GENERAL STUDIES 4 U|FOR ALL COMPETITIVE EXAMS

SANGAM AGE | HISTORY | GENERALSTUDIES4U

2019-11-23T10:48:00.001+05:30

SANGAM AGE

The age of 3 Southern kingdoms Cheras,Pandyas and Cholas was known as the Sangam Age.period 300 BC-AD 600.The word Sangam means Assembly.It was an assembly of Tamil poets and scholars.After the collapse of the Mauryan Empire around the end of the 2nd century BCE, The Sangam Age raised, a number of small kingdoms were established all over North India. In southern India, however, three major dynasties, the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas, (who were never under Ashoka’s rule) continued as powerful rulers of Sangam period. The Pandyan dynasty initially ruled their lands from Korkai, a seaport on the southernmost tip of the Indian Peninsula, and in later times moved their capital to Madurai. The Chera kingdom comprised present day Kerala and parts of western Tamil Nadu. The Cholas ruled over parts of northern and central Tamil Nadu. Together, the Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras were called the 'three crowned kings of Tamilakam'.

Vettuvan Koil

The Sangam kingdoms were experts in water management, agriculture and fisheries. They were eminent sailors and used their maritime prowess to establish strong trade links with Babylon, Egypt, Greece and later Rome. Given the large coastlines that the southern kingdoms were exposed to, it is no surprise that this period must have been one of exploration. It was perhaps sometime in this period of maritime expansion that Indic influences started to spread to South East Asia. Legends of Kaundinya (a Brahmin from India) and other Indian travellers abound in the founding myths of several South East Asian civilisations such as Thailand, Cambodia, and Indonesia among others. One has only to visit any of these countries to witness how Indic practices have shaped their cultures.

The Sangam Age points to that period in the early history of South India when large numbers of poems in Tamil were written by many authors. The term ‘Sangam’, here, indicates to an assembly or “meeting together” of Tamil poets. According to traditional history, three assemblies were convened one after another. All these three Sangams took place under the patronage of the Pandaya Kings of Madurai, at different places.

The Sangam age is widely regarded as the golden age of classical Tamil literature and Dravidian culture. These literary works composed as hymns, ballads, erotic verses, and lyrics were composed by numerous poets including sages and kings. They wrote about kings, valor, wars, loyalty, gratitude, generosity and love and were patronized by the rulers who honored them with lavish gifts for their literary eloquence. These poets came from all classes of society and followed different religious beliefs; native Dravidian worship peacefully co-existed alongside Hinduism, Jainisam, and Buddhism that spread to south India during the last centuries of BC.

The Sangam Literature, belonging to the period from 300BC to 600AD, records early history of South India. In fact the most remarkable feature of the Sangam literature is its vivid description of the contemporary society and culture of Tamilaham or Tamil region and its harmonious and peaceful interaction with the Aryan (northern) culture. Poems representing the Sangam Literature were authored on two broader themes of love and war. Later, it was put together in eight collections named Ettutogai.

Sri Meenakshi Temple (Madurai)

Sangams	Venues	Under the Chairmanship of	Patron
1^st Sangam	Ten Madurai (old capital of Pandyas)	Agastasya (Agattiyar)	Pandya
2^nd Sangam	Kapatapuram/Alvai	Agastaya and Tolakapiyyar	Pandya
3^rd Sangam	North Madurai	Nakkirar	Pandya

THE PANDYAS

Their capital was at Madurai.

First mentioned by Megasthenese,who says that their kingdom was famous for pearls and was ruled by a woman.

Important King-Nendunjeliyan.

THE CHOLAS

The kingdom was called Cholamandalam or Coromandal. The chief centre was Uraiyur, a place famous for cotton trade.Capital was Kaveripattanam/puhar.

A Chola king named Elara conquered Srilanka and reled it over for 50 years.Karikala was their famous king.

THE CHERAS

Their capital was at Vaiji (also called Kerala country).

It owed its importance to trade with the Romans.The Romans set up two regiments there to protect their interest.

Fought against the Cholas about AD 150.

Greatest king was Senguttuvan,the Red Chera.

OTHER ASPECTS OF THE 3 KINGDOMS

All the gathered information is based on Sangam literature.

Sangam was a college or assembly of Tamil poets held probably under Royal Patronage (Especially Pandyas).

Silappadikaram by Ilano Adigal (story of a married couple and Manimekalai by Sattanar are the famous epics of this time.

‘Pariyars’-agricultural labourers who used to work in animal skin.

Civil and military officers held by vellalas (rich peasants).

The ruling class was called ‘Arahar’.

Captains of the army were given the title ENADI in formal function.

Sangam literature divides Tamil region into five parts-Palai,Mullai,Kurunj,Marudam and Neydal.

Sangam literature mainly revolves around the two points

(i) Aabam: Love or internal

(ii) Puram: War or external

A book influenced by Jainism called Sivaga Sindamani/Jivak Chintamani was written by Tinittakkadevar.

Tolkappiyam,a Tamil grammar was written by Talkapiyar.

MAURYAN EMPIRE | HISTORY | ~GENERALSTUDIES4U

2019-11-22T18:22:00.001+05:30

The Maurya Empire (322 BC - 183 BC) was an Iron Age power in ancient India ruled by the Maurya Dynasty. With its origins in the Magadha kingdom, it was one of the world's largest empires in its time and the largest ever in the Indian subcontinent. The Maurya Empire was known for a consistent and effective system of administration and finance that allowed for a thriving economy. The Maurya Dynasty (322–183 BC), with no known royal pedigree, established a vast empire, the first of its kind in the ancient South Asian subcontinent. The empire was obviously carved out by a sustained policy of aggressive expansion during the reigns of its first three rulers, Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, and Asoka. Nearly pan‐Indian in extent, the empire was administered by a large number of functionaries, known largely from the Greek accounts, the Arthasastra and inscriptions of Asoka. Recent historiography questions the traditional view of the Mauryan Empire as a unitary state, but presents a more nuanced view of the complexities of state and imperial formations in which the ideology of Dhamma (employed by Asoka) played a crucial role. The empire witnessed the first advent of written records and stone sculpting in Indian history.

In the political history of early India the Maurya Dynasty has a pre‐eminent position since it established the earliest and largest empire, that lasted, although, for a relatively brief period of about 140 years. The immense power of the dynasty is best seen during the reigns of the first three rulers, Chandragupta Maurya (322 BC-297 BC), Bindusara (297 BC-273 BC) and Asoka (269 BC-232 BC). The sustained interests in the study of the Maurya Empire are ensured by the availability of diverse sources, mostly contemporary.

Mauryan Statuettes

CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (322 BC-297 BC)

The founding father of the Mauryan empire was Chandragupta Maurya.

In 305 BC Chandragupta defeated Seleucus Nicator (the Greek ambassador) who surrendered a big territorial part to him,including Kabul. Afghanistan,Baluchistan and Herat also received a Greek ambassador i.e., Megasthenese sent by Seleucus (wrote Indica having the description of Mauryan administration,society etc.)

Chandragupta adopted Jainism and went to Sravanabelagola with Bhadrabahu where he died by starvation (Sale Khan) at Chandigiri Hill.

BINDUSARA (297 BC-273 BC)

The son and successor of Chandragupta Maurya.

Called Amitraghat by Greek writers.i.e., slayers of foes.

Further extended the kingdom.

He asked Antiochus-I of Syria to send some sweet wine,dried figs and a sophist.Except sophist,he sent all.

He is said to have conquered 'the land between the two seas',i.e., the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.At the time of his death,almost the entire subcontinent came under the Maurya rule.Greek Ambassador, Daimachus visited the court,sent by Antiochus.

ASHOKA (269 BC-232 BC)

Emperor Ashoka with his Queen

The son and successor of Bindusara.It is said that he became the king by killing his 99 brothers.

When he became the king. Radhagupta a minister of Bindusara, also helped him.

Under Ashoka,the empire reached its zenith. And in the history, for the first time,the entire Indian sub-continent came under a single umbrella (except extreme Southern India).

He fought a battle known as Kalinga in 261 BC in the 8th year of his coronation,in which lakh people died.

Ashoka sent peace missionaries inside India as well as abroad.

INSCRIPTIONS OF ASHOKA

Major Rock Edicts

Total 14 found at 8 places.Inscriptions are found in 4 scripts Brahmi,Kharoshti,Greek and Aramaik.

> Only edict written in two scripts Greek and Aramaik-Kandhar.
> Minor edict 17,Pillar Edicts 12
> The third Buddhist council was held during his reign.
> He appointed Dhamm Mahamantra for moral and material welfare of the public.
> He constructed Sanchi Stupa at Vidisha (HP).
> Foreign visitor Dionisius visited his court.
> Maurya empire declined in 187 BC.

Mauryan coin and seals

FACTS ABOUT MAURYANS

According to Megasthenese,the administration of the army was carried by a board of 30 officers divided into six committees,each consisting of 5 members.They were

(1).Army

(2).Cavalry

(3).Elephants

(4).Chariot

(5) Navy

(6) Transport.

Though Megasthenese said that there was no slavery in India,yet according to the Indian sources,slavery was a recognized institution during Mauryans reign.

Tamralipti in the Gangetic delta was the most prosperous post on the East coast of India.

Megasthenese in his Indica has mentioned 7 castes in the Mauryan society.

Maski,Gujara,Nittur and Odegolan edicts mention the name Ashoka.

Ashokan edicts were deciphered by James Princep in 1937.

In the edicts,Ashoka generally refers to himself by the title Devanampiya Priyadarshi.

The longest among the major rock edicts is the 13th rock edict.In this edict, the war of Kalinga has been described.

The Allahabad pillars contain the inscriptions of Samundragupta and Jahangir also.

PAST MAURYAN INVADERS

The Indo-Greeks

A number of invasions took place around 200 BC.The first to invade India were the Greeks,who were also called the Indo-Greeks or Bactrian Greeks (as they ruled Bactria).

The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Minander (165 BC-145 BC),also known as Milind. He had his capital at Sankala (Modern Sialkot) in Punjab.

He was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena or Nagarjuna (described in Milindapanho or The Question of Milinda).

The Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India.

The Shakas or Scythians (90 BC)

The Greeks were followed by the Shakas,who controlled a larger part of India than the Greek did.

There were 5 branches of the Shakas with their seats of power in different parts of India and Afghanistan.

A king of Ujjain,who called himself Vikramaditya defeated Shakas in 58 BC and started Vikrama Samvat.

The most famous Shaka ruler in India was Rudradaman (AD 130-AD 150).He is famous for the repairs of Sudrashana lake in Kathiawar.His inscription was the Junagarh inscription.

The Parthiians/Pahalvas (1st BC-AD1st)

Originally,they lived in Iran,invaded at the beginning of Christian era,from where they moved to India.In comparison to Greeks and Shakas,they occupied only a small portion in North-West India in the first century.

The most famous Parthian King was Gondophernes (AD 19-45),in whose reign St Thomas is said to have come to India for the propagation of Christianity.

The Kushans (AD 45)

Came from North Central Asia near China.Their empire included a good part of Central Asia,a portion of Iran,a portion of Afghanistan,Pakistan and almost the whole of North India.

Kanishka was the most famous king.He patronized the following persons.

Ashwaghosha (wrote 'Buddhacharita', which is the biography of Buddha and 'Sutralankar') Nagarjuna (wrote 'Madhyamik Sutra').

Vasumitra Charak (a physician,wrote 'Sasurta').

Kanishka was the most famous Kushan ruler.He is known in history because of 2 reasons

(a) He started an era in AD 78,which is now known as Saka era and is used by the Government of India.

(b) He extended his whole-hearted patronage to Buddhism (held a Buddhist Council in Kashmir).

Some of the successors of Kanishka bore typical Indian names as Vasudeva.

KINGDOMS AFTER THE MAURYAS

The Shunga Dynasty (185 BC-73 BC)

Pushyamitra founded this dynasty.His dominions extended to South as far as the Narmada river and included the cities of Patliputra,Ayodhya and Vidisha.

The fifth king was Bhagabhadra,to whose court Heliodoros,the Greek ambassador visited.

A Shunga king,Agnimitra was the hero of Kalidasa's Malavikagnimitram.

This period saw the revival of Bhagnatism.

Patanjali's classic Mahabhashya was written at this time.

Pushyamitra defeated the Bactrian,Dematrius.

Last ruler-Devabhuti.

The Kanva Dynasty (73 BC-28 BC)

The founder of this short-lived dynasty was Vasudeva,who killed the last Sunga king Devabhuti.

They were swept away by Satavahanas of the Deccan.

The Satavahanas (60 BC-AD 225)

Founder-Sheemukh.

They were the successors of the Mauryans in the Deccan and the Central India.

Important king was Gautamiputra Satakarni (AD 106-AD 130) who raised the power and the prestige of Satavahanas to greater heights.He set up his capital at Paithan on the bank of the river Godavari in Aurangabad district.

1st evidence of land grants to Brahmins was found (started by Satvahanas).

Satavahanas built Nagarjunakonda Stupa and Amaravati Stupa.

IMPORTANT ASPECTS

Mostly issued lead coins (apart from copper and bronze).

Acted as a bridge between the North and the South India.

Satavahana rulers called themselves Brahmins. Performed vedic rituals and worshipped Gods like Krishna, Vasudeva and others.However,they also promoted Buddhism by granting land to the monks.

The 2 common religious constructions were the Buddhist temple that was called 'Chaitya' and the monastries,which was called 'Vihara'. The most famous Chaitya is that of Karle in West Deccan,others were Nasik and Kanheri.

Amravati and Nagarjunakonda were the famous stupas built in the period of Satvahanas.

Their district was called 'Ahara', as it was in Ashoka's time.

Their officials were known as 'Amayas' and 'Mahamatras', as they were known in Mauryan times.

WORLD WAR-II (1939 TO 1945) | HISTORY |~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

2019-11-01T16:51:00.000+05:30

WORLD WAR II

WORLD WAR-II

The Second World War was a world-class war lasting from 1939 to 1945. The land, air and air forces of about 70 countries were involved in this war and the world was divided into two parts - the Allies nation and the Poor nation. About 100 million soldiers from various nations took part in this war. It proved to be the deadliest war in human history. 5 to 7 crore people died in this great war.

The beginning of World War II is believed to have occurred on September 1, 1939, when Germany invaded Poland, and then after France declared war on Germany and was ratified by England and other Commonwealth countries.During the years 1944 and 1945, the US defeated the Japanese Navy in many places and took possession of several islands in the western Pacific. America dropped two nuclear bombs in Japan — the world could hardly forget the poignant events of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. With this, on August 15, 1945, the Second World War ended in Asia as well.

