the Rashtrakutas, last ruler was Karkaraja II (972 - 973 A.D.). During his time, feudatories became independent. Under these circumstances Chalukyan Tailapa, the ruler of Tondawadi and a feudatory, has defeated Karkaraja, killed him and occupied Manyakheta. With this, the rule of the Rashtrakutas has disappeared permanently. Tailapa II has established the rule of the Kalyani Chalukyan dynasty.

The Glory of Rashtrakuta Empire

In the history of India itself, their rule period has attained a distinction. The Rashtrakuta emperors who were unrivalled, daring and war-like qualities were not only able to establish a vast empire that extended from Kanyakubja to Kanyakumari, but were also able to introduce an effective system of administration work for the welfare of the people and became popular rulers. These Rashtrakutas who created heroic age in the history of India, introduced a powerful system of administration and ruled in the interests of the people. In the beginning Ellichpur, Ellora and Paithan cities remained as their capitals and later during Amoghavarsha's reign, Manyakheta used to be the capital.

Administrative System

In Rashtrakuta Empire, king or emperor enjoyed absolute power. He remained independent in statecraft. Authority over the kingdom used to be hereditary. Rashtrakuta kings assumed the titles of 'Maharajadhiraja', 'Dharavarsha' and 'Vikramavaloka'. Though kingship was generally hereditary, there was the practice in those times that, on occasions when a son other than the eldest was found able and efficient, in the interests of the kingdom, he used to be made the ruler. King used to be the commander-in-chief. He used to lead the armies during wars. The king's court which was full of ostentation and splendour, remained as the symbol of king's power and supremacy. Feudatories, foreign ambassadors, poets, doctors, astrologers, higher civil, military and government officials and representatives of the Sreni's or guilds used to attend the king's court.

Ministry

In the administration of the kingdom, ministers used to assist the king. The important among the ministers are used to be called as 'Mahamantri'.

In the ministry, Prime Minister, Finance Minister, Head of the Treasury, Law Minister, Commander-in-chief and Purohita used to be there. Inscriptions have mentioned the posts of 'Mahamatya' and 'Mahasandhivigrahaka'. Kings, officials who were appointed at different places in the kingdom used to be called as 'Rajasthaneeya'.

In Rashtrakuta Empire, some parts of the Empire used to be under the direct rule of the emperor and few others used to be under the rule of the feudatories.

Feudatories used to obey the orders of the emperor, pay tribute and as per the agreement used to supply the armies to the King. Rashtrakuta kings used to take effective measures so as to ensure that the feudatories do not rebel.

Local Administrative System

The kings divided the kingdom into Rashtra, Vishaya and Villages. 'Mahasamanta' or 'Mahamandaleshwara' was the governing head of Rashtra. They belonged to the status of feudatories.

District officials called as 'Vishayapati' and 'Bhogapati' were also appointed by the king only. The governing head of a town was 'Nagarapati'. For village generally 'Gramapati' used to be the head.

Village Assembly, known as 'Mahajanam' belonged to Agraharas. Combined village assemblies generally had farmer assembly.

Army Organisation

Rashtrakutas maintained big armies. According to the opinion of Altekar, their army numbered less than five lakhs. Generally, major part of the army used to be kept in the capital. In the army, infantry used to have greater importance. In their army organization, soldiers belonging to all Varnas are seen. Members of Jainism, such as Bankaya and Sri Vijaya used to be the commanders-in-chief. For the soldiers who died in war, government used to give relief or pension. Commanders just like feudatories, used to enjoy elephants, cavalry and chariots under their control.

Merchants during the time of expeditions used to sell the supplies in a lot for army needs. The police staff of those days consisted of 'Chorodharinukulu' and 'Dandaposikulu'.

Revenue Administration

Land tax was the main source of income to the kingdom. Besides this, a tax known as 'Padenala tax' a tax levied for army maintenance used to be collected. 'Sandhi Vigraha' tax was imposed for the defence of the kingdom. From the native and foreign merchants, heavy duties used to be collected in the form of transit duties and market duties etc. As the monarchical form of government began taking roots, the tax burden on the people began to increase. There are many instances stating that taxes were collected in installments. It could be realized from the information sources of the period that even though taxes, to a greater extent were remitted in the form of grain, payments were also made in cash. If for the sake of business, cotton, betel-nuts and sesamum were cultivated, just like excise tax, additional taxes used to be collected. Further profession taxes have also to be remitted. Craftsmen, such as potter, washerman, barber and blacksmith have to pay profession taxes.

In the same way, there used to be tax on the wheels that drew water for the fields. Among the property taxes, besides land tax, house tax, oil-mill tax, cattle tax, sheep herd tax and shop tax, etc., were there.

Out of the income that was received it is learnt that three parts to army maintenance, one part as reserve fund and 1/12th share for charities, palace and maintenance of the kingdom were utilized.

On an average 15% was left to the Kudivaram, local village officers for the use of the people. Besides this 1/3% from Melavaram used to be given by the Central government for people's welfare activities.

Judicial Administration

The king remained as the main judicial head. Judicial administration was carried through the 'Dharmasana' that belonged to the Grama Sabha. Activities against the king and monarchy used to be examined personally by the king and punishments were awarded.

Economic Conditions

For the economic development of the Rashtrakuta times, agriculture, industries, village crafts and commerce have contributed.

Agriculture

Agriculture used to be the primary basis for the economic organization. Because of the land grants made for the maintenance of the employer, extensive lands have been brought under cultivation. Arab historians have written that in Western India, land was fertile and paddy and fruits were in plenty. It was found that jowar and bajra were cultivated. Mango and toddy gardens used to be in an extensive manner. In Karnataka, betel-nut gardens were grown extensively.

In South India, agricultural land was specially referred to as 'Yeripatti' or 'Cheruvukattu' land. In the entire peninsula, agriculture that depended on tanks was very much prevalent. Agriculturist used to pay as tax one-sixth or one-tenth of the crop from the land. Besides this, for the maintenance of tanks and other irrigation sources, temples and other expenses, agriculturists used to pay several local taxes.

Industries

Textile industry became famous among all the industries. Gujarat, Berar and Telangana remained as important centers for these industries. Clothes that were manufactured in greater quantities used to be exported to foreign countries. It is learnt that persons belonging to different industries got organized into guilds. Besides the cloth and spinning industries, spices, sandalwood, timber, teakwood and leather industries used to be there.

Varied Crafts

It is being learnt that in Rashtrakuta kingdom, in village administration, not only administrative officials, but persons belonging to twelve crafts were there in it and with their cooperation; village administration was going on properly. Grasti, talari, astrologer, blacksmith, potter, carpenter, washerman, barber, village teacher, leather worker and weaver craftsmen were there as part of it. There used to be eighteen crafts people. Farmers, sheep and cattle breeders, handloom weavers, clerks, shop owners, soldiers, artists, scholars and traders. Crafts also found a place in the economic life of those times.

Trade and Commerce

Trading actively did not develop very much. 'Cosmos indico plustess' has mentioned about the trade that went on between the Eastern and Western coastal areas in South India and Western and South West Asian countries. Pepper, Cardamom and Pearls had been the main articles of export. It was clearly evident that during this period there was an increase in the importing of horses from the north western border. Textiles, their related industries, metal industry and carpentry have developed during this period.

For most part, all these got confined to the respective areas only. But trade in 11th and 12th centuries A.D., has received new vigour. Craft guilds, such as 'Manigaram', 'Nanadeseeyulu' and 'Tissaiva Aayutta Aainnurvar' have systematized the trade in the south. Among all these, 'Aainnurvar' or 'Ayyavolepura' '500 Swarnies' has been a trade guild that attained much prominence. They have visited all regions in India and also Persia and Southeast Asian countries. They happened to be the judicial protectors of leading merchants. 'Manigaram' was the local trade guild. 'Nagaram' meant an organized sales centre in South India.

Trade with China and Sri Vijaya countries was an event that deserved recognition during this age. Mahabalipuram, Nagapattanam, Kaveripattanam, Motupalli and Krishnapatnam on the Eastern coast and Chaul, Sopara and Calicut on the Western coast had been famous port towns.

Social Organisation

In South India and Deccan, the social structure essentially remained as per the 'Varnasrama Dharma' and the four-fold division of the Varnas. Inscriptions of all the times have stated that rulers have continued Varnasramadharma.

As Brahmins had prominence in religious and ritual rites, they had occupied a unique and higher place in the society. Just like commanders and ministers, they have taken up military and administrative professions, increased their economic potential and played a significant role. In a similar way as Vedic literature has been studied with exemption of tax, they received Agraharas and 'Brahmadeyas' from the kings as donations. As from 10th and 11th centuries A.D., temples have developed as organizations, it was estimated that the 'Brahmadeyas' have declined. Besides this, as the importance of the craftsmen and merchant classes began to increase, the economic condition of the Brahmins has gone down. Only theoretically religious significance has remained.

On account of invasions, Brahmins resorted to migration. Malkhed Rashtrakutas brought with them many Purohit families. Depending on the geographical divisions in which the Brahmins have resided, sects have developed among them. Ruling class desired that Kshatriya position should belong to them.

Rashtrakutas have been considered as 'Sat-Kshatriyas' a special sub-sect among the Kshatriyas. Ordinary Kshatriyas used to follow the rites and rituals of 'Dvijas'. In order to increase their status, they used to claim or announce that their dynasties belonged to either Chandra or Surya royal dynasties.

Vaisyas belonged to trading and agricultural classes and were called as 'Komaties' and 'Seths'. Right from ancient times, they used to have an integrated organization for carrying on their trading activities.

Sudras mainly took up the occupations of agriculture, agricultural labour and military service. Because of the increased difference between Sudras and Chandalas, Sudras have gained higher status. 'Rattadi' or 'Reddi', 'Vellala' and 'Kapu' has been major Sudra classes.

Until 10th and 11th centuries A.D., craftsmen, labourers and Chandalas remained in lower status only. 'VettiChakiri' was condemned in 'Yasastilaka', a literary work of 10th Century A.D.

Another development that deserved to be noticed was that in this way besides the emergence of landlord farmer class, in Karnataka and Tamilnadu areas in 9th and 10th centuries A.D., 'Gurava' community persons are able to obtain the position of Purohit in the Siva temples.

The emergence of crafts class 'Panchanamvaru' in Andhra and 'Edangai' in Tamilnadu in 11th century A.D., deserves to be noted significantly. New religious movements such as Virasaivism, Aaradhya Saivam and Sri Vaishnavam were patronized by craft classes and landlord farmers.

Progress of Education and Literature

The Rashtrakuta emperors showed lot of interest in the development of education and literature. It is being learnt that they gave lot of importance for the standards of higher education in the kingdom.

For the development of higher education, the Rashtrakuta emperors and rich people used to donate Agraharas and lands to the Brahmins. Agraharas used to be centers for Sanskrit education. Temple areas also got developed as educational institutions. For instance, in 'Trayipurusha' temple at Salatgi in Karnataka region, where a big college was located, it is being learnt that there were 27 hostels in the latter.

Jain and Buddhist religions used to impart their religious education. Students used to come from distant places for the sake of receiving education. Important cities and holy places that were there in the kingdom, developed as educational centers. Malkhed, Nasik and Paithan cities remained as important among them. Vedas, Grammar, Astrology, Literature, Philosophy, Dharmashastra, Puranas, Jurisprudence and Sanskrit education used to be subjects of higher education. Rashtrakuta kings have patronized Sanskrit and Kannada literatures.

In the Dhulia inscription that was issued by Dhruva, the emperor, those who received the grant happened to be scholars in Vedas, Vedangas, Itihasas, Puranas, Grammar, Philosophy and logic. It was stated that Sanskrit grammar was the base for all the Sastras or sciences. It appears that in 975 A.D., land admeasuring 50 Mattaras (might be 200 acres) was donated to a Mutt that was located in Bhujabheswara temple in Dharwad Mandal. In that Mutt, students had free education and food. In the grants that were made to temples, it appears that books for the educational institutions and students were also included. Temples and Agraharas of those days became respectively educational institutions and colleges. There was a Sanskrit educational institution at KaulasAgrahara in Dharwad Mandal. In it, 200 Brahmin families remained well-versed in Grammar, Moral Science, Literature and Puranas.

Literature

Sanskrit was the official language in Rashtrakuta kingdom. Jaina literature flourished in the Rashtrakuta kingdom. During the time of king Krishna III, Halayudha wrote 'Kavirahasayam'. In it, explanation about the use of 'Sanskrit Dhatuvulu' and Prasasti or Praise of emperor Krishna was there. Jinasena was the revered teacher of Amoghavarsha. His 'Adipurana' was completed by his discipline, Gunachandra. 'Adipurana' happened to be the biography of Jain Tirthankaras. Jinasena in his 'Parsvabhyudayam' every sloka line of "Meghasandesam' has been wonderfully applied to the life of Jain Parsva and thereby made meaning coordination. During the time of Amoghavarsha, a work on grammar, titled Amoghavritti and another work titled 'GanitaSaraSangraha' were written respectively by Sakatayana and Ganitayana Viracharya. 'Kavirajamarga', the first work on poetics in Kannada language was authored by Amoghavarsha. He has also written 'Ratnamalika' and 'Neetikavyam'.

Ponna, who was second in triumvarite of Kannada writers, happened to be the court poet of Krishna III. He has written 'Shanti Puranam'. Pampa, the poet, who was first in Kannada triumvarite and a court poet of Vemulavada Chalukyas, who happened to be the feudatories of the Rashtrakutas wrote 'Adipurana' and 'Vikramarjuna Vijayam'.

Architecture

In place of earlier brick and timber associated structures, stone structures and cave temples have been witnessed from the 6th and 7th centuries A.D. The present day Tamilnadu and Kerala areas, and Andhra and Karnataka areas have been referred to as respectively lower Dravidadesa and upper Dravidadesa, whereas the structures in lower Dravidadesa have adopted the Dravidian style, those in upper Dravidadesa stood as symbols for the spread of 'Nagara' style. These are seen in 7th and 8th centuries A.D.

During the time of the Rashtrakutas, cave temples were carved at Ellora. In the first cave, Dantidurga has built the Dasavatara temple. Nandi mandapam in this temple stands as an ancient monument of Rashtrakuta art. Kailasanatha temple at Ellora has been the artistic creation of Krishna I.

This rock-cut temple has sanctum sanctorum, one mukhamandapam and one roofed verandah or hall. Lower store was not of use. This shows us decorative foundation and pillar-like wall with shelves. The surface of the storey of use was also in the same model. In this also, front projected mandapam and entrances on north, south and west. In the center of the roof of the mandapam, a lotus with huge wings has been carved. Its super structure was in four storeys. Main temple of worship, seven small temples around it and one Nandi mandapam are there. In this way, just as it was in vogue in south India, temple plan consisted of eight temples of worship. Gopuram or the tower had two storeys and the upper part had the roof, which stood in the shape of hut-cart. This temple had all the forms of Siva that are there in the science sculpture. It stands as the repository for all the wonderful master pieces of sculpture that explained the episodes in the Puranas of Hinduism.

Other famous structures consist of 'ChhotaKailasa' temple among the cave temples at Ellora, the mandapa in front of 15th cave and the Jain temple at Pattadakal.

Sculpture

The Dasavatara temple was built with wonderful sculpture. Its walls have been decorated with the images of Saiva and Vaishnava Gods and Goddesses. The statue of Narasimha killing Hiranya Kasipa has become famous among all the sculptures of this temple.

In the Kailasanatha temple at the same Ellora, Siva's images have been carved in great style of art. The cave temples that are in Elephanta Island near Bombay, are having highly imposing images in stones.

Among these sculptures, the statue of Maheswara, carved with faces of Trimurtees not only remained as the testimony to the great sculptural art of the Rashtrakutas, but also became world famous. The carving of Maheswara as the personification of creation, stability and destruction is highly commendable.

Painting

The paintings that have been made on the walls and under the roofs of Kailasanadha temple at Ellora, stand as best model for the art of painting of Rashtrakuta times. The paintings of Nataraja, Lingodbhava and Vidhyadharulu have been brought out in attractive colours and striking descriptives.

In painting, for the most part, sculpture style has been closely followed. The paintings in the Jaina cave, called as 'IndraPrabha' at Ellora, have been characterized by beautiful style and broad and wide-open eyes.

Religious Developments

Saivism

Literary and inscriptional sources are proving that Saivism and its sects were in greater prevalence. In Deccan, during the time of the Rashtrakutas, 'Kalamukha' and 'Kapalika' sects came into vogue. Inscriptions of 9th century A.D., are proving that a new non-Brahmin devotee group known as 'Gurava' has come into existence. They have to take oath on bramacharya and then serve as Purohits in Siva temples. Srisailam has come to be recognized as a great 'Kapalika' center.

Vaishnavism

The title 'SreePrithviVallabha' that was borne by the Rashtrakuta kings, perhaps might be to declare themselves as the avatara or the incarnation of Vishnu. The worshipping of the avataras has become as an important characteristic of Vaishnavism. In Deccan and South India, the 'Narayana' concept has become famous. He, and Vishnu in sitting and standing postures have received much propagation. Alvars praised Vishnu in these forms. In all, Vishnu in 'Sayana' or lying posture has been regarded as highest stage meaning as the symbol of other worldliness. The worship of Goddess Lakshmi is another important characteristic of Vaishnavism.

During this time, Srirangam, Kanchi, Ahobilam, Tirumala and Sreekurmam had been Vaishnava centers that attained eminence.

Buddhism

Huien-Tsang, the famous Chinese traveller has mentioned that in Andhra, all permanent Buddhist residences were desolate and there were many temples with Brahmin base. Sriparvatam has attained the status of important center for the worship of 'Vajrapani Dharani'.

Vajrayana Buddhism has gained from 7th century onwards. This got formed as a result of the changes that occurred in Mahayana Buddhism. This is also called as Tantric Buddhism. In it are implied three- Vajrayana, Sahajayana and Kala Chakrayana- an understandable practice.

The teachers or professors in this movement are called 'Siddhus'. Their total number is 84. Kalpanika Vedukas like 'Mantra', 'Mudra' and 'Mandala' are implied in Vajrayana form of worship. By 12th and 13th centuries A.D. Amaravati, Guntupalli, Sriparvatam or Nagarjuna Konda and Salihundam in Andhra, Nagapatnam and Kanchi remained as famous Buddhist centers.

Jainism

During the time of the Rashtrakutas, Jainism had greater prominence than Buddhism and enjoyed patronage and influence. Officials and chiefs who were Jains were appointed in Andhra area and contributed for the spread of Jainism. Akalanka, Pampa and Ponna happened to be great persons who were associated with Jainism. Famous Jain sects - Mulasangha, Yavaneeya and Dravidasangha were in circulation in Andhra. Perur, Danuvulapadu, Vemulapadu, Ramathirtham, Hanumakonda, Patancheru, Kollipaka had been famous Jain centers in Andhra.

In Karnataka region, Rashtrakutas happened to be the chief patrons of Jainism. Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha I and a person Chamundaraya, happened to be famous patrons of Jainism. Among the several Jain centers, Sravanabelagola was most famous. In Kartnataka, Digambara Jain sect was in practice.

Conclusion

In this way, Rashtrakutas played a prominent role in the history of South India and Telangana. It is a matter of pride that, Amoghavarsha I, the Rashtrakuta emperor, has been regarded by contemporary Arab traveller, Suleiman as one of the world renowned great emperor. The extension of the boundaries of their empire from Kanuj to Kanyakumari stands as testimony to their military victories, prowess and courage.

Their system of administration was able to achieve nice balance between the strength of the central government and freedom of the local government. Through inscriptions and writings, the Rashtrakuta emperors contributed for the progress of Kannada and Sanskrit languages.

Though they patronized Jainism heavily, they showed tolerant attitude not only towards Hinduism and Buddhism but also Islam and took steps that contributed for their freedom and development. The fact that the Rashtrakutas, besides religion and literature, have also contributed immensely for the development of architecture and sculpture, indicates their great interest and love for cultural development.

Dasavatara temple at Ellora, Kailasanadha Temple at the same place and the statue of Maheswara in Elephanta island stand as great specimens for their rock-cut architecture. Knitting (lesu) method and feat of decoration and are making the viewers spell-bound. Not only in Telangana but even in the history of Dakshinapatha or South India, the period of Rashtrakuta rule is glowing in a striking and complete manner.

Key Exam Point: The Arab traveler Sulaiman described the Rashtrakuta emperor (Amoghavarsha I) as one of the four greatest monarchs of the world, on par with the Roman Emperor, the Caliph of Baghdad, and the Emperor of China.

Complete List of Rashtrakuta Rulers with Period

Ruler	Period	Key Historical Milestones & Exam Facts
Indra Raja I	696 – 710 A.D.	Founder of the family line; ruled Western Telangana and Manyakheta as a feudatory of Badami Chalukyas.
Govindaraja I	710 – 725 A.D.	Feudatory ruler under Badami Chalukyas.
Kanakaraja I	725 – 735 A.D.	Continued feudatory rule under Badami Chalukyas.
Indraraja II	735 – 748 A.D.	Father of Dantidurga; served under the Badami Chalukyan crown.
Dantidurga	748 – 758 A.D.	Real founder of the independent empire. Defeated Badami Chalukyan ruler Kirtivarma II in 753 A.D. Defeated Arabs (738 A.D.); earned titles Prithvivallabha, Khadgavaloka, and Maharajadhiraja. Performed the Hiranyagarbha sacrifice at Ujjain. Began Dasavatara cave temple at Ellora.
Krishna I	758 – 772 A.D.	Uncle of Dantidurga. Titles: Subhatunga, Akalavarshudu. Subdued Konkan and invaded Vengi Chalukya territory. Commissioned the rock-cut Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora (Cave 16).
Govinda II	772 – 780 A.D.	Titles: Suvarna Govindaraja, Prabhuta Varsha. Defeated in the battle of Gangavadi; later deposed by his brother Dhruva.
Dhruva (Dhruva Raja)	780 – 792 A.D.	Titles: Srivallabha, Nirupakelivallabha, Daranarva. First Rashtrakuta king to enter the Tripartite Struggle. Defeated Pratihara Vatsaraja and adopted the Ganga-Yamuna Torana as imperial emblem.
Govinda III	793 – 814 A.D.	Greatest conqueror of the line. Sanjan inscription documents his victories over Pratihara Nagabhata II, Palas, Malwa, and a southern confederacy of Cholas, Pandyas, and Gangas. Titles: Prabhutavarsha, Tribhuvanadhavali, Kirthinarayana.
Amoghavarsha I (Saru)	814 – 880 A.D.	Ruled for 66 years. Established Manyakheta as the imperial capital. Patron of Jainism (disciple of Jinasena). Author of the Kannada poetics classic Kavirajamarga and Sanskrit Prasnottara Ratnamalika. Title: Kaviraja. Observed Sallekhana.
Krishna II	880 – 914 A.D.	Continuous wars with Mihira Bhoja (Pratihara) and Eastern Chalukya Gunaga Vijayaditya. Marked the onset of military decline.
Indra III	914 – 928 A.D.	Briefly revived power; sacked Kanauj. Visited by Arab traveler Al-Masudi.
Amoghavarsha II	928 – 929 A.D.	Short and uneventful reign.
Govinda IV	930 – 936 A.D.	Faced severe internal rebellions from Mudigonda Chalukyas; abandoned the throne.
Amoghavarsha III	936 – 939 A.D.	Restored relative domestic tranquility before passing the crown to Krishna III.
Krishna III	939 – 966 A.D.	Last great ruler. Defeated Chola crown prince Rajaditya at the Battle of Takkolam; erected victory pillar at Rameswaram and claimed title Tanjavoor Konda. Defeated Mahipala of Ujjain.
Khottiga	967 – 972 A.D.	Paramara ruler Siyaka Harsha attacked and sacked Manyakheta; Khottiga died in grief.
Karkaraja II	972 – 973 A.D.	Last emperor. Defeated and killed by feudatory Tailapa II, who founded the Kalyani Chalukya dynasty.

UNIT 7: Chalukyan Age

noreply@blogger.com (Estudies4you) — Mon, 21 Sep 2026 05:42:28 +0000

Badami Chalukyan

Chalukyan Age – Telangana History, Rulers, Administration | Exam Notes

Chalukyan Age Telangana History – Culture

After Satavahanas, several parts of South India were ruled by the famous Chalukyan dynasty for around six centuries. Their rule period is known as the Chalukyan Age in South Indian history. Among them, those who ruled with Badami (Vatapi) in Bijapur district as their capital formed the parental branch. The Eastern Chalukyan dynasty, branched off from the Badami Chalukyas, ruled over Vengi uninterruptedly for four and a half centuries and towards the end became the descendants of Tanjavoor Cholas and ruled the Tamil region also for two and a half centuries.

During their rule, South Indian culture flourished splendidly—politically and culturally. The Hindu culture took birth during the Ikshvakus and Vishnukunds and blossomed in the Chalukyan period. Ancient Vedanta literature, architecture and sculpture attained their final shape. The temples in Karnataka, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Andhradesa remain as storehouses of architecture, sculpture and painting. Regional languages such as Telugu, Kannada, Marathi and Gujarati attained new forms during the Chalukyan time.

📌 Key branches: Badami Chalukyas (543–752 A.D.) – Maharashtra & Karnataka; Eastern Chalukyas (Vengi, 624–1075 A.D.); Vemulavada Chalukyas (750–973 A.D.) – northwestern Telangana; Mudigonda Chalukyas (850–1200 A.D.) – Khammam region; Kalyani Chalukyas (973–1157 A.D.).

Sources

The history of Chalukyas mainly depended on stone or copper plate inscriptions. Most information about the Eastern Chalukyas is dependent on copper plate inscriptions. Many copper plate inscriptions of those days are available. During their period, we notice three clear phases. In the inscriptions of early rulers from Kubja Vishnuvardhana to Vishnuvardhana V, only the names of rulers of three generations appear—donor, father and grandfather. No historically valuable information about victories is available.

However, after Gunaga Vijayaditya (Vijayaditya III) ascended the throne, some change is seen. In his Sataluru grant inscription, the chronology of earlier rulers, their rule period, and events are given. The Neelgund inscription (866 A.D.) informs that Gunaga Vijayaditya was the feudatory of Amoghavarsha I and paid tribute. The Sanjan copper plate inscription (872 A.D.) reveals that Gunaga Vijayaditya cleaned the walking path of Amoghavarsha.

Among the Eastern Chalukyas, Kubja Vishnuvardhana, with the acceptance of Pulakesi II, ruled over Vengi independently. The Kopparam inscription (631 A.D.) refers to Vishnuvardhana as heir-apparent (Yuvaraja); the Cheepurupalli inscription (641 A.D.) says he assumed the title of Maharaja. The Aihole inscription is the main source for Pulakesi II, written in Sanskrit by Ravikeerthi, his Minister for War.

For Vemulavada Chalukyas, the Kollipara copper plate inscription of Arikesari I, Kuruvagattu stone inscription, Chennur copper plate inscription (941 A.D.), Karimnagar copper plate inscription (946 A.D.), Kurkyala inscription (940 A.D.), Parbhani copper plate inscription (966 A.D.), and Repaka inscription (968 A.D.) are chief sources. Literary sources include 'Vikramarjuna Vijayam' by Pampa and 'Yasastilaka Champukavyam' by Somadevasuri.

For Mudigonda Chalukyas, the Mogala Cheruvu inscription of Kusumayudha IV, Krivvaka inscription of Kusumayudha VI, Narayanagiri copper plate inscription (1004 A.D.), Bezawada copper plate inscription (892 A.D.), and Koravi inscription (935 A.D.) are important. Among archaeological sources, coins like 'Chalukya Chandra' gold coins found in Arakan and Siam are notable. Gold coin was called 'gadya' (88 grains), silver coin 'mada', and copper coin 'kasu'.

Origin of the Word Chalukya

There were no certain sources about the origin of their dynastic name and place of origin. Some stories state Chalukyas belonged to the Chandravamsa that ruled Ayodhya. In Solanki inscriptions of Gujarat, it was stated that the founder was born from the 'chalukya' (chuluka) of Brahma. Bilhana in 'Vikramankadeva Charitra' narrates that a great warrior was born from Brahma's palm (chuluka), hence the name Chalukya. The Kautham inscription of Vikramaditya V describes them as Chandravamsa kings who ruled Ayodhya, went on exile to South India, and later reestablished authority.

The word 'Chalika' was first found in an inscription of the Ikshvakus at Nagarjunakonda (C.E. 3rd century), referring to Khandachelika Remmanaka, a feudatory king of Hiranya rashtra. If 'Chalika' is the old form of 'Chalukya', he could be 'Chalukya Remmanaka'. Alternative forms like Saliki, Sahuki, Chelka, Chelalya are seen. Dr. Rice felt Chalukyas belonged to the family of Seleucus in Central Asia, but this is not trusted. D.C. Sircar revealed they belonged to a Kannada family who declared themselves Kshatriyas. The Ranastapudi inscription mentions the founder stayed in the ashram of Vishnubhatta Somayaji in 'Mudivemu agraharam' (Cuddapah district). The Tummeyanoor inscription of Pulakesi II refers to parts of Kurnool and Mahaboobnagar as 'Chalukya Vishaya'. Historians believe their native place itself became Chalukya Vishaya. Near Bidar, there is a village Chalkapuri and a river Chalki. According to Durga Prasad Dikshit, the area of Bidar and Osmanabad districts is the native land of the Chalukyas.

Political Developments

🏛️ Badami (Western) Chalukyas (543–752 A.D.)

The ancestors of Chalukyas, as feudatories of the Ikshvakus, ruled Hiranya rashtra in Cuddapa district. In C.E. 4th century first half, Pallavas overthrew the Ikshvakus. Chalukyas tried to defy the Pallavas. Trilochana Pallava defeated them. Mayurasarma, the Kadamba ruler, joined with Chalukyas and fought against Pallavas. As a result, they went into Karnataka land and established a kingdom in the Badami region. Their royal emblem is varaha. The founder is Jayasimha or Jayasimha Vallabha. He defeated the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta.

Pulakesi I (535–566 A.D.)

Son of Ranaraga. He was the founder of the independent Chalukyan dynasty. He defied Kadambas, occupied Vatapi and built a strong fort there (543 A.D.) and made it his capital. He performed asvamedha sacrifice. Among the Chalukyan rulers, he was the first who assumed the title of 'maharaja'.

Keertivarma (566–597 A.D.)

Son of Pulakesi I. He defeated Mauryas of Konkan and Kadambas of Banavasi, extended his kingdom up to Konkan. He built several palaces and temples in Vatapi (Badami) and turned it into a beautiful city.

Mangalesa (598–609 A.D.)

Brother of Keertivarma. He defeated Kadambas, conquered Revati island or Goa. He had the title of 'paramabhagavata'. A war of succession took place between Pulakesi II and Mangalesa; the latter was killed and Pulakesi II ascended the throne in C.E. 609.

Pulakesi II (609–642 A.D.) – The Greatest

Pulakesi II was the greatest ruler among the Western Chalukya kings. With his coming to power, the Chalukyan age started in South Indian history. He conquered Maharashtra, Malwa, Kalinga, Andhra and Karnataka. He defeated Harsha, the North Indian emperor, on the banks of the Narmada. The Aihole (Ayyavolu) prasasti by Ravikeerthi describes his expeditions. After the battle, Narmada became the boundary. He assumed the title 'Parameswara'. He defeated Pallava Mahendravarma at Pullalur. He went up to Kanchipuram. During the time of Narasimhavarma I (630–668 A.D.), Pulakesi II died in Pallava hands. Narasimhavarma assumed the title 'Vatapikonda'. The Persian emperor sent Khusru as ambassador; a painting in Ajanta caves illustrates this. Chinese traveller Hiuen-tsang visited in 641 A.D. and observed the kingdom was extensive and prosperous.

Vikramaditya (642–680 A.D.)

Third son of Pulakesi II. He saved the kingdom from Pallava attacks and conquered Pandya, Chola and Kalabhra rulers. Chalukyan authority extended up to three seas.

Vinayaditya (680–696 A.D.)

Son of Vikramaditya. His rule went peacefully. He received gifts from Kalabhra, Kerala, Haihaya, Malwa, Chola and Pandya kings. He lost his life in the 'Vilande' battle against Prameswaravarman, the Ganga king.

Vijayaditya (696–733 A.D.)

Son of Vikramaditya. He invaded Northern India and adopted the Ganga-Yamuna torana and Pala flag as his emblem. He built some temples at Pattadakal.

