A Great Place to Perch

Territories, nesting and incubation

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Male Golden-backed Weavers construct elaborate suspended nests out of grass.

All birds lay amniotic eggs with hard shells made mostly of calcium carbonate.^[39] Hole and burrow nesting species tend to lay white or pale eggs, while open nesters lay camouflaged eggs. There are many exceptions to this pattern, however; the ground-nesting nightjars have pale eggs, and camouflage is instead provided by their plumage. Species that are victims of brood parasites have varying egg colours to improve the chances of spotting a parasite's egg, which forces female parasites to match their eggs to those of their hosts.^[143]

Bird eggs are usually laid in a nest. Most species create somewhat elaborate nests, which can be cups, domes, plates, beds scrapes, mounds, or burrows.^[144] Some bird nests, however, are extremely primitive; albatross nests are no more than a scrape on the ground. Most birds build nests in sheltered, hidden areas to avoid predation, but large or colonial birds—which are more capable of defence—may build more open nests. During nest construction, some species seek out plant matter from plants with parasite-reducing toxins to improve chick survival,^[145] and feathers are often used for nest insulation.^[144] Some bird species have no nests; the cliff-nesting Common Guillemot lays its eggs on bare rock, and male Emperor Penguins keep eggs between their body and feet. The absence of nests is especially prevalent in ground-nesting species where the newly hatched young are precocial.

Social systems

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Ninety-five percent of bird species are socially monogamous. These species pair for at least the length of the breeding season or—in some cases—for several years or until the death of one mate.^[133] Monogamy allows for biparental care, which is especially important for species in which females require males' assistance for successful brood-rearing.^[134] Among many socially monogamous species, extra-pair copulation (infidelity) is common.^[135] Such behaviour typically occurs between dominant males and females paired with subordinate males, but may also be the result of forced copulation in ducks and other anatids.^[136] For females, possible benefits of extra-pair copulation include getting better genes for her offspring and insuring against the possibility of infertility in her mate.^[137] Males of species that engage in extra-pair copulations will closely guard their mates to ensure the parentage of the offspring that they raise.^[138]

Other mating systems, including polygyny, polyandry, polygamy, polygynandry, and promiscuity, also occur.^[39] Polygamous breeding systems arise when females are able to raise broods without the help of males.^[39] Some species may use more than one system depending on the circumstances.

Breeding usually involves some form of courtship display, typically performed by the male.^[139] Most displays are rather simple and involve some type of song. Some displays, however, are quite elaborate. Depending on the species, these may include wing or tail drumming, dancing, aerial flights, or communal lekking. Females are generally the ones that drive partner selection,^[140] although in the polyandrous phalaropes, this is reversed: plainer males choose brightly coloured females.^[141] Courtship feeding, billing and allopreening are commonly performed between partners, generally after the birds have paired and mated.^[49]

Resting and roosting

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Many birds, like this American Flamingo, tuck their head into their back when sleeping

The high metabolic rates of birds during the active part of the day is supplemented by rest at other times. Sleeping birds often use a type of sleep known as vigilant sleep, where periods of rest are interspersed with quick eye-opening 'peeks', allowing them to be sensitive to disturbances and enable rapid escape from threats.^[123] Swifts are believed to be able to sleep in flight and radar observations suggest that they orient themselves to face the wind in their roosting flight.^[124] It has been suggested that there may be certain kinds of sleep which are possible even when in flight.^[125] Some birds have also demonstrated the capacity to fall into slow-wave sleep one hemisphere of the brain at a time. The birds tend to exercise this ability depending upon its position relative to the outside of the flock. This may allow the eye opposite the sleeping hemisphere to remain vigilant for predators by viewing the outer margins of the flock. This adaptation is also known from marine mammals.^[126] Communal roosting is common because it lowers the loss of body heat and decreases the risks associated with predators.^[127] Roosting sites are often chosen with regard to thermoregulation and safety.^[128]

Many sleeping birds bend their heads over their backs and tuck their bills in their back feathers, although others place their beaks among their breast feathers. Many birds rest on one leg, while some may pull up their legs into their feathers, especially in cold weather. Perching birds have a tendon locking mechanism that helps them hold on to the perch when they are asleep. Many ground birds, such as quails and pheasants, roost in trees. A few parrots of the genus Loriculus roost hanging upside down.^[129] Some hummingbirds go into a nightly state of torpor accompanied with a reduction of their metabolic rates.^[130] This physiological adaptation shows nearly a hundred other species, including owlet-nightjars, nightjars, and woodswallows. One species, the Common Poorwill, even enters a state of hibernation.^[131] Birds do not have sweat glands, but they may cool themselves by moving to shade, standing in water, panting, increasing their surface area, fluttering their throat or by using special behaviours like urohidrosis to cool themselves.