REASON FOR WORLD WAR-II

WORLD WAR-II

Hitler is believed to be the main cause of World War II. After the defeat in the First World War, Germany was forced to sign the "Treaty of Versailles", forcing many of the German occupation lands to leave. The condition of not invading other countries and limiting the army had to be accepted. The loss of the First World War also had to be repaid.

When Adolf Hitler became the ruler of Germany in 1933 and he began to show Germany back as a powerful military force, which worried France and England as they had lost enough in the last war. He joined hands with Italy to keep France in a strong position. The matter worsened in 1935 when Hitler began to enlarge his army. He broke the "Treaty of Versailles".

Gradually, with time, stress also increased. Germany and Italy were becoming stronger in Europe. In 1937, China and Japan were fighting among themselves in Marco Polo. In 1938, Germany attacked Austria. In September 1939, the Soviet Union drove Japan from its border and at the same time Germany attacked Poland. After that, France, England and Commonwealth countries also played the bugle of war against Germany and gradually the talk grew. In the end it took the form of a world war and it was called the second world war.

END OF WORLD WAR-II

In 1944, while the Western Allies invaded Germany-occupied France, on the other hand, the Soviet Union attacked Germany and its allies after seizing back their lost land. It was only a week after the German dictator Hitler committed suicide on May 8, when Germany's General Alfred Yodel signed the papers of unconditional surrender, and with it the Second World War ended in Europe. By the time the formal declaration of the end of the World War was made, the next day was in Russia, so on 9 May, the conclusion of the World War was celebrated.

During the years 1944 and 1945, the US defeated the Japanese Navy in many places and occupied it in several islands of the Western Pacific. When the time came to attack the Japanese archipelago, the US dropped two atomic bombs in Japan. Thus the Second World War ended in Asia in 1945, when the Japanese Empire accepted its surrender.On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered to the Allies. With this, then united Korean peninsula was liberated from the 35-year occupation of the Japanese Empire. Koreans celebrate Liberation Day (Independence Day) on 15 August.

RESULTS OF WORLD WAR-II

This war, fought from 1939 to 1945, is considered to be an epoch according to its results, the trends that emerged after the French Revolution were now beginning to feel old and human civilization definitely moved forward from that period. Not only was it proved terrible due to excessive damage, but the symbols and weapons used in this war and the ideology that collided during the war itself towards future politics and the situation changed.

After World War I, the manner in which the treaty like Paris Versailles was made to solve international problems could not be done after this war. The main reason was that during the war, after the Allies had become enemies after these circumstances. Separate treaties were made under which -Italy had to relinquish his colony and the territories of his other dominions also came out of his sovereignty.

The Soviet Union occupied eastern Poland and the Baltic state on the east side of Czechoslovakia.

At the 1951 San Francisco Conference, Japan announced its most important dedication as a return to the territories it had won through the tireless efforts of the past 90 years when no collective agreement could be reached. To take the world order forward, treaty should be made with individual countries or small groups. After this war, important leaders had learned that if the Axis nations were treated in the same manner as the First World War, then the possibility of the next war could not be ruled out, that is, the losers were no longer humiliated by declaring them as war criminals. In this way, the geography of Europe changed again after World War II but it was not as revolutionary as Napoleon. There were changes after neither victory or after World War I.

The results of the Second World War were more widespread in their expansion and intensity than the First World War, the loss of public money is in all wars, but the use of Atom weapons in the Second World War put the human existence in danger. After this war, Europe fell from the theater of world politics and in its place America emerged as the main protagonist at the theater. Not only are divided into two groups in the world after the war. The background of the Cold War was created to avoid this factionalism. The newly independent Third World War countries gave birth to the Non-Aligned Movement. To maintain the international order, an organization like the United Nations with a much broader authority than the League of Nations was created.

INDIA IN WORLD WAR -II

During the Second World War, India was going through a period of slavery and India was ruled by the British, so India also declared war against Germany in 1939 and sent more than 2 million soldiers to the war. The kings and princely states of India gave a large amount of money to the British for the war.

FIRST WORLD WAR (1914-1918) | REASON | HISTORY~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

2019-10-30T13:40:00.000+05:30

WORLD WAR 1 (1914-1918)

The First World War of 1914-18 AD was the result of mutual rivalry between the imperialist nations. The most important reason of the First World War was the secret system. The practice of secret treaties in Europe was started by German Chancellor Bismarck. It divided Europe into two opposing factions. The suspicion and hatred between the two groups increased towards each other. The political environment was corrupted. In 1879, Germany entered into a secret treaty with Austria-Hungary. Italy also joined this faction in 1882 AD.

Infantry Regiment (First World War)

This is how the threesome was created. Both Germany and Russia merged in 1887 AD. France fell alone in the world political arena. Germany had entered into a treaty with these countries to humiliate France. France was burning inside only in the fire of vengeance. So in 1894, France made a treaty with Russia. On the other hand, England entered into a treaty with Japan in 1902 AD, France in 1904 AD and Russia in 1907 AD. In this way, Europe was divided into two political camps. The War in the Balkans of 1912–13 AD made the First World War mandatory. Many nations of Europe were trying to expand their empire in the Balkan region. Austria and Russia also wanted to expand their influence in this region. The imperialist rivalry in the Balkan region created the role of world war.

REASON FOR WORLD WAR 1

Fighter Machines of First World War

Germany, Austria, Hungary and Osmania were on one side in the First World War, while Great Britain, Italy, Russia and Japan were on the other side. But the United States later played an important role by supporting Britain, Italy, Russia and Japan. However, it is said that signs of any untoward are already visible. And the same thing was happening at that time, the tension between these countries was hinting towards this. Actually this world war started with the assassination of the prince of Austria and his wife. Austria is believed to have conquered Bosnia by force. And had made it his slave.

But many people in Bosnia were unhappy with this slavery. And several times the revolutionary became a prince of Austria who tried to kill Ferdinand. But during a visit to Bosnia, these revolutionaries got a chance in the crowd and shot Prince Ferdinand and his wife after which there was a sense of outrage across Europe.

FIRST WORLD WAR

Even then, no one would have thought that the murder of a prince would affect 28 countries around the world. After the assassination of the prince, Austria, along with Hungary, declared war on the Serbia of France. When Britain decided to help Serbia in this war, it turned to Russia, Austria and Hungary. Meanwhile, Germany also attacked Belgium and Luxembourg, which Britain declared a war against Germany. And thus Germany also decided to support Austria. In the beginning, Germany was the heaviest of all, sinking many of Britain's ships and submarines. Meanwhile, the country of Osmania also came with Austria. But Germany made a mistake when it sank a ship from England which was carrying American civilians as it too jumped into the war and decided to join Britain and France.

Infantry Regiment (First World War)

However, due to the ongoing civil war in Russia, this world war broke out in Russia. Although France Britain had become stronger with the arrival of America, apart from this, they also got the support of their allies Italy and Japan. Which the strength of these countries had moved towards war. At the same time, Britain also had a plus point that it included soldiers in all the countries it had enslaved. The meaning of which was that on 11 November 1918, the four major kingdoms of the world Germany, Austria, Hungary and Osmania came to an end. And this world war came to a halt after the amnesty of Austria and Hungary. Although the world war ended but the bad effect was on losers and conquerors and in addition to many other small big countries of the world. The economic situation of many countries of the world has gone from bad to worse. The massacre left thousands of families orphaned.

PART -VI (ARTICLE 152-237) OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION:STATES~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

2019-10-30T12:35:00.000+05:30

PART VI OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION

Article (152-237), clause 6 provides provisions in relation to states. (152-161): Under this the appointment, obligations and functioning of the governors of the states are explained in detail. (163): It mentions the role of the Council of Ministers in supporting and advising the Governor. (165): has given in detail the procedure for appointment of the Advocate General of the State by the Governor. (170): The composition of the state legislatures is given. (171): It gives information about the structure of the State Legislative Councils. (194): Information about the powers, privileges of the Houses of Legislatures and their members and committees is given. (214-237): The High Court and its jurisdiction, appointment of Chief Justice of High Courts, appointment of District Judges, control over lower courts, etc. are defined in these paragraphs.

INDIAN CONSTITUTION:STATES

PART -VI :STATES (Article 152 - 237)

Article (152) In this part, unless the context otherwise requires, "State" (except the State of Jammu and Kashmir).

Article (153) There shall be a Governor for each State.

Article (154) The executive power of the State shall be vested in the Governor and he shall use it according to this Constitution by himself or by his subordinate officers.

Article (155) The Governor of the State shall be appointed by the President with his signature and currency by warrant.

Article (156) The Governor shall hold office during the pleasure of the President.

Article (157) A person shall be eligible to be appointed Governor only if he is a citizen of India and has completed the age of thirty-five years.

Article (159) The Governor shall take oath before the Chief Justice of the High Court or in his absence before the Supreme Judge available.

Article (161) The Governor of a State shall have the power to pardon, delay, suspend or remit the punishment for any offense against the executive law of that State, or to suspend, remit or commute in a sentence.

Article (163) A Council of Ministers shall be headed by the Chief Minister to assist and advise the Governor in the exercise of his functions.

Article (163-3) This question shall not be examined in any court as to whether the Ministers gave the Governor any advice, and if it did.

Article (164) The Governor will be appointed by the Chief Minister and the other ministers will be appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister and the Minister will hold his post after the Governor's offerings.

Article (164A) The total number of ministers including the Chief Minister in the Council of Ministers of a State shall not exceed fifteen percent of the total number of members of the Legislative Assembly of that State (the number shall not be less than twelve).

Article (164 -2) The Council of Ministers shall be collectively responsible to the Legislative Assembly of the State.

Article (165 -1) The Governor shall appoint a person to be the Advocate-General of the State (qualified to be a Judge of the High Court).

Article (165 -3) The Advocate General shall hold office during the pleasure of the Governor and shall receive such remuneration as the Governor may prescribe.

Article (166) All executive action of the Government of a State shall be called in the name of the Governor.

Article (167) It will be the duty of the Chief Minister of each state to give information to the Governor as demanded by the Rajpal.

Article (168 -1) There shall be a Legislature for each State which is the Governor (2) There are two Houses of the Legislature of a State where one is named Legislative Council and the other name is Vidhan Sabha and there is only one House where it will be Legislative .

Article (170) Assembly Structure, the Legislative Assembly of each state shall consist of not more than five hundred and sixty non-elected members elected by direct election from territorial constituencies in that state.

Article (171): It gives information about the structure of the State Legislative Councils.

Article (172) Each assembly of each state, if not already dissolved, will remain for five years from the date fixed for its first session.

Article (173) Qualification for membership of the State Legislature (a) He is a citizen of India (b) At least twenty five years of age and at least thirty years of age for the Legislative Council.

Article (174) The Governor shall, from time to time, summon the House or each House of the State Legislature for a session.

Article (174 -2) The Governor may (a) prorogue the House or any House (b) dissolve the Legislative Assembly.

Article (176 -1) The Governor shall address both the Houses at the beginning of the first session after each general election to the Legislative Assembly and at the beginning of the first session of each year in the Assembly or in the case of a State having a Legislative Council.

Article (178) Speaker and Deputy Speaker of Legislative Assembly.

Article (182) The Legislative Council of each State having a Legislative Council shall, as soon as possible, elect two of its members to be its Chairman and Deputy Chairman.

Article (183) Vacation of the post of Chairman and Deputy Chairman.

Article (212) Courts not to investigate proceedings of Legislature.

Article (214) There shall be a High Court for each State.

Article (215) Record of High Courts to be Court.

Article (216) Each High Court shall consist of the Chief Justice and such other Judges as the President may consider necessary to be appointed from time to time.

Article (220) Restrictions on the practice of law after being a permanent judge.

Article (221) Salaries of judges etc.

Article (222) Transfer of a Judge from one High Court to another High Court.

Article (228) Transfer of certain cases to the High Court - if it is resolved by the High Court that any matter pending in any court subordinate to it contains a substantive question of law regarding the interpretation of this Constitution for the retention of the retention case. If necessary, he will take that matter to himself (Ram Janmabhoomi case).

Article (229) Officers and servants of the High Courts and expenses and appointments shall be the Chief Justice of that Court.

Article (231) Establishment of a single High Court for two or more states.

Article (233) Appointment of District Judges.

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF PRESIDENT | INDIAN POLITY~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

2019-10-29T17:57:00.000+05:30

The President has vast powers and functions.However,these powers and functions are actually exercised by the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers.

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF PRESIDENT

EXECUTIVE POWERS OF PRESIDENT

All executive actions of the Government of India are formally taken in his name.

He appoints the Prime Minister, and the other Ministers on the advice of the Prime Minister.

He can appoint a commission to investigate into the conditions of the SCs, the STs and OBCs.

He can appoint an inter-state council to promote centre-state and inter-state co-operation.

He directly administers the union territories through administrators appointed by him.

He can seek any information relating to the administration of affairs of the Union,and proposals for legislation from the Prime Minister (Article 78).

LEGISLATIVE POWERS OF PRESIDENT

Article 79 says that the President is an integral part of the Parliament of India.In this capacity,he enjoys the following legislative powers.

He can summon or prorogue the Parliament and dissolve the Lok Sabha. He can also summon joint sitting of both the Houses of Parliament.
He can address the Parliament at the commencement of the first session after each general election and the first session of each year.
He nominates 12 members to Rajya Sabha and 2 members to the Lok Sabha from the Anglo-Indian Community.
President's prior recommendation is needed to introduce certain types of bills,i.e., a bill involving expenditure from the Consolidated Fund of India,a bill for the alteration of boundaries of the states or creation of new states.
Each bill passed in Parliament is sent to the President,He can give his assent to the bill or withhold his assent to the same or return it for reconsideration of the Parliament.The President has the option of veto with respect to the bills passed by the Parliament. Vetos are absolute,suspensive and pocket vetos (Article 111).
Under Article 123,the President can promulgate ordinances when both the Houses of Parliament are not in session.The ordinance can be effective for a maximum period of 6 months and 6 weeks, in case non-approval by the Parliament.
He lays of the reports of CAG,UPSC, Finance Commission and others before the Parliament.

FINANCIAL POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT

Money bill can be introduced in the Parliament only with prior recommendation of the President.

Under Article 112, he causes to be laid before the Parliament,the Annual Financial Statement.

He constitutes Finance Commission after every five year to recommend the distribution of the taxes between the center and the states.

JUDICIAL POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT

The President appoints Chief Justice and the Judges of Supreme Court and High Courts.