Vikramaditya II (733–744 A.D.)

He confronted the Arabs in Sindh. He defeated the Pallavas and erected a victory pillar on the coast of the Southern Ocean. His wives Lokamahadevi and Rajaneetrailokyadevi built 'Lokeswaralayam' and 'Tralokeswaralayam' at Pattadakal.

Keertivarma II (745–752 A.D.)

Last ruler of the Western Chalukya (Badami/Vatapi) dynasty. Rashtrakuta Dantidurga overthrew the Badami Chalukya dynasty in C.E. 752 and established the Rashtrakuta kingdom.

🌊 Eastern Chalukyas (Vengi Chalukyas) (624–1075 A.D.)

Eastern Chalukyas stand as important among those dynasties who rendered yeomen services to Telugu culture and literature. As the Vengi region between the Krishna and Godavari rivers became their capital, they are called Vengi Chalukyas. Their rule ran from C.E. 624 to 1075. Their rule period is divided into three phases: first (624–753) – peace; second (753–973) – deadly enmity with Rashtrakutas; third (973–1075) – decline of Rashtrakutas and emergence of Kalyani Chalukyas.

Kubja Vishnuvardhana (624–641 A.D.)

Founder of the Vengi Chalukya kingdom. He ruled Vengi for 18 years. Titles: 'Vishamasiddhi', 'Kamadheva', 'Makaradhwaja'. The Kopparam inscription (631 A.D.) tells us Pulakesi II permitted him to rule independently. His kingdom extended from Visakhapatnam to Kammanadu. He was praised as 'Paramabhagavata'. His wife Ayyanamahadevi favoured Jainism and built a Jain monastery at Bezawada. Chinese traveller Hiuen-tsang visited during his time.

Jayasimha I (642–673 A.D.)

Known as Jayasimhavallabha I. He reigned for 33 years. Titles: 'Sakala Lokasraya', 'Sarvasiddhi'. The Vipparla inscription was the first Telugu inscription of the Eastern Chalukyas.

Indrabhattaraka (673 A.D.)

Ruled for seven days only. Issued the Kondanagoor inscription. Titles: 'tyagadhanudu', 'makaradhwaja'.

Vishnuvardhana II (673–682 A.D.)

Son of Indrabhattaraka. Praised as 'dharmasastravetta'. Titles: 'vishamasiddhi', 'makaradhwaja', 'sarvalokesaraya', 'pralayaditya'.

Mangi Yuvaraju (682–706 A.D.)

Ruled for 25 years. Title: 'vijayasiddhi'. Expanded the kingdom from Visakhapatnam to Ongole.

Jayasimha II (706–718 A.D.)

Eldest son of Mangi Yuvaraju. Wars of succession started from his time, weakening the kingdom.

Vishnuvardhana III (719–755 A.D.)

After Kokkili Maharaju, he ascended the throne. Title: 'tribhuvanamkusa'. His wife was Vijayamahadevi.

Vijayaditya I (755–772 A.D.)

Eastern Chalukyas entered the second phase. Rashtrakutas under Dantidurga ended the Badami Chalukyan dynasty. Chalukya–Rashtrakuta wars continued for around 200 years.

Vishnuvardhana IV (772–808 A.D.)

He started as a feudatory of Rashtrakuta Krishna I. Arikesari I defeated him. He gave his daughter Seelamahadevi in marriage to Dhruva.

Vijayaditya II (808–847 A.D.)

Also known as Narendra Mrigaraju. He fought 108 battles over twelve years. He got titles: 'Narendreswara', 'Narendramrugaraju', 'Chalukyaraya', 'Vikramadavali'. He built 108 Siva temples. It is said that due to him only, Bezawada got its name.

Kalivishnuvardhana (847–848 A.D.)

Son of Vijayaditya II. He had four sons: Vijayaditya III, Vikramaditya, Nripakamudu and Yuddhamalla.

Gunaga Vijayaditya (Vijayaditya III) (849–892 A.D.) – The Greatest

Gunaga Vijayaditya was the greatest among the Eastern Chalukyas. He made the victory flag march from the Ganges in the North to the Cauvery in the South. He conquered Gangavadi and Nolambavadi in C.E. 870. He took charge of Pali dhvaja and Krishna–Yamuna torana. Titles: 'tripuramartamaheswara', 'parachakrarama', 'ranarangasudraka'. After him, a quarrel started for the throne.

Chalukya Bhima I (892–921 A.D.)

His rule was opposed by his uncle Yuddhamalla I. He waged 360 battles. He installed Bheemeswaraswamy at Draksharamam.

Ammaraju I (921–927 A.D.)

He constructed Rajamahendrapuram and made it the Chalukyan capital. Title: 'rajamahendra'.

Chalukya Bhima II (934–945 A.D.)

Half-brother of Ammaraju I. He drove away Yuddhamalla II.

Ammaraju II (945–970 A.D.)

Ruled for 25 years. He donated to a Saiva temple called 'samastabhuvanasraya' at Bezawada.

Danarnava (970–973 A.D.)

He took Velanadu, Konidesa and Pottapinadu. He was killed by Jatachoda Bhima.

Jatachoda Bhima (973–999 A.D.)

He belonged to the Chola dynasty. He ruled with Peddakallu in Kurnool district as capital. He died in C.E. 999.

Saktivarma (1000–1011 A.D.)

Title: 'Chalukya Chandrudu'. Coins with this title were found in the Arakan coast.

Vimaladitya (1011–1018 A.D.)

Titles: 'rajamarthanda', 'mummidibhima'. He later accepted Jainism. He built a cave temple called Ramakonda in Ramathirtham.

Rajaraja Narendra (1019–1061 A.D.)

His coronation was held in C.E. 1022 after Rajendra Chola invaded and defeated Vijayaditya. His wife was Ammangadevi. Nannaya, the poet with title 'sabdasasana', adorned his court. The first two and a half parvas of Andhra Mahabharata were written by Nannaya, assisted by Narayanabhattu.

After Rajaraja Narendra, his son Rajendra had to ascend the throne. As his uncle Vijayaditya VII occupied the throne, Rajendra could not. Rajendra Chola II and Virarajendra tried to restore Rajendra. After the death of Vijayaditya VII in C.E. 1075, the Vengi Chalukya dynasty came to an end. Rajendra ascended the Chola throne as Kulottunga Chola and joined Vengi in the Chola empire.

👑 Vemulavada Chalukyas (750–973 A.D.)

Vemulavada Chalukyas were the feudatories of the Rashtrakutas. They ruled over the North-western Telangana region with Vemulavada in Karimnagar district as their capital. They ruled from C.E. 750 to 975, around 225 years. For knowing their history, six stone inscriptions and two copper plate inscriptions are found.

Vinayaditya Yuddhamalla (750–775 A.D.)

Founder of the Vemulavada Chalukyan kingdom. He joined as the commander-in-chief of Dantidurga, the founder of the Rashtrakuta empire. He ruled Sapadalaksha and conquered the impregnable Chitrakuta fort. He ruled with Bodhan as his capital. He conquered Turkish, Yavana, Barbara, Kashmira, Kamboja, Magadha, Kalinga, Ganga, Pallava, Pandya and Kerala areas.

Arikesari I (775–800 A.D.)

He was the feudatory of Rashtrakuta Dhruva. He supported Dhruva in the war of succession. Dhruva gifted Nagarkurnool and Ramadugu to Arikesari I. Capital was shifted from Bodhan to Vemulavada. He made an educational donation of Belmoga village to Mugdhasivacharya. Titles: 'samastalokasraya', 'tribhuvanamalla', 'rajatrinetra', 'sahasrarayadi'.

Baddega (850–895 A.D.)

Title: 'soladaganda' (a warrior who knew no defeat). He was victorious in forty-two battles. He invaded Vengi, defeated Chalukya Bhima and took him into custody. He built the Baddegeswara temple at Vemulavada (now Bheemeswara temple).

Narasimha II (915–930 A.D.)

He was a warrior of great strength. He undertook a military expedition up to the Ganges river. He was the feudatory of Rashtrakuta Indra III. He defeated Mahipala, the Gurjara Prathihara ruler. His wife Jakavva was the sister of Indra III and mother of Arikesari II.

Arikesari II (930–955 A.D.)

Admired as a scholar, warrior, good ruler and patron of poets. Under his patronage, Pampa wrote 'Vikramarjuna Vijayam', the first great work in Kannada literature. He had titles: pambaramkusa, ammaanagandhavarana, udattanarayana, gunanidhi, gunarnava, saranagata, vajrapanjara, priyagala, tribhuvanamalla, samantachudamani.

Vegaraju (955–960 A.D.)

Eldest son of Arikesari II. He ruled with Gangadhara town as his capital.

Baddega II (960–965 A.D.)

Built a Jaina monastery of Gauda Sangha called subhadamajenalaya for Somadevasuri. Bommala gattu developed into a great Jaina centre.

Arikesari III (965–973 A.D.)

Last king of the Vemulavada Chalukya dynasty. He issued the Parbhani copper plate inscription (966 A.D.) and Karimnagar copper plate inscription (946 A.D.). He granted Repaka village to 'subhadamajenalayam'. In 973 A.D., the Rashtrakuta dynasty was destroyed and the Kalyani Chalukya kingdom was established by Tailapa II. Along with Rashtrakutas, Vemulavada Chalukya rule also came to an end.

🔥 Mudigonda Chalukyas (850–1200 A.D.)

Mudigonda Chalukyas ruled over Manchikondanadu in Koraviseema of present Telangana with Mudigonda (Khammam district) as their capital. Khammam and Warangal areas came to be known as 'Koraviseema'. They guarded the North-western borders of the Vengi Chalukyas.

Ranamardhudu

Founder of the Mudigonda Chalukyan dynasty. He acquired Koravi mandalam with the help of the Eastern Chalukyas and ruled from Mudigonda.

Kusumayudhudu (C.E. 870–895)

Contemporary of Gunaga Vijayaditya and Chalukya Bhima. He freed Chalukya Bhima from the capturing of Krishna II and installed him on the throne.

Gonagaiah (895–910 A.D.)

Son of Kusumayudha. He was removed by his brother Niravadya (910–935 A.D.). With the help of Arikesari II, Gonagaiah dethroned Niravadya and acquired the Mudigonda kingdom back.

Kusumayudha VI (1150–1175 A.D.)

Last among the Mudigonda Chalukyas. During the time of his younger brother Nagatiraju (C.E. 1175–1200), Ganapatideva (Kakatiya kingdom) invaded and defeated him. With this, the Mudigonda Chalukya kingdom became part of the Kakatiya empire.

💠 Kalyani Chalukyas (973–1157 A.D.)

Kalyani Chalukyas are also called Western Chalukyas. They belong to the Badami Chalukya dynasty. Their first capital was Manyakheta; later they made Kalyani their capital. Their rule was established by Tailapa II.

Tailapa II (973–997 A.D.)

By defeating Karka II, the last Rashtrakuta king, in C.E. 973, the sovereignty of Kalyani Chalukyas was established. He assumed titles: 'mahasamantadhipa', 'chalukyarama', 'satyasrayakula tilaka', 'ahavamalla', 'prithvi vallabha'. He defeated the Paramaras and Cholas. Ranna, the poet, flourished in his court.

Satyasraya (997–1008 A.D.)

Titles: 'irivabendaga', 'akalamka charita'. He fought continuous wars against the Cholas. Vimalachandra, a Jain scholar, was his guru.

Vikramaditya V (1008–1018 A.D.)

Title: 'tribhuvanamalla'. He was liberal and made donations.

Jayasimha II (1018–1042 A.D.)

Titles: 'jagadekamalla', 'trailokamalla', 'vikramasimha'. He accepted Kalamukha Saivism due to the encouragement of his queens Devalamahadevi and Suggaladevi.

Someswara I (1042–1068 A.D.)

The greatest among the Kalyani Chalukyas. Titles: 'aahavamalla', 'rajanarayana', 'trailokamalla'. He built the Kalyani city. He fought many battles with the Cholas. In the Kopparam battle of C.E. 1053–54, Western Chalukyas killed Chola Rajadhiraja. He died on C.E. 1068, March 28th, by jumping into the Tungabhadra river.

Someswara II (1068–1076 A.D.)

Title: 'bhuvanaikamalla'. His brother Vikramaditya VI rebelled against him and occupied the kingdom.

Vikramaditya VI (1076–1126 A.D.)

Considered a great king among the Western Chalukyas. He started the Chalukya Vikrama era from C.E. 1076. He patronised poets Bilhana and Vijnaneswara. Title: 'tribhuvanamalla'.

Someswara III (1126–1138 A.D.)

He wrote 'abhilashitardhachintamani', described as 'vijnanasarvasvam' (encyclopedia), also called 'manasollasam'.

Jagadekamalla (1138–1151 A.D.)

During his time, the Hoyasalas rose. After him, his younger brother Tailapa III (C.E. 1151–57) assumed authority. In C.E. 1157, Kalchuri Bijjala drove away Tailapa III. With the death of Someswara IV in C.E. 1200, the Kalyani Chalukyan dynasty ended.

Chalukyan Age: Administrative System

The Chalukyan government had been a monarchy of hereditary nature. The king was all in all. King's authority consisted of seven items (king, minister, kingdom, treasury, army, friend and fort). The yuvaraja or crown prince assisted the king. Chalukyan kings used titles: 'parameswara', 'paramabhattaraka', 'parama maheswara', 'prithvivallabha', 'Bhuvanasraya', 'Rajadhiraja', 'rajaparameswara'. The emperor had to rule according to the dharmasastras. The council of ministers helped the emperor. Minister, commander-in-chief, treasurer, purohit and yuvaraja advised the king. During Chalukyan times, these posts were gradually held by Sudras also.

For administrative convenience, the empire was divided into provinces and provinces into vishayas. Vishayas were also called nadus. Kammanadu, Prolanadu, Attilinadu and Venginadu were some names. Rashtra, Vishaya and Village were headed by Rashtradhipati, Vishyadhipati and Gramani respectively. Village was the foundation. Grama sabha used to be there in every village. Karanams maintained village accounts.

Tribute paid by feudatories was the main source of income. Land tax amounted to 1/6th of the produce. Taxes were paid in cash or kind. Professional taxes were levied on potter, washerman, barber, goldsmith and blacksmith. Chalukyan kings spent on army, royal family, salaries, welfare activities, charities and philanthropy. According to Sukra's 'Neetisaram', a king should keep 1/6th of income in treasury; half of the remaining on army, 1/12th for royal family, 1/12th for salaries, 1/12th for people's welfare, and 1/12th for charities.

Judicial administration: The king remained the chief justice. Judgments were given by 'rashtradhipati' in provinces and 'vishayapati' in Vishayas. In villages, Grama sabhas gave judgments. Special judges were called 'pradvivakas'. The Koravi copper plate inscription (C.E. 935) gives details about criminal investigation. 'Mitakshara' of Vijnaneswara and 'Neetikavyamruta' of Somadevasuri are referred to as dharmasastra works. Death sentence was the highest punishment. Cutting of hands, legs, ears, nose etc. were hard punishments.

Military organisation: Chalukyan emperors led armies. The Aihole inscription of Pulakesi II gives details about six types of army organisations: i) Mula (hereditary); ii) Bhritya; iii) Sreni (guild-based); iv) Mitra (friendly kingdoms); v) Atavika (forest tribes); vi) Amitra (captured forces). Forts were under 'durgadhipathi'.

Economic Development

During the Chalukyan period, dependence on land and agriculture increased. Brahmins got agraharas and became landlords. Sudras cultivated their lands. Agricultural lands were divided into wet lands, dry lands, sandy lands (garuvu) and garden lands. Land tax was fixed depending on water facility, land fertility and crop yield. Commercial crops included coconut, betel leaf, betel nut, mango, sugarcane, cotton, grams and pulses.

Irrigation was essential. Emperors constructed tanks and wells. The tanks Chaita tank and Bhimasamudram mentioned in the Tadikonda inscription of Ammaraju II are supplying water even today. In Chebrolu of Guntur district, there was a big tank called Ananta Sarovaram. Land measurements included nivartana, martu, khandika and putti. King Vijayaditya decided taxes in Malliswaradeva town: Oodpu paddy field – 2 chinnas per putti; Oodpu field – 6 chinnas; Dry land – 4 chinnas; New land – 2 chinnas.

Industries: Teliki (oil-extractor), potter, blacksmith, carpenter, kanchari (brass utensil maker) and medari (basket maker) were given tax-free lands. Cloth industry continued. Powerful trade guilds carried on brisk trade. Vaisyas, telula (oil-pressers), perikas and balejas had their guilds. Fairs and pilgrimage places developed into trade centers. Visakhapatnam was named Kulottunga Cholapattanam, Ghantasala as Chola Pandyapuram and Motupalli as Deseeyakonda pattanam. Coins: gadyana, mada, panam, kalamju, dramas. Pavuluri Mallanna's work gives coin relations: 4 gokara kanulu = 1 sorakani; 4 sora kanulu = 1 pittha; 4 pitthalu = 1 kani; 4 kanulu = 1 visam; 4 visalu = 1 pattika; 4 pattikalu = 1 chinnam; 4 chinnalu = 1 madha.

Social Development during Chalukyan Age

Vedic Brahman religion gained prominence and varna system took a stable shape. Brahmins had first place. Kshatriyas went as soldiers. Vaisyas formed the third group; their occupation was trade. They were called sreshti, setti and komati. Sudras belonged to the fourth group. During the time of the Chalukyas, opportunity came for some sudras to assume authority over the kingdom. Chalukya feudatories such as Velanati kings, Kondapadamatlu, Tyagi and Parichchedi belonged to sudra caste. Position of women: In the patriarchal society, there used to be restrictions on women. Upper caste ladies and prostitutes used to earn skill in fine arts.

Educational Organisation

Vedic studies received a lot of patronage. Puranas, itihasas, dharmasastras, agamasastras, grammar, Vedanta, Astronomy, Diplomacy, Mathematics, Ayurveda and Logic were studied. The highest educational centre was called Ghatikasthanam. Those who graduated from such Ghatikas were called Ghatikasikas. Nolambeswara temple in Hemavati was a Ghatikasthanam. The Hiresamudra inscription mentions boarding arrangements for more than ninety students. At Nagai, a big library was run. Pavuluri Mallanna translated 'Ganitasastram' written by 'Mahaviracharya' as 'Sarasangraha ganitam'.

Cultural Development

Religious Developments

Vedic religion was in the highest position. Temple construction was taken up as a movement. It became a tradition that the number of wars fought had to be equalled by the construction of the same number of temples. Vijayaditya II built 108 temples; Chalukya Bhima built 360 temples. The temple group in Bikkavolu was constructed during Gunagavijayaditya. Pancharamas were constructed during the Chalukyas.

Saivism: Saivism had popular following. Srisailam, Alampuram and Draksharamam were Saiva centres. Basaveswara (C.E. 1100–70) started the Vira Saiva movement. Vaishnavism: Ramanujacharya propagated Vaishnavism. Buddhism: After C.E. 5th and 6th centuries, Buddhism began declining. Jainism: Ayyanamahadevi, queen of Kubjavishnuvardhana, established Nedumba Vasadi at Bezawada. At Potlacheruvu, there used to be some 500 Jain Vasadis. Vemulavada and Podanapuram (Bodhan) were leading Jain centres. Somadevasuri wrote 'Yasastilaka' and 'Neetikavyamrutam'.

Literary Development

The Telugu language started developing from the time of the Chalukyas. Nannechoda was the greatest poet of this age; he had the title 'Kavirajasekhara' for his 'Kumarasambhavam'. The Vipparla inscription of Jayasimhavallabha I was the first Eastern Chalukyan inscription. Mallikarjuna Panditaradhya wrote 'Sivatatvasaram' and started 'Sataka Prakriya' in Telugu. Tikkana Somayaji was the greatest among Telugu poets. He wrote 'Nirvachanottara Ramayana'. Nannaya wrote the first two and a half parvas of Andhra Mahabharata. Palkuriki Somanatha wrote 'Panditaradhya Charitra' and 'BasavaPuranam'. Ketana wrote 'Dasakumar Charitra' and 'Vijnaneswara'. Marana wrote 'Markandeya Purana'.

Art Development

Early Chalukyas at Badami constructed many cave temples. Prominent temples came up at Aihole and Pattadakal in Karnataka. Around 70 temples in Aihole and 10 temples at Pattadakal were constructed. In Mahaboobnagar district and at Alampur on the bank of Tungabhadra, there are nine temples called Navabrahma temples. The Bhimeswara temple at Vemulavada belonged to the ninth century, built by Baddega. In coastal Andhra, Eastern Chalukyas built many temples. Gunaga Vijayaditya built the Vijayeswara temple at Bikkavolu. Chalukya Bhima constructed Bhimeswara temples at Draksharama. Rajarajeswara temple was built by Rajaraja Narendra. During the Chalukyan age, music and dance were patronised. Painting at Badami is a beautiful specimen of Deccan painting.

Conclusion

The period of Chalukyan rule could be considered a glorious age in South Indian history. These Chalukyas, during their long period of rule from the sixth to twelfth century, achieved political unity and successfully resisted foreign invasions. They developed South India in all fields and brought back memories of Satavahana rule. Vemulavada Chalukyas who ruled over Telangana areas gave the fruits of great administration to the people of Telangana. Mudigonda Chalukyas also ruled over the Telangana region. Chalukyas gave importance to the construction of tanks and contributed to improving crop yields. Chaita tank and BhimaSamudram mentioned in the Tadikonda inscription of Ammaraju II are even today supplying water to cultivated lands. Saiva and Jain temples at Alampuram, Vemulavada, Kolanupaka, Aihole and Pattadakal stand even today as specimens of the architectural and sculptural style of the Chalukyas. In the literary field, Telugu started becoming the medium for inscriptions and writings. With Nannaya's preparation of 'Mahabharata' in Telugu, the way became clear for the development of Telugu language and literature. It could be realised that the Chalukyas, during their long rule of six centuries, introduced stable, praiseworthy, popular, ideal and trend-setting systems and changes in political, administrative, economic, social and cultural fields.

📋 Chalukyan Rulers List with Tenure (Exam Quick Revision)

Dynasty	Ruler	Tenure (A.D.)	Key Notes
Badami (Western) Chalukyas.	Jayasimha Vallabha	c. 500–535	Founder; defeated Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta
	Pulakesi I	535–566	Founder of independent dynasty; built Vatapi fort (543 A.D.)
	Keertivarma	566–597	Extended kingdom up to Konkan; built temples at Badami
	Mangalesa	598–609	Title 'paramabhagavata'; killed in war of succession
	Pulakesi II	609–642	Greatest ruler; defeated Harsha; died in Pallava hands
	Vikramaditya	642–680	Saved kingdom; extended authority up to three seas
	Vinayaditya	680–696	Peaceful rule; died in Vilande battle
	Vijayaditya	696–733	Adopted Ganga-Yamuna torana; built temples at Pattadakal
	Vikramaditya II	733–744	Defeated Pallavas; erected victory pillar on Southern Ocean coast
Keertivarma II	745–752	Last ruler; overthrown by Dantidurga (Rashtrakuta)
Eastern Chalukyas (Vengi)	Kubja Vishnuvardhana	624–641	Founder; title 'Vishamasiddhi'; first Telugu inscription
	Jayasimha I	642–673	Reigned 33 years; Vipparla inscription in Telugu
	Indrabhattaraka	673	Ruled only 7 days; Kondanagoor inscription
	Vishnuvardhana II	673–682	Title 'dharmasastravetta'
	Mangi Yuvaraju	682–706	Expanded kingdom from Visakhapatnam to Ongole
	Jayasimha II	706–718	Wars of succession started
	Kokkili Maharaju	718–719	Short rule; brother of Vishnuvardhana III
	Vishnuvardhana III	719–755	Title 'tribhuvanamkusa'
	Vijayaditya I	755–772	Second phase; Rashtrakuta wars began
	Vishnuvardhana IV	772–808	Feudatory of Krishna I; daughter married Dhruva
	Vijayaditya II	808–847	Fought 108 battles; built 108 Siva temples
	Kalivishnuvardhana	847–848	Short rule; four sons
	Gunaga Vijayaditya (III)	849–892	Greatest; flag from Ganges to Cauvery; titles: tripuramartamaheswara
	Chalukya Bhima I	892–921	Waged 360 battles; installed Bheemeswaraswamy at Draksharamam
	Vijayaditya IV (Kollabhiganda)	921	Ruled 6 months; died in Viraja battle
	Ammaraju I	921–927	Constructed Rajamahendrapuram; title 'rajamahendra'
	Chalukya Bhima II	934–945	Drove away Yuddhamalla II
	Ammaraju II	945–970	Ruled 25 years; donated to Saiva temple at Bezawada
	Danarnava	970–973	Killed by Jatachoda Bhima
	Jatachoda Bhima	973–999	Chola dynasty; ruled with Peddakallu as capital
Saktivarma	1000–1011	Title 'Chalukya Chandrudu'; coins found in Arakan
Vimaladitya	1011–1018	Built Ramakonda cave temple; accepted Jainism
Rajaraja Narendra	1019–1061	Nannaya's patron; coronation in 1022 A.D.
Vijayaditya VII	1061–1075	Last ruler; Vengi joined Chola empire
Vemulavada Chalukyas	Vinayaditya Yuddhamalla	750–775	Founder; commander-in-chief of Dantidurga; capital Bodhan
	Arikesari I	775–800	Feudatory of Dhruva; capital shifted to Vemulavada
	Narasimha I	800–825	Son of Arikesari I
	Yuddhamalla II	825–850	Son of Narasimha I
	Baddega	850–895	Title 'soladaganda'; won 42 battles; built Baddegeswara temple
	Yuddhamalla III	895–915	Details not available
	Narasimha II	915–930	Expedition up to Ganges; defeated Mahipala
Arikesari II	930–955	Patron of Pampa; title 'pambaramkusa'
Vegaraju	955–960	Capital at Gangadhara
Baddega II	960–965	Built subhadamajenalaya for Somadevasuri
Arikesari III	965–973	Last ruler; Parbhani and Karimnagar inscriptions
Mudigonda Chalukyas	Ranamardhudu	850–870	Founder; acquired Koravi mandalam
	Kusumayudha I	870–895	Freed Chalukya Bhima from Krishna II
	Gonagaiah	895–910	Removed by brother Niravadya; later restored with Arikesari II's help
	Niravadya	910–935	Koravi inscription issued
	Kusumayudha VI	1150–1175	Last ruler; kingdom merged into Kakatiya empire
Nagatiraju	1175–1200	Brother of Kusumayudha VI; defeated by Ganapatideva
Kalyani Chalukyas	Tailapa II	973–997	Founder; defeated Karka II; titles: mahasamantadhipa
	Satyasraya	997–1008	Titles: 'irivabendaga', 'akalamka charita'
	Vikramaditya V	1008–1018	Title 'tribhuvanamalla'
	Jayasimha II	1018–1042	Titles: 'jagadekamalla', 'trailokamalla', 'vikramasimha'
	Someswara I	1042–1068	Greatest; built Kalyani city; died by jumping into Tungabhadra
	Someswara II	1068–1076	Title 'bhuvanaikamalla'
	Vikramaditya VI	1076–1126	Started Chalukya Vikrama era; patronised Bilhana
	Someswara III	1126–1138	Wrote 'manasollasam' (encyclopedia)
	Jagadekamalla	1138–1151	Hoyasalas rose during his time
Tailapa III	1151–1157	Drove away by Kalchuri Bijjala
Someswara IV	1183–1200	Last ruler; died in exile; dynasty ended

📝 Exam Point of View: Remember the chronology of Badami Chalukyas (543–752 A.D.), Eastern Chalukyas (624–1075 A.D.), Vemulavada (750–973 A.D.), Mudigonda (850–1200 A.D.) and Kalyani Chalukyas (973–1157 A.D.). Focus on Pulakesi II, Gunaga Vijayaditya, Rajaraja Narendra, Arikesari II and Tailapa II. Key terms: Vatapikonda, Parameswara, Pali dhvaja, Krishna–Yamuna torana, Ghatikasthanam, Aihole inscription, Navabrahma temples.

UNIT 6: Splendour of Vishnukund Rule

noreply@blogger.com (Estudies4you) — Sun, 20 Sep 2026 17:42:34 +0000

Splendour of Vishnukund Rule – Telangana History & Culture | Exam Notes

Splendour of Vishnukund Rule
Telangana History & Culture – Exam Notes

Introduction

Vishnukunds have a primary place among the most important royal dynasties in the history of Telugu country. They have not only spread the name and fame of the Telugu country far and wide, but have also introduced several new practices in the fields of religion, language and culture. Starting their political stint on the northern bank of the Krishna river, and extending their empire up to Narmada river, they have, for some time, ruled the area that was between the three seas (Arabian, Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean).

For nearly 210 years i.e., between 358 CE to 569 CE, they ruled primarily Telangana and northern Andhra lying north of the Krishna river. They had their capitals at Amarapuram, Indrapalanagaram, and Denduluru. Amarapuram is taken to be Amrabad, the present day mandal headquarters in Mahaboobnagar district. Indrapalanagaram, which is also called as Sukrapuram, is located on the outskirts of Tummalagudem village in Valigonda mandal of Nalgonda district. Denduluru is located near Pedavegi in West Godavari district. It is also being learnt that between Bezawada in Andhra Pradesh also seems to have been the capital of Vishnukunds some time. Their another capital, being known as Puranisangamam, could be either Sanganigundala in Amrabad mandal, or Sangameswaram near Alampuram. The ruins of an erstwhile town are there on the outskirts of Medimankal village near Sanganigundala.

Vishnukund dynasty ruled for nearly 210 years (358 CE – 569 CE) primarily in Telangana and northern Andhra. Remember the three capitals: Amarapuram, Indrapalanagaram, Denduluru.

Sources

The main sources for the study of Vishnukund history are the inscriptions. The history of this dynasty is known not only from the 13 epigraphs that were issued during their period, but also from 8 other inscriptions that were issued during the later period. Among these 21 inscriptions, 16 are copper plate inscriptions and 5 are stone inscriptions. The inscriptions that were issued during the Vishnukund period are as given below:

#	Name of the Inscription	Region
1	Tummalagudem Copper plates-2	Valigonda Mandal, Nalgonda district
2	Chaitanyapuri stone inscription	Hyderabad
3	Keesaragutta stone inscription	Rangareddy district
4	Saleswaram stone inscription	Amrabad Mandal, Mahaboobnagar district
5	Velpuru Stone inscription	Sattenapalli, Guntur district
6	Ipur Copper plate inscriptions-2	Tenali, Guntur district
7	Ramatirtham Copper plate inscription	Visakhapatnam district
8	Chikkulla Copper plate inscription	Tuni, East Godavari district
9	Tundi Copper plate inscription	Tuni, East Godavari district
10	Polamuru Copper plate inscription	Ramachandrapuram, East Godavari district
11	Khanapur Copper plate inscription	Satara district, Maharashtra

← Swipe left/right to view full table on mobile →

The coins that were issued by the Vishnukunds, the fort walls, cities and cave temples that they have constructed, and several objects, tools and sculptures etc., that have unearthed in the excavations help in the reconstruction of the history of their times. Writings of the period, such as "Janasraya Chhando vichchitti" and "Sethubandha" do help us in understanding the historical developments of those times.

Total 21 inscriptions: 13 of Vishnukund period + 8 of later period. Among them, 16 copper plates and 5 stone inscriptions.

Birth Place

Vishnukunds called themselves as 'Amarapuriswaras' or 'Lords of Amarapuram' and with the blessings obtained from the feet of the Sriparvataswami, they extended their kingdom on both sides of the Sriparvata. Samudragupta's invasion could be cited as strong reason for this. P.V. Parabrahma Sastry, the historian has informed that starting from Pataliputra (Bihar capital Patna) in northern India, conquests have been made in all directions, all the kings were defeated, and their kingdoms have been given back to them on the condition that they would Hinduise their regional cultures. Among those defeated by Samudragupta, Pallavas were also there who until that time having political authority. After this incident, in the Krishna river coastal area, Vishnukunds became aggressive. They also, like all other kings introduced Sanskritisation by performing Ashwamedha, Rajasuya and other sacrifices, they proudly declared their royal authority. 'Hiranyagarbha' sacrifice was performed and brahmins could get the brilliance of the Kshatriyas.