Communication

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Birds sometimes use plumage to assess and assert social dominance,^[109] to display breeding condition in sexually selected species, or to make threatening displays, as in the Sunbittern's mimicry of a large predator to ward off hawks and protect young chicks.^[110] Variation in plumage also allows for the identification of birds, particularly between species. Visual communication among birds may also involve ritualised displays, which have developed from non-signalling actions such as preening, the adjustments of feather position, pecking, or other behaviour. These displays may signal aggression or submission or may contribute to the formation of pair-bonds.^[39] The most elaborate displays occur during courtship, where "dances" are often formed from complex combinations of many possible component movements;^[111] males' breeding success may depend on the quality of such displays.^[112]

Diet and feeding

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Birds' diets are varied and often include nectar, fruit, plants, seeds, carrion, and various small animals, including other birds.^[39] Because birds have no teeth, their digestive system is adapted to process unmasticated food items that are swallowed whole.

Birds that employ many strategies to obtain food or feed on a variety of food items are called generalists, while others that concentrate time and effort on specific food items or have a single strategy to obtain food are considered specialists.^[39] Birds' feeding strategies vary by species. Many birds glean for insects, invertebrates, fruit, or seeds. Some hunt insects by suddenly attacking from a branch. Nectar feeders such as hummingbirds, sunbirds, lories, and lorikeets amongst others have specially adapted brushy tongues and in many cases bills designed to fit co-adapted flowers.^[84] Kiwis and shorebirds with long bills probe for invertebrates; shorebirds' varied bill lengths and feeding methods result in the separation of ecological niches.^[39]^[85] Loons, diving ducks, penguins and auks pursue their prey underwater, using their wings or feet for propulsion,^[31] while aerial predators such as sulids, kingfishers and terns plunge dive after their prey. Flamingos, three species of prion, and some ducks are filter feeders.^[86]^[87] Geese and dabbling ducks are primarily grazers.

Flight

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Most birds can fly, which distinguishes them from almost all other vertebrate classes. Flight is the primary means of locomotion for most bird species and is used for breeding, feeding, and predator avoidance and escape. Birds have various adaptations for flight, including a lightweight skeleton, two large flight muscles, the pectoralis, which accounts for 15% of the total mass of the bird, and the supracoracoideus, as well as a modified forelimb (wing) that serves as an aerofoil.^[39] Wing shape and size generally determine a bird species' type of flight; many birds combine powered, flapping flight with less energy-intensive soaring flight. About 60 extant bird species are flightless, as were many extinct birds.^[80] Flightlessness often arises in birds on isolated islands, probably due to limited resources and the absence of land predators.^[81] Though flightless, penguins use similar musculature and movements to "fly" through the water, as do auks, shearwaters and dippers.^[82]

Feathers, plumage, and scales

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Feathers are a feature characteristic of birds (though also present in some dinosaurs not currently considered to be true birds). They facilitate flight, provide insulation that aids in thermoregulation, and are used in display, camouflage, and signaling.^[39] There are several types of feathers, each serving its own set of purposes. Feathers are epidermal growths attached to the skin and arise only in specific tracts of skin called pterylae. The distribution pattern of these feather tracts (pterylosis) is used in taxonomy and systematics. The arrangement and appearance of feathers on the body, called plumage, may vary within species by age, social status,^[67] and sex.^[68]

Anatomy and physiology

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Compared with other vertebrates, birds have a body plan that shows many unusual adaptations, mostly to facilitate flight.