Under Article 143,the President can seek advice from the Supreme Court on any question of lower fact.

He can grant pradon, reprieve,respite and remission of punishment,or suspend,remit or commute the sentence of any person convicted of any offence.

DIPLOMATIC POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT

All kinds of international treaties and agreements are concluded on the behalf of President.

He represents India international forum and affairs and sends and receives diplomats like ambassadors,high commissioners,etc.

MILITARY POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT

The President is the Supreme commander of the defense forces/arms forces of India.

The President appoints Chief's of Army,Navy,Air Force.

The President can declare war's and conclude peace.

EMERGENCY POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT

The Constitution of India confers extraordinary powers on the President to deal with the Three type of emergencies-National Emergency (Article 352), President's Rule (Article 356 and 365) and Financial Emergency (Article 360).

PART - V (ARTICLE 52 TO 151) OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION: THE UNION ~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

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PART V (Article 52 to 151)

Article 52 to 78 deal with the union executive.This includes the President,the Vice-President,the Prime Minister,the Council of Ministers and the Attorney General of India.

THE PRESIDENT

Article 52 says that "There shall be a President of India". It is the highest executive authority.The Constitution vest with him all the executive powers of the union.All executive actions are taken on his name.He is the head of the state and represents the Republic of India.He is the first citizen of India.

THE UNION

QUALIFICATIONS

Should be a citizen of India.
Should have completed the age of 35 years.
Should be qualified for becoming a Member of the Lok Sabha.
Should not hold any office of profit under the Union Government or any State Government or any local authority or any public authority.However, a sitting President,Vice-President, the Governor of any state and a minister of the union or any state is not deemed to hold any office of profit and hence,qualified as a presidential candidate.

ELECTION

Article 54 and 55 deal with the election of the President,which says that the President is elected not directly by the people but by members of electoral college consisting of

The elected members of both the Houses of Parliament and Legislative Assemblies of states (nominated members of the house do not participate in the election).
The elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of the Union Territories of Delhi and Punducherry (This provision was added by the 70th Constitutional Amendment Act 1992 with effect from June 1, 1945).

The Presidential Election is held through the system of proportional representation by means of single transferable vote and voting is by secret ballot.The candidate who gets more than 50% of vote is declared elected.

The Constitution provides that there shall be uniformity in the scale of representation of different states and union at the election of the President.To achieve this states have different representation in the presidential election.

FORMULA

To secure uniformity among the states value of vote of an MLA = State Population /Total number of elected MLAs ✕ 1000

FORMULA To secure the uniformity between all the states on one side and the Parliament on the other side Value of vote of an MP= Total value of MLAs of all states/Total number of elected Members of Parliament (both Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha).

Security depsit ₹ 15000 only.

Only Supreme Court enquires all disputes regarding presidential election.

President takes oath administered by the Chief Justice of India and is his absence,the oath is administered by the senior most Judge of the Supreme Court.

TERM OF OFFICE

According to Article 56,the President holds office for a term of 5 years from the date on which he enters upon his office However, he can hold office beyond his term until his successor assumes charges.

Article 57

There is no limit as to how many times a person can become President.The President can resign from his office at any time by addressing the resignation to the Vice-President.Further,he can also by removed from the office,before the expiry of his tenure, through a special procedure called Impeachment.

IMPEACHMENT

Under Article 61 of the Constitution,the President can be impeached only on the grounds of violation of the Constitution.The President of USA can be impeached on several other grounds like, corruption etc.

The process may start from any House of the Parliament, either in Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha.

The charges are contained in a notice which has to be signed by at least one-fourth of the total members of that house.

Notice is sent to the President before 14 days.

A resolution to impeach the President has to be passed by a 2/3rd majority of the total members of that house.It is then sent to the other house which investigates this through an authorized counsel.If the second house also approves the charges by a 2/3rd majority, the President is removed from the office.

VACANCY

In the case of vacant seat for any reason. e.g., expiry of his tenure of five years resignation,death,,removal by impeachment,then the Vice-President acts as the President.If he is not available, the Chief Justice of India and if not,then the seniormost Judge of Supreme Court.

If the office falls vacant by any of the reason,then the election to fill the vacancy should by held within six months from the date of such occurrence of vacancy.

PART - IV OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION:DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY (DPSP) ~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

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PART - IV (ARTICLE 36 TO 51)

DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY (DPSP)

The Directive Principles of State Policy denote the ideals that the state should keep in mind while formulating policies and enacting laws.These are constitutional instructions to the state in legislative, executive and administrative matter.The Directive Principles of State Policy have been adopted from the Constitution of Ireland.They are a unique blend of Socialism,Gandhism, Liberalism and the ideals of the Indian National Movement.

DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY

SOCIO-ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES

Article 38

To promote the welfare of the people by securing a social order permeated by social,economic and political justice.

Article 39

To secure

The right to adequate means of livelihood for all citizens.

The equitable distribution of medical resources.

Equal pay for equal work for men and women.

Opportunities for healthy development for children etc.

Article 39A

To promote equal justice and to provide free legal aid to the poor.

Article 41

To secure the right to work,to education and to public assistance in certain cases.

Article 42

To make provisions for just and humane aid for work and maternity relief.

Article 43

To secure a living wage, a decent standard of life and social and cultural opportunities for all workers.

Article 47

To raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living of people and to improve public health.

GANDHIAN PRINCIPLES

Article 40

The establishment of village panchayats, and endow them powerful enough to function as a unit of self-government.

Article 43

To promote cottage industries on an individual or co-operative basis in rural areas.

Article 46

To promote the educational and economic interests of SCs, STs, and other weaker sections of the society.

Article 47

To prohibit the consumption of intoxicating drinks and drugs.

Article 48

To prohibit the slaughter of cows,calves and other cattle and to improve their breeds.

LIBERAL PRINCIPLES

Article 44

Uniform civil code for the citizens.

Article 45

Provide early childhood care and education for all children until they complete the age of six years.

Article 48

To protect monuments,places and objects of artistic or historic interest which are declared to be of national importance.

Article 50

Separation of judiciary from executive.

Article 51

To promote international peace and amity.

DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY

IMPLEMENTATION OF DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES

Since 1950,Center and State Government have made several laws and formulated various programmes for implementing the Directive Principles.

The Planning Commission was set up in 1950 to aim at securing socio-economic justice and reducing inequalities of income,status and opportunities.

All states have passed land reform laws to bring changes in the agrarian society and abolished the intermediaries like Zamindaris, jagirdaris, inamdaris etc.

The Minimum Wage Act (1948), Labour Regulation and Abolition Act (1970), Child Labour Prohibition and Regulation Act (1986), the Bonded Labour System, Abolition Act (1976) etc have been passed to protect the interest of labour sections.

The Maternity Benefit Act (1961) and Equal Remuneration Act (1976) have been made to protect the interests of women workers.

To provide free and competent legal aid to the poor and to organise lok adalats for promoting equal justice,the Legal Service Authorities Act, 1987, has been passed.

Khadi and Village Industries Board,National Small Scale Industries Board,Handloom Board, Handicraft Board,Coir Board have been set up for the development of cottage industries in the rural areas.

Several programmes have been launched for raising the standard of living of people, i.e., Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (1989), Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana ( 1999), Sampoorna Grameen Roozgar Yojana (2001), National Rural Employment Guarantee Programme (2006).

The Wildlife Protection Act (1972),National Forest Policy (1986) have been enacted to aim at the protection, conservation and development of forests.

The 73rd Amendment Act (1992) has been enacted to introduced three-tier Panchayati Raj System.

Seats are reserved for SCs,STs and other weaker sections (like OBCs) in educational institutions, government services and representative bodies.

The Criminal Procedure Code (1975) separated the judiciary from the executive in the public services of the state.

The Ancient and Historical Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act (1951) has been enacted to protect monuments, places and objects of national importance.

Primary health centers and hospitals have been established throughout the country to improve the public heath.There are laws to prohibit cow slaughter.

India has been following the policy of non-alignment and Panchsheel to promote international peace and security.Along with this,India is active member of UN and other related institutions.

FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES (Article 51A)

Originally, the Constitutions didn't contain any Fundamental Duties Later in 1976, by the 42nd Amendment Act the Fundamental Duties of citizens were added in the Constitution.It contains duties of the Constitution.These duties are inspired by the Constitution of erstwhile USSR. None of the major democracies in the world has Fundamental Duties.According to Article 51A, it shall be the duty of every citizen of India.

To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions,the National Flag and the National Anthem.
To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom.
To uphold and protect the sovereignty,unity and integrity of India.
To defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so.
To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India,transcending religious,linguistic and regional or sectional diversities, to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women.
To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture.
To protect and improve the natural environment including forests,lakes,rivers and wild life and to have compassion for living creatures.
To develop the scientific temper,humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform.
To safeguard public property and to adjure violence.
To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavor and achievement.
Every citizen 'who is a parent or a guardian, to provide opportunities for education to his child or as the case may be ward between the age of six and fourteen years'.

The 11th Fundamental Duties were added by 86th Constitution Amendment in 2002.

PART - III OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION:FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

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FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

Part III of Indian Constitution is about Fundamental Rights. It includes articles from 12 - 35.Part III of the Constitution has been described as the "Magna Carta" of India.Fundamental rights are derived from the Constitution of USA.The Fundamental Rights are guaranteed by the Constitution to all people without any discrimination.Fundamental Rights are fundamental in the sense that they are most essential for the all round development of the individuals.Some of the Fundamental Rights i.e., Article 15,Article 16,Article 19,Article 30 are available only to the citizens.While rest are available to all persons whether citizens,foreigners or legal persons like corporations or Companies.Originally, the Constitution provided for seven Fundamental Rights.Among them,Rights to Property has been deleted as the Fundamental Right by the 44th Amendment Act,1978,and it is made a legal right under Article 300-A in Part XII of the Constitution.So, at present,there are only following six Fundamental Rights.

FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

RIGHT TO EQUALITY

Article 14

It says that the state shall not deny to any person (these include legal persons i.e., any association,company or individual) equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India.This provision confers rights on all persons whether citizen or foreigners.This concept is borrowed from the British Constitution.

EXCEPTIONS OF ARTICLE 14

The President or the Governor is not answerable to any court for the exercise and performance of the powers and duties of his office.

No civil proceedings against them shall be instituted during their term of office.

The foreign sovereigns,ambassadors and diplomats enjoy immunity from criminal and civil proceedings.

The UNO and its agencies enjoy the diplomatic immunity.

Article 15

It provides that the state shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion,race,caste,sex or place of birth.The word 'only' indicates that the discrimination cannot be made merely on the ground that one belongs to a particular caste,religion,sex etc.

EXCEPTIONS OF ARTICLE 15

The Article also empowers the government to make any special provision for women and children.

The state is permitted to make any special provision for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.

The states is empowered to make any special provision for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for SC or ST regarding their admission to educational institutions,whether aided or unaided by the state.This provision was added by the 93rd Amendment Act,2005.

Article 16

It provides for equality of opportunity for all citizens in matter of public employment.No citizen can be discriminated against or be ineligible for any employment on grounds of only religion,race,caste,sex,descent,place of birth or residence.

EXCEPTIONS OF ARTICLE 16

Residence can be made as a restriction for employment.

Special favours can be given to the backward classes which are not adequately represented.

Religion can be a ground for discrimination in special cases.These are religious institutions taken over by the state.So, the religious posts are reserved for the people of the same religious denomination.

Article 17

Under this article,"untouchability" is abolished and its practice in any form is forbidden.The enforcement of any disability arising out of untouchability shall be an offence punishable in accordance with law.

The Parliament enacted the "Untouchability (offences) Act,1955,which prescribes the punishment for the practice of untouchability. It has been comprehensively amended and renamed as the Civil Rights (Protection) Act, 1976. The Act defines civil right as any right accruing to a person by reason of the abolition of untouchability by Article 17 of the Constitution.

Article 18

The article ensures abolition of titles.It prevents the state from conferring any title.It prohibits a citizen of India from accepting any titles from any foreign state.Thus it is clear that the hereditary titles of nobility like Maharaja, Raj Bahadur, Rai Bahadur, Dewan etc. which were conferred by colonial states,are banned by Article 18 as these are against the equal status of all.

The National Awards i.e., Bharat Ratna, Padma Bhushan etc, which were instituted in January 1954,ruled that this does not amount to 'titles' within the meaning of Article 18.However, it is also ruled that they should not be used as suffixes or prefixes to the names of awardees.

RIGHT TO FREEDOM (ARTICLE 19-22)

RIGHT TO FREEDOM

Article 19

This Article of the Constitution guarantees to all citizens the six rights

Right to freedom of speech and expressions

It implies that every citizen has the right to express his views,opinions,belief and convictions freely by word of mouth, writing, printing, picturing or in any other manner.The freedom of speech and expressions includes the following.

Right to propagate one's views as well as views of others.
Freedom of press.
Freedom of commercial advertisements.
Right against tapping of telephonic conversation.
Right against bandh (strike) called by a political party.
Right to know about government activities.
Freedom of silence.

RIGHT TO INFORMATION ACT,2005

The RTI Act is to provide for setting out the practical regime of right to information for every citizen.The act applies to every state and union territory,except Jammu and Kashmir.

Any citizen may request information from a public authority,which is required to reply within thirty days.

RIGHT TO FREEDOM OF ASSEMBLY

Every citizen has the right to assemble peacefully and without arms.It includes the right to hold public meetings,demonstrations and take out processions.This right does not include the right to strike.

The state can impose reasonable restrictions on the exercise of right of assembly on the grounds of sovereignty and integrity of India and public order including the maintenance of traffic in the area concerned.

RIGHT TO FREEDOM TO FORM ASSOCIATION OR UNION

Every citizen has the right to form association and unions,it includes the right to form political parties,companies,partnership firms,societies,clubs,organisations,trade unions or any body of persons,State can impose reasonable restrictions on grounds of sovereignty and integrity of India,public order and morality.

RIGHT TO FREEDOM MOVEMENT

Every citizen has the right to move freely throughout the territory of the country.

Citizen can move freely from one state to another or from one place to another within a state.

The grounds of imposing reasonable restrictions on this freedom are two,the interest of the general public and the protection of interests of any scheduled tribes.

RIGHT TO FREEDOM OF RESIDENCE

This freedom gives every citizen the right to reside and settle in any part of the territory of the country.

The state can impose reasonable restrictions on two grounds,the interest of the public and the protection of interest of any scheduled tribes.