In the same order, those who rose from Munuluru (present day Munnanore) in Amrabad mandal, the name of the new capital Mamidipuram was referred to as Amarapuram. Umamaheswara temple area, located nearby, became famous for mango groves, especially for tummeda mango trees. Until two decades ago there used to be 'tummeda' mango tree at Umamaheswaram. There used to be a temple under this tree. If the mangoes of this tree are broke open, bees used to come out. In this area, on the name of 'mamidi', there used to be land, (chenu, cheleka) and villages. Near Amrabad, there used to be village called 'Molaka Mamidi'. Mango in Sanskrit is called as 'amram' and bee as 'bhramaram'.

In that way, tummeda mamdidi became bhramaramram. This word is also there in 'Rasaratnakaram' written by Nityananda Siddha of 13th Century A.D. Bhramaramram got changed in to bhramaramba and became the wife of Mallikarjuna at Srisailam. Mallikarjuna, in Sanskrit, gave the meaning of maddi (arjuna) tree, worshipped by Jasmine flowers. Even now also, aged (vriddha) Mallikarjuna idol, made of maddi trunk could be seen on the northern side of inner temple (garbha gudi) at Srisailam.

Finally, it is being said that, Vishnukunds as part of their sanskritisation, their area name 'mamidi vanam' has been changed to Amrapuram and Amarapuram. As the Vishnukunds followed Vedic religion, and as Indra happened to be the prime God in the Vedas, on his name Amarapuram, and on his another name Sakrapuram, and later their another capital Indrapalanagaram have all been adopted in Sanskrit.

Vishnukunds performed sacrifices (yajnas). They donated agraharas to the Brahmins. Their inscriptions mention that they have dug tanks and wells. Their physical sources are many and are available at Amrabad and Munnanur areas. Vishnukund sacrificial altar and bath place were noticed near an old temple at Pratapagirikota (fort) near Munnanur. Vishnukunds seem to have donated to the Brahmins, a village called Brahmanapalli as an agrahara which is located towards the north of this fort. Perhaps, the Brahmins of this village got thousands of sacrifices performed by the Vishnukunds.

It is true in the inscriptions that Govindaraju, one of the earliest kings of Vishnukund dynasty has donated Prenkapora and Enmadala villages to Paramabhattarika Vihara; built at Sakrapuram (Indrapalanagaram) by is queen, Paramabhattarika devi. The name of Enmadala has changed to Elmala and is still there in Amrabad mandal. However, there is also a village with a similar name in Nalgonda district. Further, on Prataparudra Fort and its surroundings there are many ancient tanks. Among them, some might have been dug by the Vishnukunds only.

Inscriptions also mention that the Vishnukund king Madhava Varma installed Dantamukha Swamy (Ganapati) idol in the Bhutagrahaka Swamy (Yama) temple at Amarapuram. Eminent historian V.V. Krishna Sastry and Thakur Rajaram Singh have stated that there are several burials of Stone Ages and they have collected some among them. These could still be seen in the south-western and eastern directions of their village. As hundreds of burials are there, a temple for Yama (the God of deaths) was built in this village. Next, a black Ganapati idol of four feet height could be seen even today outside Amrabad village towards the east. The first generation idols of Ganapati used to have no crown. Even the Amrabad Ganapati idol does not have a crown. Hence, this was installed by the Vishnukunds only. Just adjacent to this idol, there is the "Venkayya Baavi". The inscriptions state that prayers were offered to this Ganapati even in the later centuries. Hence, as narrated in the inscriptions, it was for the comfort of the devotees, Vishnukunds might have dug this tank. Near Amrabad there are two villages by the name Madhavonipalle and Macharam. These also seem to have been named after Vishnukund kings Madhava Varma and Manchanala. Reason being that the remains of their days are being seen in these villages.

As per the details that collected and published by B.N.Sastry, it is understood from the Kotappakonda sthala mahatmyam that 'Tripurantakam' means the combination of Rudrasikharam, Vishnusikharam and Brahmasikharam, among them, on the top and below the Bahmasikharam, a devotee, named Salankayya, had constructed temples for Siva and a saivite devotee Anandavalli, and the deity of the temple is known as Kotappa. These details, with few differences, are being seen in the 'Parvata Prakaranam' of 'Panditaradhya Charitra', written by Palkuriki Somanatha.

Somanatha has stated that on Sriparvata to its south 'Gunda Tirtham' in pot shape 'mallikakundam' and in their front 'moksheswaram' and in the west Brahmeswaram are there. Even now also, at 10 KMs distance from Munnanore, Gundam Tirtham (water falls), at 30 KMs distance Mallikakundam (mallela Tirtham) and in their front, Sarveswaram or Saleswaram, could be seen. In the two-storeyed caves at Saleswaram, there are brick (18 X 10 X 12 inches) walls of Ikshvaku times; brick (16 X 10 X 2½ inches) walls of Vishnukunds and early Chalukyas and inscriptions of both the times. Brahmeswaram is there in the northeastern region of Munnanore. Mallappa gutta (hillock) is there to the southeast of that village. On it, Mallappaswami temple, small Brahmi inscription on the latter's wall, and on the edge of tank that is there down the former, there is a temple with Vishnukund emblems (pots, and pouncing lions). Coming to Anandavalli temple built by Salankayya, it is located down the Prataparudra fort, in the northwestern corner and three roads corner turning. As Anandavalli, being a virgin, by Siva's blessing gave birth to a son, she was treated as spoilt by the people and her head was shaved. Later, after recognizing Siva's greatness, a temple was built for her, she was called as clean-shaver goddess. That idol, yellow Sivalinga that was in its front, got damaged in 1965-66 at the time when a road was being laid there.

On the whole, as the Kundalu (around 50) that are mentioned in archaeological, epigraphical and literary sources, are being seen in the areas of Munnanoor and Amrabad in Mahaboobnagar district, Vishnukunds might have risen from one of those Kundams, and essentially from the Mallela Tirtham plain area.

Vishnukunds called themselves 'Amarapuriswaras'. Their family deity was Sriparvataswamy (Srisaila Mallikarjuna). They performed Ashwamedha, Rajasuya and Hiranyagarbha sacrifices.

Political Developments

Till 355 CE, the Ikshvakus ruled districts in the middle of Andhra Pradesh, with Vijayapuri (Nagarjunakonda) as capital and lying on both sides of Krishna river. They were defeated by the Pallavas of Kanchi in the south who now brought under their control Krishna river region upto Srisailam. But soon, in 358 CE, the Gupta king, Samudragupta who ruled from Pataliputra (Present Patna, the capital of Bihar) the northern and Central India had defeated the Pallavas in his victorious southern expedition and returned back. Taking this as an advantage, the Anandagotrins (Kandara kings) who, earlier, were the feudatories of the Ikshvakus in the Krishna-Guntur region and Salankayanas in the Vengi region (Eluru) and others have declared themselves independent. In Telangana, the Vishnukundins became independent.

From then onwards, the Vishnukunds ruled the Telangana region for some time (first half of 5th Century CE) and Maharashtra area for nearly 200 years. Nearly ten are seen among the Vishnukund kings. But, among them as three or four Indravarmas and Madhavavarmas are seen, it becomes difficult to determine who ruled after whom. However, the chronology of the kings indicated below, being agreed by majority of the historians:

#	King	Reign Period
1	Indra Varma	358–370 CE
2	Madhava Varma I	370–398 CE
3	Govinda Varma	398–440 CE
4	Madhava Varma II	440–495 CE
5	Deva Varma	495–496 CE
6	Madhava Varma III	496–510 CE
7	Vikramendra Varma I	510–525 CE
8	Indrbhattaraka Varma II	525–555 CE
9	Vikramendra Varma II	555–569 CE

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Manchanna Bhattaraka is also said to have ruled for some time around 570 CE in the Amrabad region. The first two kings have started their political career in the south Telangana in Mahaboobnagar and Nalgonda districts. Thus, they made it easy for the later kings to expand their territory.

Govinda Varma had expanded the Vishnukund kingdom on both sides of the Sriparvata (Srisailam-Nagarjunakonda) with his physical prowess. He occupied upto the Gundlakkamma river by defeating the Pallavas. He married the daughter of a powerful local chief Mularaja of Gunapasapuram in the coastal Andhra. With his help, Govinda Varma defeated the Salankayanas of Vengi and annexed their kingdom with his kingdom. On the northern side, areas that are on the other side of the Musi river, were also in his kingdom. As proofs to this could be mentioned, stone inscription of his time formed at Chaitanyapuri in Hyderabad and Vishnukund fort and temple remains on the Keesaragutta on the outskirts of Hyderabad. There is Kesari vagu(stream) below the Keesaragutta. The area on the bank of Kesari Vagu is Gattukesari. It is now called as Ghatkesar. Kesari means lion. It is the emblem of the Vishnukund. One such royal seal is found recently on Keesaragutta.

Govinda Varma (398–440 CE) expanded the kingdom on both sides of Sriparvata, defeated Pallavas and Salankayanas, and married daughter of Mularaja of Gunapasapuram.

The greatest among all the Vishnukund kings was Madhava Varma II (440–495 CE). He fought and won several battles (more than 100) and as a mark of his victory in each battle, he installed Sivalingas on Keesaragutta. He has also built Ramalingesvaraswamy temple at every place where he won the battle. Even till today these Ramaligesvara temples built at Velpuru (Guntur district, Sattenapalli taluk), Ipur, Indrapalanagarm, and Keesaragutta are receiving acts of worship.

Some of the victories of Madhava Varma II can be mentioned as following. With the help of Prabhakara, his relative and ruler of Gunapasapuram, Madhava Varma occupied Kalinga (northern coastal Andhra and south Odisha). In his 33rd regnal year, he attacked Pallavas and expanded the Vishnukund kingdom up to Gundlakamma river again. In the west, the Vakataka kings of Maharashtra were very strong. Madhava Varma defeated the last ruler of the main Vakataka line, Prithvisena (460–480 CE) and married his daughter.

With the above-mentioned victories, the empire of Madhava Varma II extended from the Bay of Bengal in the East to the Arabian sea in the West, and from Southern ocean (perhaps Pulicat Lake) in the South to Reva (Narmada river) in the North. There is no exaggeration in this, many feudatories fell on his feet. One of his inscriptions was found in Maharashtra. Vishnukund coins were found all over Maharashtra. Madhava Varma II had an epithet 'trivara nagara bhavnagata sundari hridayanandana' which means (the one who brought happiness to the beautiful maidens living in the buildings of the city of Trivara). In this epithet, the reference to Trivaranagaram can be identified as the city of Tripuri or Tevar located near Jabalpur on the banks of river Narmada. While V.V. Mirasi identified Trivaranagaram as South Kosala (Bastar), the capital of Trivaranaraja, the king of Pandu dynasty, some other historians argued that it was the capital of the kings of Somadynasty who ruled from the Northern Kalinga. Whatever may be the actual location of the Trivaranagaram, it is clear that the kingdom of Madhava Varma II extended up to the Narmada and Mahanadi rivers in the North.

Vishnukunds and Pallavas were always engaged in wars. Hence, in order to prevent to the Pallava invasions, Madhava Varma II shifted his capital to Dendulurupura located near Vengi. He also raised the walls and strengthened the fort of Amarapuri, which was his first capital and appointed his eldest son, Deva Varma as the royal representative.

Vishnukund inscriptions mention that Madhava Varma II, in order to announce his victories, had performed 11 Ashwamedha sacrifices, 16 Rajasuya sacrifices and thousand sacrifices such as Vajapeya, Purushamedha and others. It seems even Gods have appreciated his judicial systems. It is being learnt that a book on Chandas (metre) 'Janasraya Chandovichhitti', which began with its title 'Janasraya' was written by him only. As he, in this way, became great in many things, he was taken as the founder of the dynasty by many kings, starting from the Kakatiyas.

Madhava Varma II was the greatest Vishnukund king. His empire extended from Bay of Bengal to Arabian Sea, and from Pulicat Lake to Narmada River. He performed 11 Ashwamedha and 16 Rajasuya sacrifices.

Vikramendra Varma I succeeded his father Madhava Varma II. He was known as 'Vishnukundi Vakataka Vamsadwayalankara Janma' - one who was related by birth to both the Vishnukund and Vakataka dynasties in the sense that he was born to Madhava Varma II, his Vishnukund father and Vakatadevi his mother from the Vakataka family. He had the title of 'Mahakavi'. Taking advantage of his literary activity or preference, Madhava Varma III, son of Deva Varma declared his independence at Amarapura. This Madhava Varma completely exterminated Kandara (Anandagotrika) dynasty, and wore their title, 'Trikuta Malayadhipa'. It means that he brought their territory under his control. Irrespective of other things, Vikramendra Varma, either driven from the Vakataka throne or coming from his capital Denduluru, he has suppressed Madhava Varma III, and ruled Vishnukund kingdom for about 15 years (510–525 A.D.).

After Vikramendra Varma, his son Indra Varma II succeeded to the throne. But, he was attacked by Madhava Varma III, with the help of Chalukyan king Pulakesi. In support of this inscription on which the title 'Ranavikrama' of Pulakesi, are found in Yeleswaram. Because of this association, Chalukyas, like the Vishnukunds, began to wear titles with the word 'asraya'. Ignoring other things, Indra Varma II has defeated Madhava Varma II and his other relatives (Palivandlu) and might have joined Amarapuri kingdom into 'Rajakshetram' or his territory. While this was going on, in the North-east, the Kalinga feudatories had formed into an alliance to fight against Indra Varma II. In this battle, Indra Varma II emerged victorious and saved his kingdom. Maukhari King, Esana Varma of North India has claimed that he has conquered Salika and Andhra Kings. This indicates that in his victorious campaign in the south, Esana Varma had defeated Indra Varma. Vindicating this, the latter had contracted matrimonial alliance by giving his daughter Indrubhattarikadevi in marriage to Sarva Varma, the son of Esana Varma. Indra Varma II, maintained friendship and relationship with them.

After the death of Indra Varma II, his minor son Vikramendra Bhattaraka Varma was brought to the throne by the council of ministers. His epithet 'Sakala Bhuvana Rakshabharanaikasraya' suggests the huge extension of his kingdom. During his 11th regnal year, Pallava king, Simhavaramai attacked the Vishnukund kingdom. The battle took place in about in about 566 CE in the environs of Dhanyakataka in Guntur district and it appears that Vikramendra Varma received the help of Prithivimula. Leaving aside other things, Vikramendra Varma II gained victory in their battle, and as a mark of this, he has given donations to the Vihara of Paramabhattarika Devi in Indrapalanagaram. At the same time, in Pishtapuram, Prithvimaraja declared his independence. The districts of Godavari, Khammam and Nalgonda used to be in his kingdom.

Collecting his army for sometime, Vikramendra Varma II made an attack on Prithivimaharaja. But in this battle, Vikramendra Varma II died. With this, Vishnukund dynasty disappeared within a short time. As a result, Prithvimula also became independent and ruled over the Godavari district areas.

From the decline of the Vishnukund kingdom in 569-590 CE, for half a century, i.e., up to 617 CE., Prithvimaraja in South-eastern Andhra, and Prithvimaraja in Guntur-Krishna and Godavari districts, have carried on their rule. Both these were defeated in 617 CE by Pulakesi II, Badami Chalukya ruler and thereby, the latter has extended his kingdom into Telangana and Andhra areas.

Administrative System

The rule of Vishnukunds has been great from many angles. Though they acquired the kingdom with their own prowess and physical strength, their stating that they gained the authority to rule over the people by serving at the feet of Sriparvataswamy and also carving the word 'Sriparvata' on their coins, speak about their humility and loyalty. They had good qualities of humility and enthusiasm. They earned fame on account of proper and popular rule. Because of their proper rule, monks, orphans, beggars, disease-ridden persons, distressed people, etc., also used to earn in a just manner. They have extended protection to the Brahmins and their employees. In other words, they gave lands, villages and posts to them, and they could see that through their efforts, peace and prosperity prevailed among the people. They were also donated thousands of servants and servant maids, cots, chairs, travel equipments, food and water, buildings and jewellery were donated. Girls were also donated. With these, they earned name and fame among the poor. It seems Madhava Varma always used to serve at the feet of his parents. From these, it could be understood that the Vishnukunds desired people's welfare, and hence, people enjoyed comfort and happiness under their rule.

After the Satavahanas, only the Vishnukunds get the credit of ruling an extensive empire in the Deccan. For nearly 50 years, the States of Maharashtra, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh used to be under their rule. However, Telangana and Coastal Andhra, lying north of Krishna river remained for a greater period. Because they have ruled over such a vast empire, the Vishnukunds assumed the title 'Maharaja'. Further, they provided protection to all types of people. Consequently, they adorned the title such as 'Sakala Bhuvanaikasraya, Janasraya, Satyasraya, Uttamasraya and Vikramasraya'. Because of this, they set an example for the later generation rulers. Accordingly, later period Chalukyan wore 'asraya' titles. Kakatiyas referred to Madhava Varma as their dynastic founder. The kings of Pithapuram and Velamas also mentioned the same thing in their records.

Vishnukunds were known for their 'just' rule. Madhava Varma had discovered the legal duties known as 'Divyalu'. It seems when the chariot of a prince has, due to unmindfulness, gone over the son of a lady selling tamarind and the boy got killed, Madhava Varma has imposed death sentence for the Prince. Becoming happy over this, Malliswaraswamy could make the gold rain at Bezawada and gave life to the Prince and the son of lady selling tamarind. This was found in the inscription there. The same details are there in the later day literary works (Nachiketopakhyanam, Prabhodha Chandrodayam, Panchatantram, etc.). In that way, Vishnukunds, by strength, truth and sacrifice and such other good qualities, earned fame. In that way, they displayed their splendor more than the brahmins and Kshatriyas. As Madhava Varma had the title 'hiranyagarbha', it could be said that the Vishnukunds who performed hiranyagarbha were first local Sudras of the Telangana region.

Madhava Varma's justice: He sentenced his own son to death for killing a poor boy. This shows the 'just' rule of Vishnukunds. Legal duties were called 'Divyalu'.

In the Vishnukund kingdom, the king was all powerful and a despot. In administrative matters, his was the final decision. However, the king's decisions were in accordance with the opinion and welfare of the people. Even the opinion of Council of Ministers were given due place in the King's Court. Sometimes, they even used to install the King on the throne. It seems Madhava Varma has imposed death sentence to his son only after discussing the matter with the legal luminaries. Vishnukunds used to provide shelter to warriors and employees. Vishnukunds kingdom was divided into Provinces, Provinces into Vishayas and Vishayas in to villages. Rashtrawas governed by Rashtrika. In Vishnukund kingdom, there used to be Provinces, such as Paraki Rashtra, Plekki Rashtra, Karma Rashtra, and Kalinga Rashtra. Vishadhipati was the governing head of a Vishaya. In Vishnukund kingdom, Vishayas such as Grudhranadi Vishaya and Netrapati (Natavadi) Vishaya were there. Besides these administrative divisions, there was the practice of appointing King's son as 'Yuvaraja' for some part of the kingdom. Further, some feudatory states, remaining subordinate to the Vishnukund kingdom, ruled their areas. It is there in the inscriptions that several samantas (feudatories) under Madhava Varma, anya samantas and sakala samantas under Govinda Varma used to be there. Among them, Vishnukunds had matrimonial relations with some of them. Even those also contributed for the protection and extension of Vishnukund kingdom. In administering his kingdom, Vishnukund king was assisted by Yuvaraja, Mahamatya, Amatya, Intelligence Officer, Secret Adviser and such other officials.

As a measure of protecting and expanding the kingdom, Vishnukunds have constructed several forts. The newly constructed forts were named in such a way that their names gave meaning similar to Amarapuram, the first capital. In that way, we come across Indrapalanagarm in Ramannapet taluk of Nalgonda district, Indrakeeladri in Bezwada and Indur in Nizamabad. Indur and Keesara gutta might have been their local settlements. Denduluru near Vengi had been their another capital. In order to protect their capital from the invasion of Pallavas, they have built in Amrabad area the biggest fort in Telugu country (The length of wall of this fort stood around 200 kilometers). Wall of this fort used to be constructed always. Hence, it became proverbed in the sense that if anyone in that region was found constructing a wall in the house compound since a long time, they began to state that the construction work is going on since a long time, just like the construction of Patalabhadruni fort.

Administrative divisions: Provinces → Vishayas → Villages. Officials: Yuvaraja, Mahamatya, Amatya, Intelligence Officer, Secret Adviser. Biggest fort at Amrabad – wall length around 200 km.

Economic Development

The villages of Vishnukund times had self-sufficient economy. In other words, the farmers and other occupational groups lived, each depending on the other. The kings took steps for the development of agriculture. Besides the agraharas, the Brahmins were also donated farmers who were cultivating and some servants and maid servants. Brahmins who had knowledge about the seasons, used to develop agriculture with the help of the servants. In that way, new lands were brought under cultivation. Inscriptions of the Vishnukunds indicate that they have dug many wells and tanks for agriculture. Through them wet crops used to be cultivated. In those days, land used to be measured in terms of nivartanas.

In the Vishnukund kingdom, domestic and foreign trade was also carried on. Their coins are found at Yeleswaram, Bhuvanagiri, and Sultanabad (Karimnagar district) in Telangana and Bojjannakonda and Elamanchili (Visakhapatnam district) in Andhra Pradesh, and Nasik, Khamapur, Nagpur in Maharashtra, and Brahmagiri in Madhya Pradesh and other places. Hence, it can be said that internal trade was carried out at these places during their period. External trade has grown after the occupation of Vengi from the Salankayanas and the kingdom of the Kalingas. More of Vishnukund coins being found in coastal Andhra, ship mark being found on them, and Madhava Varma II having the title of 'trisamudradhipati' are indicating the importance of foreign trade. Foreign trade used to be carried on from the Eastern coast port towns, such as Motupalli and Kodur with the Eastern countries, such as Burma, Siam, Cambodia, China, Japan, Ceylon, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Malaya Arakan and Western Countries, such as Egypt, Rome, Greece and other countries. Vadapalli, Bezawada, Amaravati, Motupalli, Ghantasala, Kodur, Alampuram-Kudalisangam and other places on the banks of river Krishna, mainly carried on international trade and now and then took up foreign trade also. In the excavations conducted at Kudali Sangameswaram near Alampuram, a gold coin of Roman Emperor Constantine (306-337 CE) was discovered along with some other coins. From these, it becomes clear that the Krishna-Tungabhadra doab region was a centre for foreign trade and commerce even before the Vishnukunds and this continued even during the Vishnukund period.

The Chinese traveller Fa-Hien wrote that during the beginning decades of the 5th century CE, shells were also used as currency in the Vishnukund kingdom. Another Chinese traveller, Huien-Tsang had written that full-size golden statues of Buddha are there at Sriparvata. These were not found, but, however, copper Buddha statue of (of CE 4-5 centuries) measuring about one to five inches were found at Buddham and Amaravati. From these, it is becoming known that the carpenters, were highly skillful in their work. A snuff box made out of cast iron and in the shape of a mango bud, and measuring 7 centimeters, which was found on Keesaragutta, stands as another testimony for this. On the whole, as the inscriptions are stating that during the Vishnukund period that sufficient wealth was there so that the monks, Brahmins, orphans beggars, diseased, poor and the destitute could have that much justly-earned wealth that they could lead and enjoy their lives, we could say that economy of those time was strong.

Madhava Varma II had the title 'Trisamudradhipati'. Roman coin of Constantine (306–337 CE) found at Kudali Sangameswaram. Fa-Hien mentioned shells as currency.

Social Conditions

The inscriptions of Vishnukunds state that "they adhered to the varnasramadharma which is associated with giving gifts and donations". It seems that Govinda Varma used to respect varnasramadharma. In this way, they tried to see that all the four varna people - the brahmana, Kshatriya, vaisya and sudra castes - followed their professional duties. But it becomes clear that the first two castes seem to have greater respect. The importance of brahmana and Kshatriya castes is known from the title 'parama brahmanya' borne by some of the Vishnukund rulers; by assuming "brahma-kshatra" brilliance and by performing 'hiranyagarbha' sacrifice and then wearing that title. In other words, Vishnukunds who had been Sudras, appeared to have, by performing many sacrifices, climbed to this status of upper castes. They gave many agraharas to the Brahmins. They also respected higher caste members by giving them posts. Vaisyas were engaged in the internal and external trade. Among the Sudras, carpenters, sculptors, and handloom weavers and others used to have rightful place. As the farmers form the backbone for the country, the Vishnukund kings used to donate agraharas and land grants to some of the farmers. Further, servants and servant maids were also used to be donated in thousands. Agricultural and trade development might have taken place due to them, but it becomes understandable that their human rights have been violated. Perhaps, in those days when males were sacrificed in Purushamedha sacrifices, donating servants and servant maids might not appear big or serious. However, the 'kanyadanas' or offering girls in marriage, made the parents of the girls, father-in-law and mother-in- law, bride and bridegroom happy. Further, Vishnukunds have also donated other needy items that were required for sleep, sitting, drinking, eating and also building and jewellery. In this way, several donations that were made by the Vishnukund kings have not only caused happiness to the people, but also might have spread among the latter the habit of donating to the extent possible within their limits. Madhava Varma used to serve always at the feet of his parents. From this, it could be said that the people of those times might be having reverence and regard towards their parents and elders.

Cultural Development

Vishnukunds were the followers of Vedic religion. Sriparvataswamy was their family deity. Their names indicate that they were the followers of Vedic religion and their titles, such as 'Paramamaheswara' and 'Parama Brahmanya' suggest that they were the devotees of Siva and the followers of brahmanical religion. Sometime before the Vishnukunds became independent rulers, in the Allahabad inscription that was issued by Samudragupta, after defeating the king of Srisailam region, 'Paramabhattaraka Padanudjyatasya' was there. This has close resemblance with 'Sriparvataswamy Padanudhyatasya' in the Vishnukund inscriptions. The name 'Paramabhattarikadevi', wife of Govinda Varma, first generation Vishnukund king, also seems to be the name of Gupta's beloved Goddess. There are some devotion-related stories regarding Sriparvataswamy or Srisaila Mallikarjuna Swamy who had close affinity with Chandravati (Sandravati), who was the daughter or sister of king Chandragupta. The ruins of Guptamaheswara temple, stated to have been installed by her, are there even now to the North of Umamaheswara temple and below the Prataprudra fort, on the northwest corner and to the south of road, and at a furlong distance. It appears that Madhava Varma II, after marrying Vakatakadevi, Vishnukunds did not patronize religions other than Vedic-brahmana religion. Vakatakas were the relatives of Guptas. Because of this, just like Guptas, they have followed only Vedic-brahman religion. The influence of Vakatakas might have fallen on the Vishnukunds. On the whole, it could be understood that, due to the influence of Guptas and Vakatakas, Vishnukunds got sanskritised and became the followers of Vedic-brahmana religion.

Vedic-Puranic Religion

Even though Vishnukunds have patronized Buddhism as it was very much popular among the people in C.E. 4th and 5th Centuries, even in it also, it appears that they made donations more to Brahmins only. Whatever might be, Vishnukunds in reality remained the followers of Vedic and Puranic religion. All their names related to Vedic and Vaishnava faith. Indrabhattaraka Varma and his son, Vikramendra Varma, assumed the titles of 'Parama Maheswara'. Vishnukunds have acknowledged that due to 'Sriparvataswamy Padanudhyanam' (worshipping at the feet of Sriparvataswamy) they could get the governing authority over the people. On their coins also, they got carved the word 'Sriparvata'. In Sriparvata padam (foot) only, (Uma) Maheswara temple is there. This is there in Amrabad mandal. It became famous as the Northern gateway of Srisailam Devasthanam. Srisaila Mallikarjuna also became popular with that name during the time of Vishnukund only.

With the orders of Madhava Varma II, in his 33rd regnal year, idol installations of war-drum and Dantamukhaswamy (Ganapati) have taken place (C.E.489). All the people used to worship at this idol. Very much going in line with these details, Venkaiah (Ganapati) idol was there outside Amrabad village. Nearby to this Venkaiah idol, are there Venkaiah bavi (well) and the ruins of Siva-Parvati temple. Few kilometers of distance from this, and in hills, Ganeswara temple was there. War-drum is now in the compound of Umamaheswara temple. Inscriptions state that Govinda Varma has constructed several 'divayatanas'. The temples that were constructed by the Vishnukunds were there in their early capital in Amrabad mandal, located in the valleys of Nallamala forests, under the waterfalls and in caves.

Anandagotris or Kandara kings (Atti Varma) who were the contemporaries of the Vishnukund and who ruled the areas to the east of Vishnukund kingdom, have worshipped 'Sambhu' or Vanakeswaram. One Vankeswaram is there in Amrabad mandal only. The name of Kandara Princess 'Avanitalantavati' is also indicating Amrabad plateau only. Surprisingly, the Akkanna-Madanna caves and the temples that Akkanna-Madanna were stated to have constructed, were all actually constructed by Vishnukund king Madhava Varma II. Among such structures, Akkanna-Madanna caves in the Kanaka Durga group of temples at Indrakeeladri at Bezwada, the temples on Keesaragutta stated to have been built by Akkanna-Madanna and Maheswara temple on the outskirts of Hyderabad, could be shown as examples. In reality all these were built by Madhava Varma II. As there are similarities, in promoting Hinduism, the name of Madhava Varma might have been taken for Akkanna-Madanna (C.E 17th Century).

Madhava Varma II built many temples dedicated to Ramalingeswara. Whenever he won a battle, he constructed those temples. In that way, we have Ramalingeswara temple at Velpuru in Sattanapalli taluk of Guntur district, at Ipur, and Keesaragutta, receiving worships till today. There is a reference to Rama in the 'place of history' (sthala charitra) of Umamaheswara temple in Amrabad mandal. To the southeast of this temple, foot prints of Rama are there. From these it becomes clear that there also, in the beginning, Ramalingeswram only was there. To the North of Umamaheswara temple, and by the side of way leading to Munnanoor, Pallaveswara temple was there. Pallavas who made attacks on Vishnukunds twice or thrice, have constructed this as a sign of their victory. Taking que from this Madhava Varma II, as marks for the several victories that he achieved, he made installation of Sivalingas on Keesaragutta at the rate of one for each victory. As the Vishnukunds were Vaishnavas, Sivalingas are called Ramalingas. The same practice was followed by Eastern Chalukya king Vijayaditya II who, as a mark of his 108 victories, built 108 Bhimeswara temples. Madhava Varma II was described as 'Snanapunyodaka pavitrikrita sirshah' (the one whose head was purified by the sacred waters). From this, it is learnt that during his time, pilgrimages and bathing in sacred waters assumed great importance. Vikaramendra Varma donated Regent village as devabhoga to Triyambakanatha temple or God Somagiriswaranatha in Netrapati vishaya.

Vishnukunds also donated along with villages, lands, old chariots, horses, cows, cots, arts, water, food, houses, ornaments, girls and thousands of servants. Vishnukunds performed several sacrifices and rituals. Madhava Varma II had a reputation of performing sacrifices such as 'Ekadasaswamedha, Avabritha, Avodhauta, Jagatkalmasha, Agnistoma, Bahuswarna, Purushamedha, Vajpeya Shodarajasuya, Prajapatyaneka Paundarika Sata Sahasrayojino'. The practice of donating thousands of servants and girls and sacrificing men in the yajnas indicate the prevailing inequalities in the then society. The avabritha bathing ghat present in the Munnanoor fort, is still seen as a great memory of the sacrifices performed by the Vishnukunds.

Madhava Varma II built Ramalingeswara temples after every victory. He installed Sivalingas on Keesaragutta – one for each victory. He performed Ekadasaswamedha, Purushamedha and many other sacrifices.

Buddhism

By the first phase of the Vishnukund rule, Buddhism had huge spread in the society. The first generation Vishnukund rulers, in order to respect the majority opinion, have patronized Buddhism, though they themselves were the followers of Vedic religion. In that way, Govinda Varma had donated in his 37th regnal year on the full moon day of Vaisakha month, for providing light, sandal flowers, dhwaja water, food, sleep, arama, grasa, medicine, and other essentials to the mahavihara built by Queen Paramabhattarika, his wife in Indrapalanagara, to one Dasabalabali who was well-versed in 18 branches of Buddhist Dharma, while addressing the 14th Arya Sangha Penkaparra village along with its resources and forests. He has also donated to the same sangha the village of Enmadala. For the same vihara, Vikramendra Varma has donated Irrundero village for the enjoyment of monk sanghas in the year 566 CE. Govinda Varman's uncle Prithivimula had constructed a mahavihara named Tokhalikhata in the capital Gunapasapuram (East Godavari district). His son, Harivarma, constructed another mahavihara at Gunapasapuram. To this, he donated Kattacheruvu village. He has also built Sekya bhikshu vihara near Tatikonda.

Inscriptions are informing that Govinda Varma had installed many beautiful mahaviharas and Vikramendra Varma had made donations to the sacred Buddhist monk sanghas were existing in different areas. This indicates that, Vishnukund kings might have constructed on Buddhist arama viharas on all four sides of their kingdom, or might have undertaken major repairs and extensions to the already existing ones. As proofs for this stand even today, Govindaraja vihara in Chaitanyapuri colony in the surroundings of Hyderabad; Buddhist ruins at Keesaragutta and Kondapuram; arama, stupa, viharas at Phanigiri and Gajulabanda in Nalgonda district and stupas, aramas at Nelakondapalli in Khammam district. In the excavations conducted at Phanigiri in 2011, six aramas have come to light. In each arama there were seen rooms. Even in Andhra Pradesh, Buddhist constructions were there at Jaggayyapeta, Salihundam, Ramatirtham, Thotlakonda, Bojjanakonda, Buddharam and other places. But most of these sites were there already. However, in respect of these, extension activities have been taken up on a larger scale during the Vishnukund period.

Saleswara vihara could be cited as an example for this. This was there in Amrabad mandal of Mahaboobnagar district, situated on the northern or left bank of Krishna river in a valley tucked in hills of Nallamala forest. A vihara was built here during the time of the Ikshvakus for the sake of Buddhist monks. As proofs for this are seen even today, brick (18×10×2½ inches) structures of Ikshvaku times, Brahmi script inscriptions and brick (10×10×2½ inches) structures of later period, rock structures and ancient Telugu-Kannada script inscriptions. The Hinayana sect of Buddhism, used to be there at Chaitanyapuri in Hyderabad. There, on a big rock lying near Konagundla Narasimhaswamy cave temple, a Prakrit inscription in six rows. In it was mentioned that Bhadanta Sanghadeva, a Buddhist has constructed a rock house for the use of those persons who would be offering sandal and clothes to the Govindaraja vihara. It deserves to be noted that Govindaraja vihara that was mentioned in it, and the rock house remaining on the bank of Musi river and at 60-70 kilometres distance from this and again on the bank of Musi river, Indrapalanagaram, the capital city of Vishnukunds taking its place. This Chaitanyapuri inscription happens to be the most ancient inscription that is found in Hyderabad region. This is of the beginning of C.E. 5th Century.

At Keesaragutta which was only at few kilometres distance from Hyderabad, traces of Mahayana Buddhism are being seen. As proof to this, we can see the metal statue of Mahayana founder, Acharya Nagarjuna, which was collected by the historian, Sri Kurra Jitendrababu. In this connection, the hood of snake remaining over the head of sitting person, reminds us of the case of the statue of 23rd Jain Tirthankara. Hence, if this is true, we have to say that in Keesaragutta region, in those days, Jainism also flourished. Further, if Pudhagiri that is mentioned in this inscription is same as Pandava Parvatam (near Patna), lying nearer to Rajagriha, the capital of Magadha, we have to say that a vihara, which is allied with maha vihara of Theravadis at Rajagriha, might have been there at Chaitanyapuri. Pindapatikula mentioned in this inscription were a special branch belonging to Hinayana Buddhism. It is written in one inscription that there used to be 18 branches in Buddhism and Dasabalabali was the great person who know about all of them. There used to be several sanghas in these branches. 14th Arya Sangham was one among them. For Asanapura Arya Sangham, Vikramendra Varma got constructed Trilokesraya Rajamahavihara, and for its representative, Sanghadasa, has donated two villages along with their gardens. Vikramendra Varma was addressed with Buddhism- related titles of Mahabodhisatva and Paramasaugata. Sanghadasa belonged to the Kshemacharya branch that belonged to Tamraparni (Sri Lanka).

Vishnukunds were the last Telugu kings who patronized Buddhism. By the end of C.E. 5th Century, to the south of Krishna river, in Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda areas another important branch in Buddhism - Vajrayana - has taken shape. Into Buddhist Sangha relating to this branch, women, wine, mutton, deceitful mantras have all entered, gradually losing purity and affection of the people and at last, such Buddhist places became infamous places of liars and women-seekers. Bomkur, Chinna Bomkur, Pedda Bomkur and Lanjamadugu in Karimnagar district and Lanjaladibba near Jaggayyapeta in Krishna district and others stand as only few examples in this regard. Another development that has taken shape in Buddhism, has been the Brahmin supremacy in Buddhist sanghas and arama- viharas. 'Anantha brahmana sambharasya' that was expressed in connection with vihara installation, in Govinda Varma's inscription, stands as a proof to this. These Brahmins gradually painted Buddha as the ninth avatara (god's rebirth) of Vishnu. As a result, some Buddhist holy centres got turned into Vaishnava holy centres. Essentially, they turned into Narasimha temples. Dharmapuri (Karimnagar district) which had been Buddhist area right from Buddha's time, might have, during the time of Vishnukunds only, got changed as an area of the temples of Ramalingeswara Swamy and Narasimha Swamy.

The last great philosophers of Buddhist religion lived in the Vishnukundin kingdom. Dingnaga belonging to the 5th Century, CE and a scholar in logic lived for some time in Vengi. Here, he debated with Isvarakrishna, the author of 'Sankhya Karika'. From the descriptions found in Kalidas's work 'Meghasandesam' about Godavari river, it is becoming known that Dingnaga lived for some time at Ramagiri (Ramagundam), and Munulagutta (near Kotilingala) in Karimnagar district. Dingnaga has authored more than hundred books. 'Pramana Samuchchayam' was his famous work written in Sanskrit. He taught Yogachara Pandha. He was last of the great Buddhist scholars belonging to the Telugu country. Even in Basara also, there was a stupa and few small inscriptions are there. It is being learnt that Dingnaga has spent some time in that area also.

Vishnukunds were the LAST Telugu kings who patronized Buddhism. Dingnaga (5th Century CE) was the last great Buddhist scholar of Telugu country. He wrote 'Pramana Samuchchayam'.

Jainism

In a Kannada literary text 'Dharamamrutam' written in 1115 CE by a Jaina poet Nayasena, there is a reference to 'Sriparvata' and its adjacent places. The work also gives an explanation of how these place names have come. In this text, it was mentioned that that the name 'Sriparvata' was derived from the first letter in the name of 'Sridharamuni' who was the brother of Ikshvaku king Priyabala - who ruled Vengi country with Pratipalapuram as its capital. When the Gods came to worship him, they all met at a place which thenceforward came to be called as Amaravati. When he was sitting under an 'Arjuna' tree (Maddi tree) and doing meditation, the sky gods have showered jasmine flowers on him and worshipped. Hence, this place came to be called as Mallikarjunam. In Amrabad mandal of Mahaboobnagar district, there is a place by name Vataverlapalli. Near by to this place was located Mallela Tirtham - which may be identified as Mallikarjunam. Pulumavi inscription (first half of the 2nd Century CE) in Nasik mentions a place called 'Siridhan' which perhaps must have been named after Sridharan. In Amaravati mandalam which is now called Amrabad, all the places which are mentioned in the above-cited work, are there. They are Rushula Cheruvu region, or Srisaila region was only Sriparvatam, Amaravati was Amrabad and Mallikarjuna was Srisaila Mallikarjuna temple area.

Jain rushis are called 'munulu'. Accordingly, the place where Sridhara and other Jain munis did meditation, its name might have become 'munuluru'. This village (now Munnenoor) is also in Amrabad mandal. It is further stated in this book that Indraprabhudu, a minister came to Rishinivasa area, took Sridhar with him and made him for some time as the king of Vengi. Hence, as Indra Varma was the first king of Vishnukunds, he might have been appointed by Sridharudu as the administrator of Amrabad area. On the whole, it is becoming known that Srisaila region at the beginning was a Jain area and used to be under the rule of Vishnukunds. Prithvimula, father-in-law of first generation Vishnukund king Govinda Varma, making donations to the Jain vihara at Vardharmanu also indicates the influence of Jainism of those days. To the East of Umamaheswaram, temple of Mukmiridani was there. Mukmirapet was also there near Munulagutta in Vellatur mandal of Karimnagar district. In that way, it gets understood that Mukmiri was a Jainism related Goddess.

It so happened that Jainism got disappeared during the time of the Vishnukunds itself. The followers of Kapalika sect which took its birth during those days, with their magic skills and mantras, enjoying sex with other ladies and indulging in drinking and vulgar dancing, lost people's favour and became responsible for the decline of Jainism. Jain temples became Saiva temples. As per the version of Nayasena, Srisailam itself was a great example to this. It is learnt that Kumarilabhattu who was an Andhra born in Jayamangala village lying on the bank of Mahanadi in Kalinga (Odisha), received Jain education in the beginning, but after realizing that there is nothing that could be appreciated in Jainism, condemned Jainism and attracted many Jains in to Vedic religion. In that way, among those who shifted from Jainism in to Vedic religion, Indra Varma, the first king among the Vishnukunds, might also have one among them.

Srisaila region was initially a Jain area. 'Sriparvata' derived from 'Sridharamuni'. Munnenoor = Munuluru (place of Jain munis). Kumarilabhattu attracted many Jains to Vedic religion.

Literary Development

Vishnukunds have established ghatikasthanas and patronized Vedic studies. Study of the Vedas and praising of Brahmins was seen in the inscriptions. For Brahmins who learn and study the Vedas were given agraharas by the Vishnukunds. Among those who received agraharas, we get the names of Agnisarma and Easwarasarma through the inscriptions. Agricultural development has also taken place in the agraharas. In support of the statement that Ghatikesari, the suburbs of Hyderabad had been the Ghatikasthana of Vishnukunds, nearer to it on Keesaragutta, the structures of the times of Vishnukunds have been unearthed. Those who received agraharas, and donations had been well-versed in education and literature. Dasabalabali, the Buddhist guru as per the inscriptional data, had been learned in the four Vedas, adept in all the sciences, knew all the 18 Buddhist dharmas and a Jnani or highly learned spiritually.

Vishnukund kings remaining intellectuals, had unique vision on life in this world and the other world. Govinda Varma was described as 'Shadabhigna'. Vikramendra Varma had the titles of 'mahakavi', and 'parama sogatasya' (As enlightened as Buddha). Indrabhattaraka Varma had the title of 'ghatikavapta punyasancharya'. Madhava Varma II was praised as 'vidyadvijaguru vipravruddh tapasvi janasraya'. These titles clearly indicate that the Vishnukund kings were themselves not only writers and scholars, but were also patrons of poets and scholars.

A special feature of the Vishnukund period was that Sanskrit replaced Prakrit as State language. Along with the disappearance of Buddhism, its language Prakrit has also disappeared. It is of significance to note that Chaitanyapuri inscription of Govinda Varma related to Buddhism and Prakrit language. All the later inscriptions have been issued in Sanskrit. But, the language of the common people, was of course, Telugu. In the Chikkulla inscription of Vikramendra Varma which was in Sanskrit, the word 'vijaya rajya samvatsarambul' was there. In it, 'ambul' is a Telugu word. The term 'l' is used in place of 'lu' in Telugu, which was its earlier form. 'ambu', 'bu' are used in place of 'mu'. Thus, instead of writing 'samvatsara', it was written as 'samvatsarambul' which is a variant of Telugu term 'samvatsaralu'. So, it is becoming clear that the influence of the people's language, Telugu on the author of the inscription has been immense.

The names of the village names that are mentioned in the Vishnukund inscriptions are all of Telugu only. Thus, we have terms like, Kudavada, Velimbali, Marokaki, Kalika, Puranisangama, Peruvalika, Dendulur, Ravareva, Regosam, Penkapara, Irundero, Tundi, Paraki, Vishayam, Netrapati, vishaya and 'toluchuvandhu', a pure Telugu word carved on a boulder typing on Keesaragutta. Even in a Sanskrit work on poetics 'janasrya chhando vichhitti', there are many references of Telugu language. As Madhava Varma II had the title of 'janasraya', it is felt that this work also was written by him. It is also doubted by a scholars that a person, by name Ganaswamy might have written with the name of king's title ('janasraya'). These doubts have cropped up as the 'preface' of this book is not available. In the fifth chapter of this work, ganas, yatudu, praralu and 'jati padyalu' relating to Telugu Kavitvam, have been explained. 'Seershika' is 'Seesa Padyam' in Telugu. Even the characteristics of 'Itara Jati, 'Upa jati' verses are in accordance with Telugu metre. Among the 'dvipada and tripada' verses that are explained in that chapter,dvipada verses, it is of significance to note that are being seen in Telugu until now. It is becoming known that the word 'janasraya' is also seen in 'kavijanasrayam', a Telugu work on metre written by Malliya Rechana in the beginning of 10th Century C.E., the roots of this work are also there in 'Janasraya Chando Vichhitti', verse writing in Telugu was there even by that time, and hence, a book with verse characteristics has come out.

Sanskrit replaced Prakrit as the State language during Vishnukund period. 'Janasraya Chando Vichhitti' – written by Madhava Varma II – is an important work on Telugu metres.

Development of Architecture and Sculpture

During the Vishnukund period, structures of architecture have demonstrated new style. Their capital cities and caves, temples, arama-viharas, that lay in their surroundings, have become the sources for structures of architecture. In Telangana, Vishnukund forts are there in their capitals of Amaravati (Amrabad), Indrapalanagaram and Keesaragutta. Below Keesaragutta and adjoining the tank, spacious buildings, palaces, Siva temples and Shakti temples, all built in brick, are even now showing their brilliance and splendour. In these temples which are 1500 years old, just like the present day ones, there are garbhagriha, arthamandapam and mukhamandapam. Further, on the walls of Bhuvanagiri fort, the sculptures of royal emblem of the Vishnukunds-pouncing lion-are being seen which suggests that the former was built first by the Vishnukunds only.

During the Vishnukund period, the Buddhist viharas and aramas that were constructed by the kings, royal relatives, and rich persons, have been mainly brought out in Chaitanyapuri of Hyderabad, Indrapalanagaram, Phanigiri, Tirumalgiri, and Gajulabanda in Nalgonda district and Nelakondapalli in Khammam district. Whereas Govindaraju has built Raja vihara at Chaitanyapuri, his queen, Paramabhattaraka Mahadevi has constructed at Indrapalanagaram, a vihara on her name, known as Paramabhattarika Mahadevi vihara. Recently, in the area of this vihara, sculptures of Buddhist acharyas that were carved on the caves that were there at two places have been identified. In the excavations that were taken up by the Government at Phanigiri, sculptures that were carved with Buddhist Jataka stories, Buddha's foot prints, chaityas, stupas, aramas-viharas of the monks and mantapas have come to light. If we view Buddhist stupa at Tirumalagiri from above Phanigiri, it is in seeming distance. Buddhist stupa at Nelakondapalli was so big, it used to be called as Virat stupa. Gradually it came to be called as Virata Raju Gadde. Among the excavations here, marble sculptures of Buddha and metal statues have come to light.

Chaitya decorations of the Vishnukund period are seen on the mantapa pillars that are found on the caves that are on L. Madugu in the surroundings of Manthani town in Karimnagar district, and the caves that are on Gaurigundam waterfall. Hence, it could be said that these are also could be called as Buddhist Aramas. Komati caves which are on the down side of L. Madugu, are stated to be serving as Aramas for the contemporary Jains. Umamaheswaram which was near Amaravati, the birth place of Vishnukunds, Yeleswaram caves, and Alampuram have shone splendidly as Saiva- Shakti temples. Some among the Vishnukunds being praised as parama maheswaras is indicating their devotion towards Siva. The word 'Sriparvata' on their coins also indicates, besides their devotion to Siva, the Saiva temples that they have constructed on Sriparvata. Umamaheswaram, in the later period, became famous as the temple on the Northern entrance to Srisaila temple. At Umamaheswaram, the Sivalinga that got carved by the Pallavas and the war-drum (nagara bheri) that was arranged by the Vishnukunds are there even now. Among the two cave temples at Saleswaram, on the wall of the temple, it was written in Brahmi script as 'viswesa kakkalesa' which was identified by Dr. Dyanavanapalli. We have the inscriptional evidence that Alampuram was there in existence from the time of Ikshvakus who reigned before the Vishnukunds. Alampuram has become famous for Bala Brahmeswara as well as the temple of Jogulamba. The kings who came after the Vishnukunds have constructed here the Nava Brahma temples. At Bhairava Kona which is located on the border of Prakasam and Nellore districts, cave temples of Vishnukund times are there.

Four storeyed cave temple at Undavalli, in areas surrounding Vijayawada which served as an alternate capital for the Vishnukunds (such as Undavalli, Mogalrajapuram, and Indrakeeladri hills), multi-storeyed Buddhist sanctuaries and monasteries were carved out. Inscriptions bearing the name Sri Utpatti Pidugu have been discovered on pillars and walls, alongside similar writings at cave temples like Saleswaram and Pandavulagutta in the Warangal district. Some historians suggest these inscriptions were created by Saivites following the displacement of Buddhists and Jains, while others propose they denote an organized collective of architects and sculptors. Although the exact motivation remains debated, the presence of an architectural guild is evidenced by the ancient Telugu term Toluchuvandlu discovered in Keesaragutta.

Vishnukund architecture: Brick temples with garbhagriha, arthamandapam, mukhamandapam. Four-storeyed cave temple at Undavalli. Pouncing lion – royal emblem. Toluchuvandlu – architectural guild.

Conclusion

The Vishnukund dynasty governed the entire Telugu territory north of the Krishna River for a duration exceeding two hundred years. Throughout their extensive rule, they established a Hindu-centric cultural framework that replaced earlier composite traditions and served as a model for subsequent dynasties. Their distinct approaches to architecture and sculpture influenced both the Pallavas to the south and the Chalukyas to the west, demonstrating their historical significance. Demonstrating their profound legacy, prominent rulers of the Kakatiya dynasty regarded the Vishnukund monarch Madhava Varma II as their foundational ancestor.

While deeply devoted to the Vedic tradition through rituals and sacrifices, the Vishnukund kings practiced religious pluralism. They generously supported Buddhist and Jain institutions and monks, reflecting a strong policy of tolerance and public welfare administration. Monarchs like Govinda Varma and Madhava Varma II authored Sanskrit texts, founded educational and administrative centers known as ghatikas, and strongly championed scholars and poets. Recognized as the initial royal house to initiate its political journey within Telangana, the Vishnukunds successfully achieved regional dominance, widespread peace, and economic prosperity through exceptional governance.

Kakatiyas regarded Madhava Varma II as their dynastic founder. Vishnukunds were the first royal house to start political journey in Telangana. They ruled for over 200 years.

Quick Revision – Key Points

1. Vishnukund rule: 358 CE – 569 CE (nearly 210 years).

2. Capitals: Amarapuram, Indrapalanagaram, Denduluru.

3. Greatest king: Madhava Varma II (440–495 CE).

4. Empire extent: Bay of Bengal to Arabian Sea; Pulicat Lake to Narmada River.

5. Titles: Maharaja, Sakala Bhuvanaikasraya, Janasraya, Satyasraya, Trisamudradhipati.

6. Sources: 21 inscriptions (16 copper plates + 5 stone).

7. Family deity: Sriparvataswamy (Srisaila Mallikarjuna).

8. Last Telugu kings to patronize Buddhism – Dingnaga was the last great Buddhist scholar.

9. Sanskrit replaced Prakrit as State language.

10. Kakatiyas considered Madhava Varma II as their dynastic founder.

Note: These notes are prepared from the text "Splendour of Vishnukund Rule" – Telangana History & Culture. Suitable for TSPSC, APPSC, Group Services, and other competitive examinations.

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UNIT 5: Post - Satavahana Age - Vakatakas

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Vakataka Dynasty – Complete Exam Guide | Vatsagulma Branch, Admin, Art & Culture

🏛️ Vakataka Dynasty – Complete Exam Guide

📜 Post-Satavahana Age 🗺️ Deccan & Central India ⏳ c. 250–560 CE

Introduction & Political Extent

The Vakatakas hold a special place among the dynasties that ruled the Deccan from the 3rd to the mid-6th century CE. They were the most important dynasty that influenced Deccan culture. After the fall of the Satavahana empire, independence was declared by the Abhiras near Nasik and by the Vakatakas in Eastern Berar (who had been Satavahana feudatories).

They had matrimonial alliances with the Guptas and Nagas in the north, Vishnukunds in eastern Deccan, and Kadambas in the western Deccan. The Vakataka Empire extended from the Arabian Sea in the west to Chhattisgarh in the east, and from Malwa, Gujarat, Bundelkhand and Bagelkhand in the north to the Tungabhadra River in the south. The Vatsagulma branch ruled over Nanded, Aurangabad (Maharashtra) and parts of Telangana (Adilabad).

Capitals: Initially 'Purika Pattanam' and 'Chanaka'; later 'Pravarapura' (Paunar) near Wardha. They reigned for three centuries (250–560 CE), providing political stability and patronizing education, literature, and arts.

Historical Sources & Inscriptions

Most Vakataka inscriptions are on copper plates (a few stone slabs). They are in Sanskrit using Brahmi script, mostly land grants. They provide details of grants to ascetics, temples, Brahmins, officials, genealogies, and village descriptions.

Key Inscriptions – Nandivardhana-Pravarapura Branch

Mandhal copper plates – Rudrasena (5th regnal year), shows his Vaishnavism.
Indore, Yavatmal, Masod, Mandhal – Pravarasena II; Masod grants land to 19 Brahmins; Yavatmal re-allots donated land.
Miregaon inscription – Prabhavatigupta (during Pravarasena II); found near Poona (1912), key for Gupta-Vakataka chronology.
Mandhal, Maharjari – Prithvisena II.

Vatsagulma Branch of the Vakatakas

Earlier historians believed in a single Vakataka branch. Prof. V.V. Mirasi showed that after Pravarasena I, the dynasty split into four branches. Gouthamiputra established the Nandivardhana-Pravarapura branch; Sarvasena started the Vatsagulma branch. The Basim inscription of Vindhyasakti II (37th regnal year, found 1939 in Akola) illuminated this branch.

Hisse-Borala stone inscription of Devasena – Arya Svarnilladeva built Sudarsana lake; Devasena’s 5th regnal year Bidar inscription grants a village.
Ramtek inscription of Prabhavati Gupta – praises her chivalry, issued by her son and daughter.

Coins & Material Remains

Coins: Vakatakas did not issue their own coinage (very few found). They allowed Saka Kshatrapa silver coins and other contemporary coins to circulate. Silver punch-marked coins (Karshapanas) were in use.

Material Remains: Excavations at Paunar (Pravarapura) by Nagpur University show it was a political, trade, and cultural center. Finds include punch-marked coins, well-laid plans, bricks, round wells, black-and-red ware, implements, jewellery, Durga statue (Mandhal), Kevala Narasimha, Vishnu on Sesha, Buddha images. Paintings of Buddha and Bodhisattvas in Ajanta caves XVI and XVII are renowned Vakataka art.

Literary Sources

Puranas (Vayu, Matsya, Vishnu, Brahmanda, Bhagavata) – genealogies of royal dynasties.
Vistrutha Charitra (part of Dasakumara Charitra by Dandi) – downfall of Vakataka kingdom and feudal conspiracies after Harisena.
Kalidasa (during Chandragupta II) – social, economic, cultural conditions; Meghadutam mentions Ramagiri (Ramtek).
Setubandham – written by Vakataka ruler Pravarasena II.

Original Home Debate

North India Argument: K.P. Jayaswal (Bundelkhand-Bagelkhand near Vindhya, name from 'Vakat'/'Bagat' in Jhansi), V.A. Smith (Central India/Vindhya), S.V. Sohani & D.C. Sircar (Madhya Pradesh or Eastern Malwa/Vidisa).

South India Argument: Prof. V.V. Mirasi (Amaravati inscription mentions Gahapati 'Vakataka' as founder), A.S. Altekar. Mirasi noted Paunar (8 km from Wardha) built by Pravarasena II as capital.

Caste

Puranas do not mention Vakataka caste; Vindhyakula dynasty established by Vindhyasakti, his son Pravara performed four Asvamedha sacrifices. Dr. Bhaudaji felt they were of Greek race, later obtaining brahmanhood like Sunga and Kanva rulers, declaring themselves brahmanas in inscriptions. They had matrimonial alliances with Guptas, Nagas, Vishnukundus, Kadambas.

Political Developments & Chronology (Main Branch)

Ruler	Period (CE)	Key Events
Vindhyasakti I	250–270	Founder; mentioned in Puranas & Ajanta cave XVI as 'Vakataka Vamsadhvaja'; ruled Nagpur & Berar as Satavahana feudatory.
Pravarasena I	270–330	Real founder; ruled 60 years; occupied N. Maharashtra, Berar, MP, South Kosala, Telangana; performed 4 Asvamedha; titles 'Samrat', 'Dharma Maharaja'.
Rudrasena I	330–355	Capital Pravarapura; faced division into four parts; restored glory with help of maternal grandfather (Padmavati).
Prithvisena I	355–380	Peaceful 25-year reign; Chandragupta II defeated Saka Kshatrapas with his help; shifted capital to Nandivardhana.
Rudrasena II	380–385	Married Prabhavatigupta (daughter of Chandragupta II); adopted Vaishnavism; Gupta dominance increased.
Pravarasena II	400–440	17 copper plates; built Pravarapura city; Saiva devotee, poet, wrote Setubandha in Maharashtra Prakrit.
Narendrasena	440–460	Married Kuntala princess Ajjitabhattarika; faced Nala raids; recovered with Kadamba help.
Prithvisena II	460–480	Last main branch king; restored Vakataka Lakshmi twice (Balaghat inscription); after his death Harisena of Vatsagulma occupied N. Vidarbha.

Vakataka – Vatsagulma Branch

Sarvasena (330–355 CE): Founder (younger brother of Pravarasena I); capital Basim (Vatsagulma), Akola; conquered Sahyadri to Godavari; title 'Dharma Maharaja'; wrote 'Harivijayam' in Prakrit.
Vindhyasena (355–400 CE): Basim inscriptions call him Vindhyasakti; his minister Pravara defeated Kuntala king.
Pravarasena II (400–415 CE): Ascended after Vindhyasena; his 8-year-old son succeeded but details unavailable.
Devasena (450–475 CE): Ghatotkacha cave inscription calls him 'Devaraja'; entrusted administration to Hastibhoja; official Swamiladeva built Sudarsana water source near Basim.
Harisena (475–500 CE): Greatest Vatsagulma ruler; Ajanta inscriptions record empire from Gujarat, Malwa, South Kosala, Kalinga, Asmaka, Kuntala. Permitted conquered kings to rule as tributaries. Minister Varahadeva; Ajanta cave XVI inscription is primary source. After Harisena, kingdom weakened; Vishnukundus, Kadambas, Kalachuris, Nalas took advantage.

Administrative System

Centralized but decentralized due to poor transport. Provinces (Bhojakata, Arammi, Varuchchi) → Vishayas → Aharas/Bhogas/Bhuktis; some Vishayas had Pattes and Margas. Village administration by village officials; Gramakuta = village elders. Officials: Mantri, Sachiva, Sarvadhyaksha, Senapati, Dandanayaka. Land tax (1/4 to 1/6 of produce) main revenue; duties on export/import; royal monopoly on salt and liquor. Tax exemptions for land grants to scholars, Brahmins, temples. Employees often paid by land. Military: big army under Senapati; feudatory states of three kinds (fear, invasion, conquest). Justice: king highest authority; Smritis and customs; fines for small offences.

Economic and Social Conditions

Trade & Agriculture: Internal/external trade declined; Srenis and towns suffered; rulers encouraged agriculture and irrigation (dams, canals, reservoirs).

Land Grants & Feudalism: Extensive land grants to scholars, Brahmins, officials, soldiers → feudal system, vetti (forced free labour) extracted from ryots.

Social Structure: Four varnas plus mixed castes; varna purity declined; marriages mostly within same caste; respect for Brahmins grew (brahma kshatriyas in admin/military); women like Prabhavati Gupta took administrative roles.

Religious Conditions

Both Vedic religion and Buddhism flourished. Main branch rulers initially Vedic/Shaivite; Queen Prabhavatigupta and Pravarasena II adopted Vaishnavism. Rulers performed Asvamedha, Vajapeya; built temples to Shiva, Vishnu (Ramtek, Padmapuram). Vatsagulma rulers and ministers (Varahadeva) heavily patronized Buddhism → Ajanta and Ghatotkacha rock-cut caves.

Educational, Literary & Artistic Development

Literature: Sanskrit and Prakrit flourished. Sarvasena wrote Harivijayam; Pravarasena II wrote Setubandha. Kalidasa’s Meghadutam mentions Ramagiri (Ramtek).
Architecture & Sculpture: Structural and cave temples at Paunar, Mansar, Nandapur, Ramtek, Nagpur; Gupta influence. Sculptures: long bodies, lean waists, strong upper parts (Amaravati/Nagarjunakonda style).
Ajanta Caves: 30 caves; discovered by John Smith in 1919. Cave 16 cut by Varahadeva (Harisena’s minister); Cave 17 Vihara by Upendra Gupta. Famous paintings: Padmapani/Avalokitesvara, Mahaparinirvana of Buddha, Jataka stories (Mahajanaka, Maha Hamsa, Matruposhaka).

            🎯 Exam Point of View – Quick Revision:
            • Vakatakas: 250–560 CE, Deccan; successors of Satavahanas.

            • Two main branches: Nandivardhana-Pravarapura & Vatsagulma (Basim).

            • Pravarasena I – real founder, 4 Asvamedha, Samrat.

            • Prabhavatigupta – Gupta princess, ruled as regent; key for chronology.

            • Harisena (Vatsagulma) – greatest ruler; Ajanta cave XVI, XVII patronage.

            • Ajanta paintings – Padmapani, Mahaparinirvana, Jatakas.

            • Administration: provinces (Bhojakata etc.), land tax 1/4–1/6, feudalism, vetti.

            • Original home debate: North (Jayaswal, Smith) vs South (Mirasi, Altekar).

            • No own coins; used Saka Kshatrapa silver coins.

            • Literature: Setubandha (Pravarasena II), Harivijayam (Sarvasena).

Ikshvaku Dynasty Lecture Notes

noreply@blogger.com (Estudies4you) — Sun, 20 Sep 2026 11:04:13 +0000

Ikshvaku Dynasty – Telangana History Notes | Founders, Rulers, Temples & Administration

Ikshvaku Dynasty – Telangana History

Exam Ready Notes · Telangana History & Culture · High-Yield Points Highlighted

📌 Ikshvaku Dynasty – Key Facts

The Ikshvakus were one of the most important dynasties that ruled the Telangana–Andhra region after the decline of the Satavahanas. Their rule marked a golden age of Buddhism, art, architecture and trade in the Krishna valley.

Point	Detail
Founder	Sri Santamula (Shantamula)
Capital	Vijayapuri (Nagarjunakonda)
Royal Emblem	Lion
Sanskrit Inscriptions	Started from Ehuvala Santamula
Marriage Tradition	Marrying aunt's daughters began with Ikshvakus
Rulers (Puranas)	7 kings
Rulers (Inscriptions)	4 kings
Rule Period	About 100 years

👑 1. Vasishtiputra Santamula (220–233 C.E.)

He was the founder of the independent Ikshvaku kingdom. Together with the Pugiya and Hiranyaka families, he overthrew the Satavahana king Pulumavi III and declared independence.

He held the title 'Maharaja' and also received the title 'Shatasahasra Danapradata' (donor of hundreds of thousands). He followed the Vedic religion and issued many inscriptions at Rentala, Dachepalli and Kesanapalli.

Family: Wife – Matharishri; Daughter – Atavi Santishri; Son – Virapurushadatta; Sisters – Santashri and Harmashri.

👑 2. Madhariputra Sri Virapurushadatta (233–253 C.E.)

He was the son of Santamula; his mother was Madhuri. He was the greatest ruler of the Ikshvaku dynasty.

According to the Nagarjunakonda inscription, he had 5 wives. He married the two daughters of his aunt Harmashri – Bapishri and Shashtishri. The other three wives were Batti Mahadevi, Rudra Bhattari, and Santashri.

He first followed the Vedic religion and later embraced Buddhism. In a sculpture at Nagarjunakonda, the king is shown touching a Shivalinga with his right foot.