RIGHT TO FREEDOM OF PROFESSION

Every citizen has the right to practice any profession or to carry on any occupation,trade or business.

The state can impose reasonable restrictions on the exercise of this right in the interest of general public.

Originally,Article 19 contained a seventh right,Right to acquire,hold and dispose of property,which has been deleted by the 44th Amendment Act of 1978.

It is now a legal right under Article 300-A in Part XII of the Constitution.

Article 20

The Article comprises protection in respect of conviction for offences.It grants every citizen or foreigners protection against arbitary and excessive punishment to an accused person.

This protection is available against the three types of conviction-Ex-post-facto law, Double jeopardy, Self incrimination.

Article 21

The Article declares that no person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty,but also for the right to dignity and all other attributes of human personality that are essential for the full development of a person.

Article 21 has became the 'Foundation Stone' of Part III of the Constitution.The Article has undergone several changes.The Supreme Court declared the following Rights as part of Article 21.

Right to live with human dignity.

Right to livelihood.

Right to privacy.

Right to shelter,health,free legal aid,travel aboard,emergency medical aid, fair trail.

Right to information.

Right to free education upto 14 years of age.

Right against solitary confinement,handcuffing,inhuman treatment,delayed execution,bonded labour, custodial harassment.

EDUCATION NOW A FUNDAMENTAL RIGHT (ARTICLE 21A)

EDUCATION NOW A FUNDAMENTAL RIGHT

The Constitutional (86th Amendment) Act,2002 added a new Article 21A in the Part III of the Constitution and it declares that the state shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in such a manner as the state may determine.Thus, this provision makes only elementary education a Fundamental Right and not to higher or professional education.

Article 22

The Article grants protection to persons who are arrested or detained.The authority cannot arrest or detain a person without properly informing him/her of the grounds for such arrest/detention.

The detained/arrested person must be produced before the nearest magistrate within 24 hours of arrest.

The preventive detention laws made by the Parliament are

Preventive Detention Act,1950,expired 1969.
MISA, 1971, Repealed in 1978.
COFEPOSA, 1974.
NASA, 1980.

TADA, 1985 Repealed in 1995.

POTA, 2002, Repealed in 2004.

RIGHT AGAINST EXPLOITATION (ARTICLE 23 AND 24)

RIGHT AGAINST EXPLOITATION

Article 23

Article prohibits traffic in human beings,begging and forced labour. Any contravention of this provision shall be an offence punishable in accordance with law.The right is available for citizens and non-citizens also.

The expression 'traffic in human beings' means selling and buying men,women and children like goods and immoral traffic in women and children, including prostitution,devadasis and slavery.

One shall not be forced to provide labour or forced services against his will even if remuneration is paid. If remuneration is less than minimum wages, it amounts to force labour under Article 23.

Article 24

The essence of Article 24 is the prohibition of employment of children below 14 years of age, in hazardous activities like factory,mine,construction, work or railway.

The child labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986 has been passed in this regard.

RIGHT TO FREEDOM OF RELIGION (ARTICLE 25 TO 28)

Article 25

The Article says that all persons are equally entitled to freedom of conscience and the right to freely profess,practice and propagate religion.

The rights in Article 25 are available for citizens and non-citizens also. However, these rights are subject to public order, morality,health and other provisions relating to Fundamental Rights.

The state is permitted to regulate or restrict any economic,financial,political or other secular activity associated with religious practice.

Article 26

The Article says that every religious denomination or any section shall have the following rights

To establish and maintain institutions for religious and charitable purposes.
To manage its own affairs in the matters of religion.
To own and acquire movable and immovable property and
To administer such property in accordance with law.

Article 27

The Article lays down that no person shall be compelled to pay any taxes for the promotion or maintenance of any prohibits the state from favouring, patronizing and supporting one religion over other.

Article 28

According to the Article, no religious instruction shall be provided in any educational institution wholly maintained out of state funds.However, this provision shall not apply to an educational institution which is administered by the state,but has been established under any endowment or trust which requires that religious instructions shall be imparted in such an institution.

CULTURE AND EDUCATIONAL RIGHTS (ARTICLE 29 TO 31)

Article 29

The Article provides that any section of the citizens residing in any part of India having a distinct language,script or culture of its own,shall have the right to conserve the same.Article 29 grants protection to both religious minorities as well as linguistic minorities.

Article 30

According to Article 30, all minorities, whether based on religion or language,shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their own.Thus,the protection under Article 30 is confined only to minorities and does not extend to any section of citizens,as under Article 29.

Article 31

Right to Property,omitted by the 44th Amendment Act, 1976.

RIGHT TO CONSTITUTIONAL REMEDIES (ARTICLE 32)

Article 32

Provides the right to remedies for the enforcement of the Fundamental Rights of an aggrieved citizen.

Dr BR Ambedkar called this Article 'the heart and soul of the Constitution' and said that without this Article the Constitution would be nullity.

Thus,the Article 32 provides a guaranteed,effective,expeditious, inexpensive and summary remedy for the protection of the Fundamental Rights,and not any rights,like non-fundamental constitutional rights statutory rights,customary rights etc.

To enforce the Fundamental Rights, the Supreme Court is empowered,under Article 32, to issue writs of various forms.

The Supreme Court (under Article 32) and the High Courts (under Article 226) can issue the writs of habeas corpus,mandamus,prohibition,certioran and quo-warranto. Thes writs are borrowed from British Constitution.

Habeas Corpus It literally means to have a body i.e., to produce before the court.This kind of writ is issued to protect personal liberty of an individual against the arbitrary action of both the state and private individuals.
Mandamus It literally means 'command'. This kind of writ is issued against a public authority or an officer and inferior courts for purpose of enforcing legal rights only.
Prohibition It literally means 'to restrain' or 'forbid'.This kind of writs issued by the higher courts to the lower courts or the quasi-judicial bodies when the latter exceed their judicial authority.
Certiorari It literally means 'to be certified' or 'to be informed'.It is similar to Prohibition.This writ is issued to quash the order of a lower court or the decision of a tribunal in excess of its jurisdiction.
Quo Warranto It literally means 'what is your authority'.This kind of writ is issued to ensure that the person holding a public office is qualified to hold the office.

Article 33

It gives power to the Parliament to modify the Fundamental Rights in their application to enforce.

Article 34

Restriction on rights conferred by this part while martial law is in force in any area.

Article 35

Legislation to given effect to the provision of this part.

RIGHTS OUTSIDE PART III

Besides the Fundamental Rights included in Part III,there are certain other rights know as Constitutional Rights or Legal Rights or non-Fundamental Rights.

Contained in other parts of the Constitution .They are

Article 265,Part XII--No tax shall be levied or collected expect by authority of law.
Article 300 A,Part XII--No person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law.
Article 301 in Part XIII--Trade,commerce and intercourse throughout the territory of India shall be free.
Article 326 in Part XV --The elections to the Lok Sabha and the State Legislative Assemblies shall be on the basis of adult suffrage.

PART - II OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION:CITIZENSHIP ~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

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Part II of Indian Constitution is about Citizenship. It includes articles from 5- 11.The population of any state can be broadly divided into two categories-citizen and aliens (non-citizen).Citizens are different from aliens in so far they enjoy full civil and political rights.The Constitution of India provides for single citizenship,there is no separate citizenship for state (as United States of America has).According to the Constitution,the following four categories of persons are entitled to citizenship.

PART - II OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION

CITIZENSHIP

Persons domiciled in India and also fulfilled any one of the three conditions, viz. if he was born in India; or if either of his parents was born in India; or if he has been ordinarily resident in India for five years immediately before the commencement of the Constitution.

A person who migrated to India from Pakistan and became an Indian citizen.If he or either of his grandparents was born in undivided India.

A person who migrated to Pakistan from India after March 1,1947.

A person who or any of whose parents or grandparents, was born in undivided India but who is ordinarily residing outside India.

The Constitution confers some rights and privileges to the citizen of India and denies the same to aliens (non-citizens).

Right against Discrimination (Article 15).
Right to Equality of Opportunity (Article 16).
Right to Freedom (Article 19).
Cultural and Educational Right to Contest for the membership of the Parliament and the State Legislative Assemblies.

Only a citizen can hold or run for the following high offices-President, Vice -President, Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts,Attorney-General, Governors of States Advocate General of States.

ACQUISITION AND TERMINATION OF CITIZENSHIP

Article 11 of the Constitution empowers the Parliament to enact a law relating to the citizenship.According, the Parliament has enacted the Citizenship Act,1955,which has been amended in 1956 and 1992.The act provides a law for acquisition and termination of citizenship.

ACQUISITION OF CITIZENSHIP

The act prescribes five following ways of acquiring citizenship.

By Birth A person born in India on or after 26th January,1950,shall be a citizen of India by law of soil.

By Descent A person born outside India, on or after 26th January 1950,in a citizen of India by descent if his parents were citizens of India at the time of his birth, i.e., law of blood.

By Registration The Central Government may, on an application, register as a citizen of India.This mode of acquiring citizenship is available to any of the following categories.

persons of Indian origin who are ordinarily resident in India for 7 years,immediately before making an application for registration.
persons of India origin who are ordinarily resident in any county or place outside India.
a persons who is married to a citizen of India and is ordinarily resident in India for 7 years before making an application of registration.
minor children of persons who are citizens of India.
persons of full age and capacity whose parents are registered as citizens of India .
a person of full age and capacity,who or either of his parents,was earlier citizens of Independent India,and has been residing in India for 1 year immediately before making an application for registration.
a person of full age and capacity who has been registered as an overseas citizen of India for 5 years, and who has been residing in India for 1 year before making an application for registration.

By Naturalization Citizenship can be acquired by naturalization by making an application, if he possesses following qualifications.

person of full age and capacity.
must not be citizen of a country where Indian citizens are prevented from becoming citizens by naturalization.
has renounced the citizenship of the other country.
has either resided in India or has been in the government service 12 months.
must take and oath of allegiance.
of a good character.
has an adequate knowledge of a language recognized by the Constitution.

By Incorporation of Territory If any foreign territory becomes a part of India, the Government of India specifies that the persons who are among the people of the territory shall be the citizens of India.e.g., when Pondicherry became a part of India,Government of India issued notice for the citizenship.

CITIZENSHIP

TERMINATION OF CITIZENSHIP

The Citizenship Act,1955 also lays down three modes by which an Indian citizen may lose his citizenship.

By Renunciation Any citizen of India of full age and capacity can make a declaration renouncing his Indian citizenship.

By Termination When and Indian citizen voluntarily acquires the citizenship of another country, his Indian citizenship automatically terminates.

By Deprivation Any citizen who has obtained the citizenship by fraud or has shown disloyalty to the Constitution of India,etc will compulsory terminate his Indian citizenship by the Government of India.

PIO CARD

Person of Indian Origin Card was launched in 1999 and Government of India revised it in August 2002.

Any person,who at any time,held an Indian passport or either of his parents or grand parents or great grand parents were born in and were permanently residents in India.

All nationals except Afghanistan,Bangladesh,Bhutan,China,Nepal,Pakistan and Sri Lanka are eligible for PIO Card.

PIO Card holder can visit India without visa for 15 years from the date of issue.

OCI (OVERSEAS CITIZENSHIP OF INDIA)

OCI is commonly know as Dual Citizenship, the scheme is operational from December 2005.

A foreign national who,(i) was eligible to become a citizen of India on 26-01-1950.or (ii) was a citizen of India on or at any time after 26-01-1950 or (iii) belonged to a territory that became a part of India after 15-08-1947 or (iv) his children or grand children or (v) minor children of such children.

PIOs fo all countries and nationals except Pakistan and Bangladesh can obtained OCI.

Those who have OCI can visit India without visa life long.

PART-I OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION: THE UNION AND ITS TERRITORY ~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

2019-10-18T17:56:00.000+05:30

The constitution is nothing but a legal document and the Indian constitution is the supreme law of India. It explains the various players who are in authority in the country, their power and limits of their power. It also defines the fundamental rights and duties of citizens. Part I of Indian Constitution is titled The Union and its Territory. It includes articles from 1- 4. Part I is a compilation of laws pertaining to the constitution of India as a country and the union of states that it is made of.

THE UNION AND ITS TERRITORY ~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

PART I (ARTICLES 1 TO 4)UNION AND ITS TERRITORIES

Article 1 Name and territory of the union. It describes India that is Bharat as a "Union of States" rather than "Federation of States". It has been preferred for two reasons, one , the Indian Federation is not the result of an agreement among the states like America and two,the states have no right to secede from the federation.

Article 1 The territory of India can be classified into three categories.

(a) Territories of States.

(b) Union Territories.

Article 2 Admission of or establishment of new states.The article empowers the Parliament to 'admit' into the Union of India or establish new states.

After independence, the demand for the reorganization of the states on the linguistic basis was raised.It led to the study the issue of the reorganization of the states on linguistic basis.

The committee submitted its report in 1948 and recommended the reorganization of states on the basis of administrative convenience rather than linguistic factor.This created resentment and a new committee called. JVP constituted to examine the issue In April 1949, it also formally rejected language as the basis for reorganization of states.

In 1953, the Government of India appointed a three member States Reorganization Commission (SRC) under the chairmanship of Fazl Ali. The committee was appointed to examine the reorganization of the states. KM Pannikar and HN Kunzru were the other two members.

The committee submitted its report in 1956 and as a result, 14 states and 6 union territories were created on November 1, 1956.

Article 3 Formation of new states and alteration of areas,boundaries or names of the existing states.It authorizes the Parliament to

(a) from a new state by separation of territory from any state of by uniting two or more states or parts of states or by uniting any territory to a part of any state.

(b) Increase the area of any state.

(d) Alter the boundaries or name of any state.

Article 4 Laws made under Article 2 and 3 for the amendment of the first and fourth schedules and supplemental, incidental and consequential matters.

12 SCHEDULES OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION | INDIAN POLITY | ~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

2019-10-02T16:13:00.000+05:30

FIRST SCHEDULE

Names of states and their territorial jurisdictions.

Name of union territories and their extent.

Articles covered are from 1 to 4.

12 SCHEDULES OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION

SECOND SCHEDULE

Provisions relating to emoluments allowances,privileges for

The President and the Governor of states.

The Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha.

The Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha.

The Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of Legislative Assemblies in the states.

The Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of Legislative Councils in the States.

The Judges of the Supreme Court and the High Court.

The Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG).

Articles covered are 59,65,75,97,125,148,158,164,186 and 221.

THIRD SCHEDULE

Forms of oaths or affirmations for

The Union Ministers.

The candidates for elections to the Parliament.

The Members of Parliament (MP).

The Judges of the Supreme Court.

The Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG).

The State Ministers.

The candidates for elections to the State Legislature.

The Member of State Legislature.

The Judges of the High Court.

Articles covered are 75,99,124,148,168,188 and 219.

FOURTH SCHEDULE

Allocation of the seats in the Rajya Sabha to the states and the union territories.

Articles covered are 4 and 80.

FIFTH SCHEDULE

Provisions relating to the administration and the control of the schedule areas and the schedule tribes.

Article covered are 244.

SIXTH SCHEDULE

Provisions relating to administration of the tribal areas in the states of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.

Articles covered are 244 and 275.

SEVENTH SCHEDULE

Division of powers between Centre and States.

List I-Union List -It is for Central Government-97 subjects.

List II-State List -It is for the State Government-66 subjects.

List III- Concurrent List-It concerns both Union and State Governments.Both have the power to make laws-47 subjects.

If any dispute arises regarding the concurrent list the will of the union prevails.

Article covered is 246.

EIGHTH SCHEDULE

Includes the languages recognized by the Constitution.

Originally,it had 14 languages,but presently there are 22 languages

Assamese
Bengali
Gujarati
Hindi
Kannada
Kashmiri
Konkani
Malayalam
Manipuri
Marathi
Nepali
Oriya
Punjabi
Sanskrit
Sindhi
Telugu
Tamil
Urdu
Bodo
Dogri
Santhali
Maithili

Last four were added in 2004,by 92nd Amendment Act,2003.

Articles covered are 344 and 351.

NINTH SCHEDULE

Acts and Regulations (originally 13 but presently 282) of the state legislatures dealing with land reforms and abolition of the zamindari system.

The schedule was added in 1951 by the First Amendment Act,1951.

It contains acts and orders related to land tenure,road tax,railways and industries.

Article covered is 31-B.

TENTH SCHEDULE

Provisions relating to disqualification of the Members of Parliament and state Legislatures on the grounds of defection.It has been added by the 52nd Amendment Act, of 1985,also known as Anti-defection law.

Articles covered are 102 and 191.

ELEVENTH SCHEDULE

Specifies the powers authority and responsibilities of Panchayats. It has 29 matters.

The schedule was added by the 73rd Amendment Act 1992.

Article covered is 243-G.

TWELFTH SCHEDULE

Specifies the powers,authority and responsibilities of Municipalities.It has 18 matters.

The schedule was added by the 74th Amendment Act of 1992.

Article covered is 243 W.

CATALYSIS,GAS LAWS AND EQUILIBRIUM | CHEMISTRY | ~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

2019-10-01T15:38:00.000+05:30

CATALYSIS

The term catalysis is given by Berzelius.A catalysis is a substance which alter the rate or reaction.The catalysis does not alter in the reaction and is removed as such after the completion of the reaction.

Catalysis is the process of increasing the rate of a chemical reaction by adding a substance known as a catalyst, which is not consumed in the catalyzed reaction and can continue to act repeatedly.

CATALYSIS

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CATALYSTS

A catalyst remains unchanged in mass and chemical composition.

Only a very small amount of catalyst is sufficient to catalyze a reaction.

A catalyst does not initiate a reaction.

A catalyst does not change the equilibrium state of a reversible reaction as it increases the rate of forward as well as backward reaction.

ENZYME CATALYSIS

The increase in the rate of reactions by the enzyme is known as enzyme catalysis.

Enzymes are biocatalysts and all are protein in nature.

Enzymes are highly specific in their nature.

Enzymes are highly sensitive to temperature i.e., the temperature at which enzymes are maximum active,varies between 25-37⁰ C.

The rates of enzymatic reactions are very much affected by pH change.

ENZYME CATALYSIS

SOME IMPORTANT PROCESSES AND CATALYST USED

PROCESS	CATALYST USED
Manufacture of ghee from vegetable oils	Nickel
Haber’s process for the manufacture of ammonia	Fe (here Mo acts as activator)
Contact process for the manufacture of sulphuric acid	Pt powder
Conversion of proteins into peptide	Pepsin enzyme
Conversion of proteins into amino acids	Erepsin enzyme
Conversion of glucose into ethanol	Zymase enzyme
Conversion starch into maltose	Diastase enzyme
Formation of vinegar from cane sugar	Micoderma aceti
Conversion of sucrose into glucose and fructose	Invertase enzyme
Conversion of milk into curd	Lactase (lactobacilli)
Ostwald’s process for the manufacture of HNO₃	Platinum (Pt)

GASEOUS STATE

At STP/NTP, temperature, T= 273.15 K, pressure,p = 1 atm = 101.35 kPa, volume,V = 22.41 mol^-1

BOYLE'S LAW

At constant temperature, the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure.

V∝ 1/p [at constant temperature ]

i.e., p₁V₁ = p₂V₂

_{CHARLES LAW}

At constant pressure, volume is directly proportional to absolute temperature.

V ∝ T [at constant pressure]

V₁/T₁ =V₂/T₂

GAS EQUATION

This express a relation between pressure, volume and temperature of a gas.

V ∝ 1/P (Boyle's law)

V ∝ T (Charles law)

on combining V ∝ T/p or pV/T = R

or pV = RT (Where, R = gas constant)

This is ideal gas equation,

For n moles, pV = nRT

Value of gas constant, R depends upon the units of measurements.

R = 0.0821 L atm mol^-1 K^-1

=8.3143 J mol^-1 K^-1

=5.189* 1019 eV mol^-1 K^-1

= 1.99 cal mol^-1 K^-1

Gas constant, R for a single molecule is called Boltzmann constant (K)

Density of a gas is proportional to pressure and inversely related to temperature

i.e., d = pM/RT

EQUILIBRIUM

When a reversible reaction is performed in a closed container, a state is reached when the rate of forward and backward reactions become equal.This state is called chemical equilibrium

Chemical equilibrium is dynamic in nature and in a reversible reaction it can be approached from either of sides.Catalyst has no effect on the state of equilibrium.

Free energy change(ΔG⁰) at equilibrium is zero.

At equilibrium, the concentrations do not change with time.

OXIDATION AND REDUCTION | CHEMISTRY | ~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

2019-09-29T14:26:00.000+05:30

OXIDATION

OXIDATION AND REDUCTION

The process which involves gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen or loss of one or more electrons (de-electronation) from an atom,ion or molecule is called oxidation e.g., Mg→Mg²⁺+2e^-

The positive valency of an element increases by its oxidation.

Oxidation is the loss of electrons during a reaction by a molecule, atom or ion.
Oxidation occurs when the oxidation state of a molecule, atom or ion is increased. The opposite process is called reduction, which occurs when there is a gain of electrons or the oxidation state of an atom, molecule, or ion decreases.An example of a reaction is that between hydrogen and fluorine gas to form hydrofluoric acid:

H₂ + F₂ → 2 HF

In this reaction, hydrogen is being oxidized and fluorine is being reduced. The reaction may be better understood if it is written in terms of two half-reactions.

H₂ → 2 H⁺ + 2 e^-

F₂ + 2 e^- → 2 F^-

Note there is no oxygen anywhere in this reaction.

REDUCTION

The process which involves the gain of hydrogen or one or more electrons (electronation) or loss of oxygen by an atom,ion or molecule is called reduction.e.g., S+2e^-→S^2-

Reduction involves decrease in the positive valency of an element.

OXIDIZING AGENT (OXIDANT)

It is a substance which accepts electron in the chemical reaction i.e., electron acceptors are oxidising agent.

All the positively charged species behave like oxidising agents.

Oxidising agents are Lewis acids.

REDUCING AGENT (REDUCTANT)

The substance which donates electron in a chemical reaction is called reducing agent, i.e., electron donors are reducing agents.

All the negatively charged species behave like reducing agents.Reducing agents are Lewis base.

REDOX REACTIONS

The reactions which involve oxidation and reduction as its two half-reactions,are called redox reactions.

When the same element is oxidation or reduced,the reaction is called disproportionation reaction.

OXIDATION STATES

It is the real or imaginary charge which an atom appears to have in its combined states.

Oxidation state of an element may be positive negative,zero or fractional.

RULES FOR DETERMINING OXIDATION STATE

The oxidation state of an element in its free or uncombined state is zero.Oxidation state of O in O₂ and O₃ is zero.

Oxidation state of hydrogen in most of its compounds is plus one (+1).

Oxidation state of oxygen in most of its compounds is minus two (-2).

Oxidation state of elements of IA, IIA and IIIA sub-group elements in their compounds are +1, +2 and +3 respectively.

Oxidation state of any ion is equal to its charge.

The algebraic sum of the oxidation states of all elements present in polyatomic ion is equal to the charge on the ion.

Oxygen shows positive oxidation state in OF₂

Oxidation state of fluorine (F) is always 1.

CHEMICAL BONDING | CHEMISTRY ~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

2019-09-28T12:00:00.000+05:30

CHEMICAL BONDING

A chemical bond is a lasting attraction between atoms, ions or molecules that enables the formation of chemical compounds. The bond may result from the electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions as in ionic bonds or through the sharing of electrons as in covalent bonds.

IONS

An ion is an electrically charged species.A positively charged ion is called cation,while a negatively charged ion is called anion.A cation contains less electrons than a normal atom while an anion contains more electron than a normal atom.

e.g., cation Na⁺,H⁺,Mg²⁺ and anion Cl^-,F^-,I^-.

The metal atom lose electron to form cations and non-metal atom accept electrons to form anions.There is no charge in atomic number or number of protons when an atom forms ion.

ISOELECTRONIC SPECIES

Species having the same number of electrons but different nuclear charge are known as isoelectronic species.They also have same bond order.

TYPES OF CHEMICAL BOND

CHEMICAL BONDING

ELECTROVALENT BOND OR IONIC BOND

The bond is formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another.

These bonds are formed between metals and non-metals.

Properties of electrovalent compounds are

(a) These are usually crystalline solids.

(b) These have high melting point.

(d) These are insoluble in organic solvents like alcohol etc.

(e) If the electronegativity difference of two atoms is 1.7,the bond between them is fifty per cent ionic.

SOME ELECTROVALENT COMPOUNDS

NAME	FORMULA	IONS PRESENT
Aluminium oxide (Alumina)	Al₂O₃	Al³⁺,O^2-
Ammonium chloride	NH₄Cl	NH₄⁺ and Cl^-
Calcium chloride	CaCl₂	Ca²⁺ and Cl^-
Calcium nitrate	Ca(NO₃)₂	Ca²⁺ and NO₃^-
Copper sulphate	CuSO₄	Cu²⁺ and SO₄^2-
Magnesium chloride	MgCl₂	Mg²⁺ and Cl^-
Magnesium oxide	MgO	Mg²⁺ and O^2-
Potassium chloride	KCl	K⁺ and Cl^-
Sodium chloride	NaCl	Na⁺ and OH^-
Sodium hydroxide	NaOH	Na⁺ and OH^-

COVALENT BOND

This bond is formed by the sharing of electrons between two atoms.

When a non-metal combines with another non-metal, a covalent bond is formed.

The bond formed between the atoms of the same elements is also a covalent bond.

Covalent bonds are of three types:

Single covalent bond (by sharing of one pair of electrons)

Double covalent bond (by sharing of two pairs of electrons)

Triple covalent bond (by sharing of three pairs of electrons)

Properties of covalent compounds are:

These are usually liquids or gases,having usually low melting point and boiling point.

These do not conduct electricity and are insoluble in water but dissolve in organic solvents.

These show stereoisomerism because covalent bond is directional in nature.

SOME COVALENT COMPOUNDS

NAME	FORMULA	ELEMENTS PRESENT
Alcohol (Ethanol)	C₂H₅OH	C,H and O
Ammonia	NH₃	N and H
Acetylene (Ethyne)	C₂H₂	C and H
Carbon dioxide	CO₂	C and O
Carbon disulphide	CS₂	C and S
Carbon tetrachloride	CCl₄	C and Cl
Cane sugar	C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁	C,H and O
Ethane	C₂H₆	C and H
Ethylene	C₂H₄	C and H
Glucose	C₆H₁₂O₆	C,H and O
Methane	CH₄	C and H

COORDINATE BOND

This type of bond is formed by one sided sharing of one pair of electrons between two atoms.

The atom having completed octet which provides the electron pair for sharing is known as donor.

The other atom which accept the electron pair is called the acceptor atom.

HYDROGEN BOND

This bond is electrostatic force of attraction between hydrogen atom covalent bonded to a highly electronegative atom and any other electronegative atom which is present in the same or different molecules.

It is mainly of two types:

Intermolecular H-bonding (e.g., H₂O,HF,NH₃ molecule)

Intramolecular H-bonding (e.g.,o-nitrophenol)

Molecules having O-H,N-H or H-F bond show abnormal properties due to H-bond formation.

RADIOACTIVITY | NUCLEAR FISSION,NUCLEAR FUSION | CHEMISTRY~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

2019-09-27T17:04:00.000+05:30

RADIOACTIVITY

RADIOACTIVITY | NUCLEAR FISSION,NUCLEAR FUSION

Radioactivity was discovered by a French physicist Henry Bacquerel in 1896.The term radioactivity was given by Marie Curie, the scientist who got Nobel twice for physics and chemistry. The spontaneous emission of invisible radiation by some elements due to the splitting of their nucleus is called radioactivity.

The invisible rays emitted by radioactive elements consist of

(a) Alpha (ɑ) particles i.e., ₂He⁴(+2 unit charge and mass four units).They are deflected towards negative plate in electric field.

(b) Beta (β) particles i.e., electrons (-1 charge and mass zero).They are deflected towards positive plate in electric field.

(c) Gamma (𝜸) rays (no charge and no mass).They are not deflected from their path in electric or magnetic field. They are electromagnetic radiations. Emission of 𝜸-rays is the secondary effect of radioactive change.

Stable nuclei are those for which of neutrons and protons are equal.

Isotopes of all the known elements with Z>83 are radioactive.

Soddy and Fajan's group displacement law is used to determine group of the daughter element.

The time taken by half of the atoms of a radioactive element to disintegrate is called its half-life.

The unit of half life period is time -1.

NUCLEAR FISSION

The splitting of a heavy nucleus into two smaller almost equal nuclei along with the production of two or three neutrons and about 200 MeV of energy is called "nuclear fission".Nuclear fission was discovered by "Hahn"and "Strassmann" in 1939.

Atom bomb is the result of uncontrolled nuclear fission.