His only daughter was Kodabalishri. During his time, a woman named Upasika Bodhishri worked for the spread of Buddhism.

Inscriptions: Alluru, Uppugunduru, Nagarjunakonda, Amaravati, and Jaggayyapeta inscriptions.

👑 3. Ehuvala Santamula (253–277 C.E.)

He is also called Santamula II. The tradition of adopting the grandfather's name began with the Ikshvakus.

He followed both Vedic and Buddhist religions. From his time, inscriptions were carved in Sanskrit. He was the first king in South India to build Hindu temples.

In those days, women offered bangles to the Hariti deity for begetting children. Recently, an inscription of Ehuvala Santamula was found at Gummaduru, which contains details about a Buddhist university.

Temples built by him:

Temple	Location
Pushpabhadra Narayanaswamy Temple	Vijayapuri
Kartikeya Temple	Vijayapuri
Nandikeshwara Temple	—
Navagraha Temple	Nagarjunakonda
Hariti Temple	—
Kubera Temple	Nagarjunakonda

👑 4. Rudrapurushadatta (283–301 C.E.)

He was the last ruler of the Ikshvaku dynasty. During his time, the early Pallava kings attacked the Ikshvaku kingdom.

This is mentioned in the Manchikallu inscription issued by Simhavarma — it is the first Pallava inscription in Andhra region.

⭐ Important Additional Points

Topic	Key Fact
Vishapatti Inscription	Mentions Parnika trade guild & betel leaf trade
First Sanskrit Inscription	Elisiri inscription (South India)
Temples by Virapurushadatta	Pushpabhadra & Navagraha temples at Nagarjunakonda
Nandikeshwara Temple	Built at Amaravati
Hariti Temple	Deity of young children
Saptamatrika Temple	Nagarjunakonda — childless couples worship here
Sculpture Material	Used light green stone
Buddhist Acharya	Bhavaviveka
Jaggayyapeta Sculpture	Buddha carved as king without crown / god
Title of Sri Santamula	Dakshinapatha Samrat
Ikshvaku Claim	Descendants of Buddha, from Lumbini region
Largest Buddhist Stupa	Nelakondapalli (South India)
Upasika Bodhishri	Built 7 viharas at Papila
First Temple in South India	Ashtabhuja Swamy Temple (built by Shakasena during Ehuvala Santamula) — also first Vaishnava temple
Great Commander	Anandu
Vijayapuri Built By	Vijaya Sri Satakarni
Santamula's Conquests	Defeated Shaka, Ajira, Yavana, Garbari tribes
Rentala & Dachepalli Inscriptions	Written in Prakrit
Virapurushadatta's Trade Effort	Appointed Parnika guild for foreign trade
Pallava Inscription	Manchikallu inscription by Simhavarma
Chief Justice	Called Mahatalavari
Social Practice	Sati Sahagamana was in practice
Yeleswaram Temple	Built by Elisiri (officer of Virapurushadatta)

🏛️ Nagarjunakonda – Centre of Culture & Trade

During the Ikshvaku period, Nagarjunakonda developed as a great trading centre. The kings of Sri Lanka built the Simhala Vihara at Nagarjunakonda for their Buddhist monks.

Nagarjunakonda became a famous university. During this time, Amaravati sculpture fully blossomed.

The Virugal tradition of the Sangam dynasty began during this period. Virugal means bodyguards who live for the king and die for the king.

From their time, the tradition of mentioning years on inscriptions and carving sculptors' names on structures began. The Vishapatti inscription reveals that professional taxes were levied.

⚡ Exam Quick Revision

Point	Key Fact
Founder	Vasishtiputra Santamula (220–233 C.E.)
Capital	Vijayapuri (Nagarjunakonda)
Royal Emblem	Lion
Greatest Ruler	Virapurushadatta (5 wives)
Last Ruler	Rudrapurushadatta
Sanskrit Inscriptions	From Ehuvala Santamula
First Sanskrit Inscription	Elisiri inscription
First Hindu Temple (South India)	Ashtabhuja Swamy Temple
Largest Buddhist Stupa	Nelakondapalli
Pallava Inscription	Manchikallu (Simhavarma)
Chief Justice	Mahatalavari
Social Practice	Sati Sahagamana
Bodyguard Tradition	Virugal (Sangam dynasty)

📌 Ikshvaku Dynasty – Telangana History & Culture · Exam-Focused Notes · G STUDIES

UNIT 4: Post - Satavahana Age - Ikshvakus

noreply@blogger.com (Estudies4you) — Sun, 20 Sep 2026 10:47:18 +0000

Ikshvakus – Post-Satavahana Age | Telangana History | Exam Notes

04. Post-Satavahana Age – Ikshvakus

Exam Ready Notes · Telangana History & Culture · High-yield points highlighted

After the decline of the Satavahana empire, a number of provincial kingdoms came into being in South India. Chutu Satakarnis in Karnataka with Banavasi (Vaijayanti) as their capital, Abhiras in Maharashtra region (Konkan, Aparanta) and Ikshvakus in Coastal Andhra–Telangana region declared their independence. Ikshvakus exercised political supremacy for 80 years (220–300 C.E.) — the initial period in the four centuries between the decline of the Satavahana empire and the establishment of the Eastern Chalukyan kingdom (Vengi).

Pulumavi IV, the last Satavahana king, was overthrown by the Ikshvaku king Srisantamula, who declared independence. Their empire extended to Krishna, Guntur, Kurnool and Prakasam Districts in Andhra Pradesh and Nalgonda, Khammam and Mahaboobnagar Districts in Telangana.

They made Vijayapuri in the Nagarjunakonda valley their capital. The name ‘Vijayapuri’ might have come from Vijaya Satakami, the Satavahana king whose inscription was found here. Lion was the royal emblem. Nagarjunakonda/Vijayapuri flourished as a leading Buddhist holy place and intellectual center. Arts of architecture, sculpture and painting developed.

Sources

Archaeological sources: inscriptions, coins, monuments, architecture and sculpture. Inscriptions at Nagarjunakonda, Jaggayyapeta, Ramireddi Palli and Phanigiri are primary sources. Written in Prakrit language and Brahmi script. From the time of Ehuvala Santamula, inscriptions were issued in Sanskrit. Four groups: (1) Mahastupa & Ayaka Pillar inscriptions; (2) Chaityagriha inscriptions; (3) detached pillar inscriptions; (4) inscriptions on sculpture.

Coins: Found at Nagarjunakonda, Phanigiri, Nelakondapalli, Vaddemanu (Mahaboobnagar) and Yeleswaram (Nalgonda). Ikshvaku coins were limited, small, and they did not issue gold and silver coins.

Literary sources: Matsya, Vayu, Brahmanda and Vishnu Puranas mention Ikshvaku kings and their rule. Dharmamritam (11th C.E. Kannada work) mentions Yasodhara, Ikshvaku king of Angadesa, established a kingdom at the mouth of Krishna river with Pratipalapuram (Bhattiprolu) as capital.

Original Home & Origin

No unanimous opinion. Initially Ikshvakus were Andhrabhrityuvulu (servants of Andhras) — served as Mahatalavaras and Mahasenapatis under the Satavahanas. Like Satavahanas, they had names starting with mothers’ names and ending with ‘anaka’/‘Skandha’ — showing Satavahana impact.

According to Vayu Purana, Ikshvakuvu was head of Suryavamsa, eldest of nine sons of Manuvu, ruled from Ayodhya. Vishnu Purana: Kosala (Southern region) kingdom established by Kusha from Kosasthali. Bauddhayana noted the practice of marrying aunt’s (father’s sister) daughters among South Indians — Virapurushadatta married two daughters of his aunt, suggesting Ikshvakus were South Indians.

Sriparvatiya Ikshvakus – Origin

Puranas mention Sriparvatiyas, Andhrabhrityas and Sriparvatiyandhras. The area from Nagarjunakonda to Nallamala hills around Srisaila mountain was Sriparvata. Prakrit inscriptions at Jaggayyapeta and Nagarjunakonda reveal Srisantamula was an Ikshvaku Maharaja with capital Vijayapuri (west of Sriparvata). During 3rd–4th C.E., Sriparvata was called Vijayapuri. Ikshvaku kings adopted the Satavahana tradition of keeping mothers’ names before their own — this tradition ended with them.

K.P. Jaiswal for the first time clarified that Ikshvakus and Sriparvatiyas are one and the same, and Sriparvatiyandhras belonged to the Andhra Satavahana bhritya dynasty. Thus, Sriparvatiyas, Ikshvakus and Andhrabhrityas are one and the same — not different.

Chronology

No unanimity. Matsya Purana: after Andhras, their bhrityas Sriparvatiyas (seven kings) ruled for 52 years. Pargiter opined 52 or 100 years based on ‘Dvipanchasatam’. Inscriptions: Santamula ruled at least 13 years (13th regnal year); Virapurushadatta 20 years; Ehuvala Santamula 24 years; Rudrapurushadatta 18 years (Phanigiri inscription).

D.C. Sircar (based on Nagarjunakonda inscriptions) said Ikshvaku rule was at least 75 years and adjusted:

Ruler	Period (Sircar)
Virapurushadatta	255–275 C.E.
Ehuvala Santamula	280–335 C.E.
Rudrapurushadatta	335–345 C.E.

Sircar: Nagarjunakonda inscription is of 278 C.E.; Abhiras defeated Ikshvakus and controlled Nagarjunakonda for five years (275–280 C.E.). But Maremanda Rama Rao and V.V. Mirasi rejected this — Buddhist and Hindu structures were raised extensively during Virapurushadatta and Ehuvala Santamula; Rama Rao said the kings in Abhira Vasusena’s inscription were relatives of Ikshvakus, meeting on the occasion of installation of Ashtabhuja Swamy idol.

P.V. Parabrahma Sastry chronology:

Ruler	Period (Sastry)
Santamula	230–245 C.E.
Virapurushadatta	245–270 C.E.
Ehuvala Santamula	270–285 C.E.
Rudrapurushadatta	285–300 C.E.

Historians agree Satavahana empire fell between 220–225 C.E. Manchikallu inscription (Pallava invasion) suggests Ikshvaku decline around 300 C.E. So Ikshvaku rule: 220–300 C.E. (80 years). Fixed reign periods:

Ruler	Period
Santamula	220–233 C.E.
Virapurushadatta	233–253 C.E.
Ehuvala Santamula	253–277 C.E.
Abhira Vasusena / interim	277–278–283 C.E.
Rudrapurushadatta	283–301 C.E.

Caste of Ikshvakus

Different opinions — brahmins, kshatriyas, local tribes. Virapurushadatta claimed in his Nagarjunakonda inscription that they were kshatriyas of the solar race, claiming descent from Sriramachandra of Ikshvaku dynasty (Ayodhya/Kosala) and from the dynasty of Sakyamuni Gautama Buddha. Ikshvakus were one of the local tribes. In ancient India, kings linked their dynasty with Pauranic dynasties. Since they added the brahmin gotra of their mothers to their names, some opined they were brahmins. King Santamula performed Asvamedha, Vajpeya, Agnistoma and Agnihotra sacrifices — some scholars say only kshatriyas performed these, so Ikshvakus were kshatriyas. Dr. Bhandarkar felt Ikshvakus might have descended from a mixed lineage (father kshatriya, mother brahmin). In the beginning they might have belonged to local republican tribes and after becoming rulers, like Satavahanas, attained social eminence and embraced brahmanism.

Rule Period – Political Developments

Inscriptions give information about four Ikshvaku kings:

Vasishtiputra Santamula — 220–233 C.E.
Madhariputra Virapurushadatta — 233–253 C.E.
Ehuvala Santamula — 253–277 C.E.
Rudrapurushadatta — 283–301 C.E.

Vasishtiputra Santamula (220–233 C.E.)

Founder of the independent Ikshvaku kingdom. With Hiranyakas and Pugiya dynasty, dethroned Pulumavi IV and declared independence. Brought Telangana and Coastal Andhra under his rule. Inscriptions at Rentala and Kesanapalli. His greatness is in Nagarjunakonda inscriptions issued by his son Virapurushadatta — donated crores of gold coins, thousands of cows, oxen, ploughs, acres of land. In the sculpture on the fifth slab of his memorial stupa, Santamula is seen with clean-shaved head, stick in hand, as performer of Agnistoma sacrifice. Deer skin on shoulders, ordinary clothes, no shoes, umbrella over head, servant holding water pot, five Brahmins — one receiving donation with right hand from the king. His sisters Harmyasri and Santisri praised him in inscriptions, but their father’s name is not mentioned.

Santamula performed Asvamedha, Agnistoma, Agnihotra and Vajapeya sacrifices. Vajapeya was performed only by samrats and emperors. In Nagarjunakonda excavations, Asvamedha platform was unearthed. Title: ‘maharaja’. Marriage alliances with Pugiyu and Danika dynasties. Sister Santisri married Mahaskandhasri (Pugiya dynasty, Mahasenapati and Mahatalavari) — she was called Mahadanapatni and Mahatalavari; son Skandasagura. Other sister Harmyasri — husband’s details not available. Santamula married his daughter Adavi Santisri to Skanda Visakhanaga (Dhanika family, Mahasenapati and Mahadandanayaka). Santamula followed Vedic religion; worshipper of Skanda Kartikeya (Mahasena) of Ujjain. Both sisters kept faith in Buddhism.

Madhariputra Sri Virapurushadatta (233–253 C.E.)

Son of Santamula. Inscriptions at Nagarjunakonda, Jaggayyapeta and Alluru. Greatest ruler of the Ikshvaku dynasty. Contracted matrimonial alliances with contemporary royal dynasties, establishing a stable kingdom. As per Nagarjunakonda inscription, he had five wives: Bapisri and Sashtisri (daughters of his aunts Harmasri and Santasri), Mahadevi Rudrabhattarikaa (Saka Kshatrapa princess of Ujjain, descendant of Chasthana), and Mahadevi Bhattideva (fifth wife). Only daughter Kodabalisri married Vishnuruda Sivalananda Satakami (Banavasi, Chutu dynasty, Maharaja of Kuntaladesa) — recorded in inscription issued by Kodabalisri in the 11th regnal year of Ehuvala Sri Santamula.

Virapurushadatta initially followed Vedic religion, later embraced Buddhism. His reign was a brighter period in the history of Buddhism in Andhra. A sculpture at Nagarjunakonda shows him touching Sivalinga with his right leg — some scholars say this indicates forsaking Saivism, but it is learnt this sculpture was part of Mandhata Jatakam, not related to Virapurushadatta. His aunt Santisri was responsible for Buddhist structures at Nagarjunakonda. During his sixth regnal year, he built Maha Chaitya at Nagarjunakonda over Buddha’s remains. Santisri had great affection for Brahmins, sramans and the poor. During the 18th regnal year of her nephew, wishing for his success, better health and longer life, she issued another inscription. Because of Santisri, Ikshvaku queens (five wives of Virapurushadatta) honoured and patronized Buddhism.

Ehuvala Santamula (253–277 C.E.)

Also called Vasishtiputra Bahubala Santamula or Santamula II. Son of Mahadevi Vasishtibhattideva and Virapurushadatta. The tradition of adopting the grandfather’s name started from Ikshvakus — later followed by Guptas, Vakatakas, Pallavas, Vishnukundus and Salankayanas. Inscriptions found in Nagarjunakonda excavations. One inscription: before his 11th regnal year, a battle was fought; his commander-in-chief Elisri, due to the mercy of Kartikeya, achieved victory. This inscription was issued by Elisri in the 11th regnal year of Ehuvala Santamula. Elisri built Yeleswaram town and constructed a Saiva temple known as ‘Sarvadevalaya’.

In Nagarjunakonda excavations, an inscription issued by Abhira king Vasusena in his 30th regnal year was found — referring to Avanti king Saka Rudradaman, Abhira king Vasusena and Banavasi (Chutu) king Vishnurudra Sivalananda Satakami. They installed the idol of Ashtabhujaswami. The then Ikshvaku king’s name is absent — giving scope for doubts. D.C. Sircar opined these kings supported Abhira Vasusena’s invasion against Ikshvakus in capturing Vijayapuri and installing Ashtabhujaswami. Abhiras ruled Nagarjunakonda for some years. By the time of Ehuvala Santamula, Sanskrit became the court language in place of Prakrit. He followed Vedic religion, devotee of Swami Mahasena. During his reign, Kartikeya temple, Pushpabhadruswami temple, Nodigiswara temple and Devi temple were built at Vijayapuri.

Rudrapurushadatta (283–301 C.E.)

Based on coins found at Gurajala (Guntur District), Nagarjunakonda and Phanigiri, and names in inscriptions, historians identified him as the last Ikshvaku king. Son of Ehuvala Santamula. In his fourth regnal year, Nodukasri donated land to his God Halampuraswamy — identified as Nagulapuram in Guntur District.

Virapurushadatta II — brother of Rudrapurushadatta; died while he was Yuvaraja (crown prince).

The Ikshvaku kingdom declined due to aggression of the Pallavas of Kanchi, who occupied Vijayapuri. Inscription of Pallava Simhavarma was found in Manchikallu village (Guntur District). Paleographists found the script (Prakrit) resembles Ikshvaku inscriptions. Among Pallava inscriptions found so far, this is the oldest. After the Pallavas’ decline, their feudatories Brihatpalayanas (Krishna valley) and Ananda Gotris (Guntur mandal) declared independence.

Administrative Organization

Ikshvakus adopted the Satavahana administrative system with few changes. Inscriptions are the main source.

Central Government

King was supreme authority and despot — all powers vested in him. Administration carried on as per Dharmasastras and Smritis. King was protector of dharma, not the one who designs it. Kings issued inscriptions describing victories and praising fathers and grandfathers. Vasishtiputra Santamula assumed the title ‘maharaja’. Kings conquered neighbouring kingdoms; performed Asvamedha, Vajpeya and Agnistoma as signs of victory. Divine right monarchy clearly established by Ikshvaku times — through Vedic sacrifices they declared themselves divine right monarchs. Ministers and officials felt the king was personification of God on earth; opposing the king amounted to opposing God.

Officials: mahatalavara, mahasenapati, mahadandanayaka, kostagarika (treasurer). One person held two or more posts. Vasishtiputra Skandasri (Pugiya family) and Vasishtiputra Skandachaliki Remmanaka (Hiranya family) assumed titles of mahasenapati, mahatalavari, mahadandanayaka. Mahatalavaras had status of feudatories — maintained law and order. Mahasenapati looked after military affairs. Mahadandanayaka conducted criminal trials and imposed punishments (judicial duties). Officials had marriage alliances with royal families.

Local Government

Empire divided into rashtras. Allur and Amaravati inscriptions refer to ‘rattha’ (rashtra). Rashtra = equivalent of ‘ahara’ in Satavahana administration. Names: Pugi rashtra, Hiranya rashtra, Munda rashtra. ‘Rathikudu’ and ‘rathi’ = administrator of a rashtra. Five villages = ‘grama panchaka’. ‘Mahagrama’ under mahagramika. Village administration hereditary. ‘Talavara’ = village official. One with authority over several village officials = ‘mahatalavari’. When kings donated villages and lands, concerned village official and important persons were assembled and informed.

Judicial Administration

King was highest official. Mahadandanayaka conducted trials at Center and imposed punishments. Special courts existed. Punishments severe — death sentence for treason and offence against king; fines and beating with sticks for small offences. Sources are not many. Palamur inscription of Madhava Varma III (Vishnukundi king, post-Satavahana Age) described himself as one who held several divine tests. Nine types of divine tests:

Divya	Method
Tula-divya	Weighing the criminal and deciding culpability
Agni-divya	Accused walks on fire without feet getting burnt
Jala-divya	Arrows sent into water have to be brought out by dipping into it
Visha-divya	From a pot with cobra, accused takes out a ring without being bitten
Kosa-divya	Drink water used for cleaning idols of Gods/Goddesses and survive
Tandula-divya	Chew rice over which mantras were administered
Tapta maska-divya	Coin has to be taken out of boiling oil
Phala-divya	Hold burning iron rod, then press grain in same hand
Dharmadharma-divya	Idols of dharma and adharma in a jar; idol taken out decides guilt

Army Organization

Followed Satavahana army organization. Four-fold division: chariots, elephants, cavalry, infantry. When king on expedition, villagers provided milk, curd, vegetables; arranged sitting material and cots. Army groups had highest importance. Highest percentage of revenue used for army maintenance. King himself led the army at war. Spies gathered enemy strengths and weaknesses. Main weapons: swords and spears; headgear and shield for protection; arrows also used. War caused heavy damage to crops, losses to people, and a frightful atmosphere.

Income and Expenditure

Land revenue = chief source, called ‘bhaga’ (king’s share) — generally 1/6th of crop. Another land tax ‘bhoga’ collected by local administrators and enjoyed by them. ‘Hiranyam’ or ‘Deyam’ in cash and ‘meyam’ in kind. Tax ‘kara’ on industries, crafts and trade. Taxes on salt, sugar; duty on highways. Forests and green plains belonged to king. Tax on water for irrigation. Important tax in kind: cattle — agriculturists gave the first calf to the Government as duty (Mirasi).

Income spent in four parts: (1) Government maintenance, army, salaries/allowances to big officials; (2) temple construction, worship, celebrations; (3) patronage of poets, scholars, intellectuals; (4) gifts to different religions. For agriculture development, rulers spent on tanks and canals.

Social Conditions

Post-Satavahana society: four varnas plus several mixed castes and sub-castes. Every person adopted ancestral occupation and social status by birth. Later, castes on occupation basis took shape. Kings considered it their duty to keep varnas pure, but varnas lost purity; ‘varna contamination’ occurred. According to Nagarjunakonda inscriptions, Pugiyulu, Hiranyakulu, Mundalu, Dhanikulu, Nagulu, Selakulu, Kulahakulu and Ikshvakus contracted marriage alliances with local families (Pugiyas, Hiranyakas) and Ujjain Kshatrups.

Position of Brahmins improved. Vedic rituals, Brahmins in higher posts, temple construction improved their economic condition. Kings gave land to Brahmins. Officials should not enter donated villages — exemption from 18 types of taxes. Lands cultivated by Sudras. Feudal Lords emerged between king and people. Brahmins formed three branches: Vedic scholars, temple priests, employees of king. By 2nd C.E., foreign communities (Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas, Abhiras) got sanskritised and received kshatriya status. Sudras gained political emergence. Patronized Brahmins performed Vedic rituals and came to be considered kshatriyas. Vaisyas resorted to trade and business; big businesses run by merchant associations (guilds). Besides Vaisyas, weavers, oil extractors and blacksmiths conducted trade.

Majority were Sudras — agriculturists called halikas; handicraft persons: blacksmiths, potters, carpenters, weavers, washermen, barbers, leather workers. Inscriptions mention donations to ‘rathakarulu’ — they wear the thread (yagnopaveetam), call themselves Viswabrahmins, descendants of Viswakarma. Goldsmiths, blacksmiths, kanchara, Kasi and carpenters were one and the same. Kings gave lands on grant to them.

Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda inscriptions mention that women of high families gave donations independently. For the mahachaitya at Nagarjunakonda, royal women made donations freely. Though Ikshvaku kings followed Vedic religion, women patronized Buddhism, built chaityas and made donations. Like Satavahanas, Ikshvaku kings added their mother’s name before their names.

Economic Conditions

Feudalism

State system depended on feudalism. King as overlord of land became the basis. Divine right monarchy contributed. Ryot’s rights over land disappeared; he became an agricultural serf. Kings freely declared village donations to Brahmins and religious organizations — they gained all rights over land. Later, higher officials received lands yielding equivalent income instead of salaries. Santamula donated lakhs of ploughs, cows, oxen and gold — worked for agriculture development. Forests cut, new lands cultivated. Canals and tanks dug for irrigation. Such artificial construction unearthed at Nagarjunakonda.

Land grants contributed to agriculture. Brahmins knew seasons, panchangam, seeds, effect of soils. Donated lands had exemption from 18 types of taxes (Hirahadagalli and Maidavolu inscriptions of Pallava Sivaskanda Varma). King’s officials should not enter donated villages. New land relations took place; feudalism took roots. Local chiefs remained obedient, paid tribute, maintained army and supplied it to king at war. Village officials remitted part of revenue to local chief.

Agriculture – Crops

Main livelihood. Crops: paddy, wheat, sugarcane, dry crops (bajra, ragulu), pulses (red gram), oil seeds (castor), cattle fodder (jute), cotton. Cotton cultivated as dry and wet crop. Coconut contributed to coastal economic development. Nasik inscription: Saka ruler Rishabhadatta donated two coconut gardens — 32,000 and 8,000 coconut trees — to Brahmins. Local markets were trading centers for crop production.

Handicrafts – Guilds

Nagarjunakonda excavations unearthed craftsmen’s houses. Goldsmith’s craft material (‘atchulu’, ‘musalu’) found; gold and silver artistic objects found. Ikshvaku inscriptions refer to Pamika Sreni, betel leaf craftsmen’s guild, Pusika Sreni (confectioners’ guild), and ‘Kulika Pramukhudu’ (leader of the guild). One inscription: craftsmen constructed a temple and mandapa; reserve fund arranged for maintenance. Vilopatti inscription indicates handicraft industries continued in villages.

Internal and External Trade

Trade with Rome continued. Roman coins found at Nagarjunakonda — Roman trade center at Vijayapuri. Internal and external trade under Vaisyas. By 3rd C.E., trade with Rome declined. No strong centralized authority; small kingdoms fought each other — internal trade and cottage industry suffered. Decline of cities and villages started. Satavahana coins found in highest number; post-Satavahana coins very few. No one issued coins with ship figure after Satavahanas. After 3rd C.E., Roman trade shifted to land routes — North Indian trade centers gained importance. Nagarjunakonda inscription (14th regnal year of Virapurushadatta) refers to Ghantasala — main port at the main entrance of Krishna river. From Satavahana times: Barukachhram (Broach), Kalyani (Maharashtra), Sopara, Mysolea (Machilipatnam) continued as ports. Exports: spices, iron, steel, hand-woven clothes, coconuts. Imports: gold, silver, copper, intoxicants, glass material. Trade favoured India. When Roman empire banned trade with India, handicrafts and towns declined.

As trade declined, agriculture gained importance. Barter system developed — grain given in return for articles and services. No need for kings to issue coins. Town culture declined; rural culture developed.

Cultural Development

Literature, architecture and art achieved remarkable progress. Vedic, Buddhist and Jain religions flourished. Prakrit remained official language, but Sanskrit achieved good patronage. Buddhist stupas, viharas, chaityas, Navagraha, Sarvadevalaya Hindu temples mirror architecture and sculpture.

Religious Development

Buddhism: Except Virapurushadatta, three Ikshvaku kings followed Vedic religion, but their queens patronized Buddhism. By 2nd C.E., Nagarjunakonda became a famous Buddhist arama. Inscriptions refer to several sects: Mahasanghikas — Poorvasaileeyulu (Pubbasailu), Aparasaileeyulu, Bahusruteeyulu. Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda were main centers for Poorvasaileeyulu and Aparasaileeyulu. Other sects: Rajagirikulu, Mahisasakulu, Siddhantikulu. Virapurushadatta’s period was brightest for Buddhism. His aunt Santisri built a mahachaitya containing Buddha’s dhatuvu at Nagarjunakonda and erected nine ayaka pillars. She donated to Brahmins, sramans, poor; wished all beings happy in both worlds — reminds of Mahayana Buddhism. Buddhist sculptures at Nagarjunakonda testify Mahayana Buddhism flourished.

Not only royal ladies but common ladies made donations and issued inscriptions. Upasika Bodisri, niece of Bodisarma (treasurer), built a Vihara at Chuladammagiri, Vijayapuri — famous as Simhala Vihara. Buddhist propagators from Ceylon propagated dharma in Kashmir, Gandhara, China, Chilata, Tosali, Aparanta, Vanga, Vanavasa, Yavana, Damila and Palura. Kodabalisri, daughter of Virapurushadatta, built a vihara for Mahisasikas. During Ehuvala Santamula, his mother Mahadevi Bhattideva built a Mahavihara and Mahachaitya for Bahusrutiyas.

Buddhistic relations existed between Simhalam and Nagarjunakonda. Buddhist monks from Srilanka visited Nagarjunakonda. Mahasanghika Acharyas byhearted Dighanikaya and Majjimanikaya. Chief Buddhistic centers: Andhra Pradesh — Nagarjunakonda, Jaggayyapeta, Chinaganjam, Ramireddi Palli, Bavikonda; Telangana — Nelakondapalli, Tummalagudem, Gajulabanda (Nalgonda District). Badanta Ananda belonged to Aparamahavina saileeya branch (3rd C.E.) — perhaps on his persuasion Virapurushadatta embraced Buddhism. Aryadeva, Dharmanandi and Badanta Ananda were disciples of Nagarjuna. Aryadeva wrote ‘Chittasuddhi Prakarana’; made light of Vedic practices, murdered by Vedic followers.

Post-Satavahana Age (3rd C.E. to 7th C.E. first quarter): Buddhaviveka, Buddhaghosa, Dharmakirti, Siddha Nagarjuna. Bhavaviveka (5th C.E.) wrote ‘Pragna Pradeepa’ commentary on Nagarjuna’s Madhyamika Sastra. Buddhaghosa was for Theravada (Hinayana) what Nagarjuna was for Mahayana. Went to Srilanka, lived in Anuradhapura Vihara, wrote ‘Visuddhamogga’ for Theravadis. Dharmakirti studied at Nalanda University; disciple of Dharmapala of Kanchi. Siddha Nagarjuna resided at Dhanyakatakam and Sriparvata; belonged to Vajrayana sect (tantric vada). Ramireddipalli inscription says he was a Telugu person; received rasasiddhi, swarnasiddhi, Vajrayana siddhi. Vajrayana followers justified five acts: madhuvu (intoxicating drink), Mamsam (meat), matsyam (fish), mudra (body posture), maithinam (sexual intercourse). Dhanyakatakam, Sankhavaram, Ramatirtham, Salihundam — Vajrayana centers. Buddhism declined later.

Jainism: Main centers during Ikshvakus: Penugonda, Pithapuram, Nedunuru, Tatipaka, Aryavatam, Draksharamam. At Aryavatam, statues of six Tirthankaras (3rd C.E.) found.

Puranic Hindu Religion – Saivism, Vaishnavism: Srisantamula performed Vedic sacrifices (asvamedha, vajapeya, agnistoma, agnihotra). Devotee of Virupakshapati (Siva), Mahasena (Skanda), Kartikeya. Ehuvala Santamula constructed Siva temple Pushpabhadruswamy at Nagarjunakonda. Elisri (commander-in-chief) built Siva temple for Kumaraswamy named ‘Sarvadeva’. Temple ‘Nodagisvara’ at Nagarjunakonda — Ratavasya (merchant’s daughter) and others donated to Nodageswaraswamy. Sivasena, commander-in-chief of Abhira Vasusena (attacked Ikshvaku kingdom during Ehuvala Santamula), built Vaishnava temple ‘Ashtabhujaswamy’ at Nagarjunakonda. Worship of Mother Goddess existed — Hariti temple at Nagarjunakonda. Women offered bangles at Saptamatrikas in Hariti temple for begetting children. Puranic, Saiva, Vaishnava and Sakteya religions honoured; Skanda Ganapati, Yaksha, Hariti worshipped.

Language and Literature

Prakrit was official language; from 4th C.E., Sanskrit occupied its place in inscriptions and literature. Causes: emergence of Mahayana Buddhism, Vedic religion becoming stronger. Before 11th regnal year of Ehuvala Santamula — Prakrit; later — Sanskrit. Virapurushadatta’s inscriptions were in Sanskrit. Sarvadeva inscription of Elisri (Ehuvala Santamula’s commander-in-chief) in Sanskrit. Kondamudi inscription of Jayavarma (Brihatpalayana king) in Prakrit. Salankayanas and Anandagotris used both Prakrit and Sanskrit. All Vishnukund inscriptions in Sanskrit.

Sanskrit received royal patronage. Kings donated villages and lands to Vedic scholars. Famous universities: Dhanyakatakam (Amaravati) and Nagarjunakonda. Udyotana (8th C.E.) in ‘Kuvalayamala’ stated Buddhist monks from Srilanka, Tibet, Nepal and all regions of India came here for education. Aryadeva (disciple of Nagarjuna) wrote ‘Chittasuddhi Prakaranam’. Inscriptions refer to Astronomy, Medicine, Mathematics. Hiuen-tsang (7th C.E.) stated Sriparvata Vihara lacked patronage.

Architecture and Sculpture

3rd–4th C.E.: Buddhistic arts and architecture flourished gloriously. Even after Satavahana decline, architecture and sculpture did not become extinct. Nagarjunakonda excavations: impregnable fort, moat, buildings, open air stadium, asvamedha platform of Santamula, Buddhist Stupas, Viharas, Chaityas, Aramas, temples, bathing ghats. Playground constructed in different stories — nowhere else in India such structure unearthed. Some scholars: built with help of Roman experts. Approximately 30 Buddhist Aramas at Nagarjunakonda, built by different Buddhist branches. Nagarjunakonda testifies changes in Buddhism. Impact of Aparamahavinasaileeya, Maha Viharavasini, Mahisasika and Bahusruteeya branches fell on architecture and sculpture. Earlier taboo on showing Buddha in human form; because of Aparamahavinasaileeya branch, Buddha statues carved beautifully.

Buddhist Stupas and Viharas (3rd C.E.) in Telangana: Nelakondapalli (Khammam), Gajulabanda, Tummalagudem, Nandikonda (Nalgonda). Andhra Pradesh: Goli, Chandavaram, Dupadu, Namburu, Uppugunduru, Rentala. Three types of Stupas at Nagarjunakonda: (1) over body parts (bones, teeth, hair, nails) of Buddha or leading monk; (2) over begging bowls and articles used by monks; (3) memorials of Buddha or disciples without remains/objects.

Amaravati sculpture tradition continued; reached greatest heights at Nagarjunakonda. Sculptors carved Buddha as emblems: feet, horse, bodhi tree, dharmachakra, stupa, trisula. Stories: meeting of Buddha, Yasodhara and Rahul, Sibi Jataka, Mandhata Jataka — carved in Chaityas at Nagarjunakonda, Ghantasala, Gummadidurru, Goli. Masterpieces: Buddha images, Santamula’s memorial pillar, Virapurushadatta’s hatred towards brahmana religion and embracing Buddhism, Virapurushadatta suppressing rebellion, erotic sculptures.

Nelakondapalli: Most important stupa of post-Satavahana time — mahastupa, Viharas of Chatussala type, many man-size Buddha statues (3rd–6th C.E.). Bronze Buddha statue and nine marble Buddha statues unearthed. Marble pieces and water containers found nearby — V.V. Krishna Sastry opined it was a factory where Buddha statues were prepared. Nelakondapalli Buddha images are specimens of Amaravati art. Gajulabanda: Buddhist stupas, Vihara, Chaitya remains; two limestone lion dolls. Nandikonda: some Buddhist structures unearthed.

During Ikshvakus, construction of Hindu temples commenced. Nagarjunakonda remains: temples of Kartikeya, Pushpabhadruswamy, Ashtabhujaswamy, Hariti, Kubera, Navagrahas (Ehuvala Santamula time). Sarvadeva temple at Yeleswaram (Nalgonda District). Temples built as per agama sastra with sanctum, antarala, mantapa, dhvaja stambha, prakara/compound wall. Depicting Itihasas and Puranas in sculpture continued. Female sculptures at Nagarjunakonda showed more erotic appeal; carved slim and attractive.

Conclusion: Ikshvakus started as feudatories of Satavahanas, commenced independent rule after their decline, and carried on their administrative system and cultural trends. Like Satavahanas, they added their mother’s name before their names. Through marriage alliances with nearby royal dynasties, they worked for stability and expansion. They donated land, oxen, ploughs and cows in thousands — encouraging agriculture. They built tanks and canals. Sudras and women attained independence and progress. Agriculture, handicraft industries and internal/external trade developed. Foreign trade with Rome; Ghantasala was the main port at the mouth of Krishna river. Spread of Buddhism, Jainism, Saivism and Vaishnavism contributed to Sanskrit language and progress of architecture and sculpture. Buddhist stupas, Viharas, memorial emblems, Saiva and Vaishnava temples at Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, Nelakondapalli, Tummalagudem and Gajulabanda demonstrate their services for art and cultural development.

⚡ Exam Quick Revision

Point	Key Fact
Period	220–300 C.E. (80 years)
Capital	Vijayapuri (Nagarjunakonda)
Royal Emblem	Lion
Founder	Vasishtiputra Santamula
Greatest Ruler	Madhariputra Virapurushadatta
Last Ruler	Rudrapurushadatta
Language Shift	Prakrit → Sanskrit (Ehuvala Santamula)
Decline	Pallava invasion (Simhavarma, Manchikallu inscription)
Key Port	Ghantasala (Krishna river mouth)
Main Buddhist Center	Nagarjunakonda (Mahayana flourished)
Divine Tests	9 types (Tula, Agni, Jala, Visha, Kosa, Tandula, Tapta Maska, Phala, Dharmadharma)
Land Tax	Bhaga (1/6th), Bhoga, Hiranyam/Deyam, Meyam, Kara
Tax Exemption	18 types for donated villages
Important Inscriptions	Nagarjunakonda, Jaggayyapeta, Ramireddi Palli, Phanigiri, Manchikallu

📌 Ikshvakus – Post-Satavahana Age | Telangana History & Culture · Exam-focused notes

Satavahana Dynasty Lecture Notes

noreply@blogger.com (Estudies4you) — Sun, 20 Sep 2026 07:43:55 +0000

Satavahana Dynasty English Notes | Telangana History for TSPSC, UPSC, Groups Exams | TG Studies

TG STUDIES

Telangana History • Satavahana Dynasty

Satavahana Era 1

Introduction to Satavahana Dynasty

The term Telangana came into use from the time of the Delhi Sultans. A poet named Amir Khusrow was the first to mention Telangana.

The mention of Andhras first appeared in the "Aitareya Brahmana," which is a part of the Rigveda, around 1000 BCE.

Asmaka was the only Janapada that emerged in South India (comprising Nizamabad, Karimnagar, and Adilabad), with its capital at Bodhan. (Total Janapadas were 16).

In the 4th century BCE, a Greek ambassador named Megasthenes mentioned in his book "Indica" that the Andhras had cities with 30 fortresses, an infantry of one hundred thousand, a cavalry of two thousand, and an elephant force of one thousand. Pliny also mentioned the same fact.

The forts mentioned by Megasthenes have been identified in Telangana at Bodhan, Kotilingala, Dhulikatta, Peddabankur, Kondapur, Phanigiri, Gajulapuri, and Indrapuri.

A potter's kiln was discovered at 'Peddabankur' in the Karimnagar district.

The Satavahanas were the first major dynasty to rule South India.

They started as feudatories during the Mauryan period and declared independence during the Kanva dynasty period.

Their rule began at Kotilingala in Telangana and later Pratishtanapura (Paithan) became their capital. By the time of the later Satavahanas, it was shifted to Dhanakataka (Dhanyakataka).

The Satavahanas conducted their victorious military campaigns up to Magadha.

Kingdoms that Ruled Telangana Before the Satavahanas

In the 3rd century BCE, Bhattiprolu stupa's 'Dhaturakanda' inscriptions mention that a king named Kubiru ruled with the help of Nigamasabha and Goshthi.

The 'Vaddemanu inscription' mentions Rajasomaka and Jantupalli.

The Velpuru inscription mentions that Saripada, Mahasad, Ashokapada, Sivapada, and Sivamakasada ruled.

Coins of Gobada, Samagopa, Narana, and Kamvayasiri were found at Kotilingala.

"Gobad" was the first to issue coins in Telangana.

The inscriptions of the Satavahanas are in Brahmi script and Prakrit language.

Only 24 long-duration inscriptions have been found: Nashik-8, Kanheri-5, Karla-3, Bhilsa-1, Nanaghat-2, Makadoni-1, Chinnaganjam-1, Amravati-2, Kodavali-1.

The Naneghat inscription was issued by Queen Nayanika (Naganika), wife of Satakarni I. This is only a decorative inscription.

The Kanheri inscription was issued by Krishna (Kanha).

The inscription issued by Gautami Balasiri is at Nashik and mentions the victories of her son Gautamiputra Satakarni.

The Hathigumpha inscription issued by Kharavela, the Kalinga king belonging to the Mahameghavahana dynasty, provides information about his contemporary Satakarni.

The Satavahanas minted lead and copper coins in large numbers.

They also minted 'Potin' coins using an alloy of copper and tin.

Gautamiputra Satakarni also minted silver coins.

Certain symbols were stamped on these: bull, elephant, lion, hill, Ujjain symbol, ship, sun, moon, lotus, and conch shell.

Early Satavahana inscriptions were found only at Naneghat and Nashik.

According to the Matsya Purana, 30 kings ruled for 456 years.

According to the Vayu Purana, 17 kings ruled for 272 years.

All Puranas mention that Srimukha killed the Kanva king Susharma, occupied Magadha, and took over the Satavahana kingdom.

★ KEY POINT Kings from the foundation up to the reign of Gautamiputra Satakarni are called Early Satavahanas, and from Gautamiputra Satakarni to the last kings are called Later Satavahanas.

Satavahana Era 2 – Early Satavahanas

★ QUICK FACTS Founder of the Satavahana Kingdom – Srimukha
Greatest of all – Gautamiputra Satakarni
Last great ruler – Yajna Sri Satakarni

Srimukha (231–208 BCE)

He is the founder of the Satavahana kingdom.
Puranas mention him as Sindhuka, Balapuchchhaka, and Bali.
His reign period was 23 years.
He initially adopted Jainism and in the end practiced the Vedic religion.
His coins bear 3 names: 'Siri Chimuka', 'Siri Chimuka Satavahana', and 'Siri Satavahana'.
He defeated a Naga tribal group called Rathikas and established matrimonial alliances with them.
His son was Satakarni I.

Krishna

He was the brother of Srimukha.
His reign period was 18 years.
His 'Nashik' inscription shows that the Satavahana administrative system was modeled on Mauryan lines.
He excavated the Nashik caves. He appointed officials called Dharma Mahamatras for the welfare of Buddhist monks at Nashik. The 'Bhagavata' religion spread to South India during his time.

Satakarni I

He was the son of Srimukha.
His reign period was 18 years.
His wife's name was Nayanika (Naganika); the inscription she issued is named Naneghat, which features the statues of their daughter Maharathi Tranakayiro, sons Kumara Hakusri, Kumara Satavahana, and Vedisri (eldest son).
He performed two Ashvamedha sacrifices, one Rajasuya sacrifice, and 20 kratus.
His titles – Apratihatachakra, Ekavira, Dakshinapathapati.
He issued coins with an 'elephant' symbol.
Puranas mention him as 'Mahan' and 'Mallakarna'.
He issued coins with the 'Ujjain city' symbol.

His Contemporary Rulers

Pushyamitra Sunga – Magadha
Kharavela – Kalinga
Demetrius – Indo-Greek

It is known through the 'Chulla Kalinga Jataka' that he attacked Kalinga Kharavela.

He was the first to give tax-free land grants to Brahmins.

He expanded his empire through matrimonial alliances.

The name of his wife Naganika's father was Maharathakairo (King of Rathika).

Satakarni II

According to Puranas, he was the 6th king.
His reign period was 56 years.
He constructed the southern gateway to the 'Sanchi' stupa. 'Ananda' had an inscription carved on the southern gateway.
He is regarded as the first South Indian king to expand his rule into North India.

After him, 8 kings ruled: Lambodara, Apilaka, Meghasvati, Svati, Skandasvati, Mrihendra Svatikarni, Kuntala Satakarni, and Svatikarni.

Apilaka: Reign period was 12 years. According to Puranas, he was the 8th king.

Kuntala Satakarni

His title was Vikramarka.
According to Puranas, he was the 13th king.
In his court, Sarvavarma authored 'Katantra Vyakaranam' in Sanskrit.
Sarvavarma taught Sanskrit to Kuntala Satakarni in 6 months.
'Brihatkatha' was authored in Paisachi language in his court by Gunadhya.
His wife's name was Malayavati. She died due to a sexual posture called 'Karirta'.

Kuntala Satakarni is mentioned in the following texts:

Vatsyayana Kama Sutra (Translated into Telugu by Panchangula Narayana Sastry)
Rajasekhara's Kavya Mimamsa
Gunadhya's Brihatkatha

After him, Svatikarni ruled.

Pulomavi I

He was the 15th king. The Vayu Purana states that he defeated the Kanva king Susharma and ruled Magadha for 10 years.
Pulomavi means 'born in grass'.
The ruler after him was Sivasvati.

Hala

17th king among the Satavahana emperors.
He was a patron of Saraswati and a scholar/literary figure.
His title was Kavi Vatsala.
'Bana' stated in his Harshacharita that Hala authored Gatha Saptasati.
His wife's name was Lilavati.
Kutuhaludu authored "Lilavati Parinayam" about his marriage.

Satavahana Era 3 – Later Satavahanas

Gautamiputra Satakarni (106–130 CE)

He is the greatest of all Satavahanas. His reign period was 24 years.
Started the Shalivahana Saka era in 78 CE.
His father's name was Sivasvati. Mother's name was Gautami Balasri. After her son's death, she issued a "Nashik" inscription detailing his greatness.
His title – Trisamudra Peetavahana.
He defeated the Sakas, Pallavas, and Yavanas. He eradicated the Kshatrapa lineage.
The entire Telugu region was under his control during his time.
The tradition of kings adding their mothers' names to their own names started from his time.
He defeated the Saka king 'Nahapana' at a battle near Nashik called 'Jogalthambi', collected the silver coins issued by him, and reissued them with his own symbols.
While following Vedic religious traditions, he also patronized Buddhism.

Pulomavi II / Vasisthiputra Satakarni

He was the son of Gautamiputra Satakarni.
His capital was Dhanyakataka. The 'Nashik' inscription was issued during his reign.
His title was Navanagara Swami.
The prominent Amaravati Stupa was constructed during his time. It is said that a local king named 'Viluwa' or 'Nagaraju' built it.
The inscription issued by Rudradaman is named Junagadh, which mentions that Satakarni was defeated twice. This is the first inscription issued in Sanskrit.
He made donations to Buddhist monks at Karla.
'Ptolemy' was in his court. He proposed the geocentric model. The book written by him is "Guide to Geography".

Vasisthiputra Siva Sri Satakarni

He was also a son of Gautamiputra Satakarni.
He married the daughter of Rudradaman.
He was the first Satavahana king to issue coins with both Prakrit and Tamil languages.
His title was Kshatrapa.

Yajna Sri Satakarni (165–194 CE)

According to Puranas, he was the 26th king. The last great ruler among the Satavahanas.
He performed many Yajnas and earned this name.
He issued coins with the symbol of a two-sailed ship or a ship with an anchor.
The compilation of the Matsya Purana began during his time.
Acharya Nagarjuna lived in his court.
Yajna Sri constructed a Mahavihara or Paravata Vihara on Saparvata or Nagarjunakonda for Nagarjuna.
The last king to rule all the regions of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.

Vijayasri Satakarni

He was the 28th king.
Built Vijayapuri town near Saparvata.
After him, Chandrasena / Chandrasri ruled.

Pulomavi III

He was the 30th or last king.
His commander-in-chief was Srimantamuludu.
He issued the 'Makadoni' inscription in Bellary.

Satavahana Administration System

Their administrative methods are known through the Nashik and Karla cave inscriptions.
Initially, their administration followed Mauryan administrative traditions.
The king was the head of the state. There was a belief that the king was an incarnation of divinity.
Kings assumed titles like Maharaja.

There were 4 Amatyas to assist the king in administration:

Officer	Responsibility
Visva Amatya	King's personal advisor (Prime Minister)
Raja Amatya	Executor of the king's orders
Maha Amatya	Finance Minister
Maha Talavara	Commander-in-Chief

Alongside them, those who gave advice to the king:

Title	Role
Maharathis	Officials governing provinces
Mahabhojakas	Provincial governor status
Mahasenapati	Military commander
Hiranyaka	Treasurer (handling monetary revenue)
Bhandarika	Custodian of revenue in kind
Mahataraka	King's bodyguard
Nibandhakara	Custodian of document-based revenue
Gramaka	Village headman
Mahamantris	Officials looking after the responsibilities of Buddhist monks

The Satavahana kingdom was divided into three parts:

Raja Khanketa region – Area under the king's direct administration
Samanta (Feudatory) region
Border regions

The Satavahana kingdom was divided into Aharaas (provinces). Their governors were Amatyas.
Cities were called Nigamas.
Community elders were called Gahapatis.
The official looking after village administration was called Gramika or Gumika.
Gaulmikas meant military commanders.
Gaulmika means commander of 30 soldiers.
A government official called "Mahakaryaka" existed for solving problems in villages.
The king's own land was called "Raja Khanketa".

Their army was divided into 4 types:

Ratha (Chariot)
Gaja (Elephant)
Ashvika (Cavalry)
Chaturanga (Four-fold army)

Satavahana military camps were called Skandhavara and Kataka.

Skandhavara meant a temporary military camp, and Kataka meant military garrisons in cities.

The primary income of the government was land revenue. It was called by 2 names: Rajabhoga and Deyameya.

Land revenue was collected at the rate of 1/6th.

A tax called "Karakara" was levied on crafts.

Land grants were made to Buddhists and Brahmins.

The first king to make land grants to Brahmins – Gautamiputra Satakarni.

Satavahana Economy & Society

Water lifting devices called Udaka yantras were used to draw water from wells.

Udaga yantra – Plowing machine
Ghatika yantra – Machine to pull water upwards
Garika yantra – Machine used to separate seeds from raw cotton

Rajjagahaka assessed and collected land revenue.

At that time there were 18 occupational guilds / Ashtadasha Vargas:

Guild	Occupation
Kolikulu	Weavers
Tilisakulu	Oil pressers
Kasakus	Brass workers
Kularikulu / Kumarulu	Potters
Tesakus	Polishers
Manikakus	Gem workers
Mala karulu	Flower merchants
Oda yantrikulu	Water machine makers
Lohavaniyulu	Iron merchants
Suvarna karulu	Goldsmiths
Vathakulu	Carpenters
Selavadhakulu	Stone/relief carvers
Avesinulu	Artisans
Lekhakulu	Scribes
Chammakarulu	Leather workers
Pasakarulu	Basket makers (Medari)
Meethikulu	Stone polishers
Gadhikulu	Fragrance/spice merchants

People following each occupation formed individual guilds. They had presidents called Sreshthi.

Moneylenders charged 12% interest.

Domestic merchants formed associations. These associations were called Nibhaya or Nikaya or Nigama.

The meeting of these associations was called "Goshthi".

The president of a Goshthi is called a Shetty.

★ TRADE FACTS Lead coins were minted in the highest numbers during the Satavahana period.
Trade with Rome flourished during their period.
Pliny's book – "Natural History"
One gold coin was equal to 35 silver coins.

Important Satavahana ports at the time:

East coast: Mysoli (Masulipatnam), Coldura, Kantakasela, Allosigna.
West coast: Barukach (Broach-Gujarat), Sopara (Sohal), Kalyan.

Main exports: Spices, pearls, precious stones, silk garments.

Main imports: Silver, gold, wine.

Religion

Vedic and Buddhist religions spread during their time.
Satavahana kings patronized the Vedic religion while queens practiced Buddhism.
The book Gatha Saptasati begins with a prayer to Shiva and ends with a hymn to Gauri. It was authored by Hala.
The most ancient Shiva lingam is in Gudimallam, Chittoor district.
The first Jain teacher in Andhra region was 'Kunda Kundacharya'; he authored the book 'Samayasaram'.
According to 'Kalpa Pradeepa' of Jheeva Prabhusuri, 52 commanders in the Satavahana court built 52 Jain temples in their own names.
The first Buddhist teacher in the Andhra region was 'Mahadeva Bhikshu'. He introduced the tradition called Chaityakavada, which worshiped Buddha's symbols.
Amaravati Stupa was built during the time of Pulomavi II.
In 1797, Colonel Colin Mackenzie discovered the Amaravati Stupa.
The birthplace of the Mahasanghika sect is 'Dhanyakataka'.
Acharya Nagarjuna was born in a village called 'Vedali'. He was a contemporary of Yajna Sri Satakarni.
Official language of Satavahanas – Prakrit.
They were the first kings in India to make land grants.
The Bhagavata religion was founded in North India by Vasudeva.

Titles

King	Title
Satakarni I	Dakshinapathapati
Yajna Sri Satakarni	Trisamudradhipati
Pulomavi II	Dakshinapadeshvaru
Gautamiputra Satakarni	Rama Keshava

Poets – Texts

Poet	Text
Aryadeva	Chittasuddhi
Nagarjuna	Dasabhumika Sutra
Arya Manjusri	Kalpasutra

The 'White Elephant Jataka' painting in Ajanta Cave No. 10 belongs to the Satavahana era.

Acharya Nagarjuna's Texts:

Sunyasaptati
Ratisastra
Manimangalam
Suhrillekha

Additional Important Facts Related to the Satavahana Era

Question / Topic	Answer
Place where the ruins of a great city were unearthed	Kadambapur
Historians Rappen and Baruwa referred to which river as 'Kanna Benna'	Vain Ganga
The last to rule the Telangana region	Kaushikiputra Satakarni
Another name for Nibandhakarus	Akshapatalus
Karimnagar district's 'Musulagutta' is a	Jain site
Meaning of the term Skandhavara	Military camp
Meaning of the term Kataka	Military garrison
City flattened by Kharavela by making donkeys trample it	Pithunda (Pidunda)
Mint city	Kondapur
Rivers used for foreign trade	Musi, Godavari
Metal least used during their period	Copper
Metal most used during their period	Silver
Text mentioning Buddha's footprints	Gatha Saptasati
Ritual-dominant religion	Vedic
Period when 'Pasupata Shaivism' gained popularity in South India	1st Century CE
Pasupata Shaivism	'Lakulisha Shivacharya'
The kavya Lilavati was written in	Prakrit
Selavadhakus mean	Sculptors
Vasakarus mean	Basket makers (Medari)
Varnas / Classes	4
Official religion	Vedic
State language	Prakrit
Foundation for world stories	Brihatkatha (Authored by Gunadhya in Kondapur)
Telugu words like 'Atta' and 'Pilla' were used in	'Gatha Saptasati'
Persons honored by Hala	Kumariludu, Sripalitudu
First literate poet in Telangana	Gunadhya

↑ Back to Top

UNIT 3: History of Satavahana Dynasty

noreply@blogger.com (Estudies4you) — Sun, 20 Sep 2026 06:14:10 +0000

Satavahana Dynasty: History, Rulers, Administration & Culture | Telangana History

Satavahana Dynasty

The Golden Era of Telangana & South Indian History — Rulers, Administration, Culture & Legacy

📌 Overview: The Satavahanas were the first principal dynasty to establish a vast empire in South India. They ruled for approximately 2.5 centuries (1st century B.C.E to mid-3rd century C.E), bringing political unity and cultural renaissance to the Deccan region.

The Satavahanas played a trend-setting role in Telangana history and culture. They were the first major dynasty to rule not only Telangana but also large parts of South India, establishing a vast empire that extended from the Arabian Sea in the west to the Bay of Bengal in the east, and up to the river Ganges in the north.

Renowned historian K.M. Panikkar opined that the Satavahanas played a historical role by achieving cultural coordination between Dravidian land and Aryavarta. Their rule witnessed progressive changes in socio-economic and cultural fields, with literature, architecture, and sculpture receiving great royal patronage.

📜 Pre-Satavahana Age: The Historical Background

Telangana has one of the earliest histories in ancient times, serving as a meeting place of northern and southern kingdoms. The word "Telangana" came into usage from the time of the Delhi Sultans, with poet Amir Khusrau making a mention of it.

Key Historical References

Buddhist Jatakas (600–400 B.C.E) mentioned the area between Godavari and Krishna rivers as Andhapatham or Andhakaratham.
The first reference to Andhras appears in the Aitareya Brahmana of Rigveda (1000 B.C.E).
Megasthanese (Greek ambassador, 4th century B.C.E) stated in his work 'Indica' that Andhras had 30 fortified cities, one lakh infantry, two thousand cavalry, and 1000 elephant force.
Ashoka's 13th rock edict mentioned kingdoms of Kalinga, Andhra, Bojaka, and Rattika to the south of his empire.

Pre-Satavahana Kingdoms

Ruler / Inscription	Location	Key Details
Kubiraka	Bhattiprolu Stupa	Ruled with Nigamasabha and Gostis
Rajasomaka	Vaddemanu	Inscriptions found
Sarisada, Mahasada	Guntupalli & Velpuru	Multiple rulers mentioned
Gobada, Samagopa, Narana	Kotilingala	Pre-Satavahana coins found
Sivamahastin, Sivaskandahastin	Veerapuram	Coins discovered

👑 The Satavahanas: Founders of South Indian Unity

⚡ Quick Facts:

Duration: Approximately 2.5 centuries (1st century B.C.E to mid-3rd century C.E)

First Capital: Kotilingala (Karimnagar District, Telangana)

Later Capitals: Prathistanapura (Paithan) → Dhanakataka (Dhanyakatakam)

Empire Extent: Arabian Sea (west) to Bay of Bengal (east), up to river Ganges (north)

The Satavahanas started their rule at Kotilingala in Karimnagar District, and later Prathistanapura became their capital. By the time of the later Satavahanas, it was changed to Dhanakataka (Dhanyakatakam). They carried their conquests in North India up to Magadha.

📚 Sources of Information

Literary Sources

Source	Details
Puranas	Vishnu, Bhagavata, Matsya Puranas give genealogies
Brihatkatha	Written by Gunadhya in Paisachi language
Gathasaptasati	Composed by Hala in Prakrit
Kamasutra	By Vatsayana – social & economic conditions
Indica	By Megasthanese – referred to Andhras
Historia Naturalis	By Pliny – Eastern countries' history
Periplus of Erythrean Sea	Trade relations between Rome and India

Archaeological Sources

Inscriptions: Prakrit language, Brahmi script (only 24 inscriptions available)
Coins: Lead, copper, potin, and silver coins
Monuments: Stupas, Chaityas, Sangharamas
Excavations: Kotilingala, Pedabankur, Dhulikatta, Kondapur, Phanigiri

🏛️ Original Home of Satavahanas: Multiple Arguments

Argument	Proponents	Key Points
Coastal Andhra	R.G. Bhandarkar, V.A. Smith	Land between Godavari & Krishna rivers; capital at Dhanyakatakam
Maharashtra	P.T. Srinivasa Ayangar, D.C. Sircar	Naneghat & Nasik inscriptions; capital at Prathishtanapuram
Vidarbha	V.V. Mirasi	Satavahanas were Andhrabhrityas; Katakam on Bena river
Karnataka	Dr. V.S. Sunkankar	Mykadoni inscription; Satavahanahara reference
Telangana	Ajaymitra Sastry, Deme Raji Reddy	Coins of Simuka found only at Kotilingala; first capital

✅ Conclusion: It is proper to state that the first Satavahana kingdom got established in Telangana with Kotilingala as its capital. Coins of early Satavahana rulers — Chimuka Satavahana and Satakarni — are found at Kotilingala, Pedabankur, Dhulikatta, Kadambapur, and Kondapur in Telangana.

⏳ Chronology: A Complicated Issue

The chronology of the Satavahanas is a complicated issue. There is difference of opinion among historians regarding the starting of their rule. However, there is unanimity of opinion that the Satavahana rule ended around 225 or 230 C.E.

Historian	Starting Date
Gurti Venkat Rao	271 B.C.E
R.G. Bhandarkar	73 B.C.E
Dinesh Chandra Sircar	30 B.C.E
H.C. Roychowdary	60 B.C.E
A.M. Sastry	52 B.C.E
Parabrahma Sastry	80 B.C.E

Consensus: Satavahanas ruled for approximately 250 years, ending around 225-230 C.E.

👥 Caste of the Satavahanas

Different opinions prevailed among scholars regarding whether the Satavahanas were Brahmins or non-Brahmins:

Brahmins: Gautamiputra Satakarni referred to as 'Eka Brahmana'; mother's gotra joined with names
Kshatriyas: Performed Asvamedha and Rajasuya sacrifices; Gautami Balasri called 'Kshatriya Patni'
Naga Race: 'Dvatrimsat Puttalika' mentions founder born to Naga king and Brahmin widow
Sudras: Satavahana in Kannada meant a ryot

Conclusion: Satavahanas through marriage alliances with Marathas and Sakas and by performing Vedic sacrifices attained higher social status and assumed Brahmanism.

👑 Satavahana Rule – Political Developments

Historians have divided the Satavahanas into early and later Satavahanas. The rulers from the establishment of the rule till the accession of Gautamiputra Satakarni were called the early Satavahanas, and those from Gautamiputra Satakarni till the last king were referred to as later Satavahanas.

Early Satavahanas

Ruler	Period	Key Achievements
Simuka	Founder	Killed Susarma of Kanva dynasty; established kingdom; ruled 23 years
Krishna (Kanha)	Brother of Simuka	Ruled 18 years; first to issue inscription; extended kingdom to Nasik
Satakarni I	Son of Simuka	Ruled 18 years; performed Asvamedha & Rajasuya sacrifices; 'Dakshinapathipati'
Satakarni II	6th ruler	Ruled 56 years; occupied Malwa from Sakas
Hala	17th ruler	'Kavivatsala'; wrote Gathasaptasati; married Simhala princess Lilavati

Later Satavahanas

Ruler	Period	Key Achievements
Gautamiputra Satakarni	106–130 C.E	Greatest monarch; defeated Sakas, Yavanas, Pallavas; 'Trisamudratoyapitavahana'
Vashistiputra Pulumavi	130–154 C.E	Capital at Dhanyakatakam; 'Dakshinapatiswara'
Vashistiputra Satakarni	154–165 C.E	Defeated by Rudradaman twice
Yagnasri Satakarni	165–194 C.E	Last great ruler; patronized Acharya Nagarjuna and Buddhism

🏛️ Administrative Organization

Powers of the Emperor

Head of state and supreme commander-in-chief
Hereditary monarchy in vogue
Titles: Raja and Maharaja
Performed Asvamedha and Rajasuya sacrifices
Idea of divine right monarchy formed

Administrative Staff

Title	Role
Amatyas	Ministers
Mahamatras	High officials
Maharathis	Provincial governors
Mahasenapati	Commander of army
Bhandarika	Safeguard income in kind
Heranika	Treasurer
Dutakas	Spies
Lekhaka	Secretary
Gramaka	Village official

Administrative Units

Rajakamkheta – Direct rule of king
Feudatory areas – Chutus, Kurus, Ikshavakus
Border areas – Under army commanders

🌾 Economic Development

Agriculture

Major crops: Rice, Jowar, Jute, Gingelly, Sugarcane
Other crops: Wheat, red gram, black gram, castor, coconut, cotton
Water sources: Wells, canals, embankments
Persian Wheel used for lifting water

Crafts & Guilds

Craft	Guild
Weavers	Kolikas
Oil extractors	Tilapasikas
Brass workers	Kasakaras
Potters	Kularikas
Blacksmiths	Kamaras
Goldsmiths	Suvarnakaras
Carpenters	Vadhakas

💰 Guilds discharged functions of present-day banks – accepted deposits, gave loans, collected interest (generally 12% per year).

Trade

Internal trade centers: Kotilingala, Dhulikatta, Kondapur
External trade: With Roman Empire
Exports: Cotton, pepper, spices, pearls, diamonds, silk
Imports: Silver, copper, glass articles, cosmetics
Ports: Sopara, Kalyan, Bharukachham (west); Ghantasala, Gudur, Machilipatnam (east)

🕉️ Religious Developments

Vedic Religion

Satakarni I performed many Vedic rites
Gautamiputra Satakarni was 'Eka Brahmana'
Vaishnavism and Shaivism started
Oldest Sivalinga at Gudimallam (Chittoor District)

Jainism

Srimuka (founder) was a follower of Jainism
Acharya Kondakunda lived at Konakondla (Kurnool District)
Wrote: Samayasara, Mulacara, Panchashaktiya, Pravachanasara
Propagated Anekantavada philosophy

Buddhism

Spread to Telangana before Asoka's rule
Bavari story in Suttanipada – Bavari from Asmaka accepted Buddhism
Mahasanghika branch birthplace: Dhanyakatakam
Acharya Nagarjuna – contemporary of Yagnasri Satakarni
Founded Madhyamikavadam (Sunyavadam)
Buddhist places in Telangana: Kondapur, Phanigiri, Tirumalagiri, Dhulikatta, Pasegam, Meerjampet

📖 Educational & Literary Progress

Work	Author	Language
Gathasaptasati	Hala	Maharastri Prakrit
Brihatkatha	Gunadhya	Paisachi
Kathasaritsagara	Somadevasuri	Sanskrit
Katantra Vyakaranam	Sarvavarma	Sanskrit
Kama Sutra	Vatsayana	Sanskrit
Lilavati	Kutuhala	Maharastrian Prakrit
Suhrullekha	Acharya Nagarjuna	Sanskrit

🎓 Universities established at Dhanyakatakam and Nagarjunakonda – taught grammar, state craft, economics, logic, mathematics, legal science, astrology, and astronomy.