The device in which controlled nuclear fission is carried out is called nuclear reactor.The fission is controlled by absorbing neutrons by using cadmium or boron rods.Heavy water (D₂O,mol wt. 20) and graphite is used for slowing down the fast moving neutrons. U²³⁵ is used as a nuclear fuel.

NUCLEAR FUSION

The union of lighter nuclei to form a big nucleus is called the nuclear fusion.Nuclear fusion is also accompanied by release of energy because the total mass of products is lesser than total mass of reactants.

Nuclear fusion occurs only at extremely high temperature (>10⁶K), so it is also called thermo-nuclear reaction.

Hydrogen bomb is the result of nuclear fusion.It contains a mixture of deuterium oxide (D₂O) and tritium oxide (T₂O) in a space surrounding an ordinary atom bomb.

Source of solar and steller energy is nuclear fusion.

APPLICATIONS OF RADIOISOTOPES

Radio carbon dating is used to determine age of dead specimen with C¹⁴ content by comparing it with C-12, content.

N = N₀ (1/2)ⁿ

Where, n = total time/t_1/2.

Rock dating or uranium dating is used to determine the age of rocks or earth.It is based on Pb and U ratio.

USES OF RADIOISOTOPES

RADIOISOTOPE	USES
I¹³¹(Iodine-131)	(i)To study the structure and activity of thyroid gland. (ii)For the treatment of thyroid disease.
I¹²³(Iodine-123)	Brain imaging.
Co⁶⁰(Cobalt-60)	Treatment of cancer.
Na²⁴(Sodium-24)	To trace flow of blood.
P³³ (Phosphorus-32)	For leukemia therapy.
C-14 (Carbon-14)	To study the kinetics of photosynthesis.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM | CHEMISTRY |~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

2019-09-22T15:49:00.000+05:30

ATOMIC THEORY OF MATTER

THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

1808,John Dalton gave his atomic theory of matter. According to this theory, Atom is the smallest indivisible particle of an element. Atom can neither be created nor be destroyed. Atoms of different elements differ in mass, size and chemical properties. The 'number' and 'kinds ‘of atoms in a given compound is fixed. Atoms of the same elements can combine in more then one ratio to form different compounds.

ATOM

Smallest particle of an element that can take part in chemical reaction.Atoms are made up of electrons,protons and neutrons.

Electron (-1^e0) has negative charge (discovered by JJ Thomson in 1897),charge on electron = 1.6✕10^-19C. Mass of electron= 9.1✕10^-28g. The magnitude of negative charge on electron was determined by Millikan.

Proton (₁H¹) has positive charge (discovered by E Goldstein). Charge on proton (₁H¹) = 1.6✕10^-19C. Mass of proton (₁H¹) = 1.6✕10^-24g.

Neutron (₀n¹) has no charge (discovered by Chadwick). Mass of neutron = 1.6✕10^-24g.

MOLECULE

It is the smallest particle of a compound.

Molecules of a compound contain two are more different types of atoms. e.g., ammonia (NH₃), water (H₂O) etc.

PROPERTIES OF CATHODE RAYS

These travel in straight line,cast shadows of object placed in their path.

These are negatively charged and produce mechanical effects.

Charged particles present in cathode rays are electron.

PROPERTIES OF ANODE RAYS

These travels in straight line and can also produce mechanical effects.These are positively charged.

NUCLEUS (DISCOVERED BY RUTHERFORD)

Nucleus is positively charged and present at the centre of an atom.

Entire mass of atom is concentrated in the nucleus.

ATOMIC NUMBER

It is the number of protons in one atom of an element.

Number of protons = number of electrons (in case of neutral atom).

MASS NUMBER

It is the total number of protons and neutrons present in one atom of an element.

Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

= atomic number + number of neutrons

=number of electrons +number of neutrons

VALENCE ELECTRONS

Valence electrons are located in the outermost shell of an atom.Elements having same number of valence electrons have similar chemical properties.

When an atom loses electron,it gets converted into cation,i.e., carries one positive charge and if it gains one electron,it carries one negative charge, i.e., converted into anion.

Elements having 1,2 or 3 valence electrons in their atoms are metals while those having 4,5,6 or 7 are non-metals.

WHAT IS ELECTRICITY ? | PHYSICS |~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

2019-09-21T14:47:00.000+05:30

ELECTRICITY

WHAT IS ELECTRICITY

When two bodies are rubbed together,they acquire the property of attracting light objects like small bits of paper dust particles.The bodies which acquire this property are said to be electrified or charged with electricity.

CHARGE

Charge is the basic property associated with matter due to which it produces and experience electrical and magnetic effects.

Similar charges repel each other and opposite charges attract each other.

Conductors are those substances which allow passage of electrical charges to flow through them and have very low electrical resistance e.g., copper,aluminum,gold,silver etc.

Resistors offer high resistance to flow of current through them e.g., eureka,nichrome etc.

Insulators have infinite resistance and do not allow the passage of current e.g., rubber,glass etc.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

The electric potential at a point is the work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point.

Electric potential = Work done/Charge

Its SI unit is Volt (V).

Potential difference (V_A-V_B) between two points A and B is the work done in bringing a unit charge from point B to point A.

Potential difference is a scalar quantity and is measured by means of voltmeter (a high resistance device).

ELECTRIC CURRENT

Flow of electric charges is called as electric current.It is measured by ammeter.

There are two types of electric current

(i) Alternating Current (AC)

(ii) Direct Current (DC)

Alternating current is used in houses and factories and its frequency is 50 Hz.

The direction of positive charges is same as direction of conventional current.

Current = Charge/Time

I = Q/t

OHM's LAW

According to it,the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across it.

I = V/R

or V = IR, where R is resistance.

RESISTANCE

The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area.If I and A are respectively length and cross-sectional area of a conductor and R is its resistance,then

R ∝ I/A

R = ρ I/A

Unit of resistance is ohm.

where, ρ is a constant of material of conductor called specific resistance or resistivity. Its SI unit is ohm-metre.

The reciprocal of resistance of a conductor is called the electrical conductor of the conductor.

Conductance = 1/Resistance

Unit of conductance is mho or siemen.

The reciprocal of resistivity of a conductor is called its conductivity.Its SI unit is mho m^-1 or siemen/metre (S m^-1).

The specific resistance of the material depends only on the material of conductor and its temperature.

COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES

Series combination: R = R₁+R₂+R₃ and here current flows through each conductor is same.

Parallel combination:1/R = 1/R₁+1/R₂+1/R₃ and here potential across each conductor is same.

ELECTRIC POWER

Electrical power is the electrical work done per unit time.

P=W/t

Its SI unit is watt (W).

or P=V✕I

or P=I²R (since:V=IR)

1 kilowatt hour = 3600000 joule,=3.6✕10⁶J

1 Horse power =746 watt

1 Horse power =550 foot-pound/second

HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY

Heat is produced when electric current is passed through a conductor.

Heat produced = I²Rt =VIt=V²t/R

IMPORTANT POINTS BASED ON HEATING EFFECT

In home appliances like as electric iron,electric heater and heating rod,the heating element used is of a nichrome (an alloy of Ni and Ci) wire. Nichrome has high melting point and high resistivity. To avoid the risk of electric shock, the metal body of electrical appliances is earthed.

A electric fuse is generally prepared from tin-lead alloy (63% tin + 37% lead).It is should have high resistance and low melting point.It is connected in the series.

Filament of electric bulb is made of tungsten has high melting point (3500⁰C) and high resistivity.

Tube light contains a long tube of glass which is linked internally with a fluorescent substance.It is filled with an inert gas like argon along with some mercury.

MAGNETS

Magnet is a piece of iron or other materials that can attract iron containing objects.

The magnets which do not lose their magnetism with normal treatment are called permanent magnets.

The permanent magnets are made of certain alloys of nickel,cobalt and alloys of iron with some carbon.

Permanent magnets are made of steel,cobalt-steel,ticonal, alcomax and alnico.

The materials which retain their magnetism for a long time are called hard magnetic materials.

In bar,rod and horse-shoe magnets,north or south poles are either indicated by the letter N or S.

When poles of two magnets are brought close together,they exert force of each other.This force is called intersection between the poles.

If we cut a magnet in two parts,then each separate part will behave as a magnet.

MAGNETIC FIELD

The space in the surrounding of a magnet or a current carrying conductor in which its magnetic effect can be experience is called magnetic field.

MAGNETIC FLUX

The magnetic flux linked with a surface is equal to the total number of magnetic lines of force passing through that surface normally.Its unit is weber.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

When a change occurs in the magnetic flux lined with the coil, an emf is induced in the coil.The phenomenon is called electromagnetic induction.

The phenomenon of production of indued emf in a circuit due to change in magnetic flux in its neighboring circuit is called mutual induction.

TYPES OF WAVE IN PHYSICS ~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

2019-09-20T14:19:00.000+05:30

WAVES

A wave is a form of disturbance which travels through a material medium due to the repeated periodic motion of the particles of the medium about their mean position.A sudden and short duration disturbance is called a pulse.Waves are broadly of two types.

i. Mechanical wave

ii.Electromagnetic wave

MECHANICAL WAVE

The wave which require material medium (solid,liquid,gas) for their propagation are called mechanical waves elastic wave Mechanical wave are of two types.

i. Transverse waves

ii.Longitudinal waves

TRANSVERSE WAVES

In these waves,displacement of the particles of the medium is at right angles to the direction of propagation of the waves.These waves can be polarized and can travel in solids and liquids only.

These waves travel in the form of crests and troughs.

LONGITUDINAL WAVES

In these waves, displacement of the particles of the medium is in the direction of propagation of the waves.

These waves cannot be polarized and can travel in solids,liquids and gases.

These waves travel in the form of compression's and rarefaction's.

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

The waves which do not require medium for their propagation i.e., which can propagate even through the vacuum are called electromagnetic waves.

Cathode rays, canal rays, ɑ rays,𝛃 rays sound waves and ultrasonic waves are not electromagnetic waves.

Some Important Electromagnetic Waves

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES	DISCOVERER	WAVELENGTH RANGE	FREQUENCY RANGE
𝜸-rays	Henry Becqueral	10^-14 to 10^-10	10²⁰ to 10¹⁸
X-rays	W.Rontgen	10^-10 to 10^-8	10¹⁸ to 10¹⁶
Ultraviolet rays	Ritter	10^-8 to 10^-7	10¹⁶to 10¹⁴
Visible radiation	Newton	3.910^-7 to 7.810^-7	10¹⁴ to 10¹²
Infra-red rays	Hershel	7.810^-7 to 7.810^-3	10¹² to 10¹⁰
Short radio waves or Hertz hertzian waves	Heinrich	10^-3 to 1	10¹⁰ to 10⁸
Long radio waves	Marcony	1 to 10⁴	10⁸to 10⁶

SOUND WAVE

Sound is a form of energy which produces the sensating of hearing.

Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves.

Sound waves have low frequency and high wavelength.

Sound waves cannot travel in vacuum.

The rebouncing back of sound when it strikes a hard surface is called reflection of sound.

The repetition of sound due to reflection of sound wave is called an echo.

According to their frequency range, longitudinal mechanical waves are divided into the following categories

Audible or sound waves The longitudinal mechanical waves which lie in the frequency range 20 Hz to 20000 Hz are called audible or sound waves.These waves are sensitive to human ear.
Infrasonic waves The longitudinal mechanical waves having frequencies less than 20 Hz are called Infrasonic.These waves are produced by sources of bigger size such as earthquakes,volcanic eruptions,ocean waves and by elephants and whales.
Ultrasonic waves The longitudinal mechanical waves having frequencies greater than 20000 Hz are called ultrasonic waves. Human ear cannot detect these waves.But certain creatures like dog,cat,bat,mosquito can detect these waves.Bat not only detect but also produce ultrasonic.

APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASONIC WAVES

For sending signals.

For measuring the depth of sea.

For cleaning cloths, aeroplanes and machinery parts of clocks.

For removing lamp-shoot from the chimney of factories.

In sterilizing of a liquid.

In ultrasonography.

In SONAR.

SPEED OF SOUND

The speed of sound basically depends upon elasticity and density of medium.

Speed of sound in air is 332 m/s, in water is 1483 m/s and in iron is 5130 m/s.

The speed of sound is independent of pressure i.e., speed remains unchanged by the increase or decrease of pressure.

The speed of sound in air increases by 0.61 m/s when the temperature is increases by 1⁰C.

The speed of sound is more in humid air than in dry air because the density of humid air is less than the density of dry air.

When sound enters from one medium to another medium,its speed and wavelength changes but frequency remains unchanged.

CHARACTERISTIC OF SOUND WAVE

Intensity : Intensity of sound at any point in space is defined as amount of energy passing normally per unit area held around that point per unit time.

Loudness depends an intensity of sound .

Unit of loudness is bel.

Pitch: The pitch of a sound is the characteristics which distinguishes between a shill and a grave.Pitch depends upon frequency.

Quality: Quality is that characteristic of sound which enables us to distinguishes between sound produced by two sources having the same intensity and pitch.

SHOCK WAVES

A body moving with supersonic speed in air leaves behind it a conical region of disturbance which spreads continuously. Such a disturbance is called shock wave.These wave carries huge energy and may make cracks in window panes or even damage a building.

PROPERTIES OF MATTER FOR KIDS | PHYSICS ~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

2019-09-13T16:49:00.000+05:30

PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Physical properties of matter can be observed and tested. They include properties such as color, length, volume, odor, and density. These properties are extensive if they depend on the amount of the substance being used or intensive if they do not depend on the amount of substance being used.

PROPERTIES OF MATTER

ELASTICITY

Elasticity is the property of material of a body by virtue of which the body acquires its original shape and size after the removal of deforming force.Steel is more elastic than rubber.

The internal restoring force acting per unit area of cross section of a deformed body is called stess.

The fractional change in configuration i.e., length,volume and shape is called strain.

PRESSURE

Pressure is defined as force acting normally on unit area of the surface.

Pressure = Force/Area

Atmospheric pressure = 1.01 bar = 1.01✕10⁵N/m²

Atmospheric pressure is measured by barometer.

Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude (height from earth's surface). This is why

i. It is difficult to cook on the mountain.

ii.The fountain pen of a passenger leaks in aeroplane at height.

The pressure exerted by liquid a depth h below the surface of liquid is given as

p = hdg, where d is density of liquid.

Pressure at a point in a static liquid has same value in all direction.

Pressure at a point in a liquid is proportional to the density of the liquid.

Pressure at a point in a liquid is proportional to the depth of the point from the free surface.

Boiling point of all substances increases with the increase in pressure.

BUOYANT FORCE

When a body is immersed partially or wholly in a liquid, a force acts on the body by the liquid in the upward direction.