🎨 Architecture, Sculpture & Painting

Buddhist Monuments

Stupa: Structure built over Buddha's remains
Vihara: Habitation of monks and nuns
Chaitya: Prayer hall of Buddhists

Amaravati Art of Sculpture

Brilliant from 2nd century B.C.E to 2nd century C.E
Centers: Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, Jaggayyapeta
Spread to Southeast Asian countries – Annam, Thailand, Java, Sumatra, Borneo
James Fergusson in 'Tree and Serpent Worship' gave highest importance to Amaravati art

Painting

Ajanta cave numbers 9 and 10 belong to Satavahana times
Jataka stories of Mahayana Buddhism depicted
Paintings at Bedsa, Pithalkhora, and Junnar

📝 Exam Point of View

🔹 Key Facts for Competitive Exams

Founder: Simuka (Srimuka) – killed Susarma of Kanva dynasty
First Capital: Kotilingala (Karimnagar District, Telangana)
Later Capitals: Prathistanapura (Paithan) → Dhanyakatakam (Amaravati)
Greatest Ruler: Gautamiputra Satakarni (106–130 C.E)
Last Great Ruler: Yagnasri Satakarni (165–194 C.E)
Duration: ~250 years (1st century B.C.E – 225 C.E)
Language: Prakrit (official), Sanskrit (literary)
Script: Brahmi

🔹 Important Titles

Gautamiputra Satakarni: Eka Brahmana, Kshatriya Darpamana Mardana, Trisamudratoyapitavahana, Dakshinapathipati
Satakarni I: Apratihata Chakra, Veera, Sura, Dakshinapathipati
Hala: Kavivatsala
Yagnasri Satakarni: Trisamudradhiswara

🔹 Important Inscriptions

Naneghat Inscription: Issued by Naganika (wife of Satakarni I)
Nasik Inscription: Issued by Gautami Balasri (mother of Gautamiputra Satakarni)
Hathigumpha Inscription: Kharavela (Kalinga king) – mentions Satakarni
Mykadoni Inscription: Pulumavi (last Satavahana ruler)
Kanheri Inscription: Issued by Krishna (Kanha)

🔹 Important Coins

Coins of Simuka found only at Kotilingala
Coins of Gautamiputra Satakarni found at Kondapur and Pedabankur
Restruck coins of Nahapana found at Jogalthembi (9270 coins)
Coins with ship figure of Yagnasri Satakarni found at Nagarjunakonda
Roman coins found at several places in South India

🔹 Important Excavation Sites

Kotilingala: First capital; fort walls, coins, Jain stone shades
Pedabankur: 22,000+ Satavahana coins; brick forts; Roman coins
Dhulikatta: Buddhist Stupa; mud fort; Brahmi inscriptions
Kondapur: Roman trade center; 4000+ Satavahana coins; mint center
Phanigiri: Buddhist holy place; coins of Rudrasena II

🔹 Quick Revision Points

✅ Satavahanas were the first major dynasty to unite South India politically.

✅ Kotilingala was the first capital – coins of Simuka found only here.

✅ Gautamiputra Satakarni defeated Sakas, Yavanas, and Pallavas.

✅ Agriculture, crafts, and trade flourished – guilds functioned as banks.

✅ Buddhism received perfect development – Mahayana and Hinayana branches arose.

✅ Amaravati art spread to Southeast Asian countries.

✅ Prakrit and Sanskrit languages patronized – Gathasaptasati, Brihatkatha composed.

🏁 Conclusion

After the decline of the Mauryan empire, Satavahanas became independent and established a vast empire. Between North and South India, Deccan served as a bridge. They ruled for around two and a half centuries, providing a stable and long rule and contributing to:

Economic and social development of the people
Tremendous growth of Vedic and Buddhist religions
Prakrit and Sanskrit languages
Arts of architecture, sculpture, and painting

💡 Remember: The rule of Satavahanas in history is truly memorable – a golden era that shaped the cultural and political landscape of Telangana and South India.

UNIT 2: Telangana Pre-Historical Age

noreply@blogger.com (Estudies4you) — Sun, 20 Sep 2026 05:29:05 +0000

Telangana Pre-Historical Age | Complete Guide for Students

📜 Telangana Pre-Historical Age: Complete Guide

History Telangana Student Notes

“If we take the span of human life into a full-fledged movie, in that history will be only for a minute. The rest will be pre-history.”

— Gordon V. Childe, World-Renowned Historian

🔍 What is the Pre-Historical Age?

Term	Meaning
Pre-Historical Age	Period with no written records for reconstructing human history
Historical Age	Period of 2,300 years for which written records are available
Telangana's Human Existence	Nearly 3 Lakh (300,000) years before the historical age!

📚 Sources of Telangana's Pre-History

🏛️ Key Discoveries & Institutions

Mid-19th Century: Robert Bruce Foote discovered Megalithic burials at Valigonda (Nalgonda district) — first step in studying Telangana's pre-history
1914: Hyderabad State Department of Archaeology established
1953: Book “Antiquarian Remains in Hyderabad State” published — listed 118 pre-historical sites including plant fossils at Asifabad & Sirpur, Neolithic and 96 Megalithic sites
1956: After Andhra Pradesh formation, hundreds of sites identified through Salvage Archaeology

💡 What is Salvage Archaeology? Study of sites in danger of submerging due to dam construction (Nagarjunasagar, Sriramsagar, Srisailam, Tungabhadra, Jurala, Nizamsagar, Polavaram projects).

👨‍🔬 Notable Researchers

Researcher	Contribution
Dr. V.V. Krishna Sastri	Identified pre-historical sites, especially with paintings
Prof. K. Timma Reddy	Sites on left bank of Krishna river (Mahbubnagar)
Prof. M.L.K. Murthy	Lower Godavari valley sites (Polavaram submergence area)
Thakur Raja Ramsingh	Godavari valley sites (Basara to Bhadrachalam)
Dyavanpalli Satyanarayana	Discovered ~10 pre-historical sites in 5 years
B. Subrahmanyam	Book: Telugu Nelapai Puravastu Parisodhanalu (2012)

⏳ Chronology of Pre-Historical Periods

#	Period	Chronology	Tools Used
1	Lower Paleolithic	3 to 1.30 lakh years ago	Pebble tools
2	Middle Paleolithic	1.0/0.50 to 0.20 lakh years ago	Flake tools
3	Upper Paleolithic	20,000 BCE – 10,000 BCE	Blades & Burins
4	Mesolithic	8,500 BCE – 3,000 BCE	Microliths
5	Neolithic	3,000 BCE – 1500 BCE	Smooth stone tools
6	Megalithic (Iron Age)	1500 BCE – 300 CE	Iron tools

🔑 Key Transition: Megalithic period = Iron Age = Proto-Historical Age (bridge between pre-history & history)

🪨 1. Lower Paleolithic Age

📍 Major Sites in Telangana

Nallamalla forests (left bank of Krishna river) — Mahbubnagar & Nalgonda
Lower Godavari valley — Peddapalli, Ramagundam, Godavarikhani (Karimnagar)
Adilabad: Sirpur to Naspur, Manchiryala to Vemanapalli, Boath & Pochechera
Warangal: Eturunagaram forests (Ekkala, Selibaka)
Khammam: Palvancha, Cherla, Godavari valley

🛠️ Tools & Lifestyle

Hand axes (huge shapes), chopping tools, discoids
Resemblance to Acheulian tools of Africa
Lifestyle similar to animals; lived in tree cavities

🪨 2. Middle Paleolithic Age

🔑 Key Discovery: Ox skeleton (Bos namadicus) found with stone tools at Yavaladevipadu (Mahbubnagar) — first evidence of human-animal relation

🛠️ Tools

Small hand axes, pole axes, scraping stones
Flake tools: single-faced, dual-faced, side-bordered, concave, convex, drills, awls-borers

📍 Major Sites

Mahbubnagar: Appapur, Borapur, Chandraguptapattanam, Saleswaram, Kadalivanam, Medimankal, Kyaturu, Somasila, Dasarapalle
Nalgonda: Yeleswaram, Nagarjunakonda
Warangal: Ganapavaram
Adilabad: Asifabad, Pochera, Naspur, Marlavayi
Karimnagar: Godavarikhani, Medipalli, Buchayyapalem, Ramagundam, Malkapuram

🪨 3. Upper Paleolithic Age

🌍 Climatic Change: End of Pleistocene (Ice Age) → Beginning of Holocene (Warm Period)

🛠️ Tools & Art

Blade tools, side-border blade tools, bone tools
First cave paintings with colours!

📍 Major Sites

Adilabad: Vankidi
Godavari valley: Cherla, Bornagudem, Laknavaram, Lingavaram, Peravaram, Rayavaram, Viravaram, Yellavaram
Warangal: Eturunagaram, Pakala
Krishna valley: Yeleswaram, Nagarjunakonda, Chandraguptapattanam, Kadalivanam, Medimankal

🪨 4. Mesolithic Age

Belongs to first Holocene age — favorable conditions for human progress
Microlithic tools — hence called Microlithic Age
Last age using only stone tools

🎨 Cave Paintings

150+ figures — deer, cat, hyena, dog, fox, tortoise, geometrical designs, human figures, hand impressions in red colour
Mostly in limestone, granite, sandstone hill caves

📍 Major Painting Sites

Sanganonipalli (Mahbubnagar) — first generation paintings, large deer figures
Duppad Gattu, Pothanpalli, Mannemkonda (near Sangnonipalli)
Kokapeta (Ranga Reddy), Ramagundem (Karimnagar), Hastalapur (Medak), Pandavulagutta & Narsapur (Warangal)

💡 Special Finding: Microlithic tools made of chert stones unearthed at University of Hyderabad memorial stone — scraping stones, backed blades

🪨 5. Neolithic Age

🔑 The “New Stone Age Revolution” (Gordon Childe)

Discovery	Impact
Agriculture	Permanent settlements → family, society, village
Pottery	Storage → individual property → rich/poor classes
Cattle Domestication	Large-scale farming → wheeled carts → trade

🔄 Major Shift: From Food-Gathering → Food Production

🛠️ Tools

Triangular axes, adzes, slings, rollers/pestles, blades, crescent-shaped chert implements
Copper & bronze articles found at Chinnamarur & Chagatur (Mahbubnagar) — contact with Chalcolithic cultures
Twisted copper swords at Rimmanagudem (Medak) — Copper Hoard Culture from Ganges coastal area

🏺 Pottery

Hand-made earthenware; ash or light brown colour
Black/red polish; mostly red decoration
Similar to early Indus civilisation, Baluchistan, early Harappan pottery
Jorve Chalcolithic resemblance (1400–1050 BCE, Maharashtra)

📍 Major Settlements

Godavari valley & Maneru river (Karimnagar): Togarai, Kadambapur, Pedabankur
Peddavagu coast: Budigepalli, Polakonda, Kolakonda, Devarapalli
Tool manufacturing site: Togarai (near granite hills)
Sharpening stones: Kadambapur, Aija (Mahbubnagar), Vellaturu mandal (Karimnagar)

🐄 Economy

Animal husbandry + Agriculture
Ash heaps at Utnoor (Mahbubnagar) — cattle sheds
Domesticated: cows, buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs, dogs, sparrows
Crops: Jowar, paddy, millets (Ragi), pulses (green gram, black gram, horse gram)
Rain-based farming

🎨 Art

Cave paintings & line drawings: Budagavi (Karimnagar), Pandavulagutta (Warangal), Rachakonda (Nalgonda), Nallamudi (Khammam), Duppadgattu & Dongalagattu (Mahbubnagar)
Bull paintings — curved horns, humps, hanging skin, long bodies
Men holding arrows beside bulls

⚰️ Burial Culture

Dead bodies buried with head towards North
Two children buried in pots at Nagarjunakonda

🪨 6. Megalithic Age

1500 BCE – 300 BCE
Skeletons kept in earthenware box or stone nest with big stones in round shape
Called Rakshasagullu (Big Stone Age) or Iron Age
Local names: Pandavulagoollu, Veeralapadulu

🏗️ Types of Megalithic Burials

Type	Description
Pit Burials / Cairns	Pit dug, skeleton in earthenware box or stone slab room, big stones in circular form
Cist Burials	Stone slab room partially visible above earth, one slab on top
Dolmens	Entire stone burial above earth's surface
Rock-Cut Burials	Round caves carved in hillocks, dead bodies kept & roofed

📍 Key Facts

First Megalithic burial in India: Hyderabad Central University campus — 4,250 years old!
First type burials: Dead buried as is
Second type burials: Dead cremated, bones buried
Pit burials & Cists: Left bank of Krishna river
Dolmens: Right bank of Godavari river
Cave burials: Godavari coastal area

🪦 Unique Features

Cist burial slab facing East had a hole — for soul to wander or food offerings
Swastik or Plus (+) shape stone slab rooms
Mallur hillocks (Eturunagaram): Dolmens with huge volume, smooth stone compounds, Palnad sandstone containers, hollow structures, three fort walls — evidence of urbanization & city states!
Vertical stones: 1–5 yards height — Hyderabad Central University, Phanigiri, Aleru (Nalgonda), Bommera, Lebarthy (Warangal), Sivaru Venkatapur (Medak)
Cross (+) stones: Janampet, Mangapeta (Warangal), Gundala, Kanchanapalli (Khammam) — not found anywhere else in the world!
Pyramid stones in Egypt show Gods holding Cross (+) stones — possible Mediterranean connection!
Rectangular platforms: Pochampad (Nizamabad), Kanchanapalli — food platforms for eagles or tool-making platforms

🏺 Objects Unearthed from Burials

Category	Findings
Pottery	Vessels, pots, lids, three-legged seats, nail presses, finger prints, rope designs, potter marks
Unique Pottery	Red & black vessels, complete black shining vessels — unique to this age
Coarse Vessels	Big pots, containers, coffin boxes
Decoration	Earthenware beads (Veerapuram), bangles (Moulali, Hyderabad)
Toys	Dogs (Pochampad), ram with turned horns (Upperu), long horns (Serupalli), buffalo head (Peddabankur)
Iron Objects	Sickles, axes, spears, knives, swords, lances, blades, adzes, chisels, tridents, horseshoes, elephant goads
Copper Objects	Knives, handles, bells, bangles, rings, needles
Gold & Silver	Gold beads & earrings (Kadambapur), silver & gold beads (Rayagiri), golden ring (Polichetti tank, Khammam)
Precious Stones	Agate, carnelian, jasper, amethyst, crystal (Serupalli, Chinnamarur, Peddamarur)
Other	Horn combs (Pochampad, Chinnamarur), ivory beads & bangles (Nellimilli), bone beads (Hasmatpet)
Food Grains	Paddy, barley, millets (ragi, korra), horse gram, peas, black gram, red gram, beans, jujube, amla

🐟 Fish hooks at Chinnamaruru — reveal food preferences!

🏛️ Historical Age: Early Glows and Foundations

🎨 Art & Paintings

Cave paintings: Narsapur (Warangal), Yeddanoor, Sivaru Vekatapur, Vargal (Medak), Ramachandrapuram, Nallamudi (Khammam), Kokapet (Rangareddy), Mudumala (Mahbubnagar)
Scenes: Hunting, war-heroes with sword/shield/bow/arrow/spear, men riding horse & elephant, dog, humped bull, cattle, deer, bird, cheetah, hare, fox, tortoise, crabs
Mudumala cave: Mother Goddess in black colour — hands raised, legs straightened, breasts falling — worshipped for children, milk & crops
Another Mudumala painting: Cow raising tail, exhibiting reproduction organs — worship of cow as Gomata for cattle wealth

👑 Formation of Kingdoms

6th Century BCE: Small kingdoms in Godavari valley (northern Telangana)
First Janapada/Kingdom in South India: Asmaka at Bodhan (Nizamabad district)
Kotilingala (Karimnagar) coins reveal king names: Gobada, Siri, Narana, Sirikamvaja, Siri Samagopa
Satavahana Empire: First empire in South India — established by removing Samagopa king (name 'Satavahana' reprinted on coins)

📝 Quick Revision Table

Age	Key Innovation	Major Sites
Lower Paleolithic	Hand axes, chopping tools	Nallamalla, Godavari valley
Middle Paleolithic	Flake tools, ox skeleton	Yavaladevipadu
Upper Paleolithic	Blade tools, cave paintings	Vankidi, Eturunagaram
Mesolithic	Microliths, 150+ cave figures	Sanganonipalli
Neolithic	Agriculture, pottery, cattle	Togarai, Kadambapur
Megalithic	Iron tools, burials	Mallur, Hyderabad Central University

🎯 Key Takeaways for Students

Telangana's pre-history spans 3 lakh years — only 2,300 years have written records
Robert Bruce Foote (19th century) — father of Telangana pre-history studies
Salvage Archaeology — saved sites from dam submergence
Gordon Childe coined “New Stone Age Revolution” — food gathering → food production
Megalithic Age = Iron Age = Proto-Historical Age — bridge to history
First Megalithic burial in India — Hyderabad Central University (4,250 years old)
Cross (+) stones — unique to Telangana, possible Mediterranean connection
Asmaka — first kingdom in South India (Bodhan, Nizamabad)
Satavahanas — first empire in South India (Kotilingala coins)
Cave paintings — Mudumala Mother Goddess, bull worship, hunting scenes

📌 Remember: The pre-historical age is not “primitive” — it's the foundation of civilization, agriculture, art, and society as we know it!

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO TELANGANA – HISTORY & CULTURE

noreply@blogger.com (Estudies4you) — Sun, 20 Sep 2026 02:58:40 +0000

INTRODUCTION TO TELANGANA – HISTORY & CULTURE

Telangana – the 29^th State of India – is a land of rich heritage, resilient people, and a history that stretches from the prehistoric era to the modern day. This comprehensive lecture note covers the formation of Telangana, origin of the word, historical significance, sources of history, geography, climate, minerals, social structure, economy, and cultural foundations. Ideal for students, researchers, and competitive exam aspirants.

1. Formation of Telangana State

Key Fact

Telangana was formed as the 29^th State of India on 2^nd June 2014, culminating a six-decade-long struggle carried forward by two generations.

The formation ended the era of movement and heralded a new era of development.
The mother tongue of the region was Telugu, but there was no scope for school education or government matters in Telugu till 1948.
Credit for fighting against atrocities of village officials, big landlords, and religious fanatics goes to Telangana farmers, tenants, workers, and common people.
Although people welcomed the idea of uniting all Telugu-speaking people, strong resentment prevailed over discrimination in ministerial posts, government employment, and spending of surplus funds.
The feeling of unequal treatment, lack of respect, and status vis-à-vis other counterparts fuelled the demand for a separate State.
The emergence of Telangana was the result of resentment and heart-burning.
Hope: the new State with its youthful vigour, committed leaders, and aspirational people will spread the name and fame of Telugu people far and wide.

2. Origin of the Word 'Telangana'

The word 'Telangana' is of very ancient origin. There is almost unanimous opinion that it originated from the word 'Trilinga' – used to identify Telugu people in the Puranas and other literary sources.

Key Evidence & Opinions

Dr. Parabrahma Sastry: The region inhabited by Telugu people was referred to as Trilinga Desam. Present Telangana should be treated as the starting point of early Andhra Desa.
Godavari Connection: Godavari, the perennial river, came to be known as 'Televaha river'. People living in its valley were called 'Trilingas'. In due course, this changed to Trilinga Desam → Telangana.
Greek Writings: Writings of the post-Mauryan period, such as Ptolemy's, also indicate the same name.
Inscriptional Evidence: Terms 'Trilinga', 'Tilinga', and 'Telanga' have been extensively used in royal inscriptions – from Purli Inscriptions of Ganga ruler Indravarma down to various Kakatiya inscriptions.
Popularization: Credit goes to post-Kakatiya period writers. Invasions of Delhi Sultans attracted Muslim scholars and court writers towards Telangana, leading to 'Telangana' stabilizing in the present form.
P. Srirama Sarma: Use of Telangana became common from Amir Khusru to Abul Fazal – or from Alauddin Khalji to Akbar.
Inscriptional Sources: Tellapur inscription (Sangareddy, Medak district, A.D. 1417), Velicharla inscription of Prataparudra Gajapati, and Krishna Devarayala's Tirumala and Chinnakanchi inscriptions.
Social Class: Brahmins of some branches during Kakatiya period were referred to as 'Telanganyulu'.
Suravaram Pratapareddy: As 'Anemu' referred to country, the term gained prominence at the time of the Golconda kingdom.
Conclusion: From the reign of Kakatiyas till present day, Telangana has been shaping itself in myriad forms.

3. Historical Significance of Telangana

The history of Telangana spreads from the pre-historic age to contemporary history.

Prehistoric Period

Paleolithic period: Tools and settlements of the Achulian tradition found in Peddapalli, Ramgundam, and Godavarikhani.
Telangana was a focal point in the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic ages – playing a key role in human civilisation.

6^th Century B.C. – Emergence of Regional Kingdoms

Asmaka – one of the prime Janapadas – was situated in the Nizamabad area, with Bodhan as its capital.
Telangana flourished remarkably during the time of Gautama Buddha.
Arthasastra reveals Telangana figured prominently in trade routes of the Mauryan period relating to Dakshinapatha.
Kautilya initially said southern trade routes were not so important – later changed his opinion and declared they were of great importance.

Satavahana Period

Historians gave more prominence to the Andhra region and less to Telangana.
Prof. Parabrahma Sastry: Greater probability of Nizamabad area becoming the home land of Satavahanas. The argument that Satavahanas moved to Dhanyakataka / Dharanikota, Amaravati after first settling in Nizamabad has been gaining acceptance.
Economic Role: Kondapur was a mint city for Satavahanas (according to Mallampalli Somasekhara Sarma). Coins bearing the name 'Sadvahana' found near Warangal.

Post-Satavahana Period

B.N. Sastry: Ikshvakus – ruled after Satavahanas with Vijayapuri near Nagarjunakonda as capital – controlled some districts of South Telangana. Early ruler Santamula conquered Asmaka and Mulaka.
Vakatakas: Northern Telangana might have been under their control after Ikshvakus.
Vishnukunds: Glory rose further; assumed power towards the end of 4^th century A.D.; gradually spread from Mahbubnagar, Nalgonda eastwards towards Vengi (Eluru).
Badami Chalukyas: Telangana was under their rule. Pulakesin II's inscription found on the border of Kurnool-Mahboobnagar mentions Chalukya Vishayas. Celebrated writer Bhavabhuti lived in Telangana during 7^th–8^th centuries A.D.
Rashtrakuta Feudatories – Vemulavada Chalukyas: Ruled westernmost Telangana with Bodhan and Vemulavada as centres. Referred to as 'Sampada Laksha Desam'. Region from Manjeera river to Mahakaleshwaram called 'Podanapadu'.
Kanduru Chodas and Kalyani Chalukyas: Telangana developed politically and culturally. Inscriptions refer to Nalgonda Fort, Kolanupaka, Nelakondapalli.
Kakatiya to Asaf Jahi Period: From Kakatiya period to Qutubshahis and till the end of Asaf Jahis rule, Telangana history attracted historians. Political, economic, social, and cultural developments imparted great importance.
Conclusion: From pre-historic period till modern period, Telangana has attained proud eminence and is marching forward with new vigour and in untrodden ways.

4. Sources of Telangana History

Sources are broadly divided into Literary and Archaeological sources.

A. Literary Sources

1. Native Writings – Religious

Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain religious writings.
Writings of Buddhist monk Nagarjuna; other Jain and Buddhist texts.
Adipurana – written by Pampa, court poet of Vemulavada Chalukya king Arikesari II.

2. Native Writings – Secular

'Gadha Saptasati' – by Satavahana King Hala – reflects social conditions.
'Vikramarka Vijayam' – by Pampa.
'Prataparudra Yasobhushanam' – by Vidyanadha.
Kautilya's 'Arthasastra' – reveals economic conditions (trade and commerce in South India).

3. Foreign Writings

Greek writings of early centuries A.D.
'Diary of the Red Sea' – by an unknown Greek navigator – mentions exports and imports from Telangana to coastal Andhra.

4. Medieval Telangana History – Literary Sources

H.K. Sherwani's – 'Qutubshahis of Golconda'.
Hirananda Sastry's – 'Shitab Khan of Warangal'.
'Proceedings of the Hyderabad Archaeological & Historical Society' – Jan–Aug 1941.
Dr. N. Venkataramanayya & Sri Mallampalli Somasekhara Sarma's – 'The Kakatiyas of Warangal'.
B. Yazdani (ed) – 'Early History of the Deccan, Vol-II'.
Maremanda Rama Rao (ed) – 'Kakatiya Sanchika' (1935).
P. Srinivasachar – 'Political, Social and Religious Conditions of the Deccan under the Kakatiyas' (1941).

5. Modern Telangana History – Asaf Jahi Rule

Entire modern history marked by Asaf Jahi rule.
Correspondence of Government Departments recorded in Persian, Arabic, and Urdu – many researchers lack familiarity.
Only some administrative reports in English are studied.
Dr. V. Ramakrishna Reddy: 'The Economic Development of Hyderabad State (Warangal Suba), 1911–1950' (1987).
Prof. V. Ramakrishna Reddy: 'Social and Economic Dynamics of Medak Suba of Former Hyderabad State, 1905–1950 A.D.' (2012) and 'Agricultural Development of Medak Suba...' (2014).

6. Surveys and Reports

'Economic Investigation in Hyderabad State 1929–30' – by S. Kesava Iyengar.
'Rural Economic Enquiries in Hyderabad State 1949–51' – by S. Kesava Iyengar.
Tenancy Committee Report (1940), Report on Agricultural Indebtedness (1937), Banking Enquiry Committee Report (1930), Agrarian Reforms Committee Report (1949), Royal Commission Report on Jagir Administration Reforms (1947).
Administrative Reports, Agricultural Statistics, Industrial Statistics, Trade Statistics, Statistical Abstracts, Villages Lists, Census Reports, Livestock Census, Labour Census Reports.

7. Peoples' Movements – Writings by Leaders

Sri Madapati Hanmanth Rao, Mandumula Narsing Rao, Swami Ramananda Thirtha, Madiraju Rama Koteshwara Rao, P. Sundarayya, Ravi Narayana Reddy, D. Venkateshwararao, M. Basava Punnayya, Suravaram Pratapa Reddy.

8. Newspapers and Journals

Newspapers: Golkonda Patrika, Deccan Chronicle, Meezan, The Hindu, Rayyat.
Journals: Hyderabad Information, The Hyderabad Bulletin, The Economic and Political Weekly.
Gazetteers: 'Hyderabad District Gazetteers, 1931–1936', 'Andhra Pradesh District Gazetteers, 1976', 'Imperial Gazetteer of India, Provincial Series, Hyderabad State, 1909', 'The Freedom Struggle in Hyderabad, Four Volumes'.

9. Individual Writings

S.H. Bilgrami & C. Wilmot – 'Historical and Descriptive Sketch of His Highness The Nizam's Dominions, 1983'.
I. Qureshi's – 'The Economic Development of Hyderabad, Vol-I, 1941'.
Maulvi Chirag Ali's – 'Hyderabad (Deccan) Under Salarjung, Vol 1, 1884'.
J.D.B. Gribble – 'A History of the Deccan, Vol I, 1895'.
Christophor Furer and Haimondarph – 'Tribal Hyderabad'.

B. Archaeological Sources

1. Prehistoric Period

Places of habitation, earthenware, pottery, burials of Paleolithic and Neolithic age.
Old Stone Age habitations: Asifabad and Laksettipeta (Adilabad), Amrabad (Mahaboobnagar), Yeleshwaram, Ramagiri, Narketpalli, Valigonda (Nalgonda).
New Stone Age: Ash mounds, refined stone tools, pottery pieces – found all over Telangana.
Megalithic period: Tombs at Hyderabad (Kondapur, Bowenpally), Nalgonda, Karimnagar.

2. Inscriptions

Earliest inscriptions issued by Satavahanas – mainly in Prakrit, with some Sanskrit.
Sanskrit became inscriptional language from 3^rd century A.D. onwards.
Chalukyan inscriptions – both Sanskrit and Kannada used.
Telugu along with Sanskrit began from Kakatiya period onwards.
Satavahana period inscriptions: Kotilingala (Karimnagar), Naneghat, Nasik, Karle (Maharashtra).
Kakatiya period inscriptions: Chandupatla (Nalgonda), Hanamkonda Thousand Pillar Temple, Bayyaram Cheruvu, Palampet, Motupalli (Warangal).
Motupalli inscription – issued by Kakati Ganapati Deva – gives details of sea trade with China, Myanmar, Srilanka, and Southeast Asian countries.

3. Coins

Satavahanas issued coins of lead, potin, copper, and silver.
Silver coin: 'Karslsapana'; Gold coins: 'Suvarna'.
Large-scale minting = economic prosperity; decrease = economic decline.
Yajnasri Satakarni – last great Satavahana ruler – issued coins with ship symbol – denotes brisk foreign/maritime trade.
Excavations reveal Dhulikatta, Peddabankur, Kondapur, Kotilingala developed as great market towns.

4. Designed Constructions

Secular: Orugallu and Bhuvanagiri forts, Samsthanas of Domakonda, Gadwal, Kollapur, Wanaparthi, Golconda fort, Charminar, Osmania University Arts College, Osmania Hospital, Legislative Assembly, Jubilee Hall.
Religious: Buddhist – Dhulikatta, Phanigiri, Keesragutta; Jain – Kolanupaka; Hindu – Alampur, Vemulawada, Bejjanki, Hanamkonda, Palampeta, Panagallu, Pillalamarri.
Buddhist Stupas: Phanigiri, Dhulikatta, Peddabankur – resemble Sanchi Stupa.
Kolanupaka Jain temple – patronage of Vemulavada Chalukyas and Kalyani Chalukyas.
Saiva temples – Mudigonda Chalukyas, Kalyani Chalukyas, Kakatiyas.
Vaishnava temples – Vishnukundus at Burugugadda, Maktala, Lingagiri.
Nava Brahma / Svarga Brahma temples at Alampur – built by Western Chalukyas.

5. Sculptures

Reflect social life, religious views, cultural life, dress styles, occupations, and tastes.
Outstanding pieces: Orugallu fort gateway (Torana), Seated Nandi in Ramappa Temple (Palampeta), Madanikas (dancers) in the same temple.
Nandi at Ramappa – sculpted so wonderfully that it appears the same from any direction.

6. Painting

Satavahanas patronized painting – concentrated at Ajanta caves.
Kakatiyas contributed – paintings seen in Tripurantakam, Pillalamarri, Nagulapadu.

5. Location, Geographical Features: Importance and Influences

Formed an integral part of the Indian Peninsula – called Dakshinapatha in ancient period and Deccan in medieval and later periods.
Location: 15°55' to 19°55' North Latitudes and 77°22'35" to 81°2'23" Eastern Longitudes.
Even though tagged with Andhra from prehistoric period to 2014, Telangana has its own distinct geographical, political, economic, social, and cultural identity.

Rivers and Mountains

North: Godavari and Pranahita rivers.
South: Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers.
Natural boundaries from Dindi river (Nalgonda) to Kandikal (Khammam) separate Telangana from Maharashtra (north) and Karnataka (west).
Nallamala hills (Eastern Ghats) – present in Mahaboobnagar district.
Sahyadri range (Western Ghats) – enters Telangana from South-West in Adilabad district.
Local names: Nirmal Guttalu, Rakhi Guttalu (Karimnagar), Kandikal Guttalu (Khammam and Warangal).

Perennial Rivers

Godavari: Total 720 km (combined) – 79% in Telangana.
Krishna: Total 450 km (combined) – 68.5% in Telangana. Enters near Siddeswaram.
Both rivers make the New State rich in agricultural crops.