This force is called buoyant force of buoyant of upthrust.

It is equal to the weight of liquid displaced by the body and acts at the centre of gravity of displaced liquid.

ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE

When a solid body is immersed wholly or partially in a liquid (in general,in a fluid), then there is some apparent loss in its weight.This loss in weight is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the body.

LAW OF FLOTATION

When body floats in neutral equilibrium,the weight of the body is equal to the weight of displaced liquid.

The centre of gravity of the body and centre of gravity of the displaced liquid should be in one vertical line.

⇒The centre of gravity of a body is that point at which the whole weight of the body appears to act.

DENSITY

Density is defined as mass per unit volume. Density = Mass /Volume Its SI unit is Kg/m³. Relative density = Density of material / Density of water at 4⁰C

Relative density is measured by hydrometer.

The density of sea water is more than of normal water.This explains why it is easier to swim in sea water.

If ice floating in water in a vessel melts, the level of water in the vessel does not change.

The density of water is maximum at temperature 4⁰C.

SURFACE TENSION

Surface tension of a liquid is measured by the normal force acting per unit length on either side of an imaginary line drawn on the free surface of liquid and tangential to the free surface.

If a force F acts on an imaginary line of length l,then surface tension T = F/l

Its SI unit is Newton/metre.

The surface tension of a liquid decrease with increase in temperature.

⇒Force of attraction applied between molecules of same substance is called cohesive force while attractive between molecules of different substances is called adhesive force.

ANGLE OF CONTACT

The angle inside the liquid between the tangent to the solid surface and the tangent to the liquid surface at the point of contact is called the angle of contact for that pair of solid and liquid.

The angle of contact for pure water and clean glass is zero.For ordinary water and glass it is about 8⁰C.

The liquid which do not wet the solid have obtuse angle of contact as for mercury and glass the angle of contact is 135⁰C.

The angle of contact for water and silver is 90⁰C.

CAPILLARITY

If a capillary tube is dipped in a liquid, liquid ascends of descends in the capillary tube.This phenomenon is called capillarity.The oil in the wick of a lamp rises due to capillary action of threads in the wick.The root hairs of plants draws water from the soil through capillary action.

To prevent loss of water due to capillary action, the soil is loosened and split into pieces by the farmers.

VISCOSITY

Viscosity is the property of a liquid by virtue of which it opposes the relative motion between its different layers.

Viscosity is the property of liquids and gases both.

With rise in temperature, viscosity of liquids decreases and that for gases increase.

BERNOULLI'S THEOREM

When an in compressible and non-viscous liquid (or gas) flows in streamlined motion from one place to another,then at every point of its path the total energy per unit volume (pressure energy + kinetic energy+ pressure energy) is constant.Venturimeter a device used to measure rate of flow of fluid, works on Bernoulli's theorem.

HEAT | PHYSICS |~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

2019-09-13T15:21:00.001+05:30

HEAT

HEAT | PHYSICS

Heat is a form of energy which produces in us the sensation of warmth.Air is a non-conductor of heat.Heat is due to the kinetic energy of the molecules constituting the body.Heat's units are calorie,kilo calorie or joule.

Calorie It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water through

1⁰ C (from 10⁰ C to 11⁰ C).It is represented by cal. 1 cal = 4.18 J

TEMPERATURE

An instrument used to measure the temperature of a body is called a thermometer.

Mercury is generally used as thermometric substance,because it is not easily obtained in nature in pure state and clearly visible in capillary tube but has fairly uniform expansion with increase of temperature.

Celsius scale The melting point of ice at standard atmospheric pressure is regarded as 0⁰ C and the boiling point of water as 100⁰ C.This scale was designed by Anders Celsius, in the year 1710.

Fahrenheit scale The melting point of ice is regarded as 32⁰F and the boiling point of water as 212⁰F.This scale was designed by Gabriel Fahrenheit in the year 1717.

Reaumer scale The melting point of ice is regarded as 0⁰ R and the boiling point of water as 80⁰ R. This scale was introduced by RA Reaumer in year 1730.

The normal temperature of a human body is 37⁰ C or 98.4 F.

-40⁰ is the temperature at which Celsius and Fahrenheit thermometers read same.

TOTAL RADIATION PYROMETER

Radiation pyrometer measures the temperature of a body by measuring the radiation emitted by the body.It cannot measure temperature below 800⁰ C because at low temperature,emission of radiation is very small and cannot be detected.Sun's temperature is measured by it.

SPECIFIC HEAT

It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of the substance by 1⁰ C.

It is usually represented by C.

SI unit of specific heat is joule per kilogram per degree Celsius.It may be written J/kg⁰ C.

Specific heat of gold = 130 J/kg⁰ C, specific heat of water = 4180 J/kg⁰ C.

The specific heat of water is maximum.

THERMAL CAPACITY

It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a body through 1⁰ C.Its units are J/⁰ C or cal/⁰ C or kcal/⁰ C.

WATER EQUIVALENT

It is the mass of water, which absorbs or emits the same amount of heat as is done by the given body for the same rise or fall in temperature.

The water equivalent of a body is denoted by W and its unit is kg in SI system and g in CGS system.

PRINCIPLE OF CALORIMETRY

Calorimeter is a cylindrical vessel made of copper.

The heat lost by the hot body must be equal to the heat gained by the cold body.

i.e., Heat gained = Heat lost

Work and heat are two equivalent forms of energy.

THERMAL EXPANSION

It is the increase in size on heating.

A solid can undergo three types of expansions.

Linear expansion (expansion in length)

Superficial expansion (expansion in area)

Cubical expansion (expansion in volume)

SOME PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

When hot tea is poured into a glass tumbler made of soft glass,it cracks because of thermal expansion of glass.

Telegraph wires are given enough gap to allow the wires for contraction in winter.

An ordinary pendulum clock runs faster in winter but slower in summer,because in summer the length of pendulum increases while in winter it decreases.

A metallic ball before heating can pass easily through the ring, but after heating the ball does not pass through the ring because of the thermal expansion of ball.

A gap is provided between the iron rails of the railway track so that rails can easily expand during summer and do not bend.In the construction of bridges,ends of steel gerders are not fixed but placed on rollers to allow free expansion and contraction in summer and winter respectively to avoid any damage to the bridge.

A tightly fitted cork can be removed from a glass bottle without breaking it on heating its mouth carefully.The glass wall expand and the cork will come out easily.

EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS

Liquids do not have their definite length and surface area.

Liquids always need a container.When they are heated,they expand and at the same time the container also expands.

The expansion of a liquid,when the expansion of its container has not been taken into account is called apparent-expansion.

The expansion of a liquid when the expansion of its container is taken into account, is called real expansion.

ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER

Almost every liquid expands with the increase in temperature.But when temperature of water is increased from 0⁰ C to 4⁰ C its volume decreases if the temperature is increased above 4⁰ C its volume starts increasing, clearly density of water is maximum at 4⁰ C.

CHANGE OF STATE(FUSION AND VAPORIZATION)

The process in which a solid changes into a liquid on heating is called fusion (melting).

Change of state takes place i.e., ice changes into water.

The process in which a liquid changes into a vapour on heating is called vaporization.

Change of state takes place i.e., water changes into water vapour or steam.

LATENT HEAT

It is the amount of heat absorbed by a unit mass of the substance to change its state without change in temperature.

SI unit of latent heat is joule per kilogram.

Latent heat of fusion is 80 cal/g.

Latent heat of vaporization is 540 cal/g.

Ice at 0⁰ C is more effective in cooling a substance that water at 0⁰ C.

If Q is quantity of heat absorbed ,then Q= mL.

where, m = mass of substance

L = Latent heat of substance

Steam contains more heat,in the form of latent heat than boiling water.

The burns caused by steam are much more severe than those caused by boiling water though both of them are at the same temperature of 100⁰ C.

EVAPORATION

It is the slow process of conversion of a liquid into its vapour even below its boiling temperature.

Cooking is caused by evaporation due to expansion.

Factors affecting the evaporation of a liquid are

The area of the liquid surface.
The nature of the liquid.
Temperature of the liquid.
Dryness of air.
The movement of the air.
Temperature of air or surrounding.

RELATIVE HUMIDITY

The amount of water vapour in air is called as humidity.

The amount of water vapour in the air varies as ir depends of the rate of evaporation.

The amount of water vapour present in 1 m³ air is called absolute humidity.

The ratio of amount of water vapour (m) actually present in a certain volume of air a given temperature to the amount of water vapour (M) required to saturate it, is called relative humidity,R_H.

i.e., R_H = m/M✕100%

TRANSMISSION OF HEAT

Transfer of heat from one place to other place is called transmission of heat.

These are of three types

a. Conduction

b. Convection

c. Radiation

In solids transmission of heat takes by conduction process.

In liquids and gases heat takes place by convection process.

Heat from the sun reaches the earth by radiation.

NEWTON'S LAW OF COOLING

The rate of loss of heat by a body is directly proportional to the difference in temperature between the body and the surrounding.

KIRCHHOFF'S LAW

Kirchhoff's law signifies that good absorbers are good emitters.If a shining metal ball with some black spot on its surface is heated to a high temperature and seen in dark,the shining ball becomes dull but the black spots shines brilliantly because black spot absorbs radiation during heating and emit in dark.

GRAVITY | PHYSICS |~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

2019-09-11T10:32:00.000+05:30

GRAVITY

The gravitational force of earth is called gravity.i.e., gravity is force by which earth pulls a body towards its centre. The acceleration produced in a body due to force of gravity is called acceleration due to gravity and its value is 9.8 m/s². Gravity, also called gravitation, in mechanics, the universal force of attraction acting between all matter. On Earth all bodies have a weight, or downward force of gravity, proportional to their mass, which Earth's mass exerts on them. Gravity is measured by the acceleration that it gives to freely falling objects.

NEWTON'S LAW OF GRAVITATION

The force of gravitational attraction between two point bodies is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

i.e.,F = G ✕ m₁m₂/r²

where G is universal gravitational constant, it's value is 6.67✕10^-11 N-m² kg^-2

^{VARIATION IN GRAVITY (g)}

Value of g decreases with height or depth from earth's surface.

g is maximum at poles.

g is minimum at equator.

g decreases due to rotation of earth.

g decreases if angular speed of earth increases and increases, if angular speed of earth decreases.

SATELLITE

Satellite are natural or artificial bodies revolving around a planet under its gravitational attraction.

Orbital speed of a satellite is independent of its mass and depends upon the radius of orbit.

The orbital speed of a satellite revolving near the surface of earth is 7.9 km/s.

Time period of revolution of satellite revolving near the surface of earth is 1 hr 24 min (84 min).

Period of revolution of a satellite depends upon the height of satellite from the surface of earth.

Every body inside the satellite is in a state of weightlessness.

Period of revolution of a satellite is independent of its mass.

If a satellite revolves in equatorial plane in the direction of earth's rotation i.e., fro west to east with a period of revolution equal to time period of rotation of earth on its own axis i.e., 24 hours, then the satellite will appear stationary satellite.Such a satellite revolves around the earth at a height of 3600 km.

Polar satellite revolves around the earth in polar orbit at a height of 800 km. Time periods of the satellite is 84 min.

These are used for weather forecasting and mapping etc.

ESCAPE VELOCITY

Escape velocity is that minimum velocity with which a body should be projected from the surface of earth, so as it goes out of gravitation field of earth and never return to earth.

Escape velocity at the earth surface is 11.2 km/s.

The escape velocity at moon surface is 2.4 km/s. So,there is no atmosphere.

The value of g on the moon is 1/6th of that on the earth.

MASS AND WEIGHT

The mass of a body is the quantity of matter contained in it.

It is scalar quantity and its SI unit is kg. Mass does not change from place to place and remains constant.

The weight of body is the force with which it is attracted towards the centre of the earth.

Weight of the body w = mg

Weight of a body is not constant it changes from place to place.

WEIGHT OF A BODY IN LIFT

If lift is stationary of moving with uniform speed (either upward or downward), the apparent weight of a body is equal to its true weight.

If lift is going up with acceleration, the apparent weight of a body is more than the true weight.

If lift is going down with acceleration, the apparent weight of a body is less than the true weight.

If the rod of the lift is broken, it fall freely.In this situation, the weight of a body in the lift become zero.This is the situation of weightlessness.

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

If a particle repeats its motion about a fixed point after a regular time interval in such a way that at any moment the acceleration of the particle is directly proportional to its displacement from the fixed point at that moment and is always directed towards the fixed point than the motion of the particle is called simple harmonic motion.

When a particle executing SHM passes through the mean position

no force acts on the particle.
acceleration of the particle is zero.
velocity is maximum.
kinetic energy is maximum.
potential energy is maximum.

When a particle executing SHM is at the extreme end,then

acceleration of the particle is maximum.
restoring force acting on particle is maximum.
velocity of particle is zero.
kinetic energy of particle is zero.
potential energy is maximum.

PERIODIC MOTION

A motion which repeats itself after equal intervals of time is called a periodic motion.

OSCILLATORY MOTION

A motion in which an object moves back and forth repeatedly about a fixed position is called an oscillatory motion.

SIMPLE PENDULUM

A simple pendulum consists of a small metal ball suspended by a long thread from a rigid support, such that the both is free to swing back and forth.

The distance of the pendulum from its mean position is called its displacement.

The maximum displacement of the pendulum on either side of its mean position is called the amplitude of oscillations.

Time period is the time taken by the pendulum to complete one full oscillation.

Frequency is the number of full oscillations completed by the pendulum in one second.

Second pendulum is one whose time period is 2 seconds.

Time period of simple pendulum T=2ℼ√L/g where L is length of thread.The time period of a simple pendulum of infinite length 84.6 min.A pendulum clock goes slow in summer and fast in winter.

WHAT IS WORK ? | PHYSICS~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

2019-09-07T10:18:00.000+05:30

WORK

Work,Energy,Power

Work is said to be done,if a force acting on a body is able to actually move it through some distance in the direction of the force is called work.Work is equal to Force multiplied by Distance.

Work =Force ✕ Distance,

i.e., W= F.S

Its SI unit is a joule (J).

POSITIVE WORK DONE (EXAMPLES)

When body falls freely under gravitational pull.

When a horse pulls a cart on a level road.

NEGATIVE WORK DONE (EXAMPLES)

When a body is made to slide over a rough surface.When a positive charge is moved towards another positive charge.

ZERO WORK DONE (EXAMPLES)

When a coolie travels on a platform with a load on his head.

When a body is moved along a circular path with the help of a string.When a person does not move from his position but he may be holding any amount of heavy load.