Tributaries and Tanks

Tributaries: Tungabhadra, Bhima, Manjira, Pranahita, Musi, Dindi, Paler, Munner, Penganga, Wardha.
Tanks: Kakatiyas built Ramappa, Pakhala, Laknavaram, Ghanapur (Warangal district).
At the time of integration, about 20,000 tanks existed. After formation, 'Mission Kakatiya' started for restoration.

6. Climate

Hot and humid: March to September; temperate: remaining months.
Four seasons: Winter (Dec–Feb), Summer (Mar–May), South-west monsoon (Jun–Sep), Post-monsoon (Oct–Nov).
Hilly regions and areas near Godavari and Pranahita – unhealthy malaria atmosphere; central plains – healthy.
Humidity: 65–80% in June; drops to 25% in summer.
Dry weather lower in Telangana than Marathwada due to tanks, reservoirs, and forests.
Cyclones from Bay of Bengal cause heavy rains and strong winds.
Thunder showers in summer and southwest monsoon; dusty winds in summer afternoons.

7. Temperature

Rises from end of February, peaks in May.
Hanumakonda, Khammam, Bhadrachalam, Ramagundam – touch 47°C (116°F).
Decreases from second week of June with northwest monsoon.
By first week of October, monsoon ends; temperatures fall rapidly.
December: Night temperatures as low as 9°C.
Winds: Westerly (Jun–Sep), Easterly (Oct–Feb), Northwesterly (Mar–May).

8. Mineral Resources – Importance, Impact

Coal deposits: Tandur, Adilabad, Singareni, Kothagudem, Khammam – first in the country. Supply to railways and Ramagundam Thermal Power Station.
Iron ore: Khammam, Adilabad, Warangal.
Other minerals: Asbestos, byrites, limestone, slab stone.
Mineral-rich districts: Khammam (Illendu), Mahaboobnagar, Adilabad, Rangareddy, Nalgonda.
Cement industry centered in Nalgonda district.
Granite: Available in different colours; used in buildings (e.g., Osmania University Arts College). Powdered granite mixed in cement as sand substitute. Buddha statue amidst Hussain Sagar sculpted from granite.
Besides black gold (coal), granite deposits are great gifts of nature to Telangana.

9. Race, Social Structure

People belonged to Dravidian race – black and brown complexion.
Mother tongue: Telugu; due to 433 years of Sultan and Nizam rule, Urdu influenced education and accent.
Telangana Socio-Economic Survey 2015:
- 61.33% rural, 38.67% urban.
- Population rise came down from 18.77% – progressive trend.
- Urban population growth: 38.12% (previous decade: 25.13%).
Density: Lowest – Adilabad (170/sq.km); Highest – Hyderabad (18,172/sq.km).
Females higher than national average; males higher in Nizamabad, Adilabad, Karimnagar, Khammam. Average: 988 females per 1000 males.
Scheduled Castes: 15.44%; Scheduled Tribes: 9.34% – ST population higher than national average.
About 80% from backward, scheduled classes, and scheduled tribes.
Literacy: 66.46% (national average: 75.99%) – lower than Odisha, Chattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh. Government focus needed.

10. Economy – Main Features

Sectors: Agriculture, Industry, Services.
2014–15: Services growth 9.7%; Industries 4.1%; Agriculture –10.3%.
Telangana attracting foreign investors.
Per capita income: Rs. 1,03,889 (previous year: Rs. 95,361).
Trends healthy; first socio-economic survey highlights challenges ahead.

11. Foundations of Telangana Cultural System

Distinct culture and heritage developed in ancient and medieval ages.

Batukamma Festival

Chief part of Telangana culture.
Sivalinga of Raja Rajeshwara Temple (Tanjore) belongs to Vemulavada – shifted by Chola King Raja Raja.
People consoled Parvati Devi by arranging flowers like Meru Mountain, keeping Gauri image in turmeric, praying during Dussera, and immersing in water – this is Batukamma.

Other Festivals

Sammakka and Sarakka Jatara – from Kakatiya times.
Bonalu – Mahankali Temple, Secunderabad Lashkar; gained popularity since Sikander Jah; in Aashada month; Potu Raju and Rangam are main events.

Dance Forms and Folklore Arts

Perini Siva Tandavam – Veerasaiva soldiers of Kakatiyas.
Dinsa dance, Gusadi dance, Garagala dance, Jangamas folklore, Dussera and Aasadha songs, Gangireddulata, Pichchakuntla songs, Budabukkalu, Kappa talli, Oggu Kathalu.

Literature, Architecture, and Sculpture

Development from Satavahanas to Kakatiyas, Qutubshahis, and Asafjahis.
Examples: Amaravati Stupa, Orugallu Torana, Charminar, Golconda Fort, Osmania University Arts College, Osmania Hospital, Legislative Assembly, Jubilee Hall.
Styles: Gandhara, Chalukyan, Indo-Saracenic.
Telangana culture = secular and composite culture – contributes to popular development with religious harmony.

Need for Awareness

Research on Telangana history and culture could not take place scientifically in composite Andhra Pradesh.
Present work attempts to fill this deficiency – first comprehensive attempt from Prehistoric age to new State.
Divided into three parts: Ancient, Medieval, Modern – covering political, administrative, economic, social, and cultural development.
Includes maps and exhibits of architecture and sculpture.

Summary Table – Telangana at a Glance

Topic	Key Points
Formation	29^th State, 6 decades of struggle, discrimination in posts, employment, funds
Origin of Word	From 'Trilinga', Godavari valley, Ptolemy, Kakatiya inscriptions
Historical Significance	Paleolithic to contemporary, Asmaka, Satavahanas, Vishnukunds, Kakatiyas
Sources	Literary (native, foreign), Archaeological (inscriptions, coins, monuments)
Location	15°55'–19°55'N, 77°22'–81°2'E, Godavari 79%, Krishna 68.5%
Climate	Hot & humid March–Sept, 4 seasons, malaria in hilly areas
Temperature	Peak in May (47°C), lowest in Dec (9°C)
Minerals	Coal, iron ore, granite, cement in Nalgonda
Society	Dravidian, 61.33% rural, SC 15.44%, ST 9.34%, literacy 66.46%
Economy	Services 9.7% growth, agriculture –10.3%, per capita Rs.1,03,889
Culture	Batukamma, Bonalu, Sammakka-Sarakka Jatara, Perini Siva Tandavam

📌 Note: These lecture notes are prepared for educational purposes. For detailed study, refer to the original sources and official publications. Stay tuned for more unit-wise Telangana History notes.

— End of Lecture Notes —

Top 10 Emerging Technologies Students Should Learn in 2026 for Future Careers

noreply@blogger.com (Estudies4you) — Wed, 24 Jun 2026 16:45:49 +0000

Top 10 Emerging Technologies Students Should Learn in 2026 for Future Careers

Technology is evolving faster than ever before. Many jobs that exist today did not exist a decade ago, and many future careers are still being created.

For students and fresh graduates, this creates both a challenge and an opportunity. The challenge is keeping up with change. The opportunity is learning skills that will remain valuable in the future.

Understanding emerging technologies can help students make better academic and career decisions. The goal is not to learn everything but to identify technologies that are likely to shape industries in the coming years.

1. Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Artificial Intelligence has become one of the most influential technologies of the modern era. AI systems can analyze information, automate processes, assist decision-making, and improve productivity.

Industries such as healthcare, finance, education, manufacturing, and transportation are increasingly using AI-driven solutions.

Students should understand AI fundamentals, machine learning concepts, and responsible AI usage.

2. Data Science and Analytics

Organizations generate enormous amounts of data every day. Turning that data into useful insights has become a major business requirement.

Data science combines statistics, programming, and analytical thinking to solve real-world problems.

Students with strong analytical skills may find excellent opportunities in this field.

3. Cybersecurity

As digital systems expand, protecting information has become more important than ever.

Cybersecurity professionals help organizations defend against cyber threats, data breaches, and security vulnerabilities.

The demand for skilled cybersecurity professionals continues to grow across industries.

4. Cloud Computing

Modern businesses increasingly rely on cloud platforms to store data, deploy applications, and manage digital services.

Cloud computing has become a fundamental component of digital transformation.

Understanding cloud concepts can benefit students interested in software, infrastructure, and technology management.

5. Internet of Things (IoT)

The Internet of Things connects physical devices to the internet, allowing them to collect and exchange information.

Smart homes, industrial automation, healthcare monitoring systems, and connected vehicles are examples of IoT applications.

The growth of connected devices is expected to create new opportunities for engineers and technology professionals.

6. Robotics and Automation

Robotics combines engineering, programming, and intelligent systems to automate physical tasks.

Automation is transforming manufacturing, logistics, healthcare, agriculture, and many other sectors.

Students interested in problem-solving and innovation may find robotics an exciting field.

7. Blockchain Technology

Although blockchain is often associated with digital currencies, its applications extend far beyond finance.

Blockchain can support secure transactions, digital identity systems, supply chain management, and transparent record keeping.

The technology continues to attract attention from businesses and governments worldwide.

8. Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR)

AR and VR technologies are creating immersive digital experiences.

Applications include education, healthcare training, gaming, product design, and industrial simulations.

As hardware becomes more accessible, these technologies may become increasingly important.

9. Renewable Energy Technologies

Global efforts to achieve sustainability are driving innovation in renewable energy systems.

Solar energy, wind power, energy storage technologies, and smart grids are expected to play a major role in future development.

Students interested in environmental and engineering solutions should pay attention to this sector.

10. Quantum Computing

Quantum computing remains an emerging field, but its potential impact is significant.

Researchers believe quantum systems could eventually solve certain complex problems much faster than traditional computers.

Although still developing, quantum computing may become an important technology in the future.

How Students Should Approach Emerging Technologies

Students often feel pressured to learn every new technology that appears online. This approach is neither practical nor effective.

Instead, students should:

Build strong fundamentals
Focus on one or two areas of interest
Work on practical projects
Develop problem-solving skills
Stay updated with industry trends
Learn continuously

Final Thoughts

The future belongs to individuals who can adapt to change and learn new skills throughout their careers.

Emerging technologies such as Artificial Intelligence, Cybersecurity, Data Science, Cloud Computing, Robotics, and Renewable Energy are likely to influence industries for years to come.

Students do not need to master every technology immediately. However, understanding these trends and developing relevant skills can help create better opportunities in an increasingly technology-driven world.

Government Job vs Private Job: Which Career Path Is Better for Fresh Graduates?

noreply@blogger.com (Estudies4you) — Wed, 24 Jun 2026 16:32:27 +0000

Government Job vs Private Job: which is the best in career

Government Job vs Private Job: Which Career Path Is Better for Fresh Graduates?

One of the biggest career decisions faced by graduates is choosing between a government job and a private sector job. Every year, millions of students prepare for competitive examinations while others pursue opportunities in private companies.

Both career paths offer unique advantages and challenges. The right choice depends on an individual's goals, interests, risk tolerance, and long-term career expectations.

Why This Decision Matters

A career is more than a source of income. It influences lifestyle, financial stability, professional growth, and personal satisfaction.

Many students choose a career path based on social influence, family expectations, or popular opinion without properly understanding the realities of each option.

A well-informed decision can save years of uncertainty and frustration.

Understanding Government Jobs

Government jobs are positions offered by central government departments, state government organizations, public sector undertakings, and various government agencies.

These jobs are often associated with stability, structured career progression, and public service.

Advantages of Government Jobs

High job security
Fixed working hours in many departments
Retirement and pension benefits in certain services
Social respect and status
Various allowances and benefits
Less risk of sudden job loss

Challenges of Government Jobs

Highly competitive recruitment process
Limited vacancies
Lengthy selection procedures
Slower promotion structure in some departments
Transfers and relocation in certain services

Understanding Private Jobs

Private sector jobs are offered by companies operating in industries such as technology, manufacturing, finance, healthcare, consulting, and telecommunications.

The private sector is known for faster growth opportunities and dynamic work environments.

Advantages of Private Jobs

Faster career growth
Performance-based promotions
Higher earning potential in many industries
Exposure to modern technologies
Opportunities for international careers
Skill-based advancement

Challenges of Private Jobs

Job security may vary
Higher performance expectations
Work pressure in some organizations
Rapidly changing industry requirements
Need for continuous skill development

Salary Comparison

For fresh graduates, private sector salaries may sometimes be higher than entry-level government salaries, especially in technology-related fields.

However, government jobs often provide additional benefits such as housing allowances, medical facilities, travel benefits, and retirement-related advantages.

The overall compensation package should be evaluated rather than focusing only on monthly salary.

Career Growth Opportunities

Private sector organizations generally reward performance and skills. Employees who continuously learn and perform well may experience rapid career advancement.

Government organizations usually follow structured promotion systems where progression occurs according to established rules and service conditions.

Neither system is inherently better. They simply operate differently.

Work-Life Balance

Work-life balance varies significantly depending on the organization and role.

Some government positions provide predictable schedules, while others involve extensive responsibilities.

Similarly, many private companies offer flexible work arrangements, while certain roles may require longer working hours.

Students should evaluate specific job profiles rather than relying on general assumptions.

Which Option Is Better for Engineers?

Engineering graduates have opportunities in both sectors.

Government opportunities may include public sector enterprises, engineering services, railways, defense organizations, and technical departments.

Private sector opportunities span software development, manufacturing, electronics, energy, construction, research, and emerging technologies.

The best choice depends on career goals and personal interests.

Important Questions to Ask Yourself

Do I prefer stability or rapid growth?
Am I comfortable with competitive examinations?
Do I enjoy working in dynamic environments?
What are my long-term financial goals?
How important is job security to me?
Am I willing to continuously upgrade my skills?

Final Verdict

There is no universal answer to the government job versus private job debate.

A government job may be suitable for individuals who value stability, structured progression, and public service.

A private job may be suitable for individuals seeking rapid growth, skill-based advancement, and exposure to evolving industries.

Success is not determined by whether a person works in the government sector or private sector. Success depends on competence, dedication, adaptability, and the ability to create value wherever opportunities exist.

Instead of chasing labels, focus on building skills, gaining experience, and choosing a career path that aligns with your goals and strengths.

B.Tech After AI: Which Engineering Branches Are Likely to Remain Relevant in the Coming Decade?

noreply@blogger.com (Estudies4you) — Wed, 24 Jun 2026 16:26:56 +0000

After B.Tech AI: Which Engineering Branches Are Likely to Remain Relevant in the Coming Decade?

B.Tech After AI: Which Engineering Branches Are Likely to Remain Relevant in the Coming Decade?

The rapid growth of Artificial Intelligence has created excitement, curiosity, and uncertainty across the education sector. Many students who are planning to pursue engineering are asking an important question: "Will engineering still have value in a world increasingly influenced by AI?"

The answer is yes. However, the future will reward engineers who can adapt to technological change rather than those who depend only on traditional academic knowledge.

Engineering is not becoming obsolete. Instead, it is entering a new phase where technology, automation, and human innovation will work together more closely than ever before.

Understanding the Impact of AI on Engineering

Artificial Intelligence is capable of performing certain tasks faster than humans. It can analyze data, generate reports, assist in coding, and automate repetitive processes. Because of these capabilities, some people assume that engineering jobs may disappear in the future.

However, technology has historically changed the nature of work rather than eliminating entire professions. New tools often create new opportunities, and AI appears to be following the same pattern.

The future engineer will likely spend less time performing routine tasks and more time solving complex problems, designing systems, and managing intelligent technologies.

Computer Science Engineering (CSE)

Computer Science continues to be one of the most influential engineering disciplines. Modern AI systems themselves are built on software, algorithms, computing infrastructure, and programming frameworks.

Students in this field can explore areas such as software development, cybersecurity, cloud technologies, data engineering, and intelligent systems.

The demand for professionals who understand both software development and AI-assisted workflows is expected to remain strong in the coming years.

Electronics and Communication Engineering (ECE)

Behind every smart device, communication network, and embedded system lies electronics engineering. AI applications require processors, sensors, communication hardware, and electronic components.

As industries continue investing in advanced electronics, semiconductor technologies, and connected devices, opportunities for electronics engineers are expected to expand.

The increasing importance of automation and smart technologies makes ECE a branch with long-term relevance.

Electrical and Electronics Engineering (EEE)

The world is moving toward cleaner energy systems and smarter electrical infrastructure. Electric vehicles, renewable energy projects, and intelligent power distribution systems are transforming the industry.

Electrical engineers are likely to play an important role in designing, maintaining, and improving these technologies.

The combination of energy systems and digital intelligence creates significant opportunities for future engineers.

Mechanical Engineering

Mechanical Engineering remains important because physical products, machines, and manufacturing systems continue to form the foundation of modern economies.

Today's mechanical engineers increasingly work with automation technologies, robotics, digital simulations, and advanced manufacturing methods.

Rather than replacing mechanical engineering, AI is helping engineers design more efficient and intelligent systems.

Civil Engineering

Every growing society requires roads, bridges, transportation systems, buildings, and public infrastructure.

While software and AI can assist with planning and analysis, physical infrastructure still requires engineering expertise.

Future civil engineers may work with smart city technologies, sustainable construction practices, and digital project management systems.

Artificial Intelligence and Data Science

Specialized programs focused on Artificial Intelligence and Data Science have become increasingly popular among students.

These disciplines focus on extracting value from data, developing intelligent systems, and solving real-world problems using computational methods.

Students interested in these areas should develop strong analytical thinking, mathematics, and programming skills.

Emerging Fields Worth Watching

Several engineering domains are attracting growing attention because of technological advancements and industry demand.

Robotics Engineering
Cybersecurity Engineering
Mechatronics
Biomedical Engineering
Aerospace Engineering
Industrial Automation

These fields may offer exciting opportunities for students who enjoy interdisciplinary learning and innovation.

The Branch Is Important, But Skills Matter More

Students often spend months trying to identify the "perfect" engineering branch. While choosing the right branch is important, long-term success depends on much more than the name of a degree.

Employers increasingly value practical skills, project experience, communication abilities, and problem-solving capabilities.

A student who continuously learns and adapts can succeed in almost any engineering discipline.

Skills That Future Engineers Should Develop

Programming Fundamentals
Analytical Thinking
Communication Skills
Project Development
Industry Awareness
Digital Tools and Technologies
Teamwork and Collaboration
Continuous Learning Mindset

These skills can help graduates remain competitive regardless of technological changes.

Final Thoughts

The future of engineering should not be viewed through the lens of fear. Every major technological transformation has created new opportunities alongside new challenges.

Artificial Intelligence is likely to reshape engineering careers, but it is unlikely to eliminate the need for engineers. The engineers who thrive will be those who embrace change, learn continuously, and combine technical expertise with creativity and critical thinking.

Instead of asking whether engineering will survive the AI era, students should ask how they can prepare themselves to succeed within it.

Why Information Is No Longer Power in the AI Era

noreply@blogger.com (Estudies4you) — Wed, 24 Jun 2026 16:17:06 +0000

Why Information Is No Longer Power in the AI Era

For decades, people believed that knowledge was power. Students were encouraged to memorize facts, professionals spent years collecting information, and access to knowledge often determined success.

Today, that reality is changing.

We live in a world where information is available within seconds. Search engines, AI assistants, digital libraries, and online courses have made knowledge accessible to almost everyone with an internet connection. The challenge is no longer finding information. The challenge is knowing what to do with it.

The End of Information Scarcity

A few decades ago, finding information required effort. Students visited libraries, researchers spent hours searching through books, and professionals relied heavily on specialized resources.

Today, answers are available instantly.

This shift has created an interesting situation. Information itself has become abundant, but attention and critical thinking have become scarce.

Many people consume large amounts of content every day, yet struggle to convert that content into meaningful action.

The New Competitive Advantage

If everyone can access information, what creates an advantage?

The answer is simple: the ability to think.

Critical thinking, decision-making, creativity, and problem-solving have become more valuable than the mere possession of information.

Two people can access the same information. One uses it to build a business, solve a problem, or create something useful. The other simply consumes it and moves on.

The difference is not knowledge. The difference is application.

Why More Information Does Not Always Mean Better Decisions

Many people assume that having more information automatically leads to better decisions.

In reality, the opposite can happen.

Too much information can create confusion, hesitation, and analysis paralysis. People become overwhelmed by endless opinions, conflicting advice, and constant updates.

Sometimes the most successful individuals are not those who know the most. They are those who can identify what truly matters and ignore unnecessary distractions.

The Rise of AI and the Human Advantage

Artificial intelligence can summarize articles, generate reports, answer questions, and analyze data at incredible speed.

This has led many people to wonder whether human intelligence will become less important.

The reality is quite different.

As AI becomes better at providing answers, human value increasingly comes from asking the right questions.

Machines can process information. Humans provide purpose, judgment, ethics, creativity, and vision.

AI can tell you what is happening. Humans decide what should happen next.

Learning in the Modern World

The purpose of education is gradually changing.

Success is no longer about memorizing information that can be found online within seconds.

Instead, education should help people learn how to:

Think independently
Evaluate sources critically
Solve complex problems
Communicate ideas effectively
Adapt to changing environments
Work with emerging technologies

The individuals who thrive in the future will not necessarily be those who know the most. They will be those who learn the fastest.

A New Definition of Intelligence

Traditionally, intelligence was often measured by how much information a person could remember.

Today, a more useful definition may be the ability to understand, adapt, and apply knowledge in unfamiliar situations.

In a rapidly changing world, flexibility often matters more than certainty.

The ability to learn, unlearn, and relearn may become one of the most important skills of the twenty-first century.

Conclusion

Information is no longer the rare resource it once was. It is available almost everywhere and to almost everyone.

What remains rare is the ability to think clearly, make sound decisions, and transform knowledge into meaningful action.

In the AI era, information alone is no longer power.

Applied knowledge, critical thinking, creativity, and wisdom are the new sources of power.

The future will belong not to those who collect the most information, but to those who use it most effectively.

About the Author

Varaka Kiran Kumar is an Engineering Faculty, Education Analyst, and RTI Activist. He writes about education, technology, career development, and emerging trends shaping the future of learning.

Top 10 Private Engineering Colleges in Telangana (2026): Fees, Placements, Rankings & Expert Analysis

noreply@blogger.com (Estudies4you) — Wed, 24 Jun 2026 14:03:36 +0000

Top 10 Private Engineering Colleges in Telangana (2026)

List of Top 10 Private Engineering Colleges in Telangana

Top 10 Private Engineering Colleges in Telangana (2026): Fees, Placements, Rankings & Expert Analysis

Written By: Varaka Kiran Kumar

Engineering Faculty | Education Analyst | Faculty Rights Advocate

Choosing the right engineering college is one of the most important decisions in a student's life. As an Engineering Faculty with more than 15 years of experience in technical education, I have closely observed the academic standards, placement trends, faculty quality, infrastructure, and student outcomes of various engineering colleges across Telangana.

This article presents my analysis of the top private engineering colleges in Telangana for 2026 based on academic excellence, placement performance, industry exposure, infrastructure, and overall student development.

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Factors Considered for Ranking

The rankings in this article are based on the following parameters:

- Placement performance

- Academic reputation

- Faculty quality

- Industry collaborations

- Infrastructure and laboratories

- Alumni network

- Student feedback

- Demand during TS EAPCET counseling

- Overall career opportunities

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Top 10 Private Engineering Colleges in Telangana (2026)

Rank| College| Annual Fee (Approx.)| Overall Rating

1| VNR VJIET| ₹1.60 Lakhs| Excellent

2| CBIT| ₹1.70 Lakhs| Excellent

3| Vasavi College of Engineering| ₹1.50 Lakhs| Very Good

4| GRIET| ₹1.50 Lakhs| Very Good

5| KMIT| ₹1.40 Lakhs| Very Good

6| CVR College of Engineering| ₹1.40 Lakhs| Good

7| MGIT| ₹1.40 Lakhs| Good

8| BVRIT| ₹1.40 Lakhs| Good

9| CMR Institute of Technology| ₹1.30 Lakhs| Good

10| MJCET| ₹1.30 Lakhs| Good

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1. VNR Vignana Jyothi Institute of Engineering and Technology (VNR VJIET)

VNR VJIET has consistently maintained its position among the best private engineering colleges in Telangana. The institution is known for strong placements, a competitive coding culture, quality faculty, and excellent industry exposure.

Key Strengths

- Outstanding placement record

- Strong software and IT recruitment

- Modern infrastructure

- Excellent training programs

Best For

Students targeting careers in software development, data science, artificial intelligence, and core engineering sectors.

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2. Chaitanya Bharathi Institute of Technology (CBIT)

CBIT is one of the most respected engineering institutions in Telangana with a strong academic legacy and highly successful alumni network.

Key Strengths

- Excellent academic reputation

- Strong alumni support

- Consistent placements

- Vibrant campus environment

Best For

Students looking for a balanced combination of academics, extracurricular activities, and career opportunities.

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3. Vasavi College of Engineering

Vasavi College is widely regarded as one of the best value-for-money engineering colleges in Telangana.

Key Strengths

- Strong academics

- Good placement opportunities

- Affordable compared to many competitors

- High demand among EAPCET students

Best For

Students seeking quality education with a strong return on investment.

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4. Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering and Technology (GRIET)

GRIET has emerged as one of the leading autonomous engineering colleges in Hyderabad.

Key Strengths

- Industry-oriented curriculum

- Strong CSE and IT departments

- Modern laboratories

- Good placement support

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5. Keshav Memorial Institute of Technology (KMIT)

KMIT is particularly popular among students interested in software development and coding careers.

Key Strengths

- Coding-focused environment

- Excellent technical training

- Strong IT placements

- Industry partnerships

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6. CVR College of Engineering

CVR College has built a reputation for academic discipline and steady placement performance.

Key Strengths

- Experienced faculty

- Student-centered learning

- Good infrastructure

- Consistent placements

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7. Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Technology (MGIT)

MGIT continues to be a preferred destination for engineering aspirants in Telangana.

Key Strengths

- Academic excellence

- Strong faculty support

- Good placement record

- Established reputation

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8. BVRIT

BVRIT offers quality engineering education supported by modern facilities and student development initiatives.

Key Strengths

- Good infrastructure

- Placement support

- Industry interaction programs

- Student-friendly environment

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9. CMR Institute of Technology

CMR Institute of Technology has shown significant growth in academics and placements over the past few years.

Key Strengths

- Modern campus

- Industry exposure

- Skill development programs

- Growing recruiter interest

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10. Muffakham Jah College of Engineering and Technology (MJCET)

MJCET is one of Hyderabad's established engineering institutions with a strong academic foundation.

Key Strengths

- Experienced faculty

- Good learning environment

- Decent placement opportunities

- Long-standing reputation

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Placement Ranking (2026)

Based on overall placement performance and recruiter participation:

1. VNR VJIET

2. CBIT

3. Vasavi College of Engineering

4. GRIET

5. KMIT

6. CVR College of Engineering

7. MGIT

8. BVRIT

9. CMR Institute of Technology

10. MJCET

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Best Colleges for Computer Science Engineering (CSE)

For students targeting software and technology careers, the following colleges are highly recommended:

- VNR VJIET

- CBIT

- Vasavi College of Engineering

- GRIET

- KMIT

These institutions consistently attract leading recruiters and maintain strong placement records in the IT sector.

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Best Value-for-Money Colleges

Based on fee structure, academic quality, and placement opportunities:

1. Vasavi College of Engineering

2. CBIT

3. VNR VJIET

4. KMIT

5. GRIET

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Expert Opinion

As a faculty member with over 15 years of experience, I strongly advise students not to select a college solely based on advertisements or social media promotions. Focus on the quality of faculty, laboratory facilities, placement history, academic environment, and opportunities for skill development.

A student's success depends not only on the institution but also on continuous learning, technical skills, communication abilities, and practical exposure. The best college is one that helps you develop both professionally and personally.

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Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Which is the best private engineering college in Telangana?

Based on placements, academic quality, and industry reputation, VNR VJIET is among the top private engineering colleges in Telangana.

Which college has better placements, VNR or CBIT?

Both colleges offer excellent placements. However, VNR generally has a slight advantage in software and technology recruitment.

Is Vasavi College good for CSE?

Yes. Vasavi College of Engineering has a strong Computer Science Engineering department and good placement opportunities.

Which engineering college provides the best value for money?

Vasavi College of Engineering is often considered one of the best value-for-money institutions in Telangana.

What is the average annual fee in top private engineering colleges?

The annual tuition fee generally ranges from ₹1.3 lakh to ₹1.8 lakh depending on the institution.

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Conclusion

Telangana has several excellent private engineering colleges that provide quality education and strong career opportunities. While VNR VJIET, CBIT, and Vasavi College continue to lead the rankings, students should choose a college based on their career goals, preferred branch, budget, and overall learning environment.

A well-informed decision today can shape a successful engineering career tomorrow.

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About the Author

Varaka Kiran Kumar is an Engineering Faculty with more than 15 years of teaching experience in technical education. He has guided numerous students in engineering admissions, academics, and career planning. In addition to his academic work, he actively advocates for faculty welfare and educational reforms aimed at improving the higher education ecosystem.

The views expressed in this article are based on professional experience, interaction with students and faculty members, and continuous observation of engineering education trends in Telangana.

List of Private Universities in Telangana for the A.Y. 2026-27

noreply@blogger.com (Estudies4you) — Wed, 24 Jun 2026 13:02:50 +0000

List of Private Universities in Telangana for the A.Y. 2026-27

List of Private Universities Colleges in Telangana

1. Anurag University, Hyderabad

Anurag University is a leading private university located in Hyderabad, Telangana. It offers a wide range of undergraduate, postgraduate, and doctoral programs in engineering, management, pharmacy, nursing, and other disciplines. The university is known for its modern infrastructure, industry-oriented curriculum, research initiatives, and focus on student skill development. It aims to provide quality education and prepare students for successful careers through academic excellence and practical learning opportunities.

2. Mahindra University, Hyderabad

Mahindra University is a private university located in Hyderabad, Telangana, established with a focus on innovation, research, and interdisciplinary learning. The university offers programs in engineering, management, law, education, and humanities. With modern facilities, experienced faculty, and strong industry collaborations, it emphasizes practical knowledge, critical thinking, and global exposure to prepare students for future careers and leadership roles.

3. Woxsen University, Hyderabad

Woxsen University is a private institution in Hyderabad known for its programs in business, technology, design, and liberal arts. The university emphasizes experiential learning, innovation, entrepreneurship, and global academic exposure to help students develop professional and leadership skills.

4. Malla Reddy University, Hyderabad

Malla Reddy University, located in Hyderabad, offers a variety of undergraduate and postgraduate programs across multiple disciplines. The university focuses on academic excellence, practical training, research activities, and industry-oriented education.

5. SR University, Warangal

SR University is a private university in Warangal that provides programs in engineering, management, sciences, and other fields. It promotes innovation, research, and skill-based learning to prepare students for competitive careers and higher education.

6. Sreenidhi University, Ghatkesar

Sreenidhi University is dedicated to providing quality education through modern teaching methods and research-driven learning. The institution encourages creativity, technological advancement, and professional development among students.

7. Gurunanak University, Ibrahimpatnam

Guru Nanak University offers higher education programs in engineering, management, commerce, sciences, and other disciplines. The university aims to create a strong academic foundation while fostering ethical values and career-oriented skills.

8. MNR University, Sangareddy

MNR University is recognized for its focus on healthcare, science, management, and allied disciplines. The university combines academic knowledge with practical experience to support student growth and professional success.

9. NICMAR University of Construction Studies, Shamirpet

NICMAR University specializes in education related to construction, real estate, infrastructure, project management, and allied sectors. It emphasizes industry-relevant learning, research, and professional training to meet evolving market demands.

10. Kaveri University, Wargal, Siddipet Dist.

Kaveri University in Siddipet offers diverse academic programs designed to promote knowledge, innovation, and skill development. The university seeks to provide a supportive learning environment that prepares students for future opportunities.

11. Amity University, Rajiv Gandhi International Airport at Mamidipally,Shamshabad,Ranga Reddy District

Amity University Hyderabad is part of the Amity education network and offers programs across engineering, management, law, sciences, and humanities. The university focuses on research, industry engagement, and holistic student development.

12. St. Mary’s Rehabilitation University at Deshmukhi Village,Pochampally Mandal,Yadadri Bhongir Dist.

St. Mary's Rehabilitation University is committed to education and training in rehabilitation sciences and healthcare-related fields. The institution aims to develop competent professionals through academic learning, practical exposure, and community-focused services.

Reference: https://tgche.ac.in/universities/#public-universities -- Telangana Council of Higher Education - TGCHE (A Statutory body of the Government of Telangana)

Click Here to View TGCHE Act