ENERGY

The energy of an object is its capacity for doing work.It is a scalar quantity and its unit is joule (J).

Energy can exist in different forms such as mechanical energy,heat energy,sound energy,light energy etc.

Mechanical energy is of two types i.e., kinetic energy and potential energy.

KINETIC ENERGY

The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called its kinetic energy.

A body of mass m and moving with velocity v has

kinetic energy =1/2 mv²= P²/2m

When momentum is doubled kinetic energy becomes four times.

EXAMPLES

Kinetic energy of air is used to run wind mills.

Kinetic energy of running water is used to run the water mills.

A bullet fired from a gun can pierce a target due to its kinetic energy.

POTENTIAL ENERGY

It is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position.

Suppose a body is raised to a height h above the surface of the earth,then potential energy of body = mgh

Also here potential energy = work done = mgh

EXAMPLES

The potential energy of the wound spring of a clock is used to drive the hands of the clock.

Due to potential energy of the stretched bow,the arrow goes forward with a large velocity on releasing the bow.

The potential energy of water in dams is used to run turbines in order to produce electric energy using the generators.

PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can only be transformed from one form to another.

The total amount of energy in the universe remains constant.

The body falls its potential energy decreases but, at the same time kinetic energy increases by an equal amount.

TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY

In a heat engine heat energy changes into mechanical energy.In the Sun, mass changes into radiant energy.

In an electrical heater,the electric energy is converted into heat energy.

In an electric bulb,the electric energy is converted into light energy.In burning coal,oil etc, the chemical energy changes to heat energy.

When we rub our hands, heat is generated.Here mechanical energy of muscles is converted into heat energy.

In an electromagnet, the electric energy is converted into magnetic energy.

MASS-ENERGY EQUIVALENCE

In 1905,Einstein proved the relation between mass and energy.

E = mc², where c is the velocity of light.

E = mc², leads to verification of the two laws-law of conservation of mass and law of conservation of energy.

POWER

The time rate of doing work is called power.

If W is work done in time t then power P, is P = W/t

Power is a scalar quantity with SI unit Watt or Joule/s.

1 watt hour = 3600 joule

1 kilowatt hour = 3.6 ✕ 10⁶ J

1 HP = 746 watt

DEFINITION OF MOMENTUM,IMPULSE AND FRICTION | PHYSICS~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

2019-09-06T10:43:00.000+05:30

MOMENTUM

Momentum

The momentum of a body is defined as the product of its mass and its velocity

Momentum=Mass✕Velocity

p=m✕v

Momentum's direction is the same as the direction of velocity of the body.

Momentum is a vector quantity.Momentum's SI unit is kgm/s.

Concept of momentum was introduced by Newton.

In the absence of external forces, the total momentum of the system is conserved.

i.e., m₁v₁=m₂v₂ for a body. And m₁u₁+m₂u₂=m₁v₁+m₂v₂ for two bodies.

APPLICATIONS OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

When a bullet is fired from a gun, the gun recoils or gives a sharp pull in back ward direction.

While firing a bullet, the gun must be held tight to the shoulder.

When a man jump from a boat to the shore, the boat slightly moves away from the shore.

Rocket works on the principle of conservation of momentum.

If someone left on a frictionless floor desires to get out of it,he can do so by blowing air out of his mouth.

IMPULSE

An impulse is a large force acting on a body for a short time to produce a finite change in momentum.

Impulse =Force✕ Time

=Change in momentum

i.e., I= F✕ t

Impulse's SI unit is N-s or kg-m/s.

EXAMPLES OF MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE

In catching a ball, a player by drawing his hands backwards increases the time of contact.

An athlete is advised to come to stop slowly after finishing a fast race.

The layer of bricks is broken by player.

FRICTION

Friction is the opposing force that is set-up between the surface of contact, when one body slides or rolls or tends to do so, on the surface of another body.

The maximum value of the force of friction which comes into play before a body just begins to slide over the surface of another body is called limiting friction.

The force of friction that comes into play between the surfaces of two bodies before the body actually starts moving is called static friction.

The force of friction that opposes relative motion between two surfaces in contact is called kinetic or sliding friction.

The frictional force developed when a body rolls over a surface, is known as the rolling friction.

Static friction is a self adjusting force and it adjusts itself so that it became equal to the applied force.

LAWS OF FRICTION

Friction acts in a direction opposite to the direction of motion of the objects.Friction depends upon the nature of the two surfaces in contact.

Friction is independent of the area of contact of the two surfaces.Rolling friction is less than sliding friction.

Force of friction (F) is directly proportional to the normal reaction (R).

i.e., F∝R ⟹F=𝝁R

where, 𝝁 = coefficient of friction.

Also 𝝁 = tan ɑ, where ɑ is angle of friction.

Angle of repose = Angle of friction.

ADVANTAGES

Due to friction, we are able to move on the surface of earth.

The fibres of thread are held together due to force of friction.

The brakes applied in automobiles work only due to friction.

Sledges are used in arctic region as friction is very low on the surface of ice.

DISADVANTAGES

A lot of energy is wasted in the form of heat that causes wear and tear of the moving parts.

Due to friction, speed of automobiles cannot be increased beyond a certain limit.

METHODS FOR REDUCING FRICTION

By using lubricants e.g., grease,oil etc.

By using ball or roller bearings.

By changing sliding to rolling.

By using soap solution.

By using powder.

The tyres are threading which also increases the friction between the tyres and the road.

CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY OF INDIA~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

2019-08-25T18:19:00.000+05:30

The Constitution of India the idea of a constituent assembly for India was put forward for the first time in 1934 by MN Roy, a pioneer of communist movement in India.
In 1935, the Indian National Congress (INC) for the first time officially demanded a Constituent Assembly to frame the Constitution.
The demand for Constituent Assembly of was finally accepted by the British Government in the form of "August Proposal of 1940". With the proposal, British Government recognized that Indians should frame a new Constitution for autonomous India.
In 1942, Sir Stafford Cripps, a member of the British Cabinet came to India, with a draft proposal of the British Government.The draft proposed that the Constitution of India was to be framed by an elected Constituent Assembly of India people.The draft proposals were to be adopted provided the two major political parties, the Congress and the Muslim League could come to an agreement, but it failed and the proposals were rejected.
After the rejection of the Cripps Proposals several attempts were made to reconcile the two parties, including Simla Conference. It is also known as Wavell Plan which was announced on 14 June 1945.Under this plan, the Interim Government would work for the framing of the new Constitution.
The Constitution of India is the supreme law of India. The document lays down the framework demarcating fundamental political code, structure, procedures, powers, and duties of government institutions and sets out fundamental rights, directive principles, and the duties of citizens.

CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY OF INDIA

INTERIM GOVERNMENT (1946)

The members of the interim Government were the members of the Viceroy's Executive Council. The Viceroy continued to be the head of the council. Jawaharlal Nehru was designated as the Vice-President of the Council.

The Cabinet Mission was sent to India, following the failure of Lord Wavell (Simla Conference) Plan.The Cabinet Mission consisted. Stafford Crips, AV Alexander, Lord Pethick Lawrence as its members. But these, proposals too failed in making the two major parties come to any agreement. However, the Constituent Assembly was set up under this Mission in November, 1946.

FRAMING OF THE CONSTITUTION

Chairman of the Constitution Drafting Committee

MAJOR COMMITTEES	CHAIRMEN
Drafting Committee	Dr BR Ambedkar Members N Gopalswami Ayyangar AK Ayyar KM Munshi Mohammed Sadullah BL Mittar DP Khaitan
Union Power Committee	Jawaharlal Nehru
Union Constitution Committee	Jawaharlal Nehru
Provincial Constitution Committee	Sardar Patel
Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights and Minorities	Sardar Patel
Rules of Procedure Committee	Dr Rajendra Prasad
States Committee	Jawaharlal Nehru
Steering Committee	Dr Rajendra Prasad
Special Committee to examine the Draft Constitution	Sir Alladi Krishna Swamy Iyer

CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY

Indian Constitution was framed by a Constituent Assembly,which was constituted in November 1956, under the scheme formulated by the Cabinet Mission Plan.

There were a total of 389 members in the Constituent Assembly, of which 296 seats were elected by the members of Provincial Assemblies, 93 nominated from the princely states (these included Madras, Mumbai, UP, Bihar, Central Provinces, Orissa, PUnjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sindh ,Bengal and Assam) and 4 Nominated from the chief commissioner areas. (these included Delhi, Ajmer-Marwar, Coorg and British Baluchistan).

The first meeting of the Constituent Assembly was held on 9 December 1946, with Sachidanand Sinha as the interim President. Later, on 11 December 1946, Dr Rajendra Prasad was elected as permanent President of the Assembly. The Muslim League boycotted the first meeting and insisted on a separate state of Pakistan. HC Mukherjee and BN Rao were elected as the Vice-President and Constitutional Adviser to the Assembly respectively.

The historic "Objective Resolution" was moved in the Constituent Assembly by Jawaharlal Nehru on 13 December 1946.It laid down the fundamentals and philosophy of the Constitution's structure. This resolution was unanimously adopted by the Assembly on January 22, 1947.

The Constituent Assembly formed 22 important committees to deal with the different tasks of Constitution making.

Among these, the Drafting Committee was important one that was appointed in August 1947, with Dr BR Ambedkar as its Chairman.

Dr Ambedkar is rightly regarded as the Father of the Constitution of India.

In all, the Constituent Assembly had 11 sessions. Over two years, 11 months and 18 days, the Assembly had gone through the Constitution of 60 Countries.

On January 24,1950, the Constituent Assembly held its final session, It was held to elect Dr Rajendra Prasad as the President of India.

The Constitution was adopted on November 26,1949 and came into full operation with effect from 26 January 1950.

Originally the Constitution had 22 Parts, 395 Articles and 8 Schedules.

CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION

Lengthiest Written Constitution.
Drawn from different sources.
Blend of rigidity and flexibility.
Federal system with unitary bias.
Parliamentary form of Government with an elected President at the head.
Synthesis of Parliamentary sovereignty and Judicial B supremacy.
Independent and single judiciary.
Fundamental Rights.
Directive Principles of State Policy.
Fundamental Duties.
Single Citizenship.
Universal Adult Franchise.
Emergency Provisions.
Division of Power between Center and the States.
Three-tier Government (Centre, State and Panchayat).
Integration of India States.

GENERAL STUDIES 4 U|FOR ALL COMPETITIVE EXAMS

SANGAM AGE | HISTORY | GENERALSTUDIES4U

SANGAM AGE

THE PANDYAS

THE CHOLAS

THE CHERAS

OTHER ASPECTS OF THE 3 KINGDOMS

MAURYAN EMPIRE | HISTORY | ~GENERALSTUDIES4U

CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (322 BC-297 BC)

BINDUSARA (297 BC-273 BC)

ASHOKA (269 BC-232 BC)

INSCRIPTIONS OF ASHOKA

FACTS ABOUT MAURYANS

PAST MAURYAN INVADERS

The Indo-Greeks

The Shakas or Scythians (90 BC)

The Parthiians/Pahalvas (1st BC-AD1st)

The Kushans (AD 45)

KINGDOMS AFTER THE MAURYAS

The Shunga Dynasty (185 BC-73 BC)

The Kanva Dynasty (73 BC-28 BC)

The Satavahanas (60 BC-AD 225)

IMPORTANT ASPECTS

WORLD WAR-II (1939 TO 1945) | HISTORY |~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

WORLD WAR II WORLD WAR-II

REASON FOR WORLD WAR-II WORLD WAR-II

END OF WORLD WAR-II

RESULTS OF WORLD WAR-II

INDIA IN WORLD WAR -II

FIRST WORLD WAR (1914-1918) | REASON | HISTORY~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

WORLD WAR 1 (1914-1918)

REASON FOR WORLD WAR 1

PART -VI (ARTICLE 152-237) OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION:STATES~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

PART VI OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF PRESIDENT | INDIAN POLITY~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

EXECUTIVE POWERS OF PRESIDENT

LEGISLATIVE POWERS OF PRESIDENT

FINANCIAL POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT

JUDICIAL POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT

DIPLOMATIC POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT

MILITARY POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT

EMERGENCY POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT

PART - V (ARTICLE 52 TO 151) OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION: THE UNION ~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

PART V (Article 52 to 151)

THE PRESIDENT

QUALIFICATIONS

ELECTION

FORMULA

TERM OF OFFICE

IMPEACHMENT

VACANCY

PART - IV OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION:DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY (DPSP) ~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

PART - IV (ARTICLE 36 TO 51)

DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY (DPSP)

SOCIO-ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES

LIBERAL PRINCIPLES

IMPLEMENTATION OF DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES

FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES (Article 51A)

PART - III OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION:FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

RIGHT TO EQUALITY

EXCEPTIONS OF ARTICLE 14

EXCEPTIONS OF ARTICLE 15

EXCEPTIONS OF ARTICLE 16

RIGHT TO FREEDOM (ARTICLE 19-22)

RIGHT TO INFORMATION ACT,2005

RIGHT TO FREEDOM OF ASSEMBLY

RIGHT TO FREEDOM TO FORM ASSOCIATION OR UNION

RIGHT TO FREEDOM MOVEMENT

RIGHT TO FREEDOM OF RESIDENCE

RIGHT TO FREEDOM OF PROFESSION

EDUCATION NOW A FUNDAMENTAL RIGHT (ARTICLE 21A) EDUCATION NOW A FUNDAMENTAL RIGHT

RIGHT AGAINST EXPLOITATION (ARTICLE 23 AND 24) RIGHT AGAINST EXPLOITATION

RIGHT TO FREEDOM OF RELIGION (ARTICLE 25 TO 28)

CULTURE AND EDUCATIONAL RIGHTS (ARTICLE 29 TO 31)

RIGHT TO CONSTITUTIONAL REMEDIES (ARTICLE 32)

RIGHTS OUTSIDE PART III

PART - II OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION:CITIZENSHIP ~GENERAL STUDIES 4 U

CITIZENSHIP

ACQUISITION AND TERMINATION OF CITIZENSHIP

WORLD WAR II

WORLD WAR-II

REASON FOR WORLD WAR-II

WORLD WAR-II

EDUCATION NOW A FUNDAMENTAL RIGHT (ARTICLE 21A)

EDUCATION NOW A FUNDAMENTAL RIGHT

RIGHT AGAINST EXPLOITATION (ARTICLE 23 AND 24)

RIGHT AGAINST EXPLOITATION

_{CHARLES LAW}