The skeleton consists of very lightweight bones. They have large air-filled cavities (called pneumatic cavities) which connect with the respiratory system.^[38] The skull bones are fused and do not show cranial sutures.^[39] The orbits are large and separated by a bony septum. The spine has cervical, thoracic, lumbar and caudal regions with the number of cervical (neck) vertebrae highly variable and especially flexible, but movement is reduced in the anterior thoracic vertebrae and absent in the later vertebrae.^[40] The last few are fused with the pelvis to form the synsacrum.^[39] The ribs are flattened and the sternum is keeled for the attachment of flight muscles except in the flightless bird orders. The forelimbs are modified into wings.^[41]

Like the reptiles, birds are primarily uricotelic, that is, their kidneys extract nitrogenous wastes from their bloodstream and excrete it as uric acid instead of urea or ammonia via the ureters into the intestine. Birds do not have a urinary bladder or external urethral opening and uric acid is excreted along with feces as a semisolid waste.^[42]^[43] However, birds such as hummingbirds can be facultatively ammonotelic, excreting most of the nitrogenous wastes as ammonia.^[44] They also excrete creatine, rather than creatinine like mammals.^[39] This material, as well as the output of the intestines, emerges from the bird's cloaca.^[45]^[46] The cloaca is a multi-purpose opening: waste is expelled through it, birds mate by joining cloaca, and females lay eggs from it. In addition, many species of birds regurgitate pellets.^[47] The digestive system of birds is unique, with a crop for storage and a gizzard that contains swallowed stones for grinding food to compensate for the lack of teeth.^[48] Most birds are highly adapted for rapid digestion to aid with flight.^[49] Some migratory birds have adapted to use protein from many parts of their bodies, including protein from the intestines, as additional energy during migration

Distribution

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The range of the House Sparrow has expanded dramatically due to human activities.^[28]

Birds live and breed in most terrestrial habitats and on all seven continents, reaching their southern extreme in the Snow Petrel's breeding colonies up to 440 kilometres (270 mi) inland in Antarctica.^[29] The highest bird diversity occurs in tropical regions. It was earlier thought that this high diversity was the result of higher speciation rates in the tropics, however recent studies found higher speciation rates in the high latitudes that were offset by greater extinction rates than in the tropics.^[30] Several families of birds have adapted to life both on the world's oceans and in them, with some seabird species coming ashore only to breed^[31] and some penguins have been recorded diving up to 300 metres (980 ft).^[32]

Many bird species have established breeding populations in areas to which they have been introduced by humans. Some of these introductions have been deliberate; the Ring-necked Pheasant, for example, has been introduced around the world as a game bird.^[33] Others have been accidental, such as the establishment of wild Monk Parakeets in several North American cities after their escape from captivity.^[34] Some species, including Cattle Egret,^[35] Yellow-headed Caracara^[36] and Galah,^[37] have spread naturally far beyond their original ranges as agricultural practices created suitable new habitat.

Modern bird orders: Classification

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This is a list of the taxonomic orders in the subclass Neornithes, or modern birds. This list uses the traditional classification (the so-called Clements order), revised by the Sibley-Monroe classification. The list of birds gives a more detailed summary of the orders, including families.

Radiation of modern birds

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Containing all modern birds, the subclass Neornithes is, due to the discovery of Vegavis, now known to have evolved into some basic lineages by the end of the Cretaceous^[22] and is split into two superorders, the Palaeognathae and Neognathae. The paleognaths include the tinamous of Central and South America and the ratites. The basal divergence from the remaining Neognathes was that of the Galloanserae, the superorder containing the Anseriformes (ducks, geese, swans and screamers) and the Galliformes (the pheasants, grouse, and their allies, together with the mound builders and the guans and their allies). The dates for the splits are much debated by scientists. It is agreed that the Neornithes evolved in the Cretaceous, and that the split between the Galloanseri from other Neognathes occurred before the K–T extinction event, but there are different opinions about whether the radiation of the remaining Neognathes occurred before or after the extinction of the other dinosaurs.^[23] This disagreement is in part caused by a divergence in the evidence; molecular dating suggests a Cretaceous radiation, while fossil evidence supports a Tertiary radiation. Attempts to reconcile the molecular and fossil evidence have proved controversial.^[23]^[24]

The classification of birds is a contentious issue. Sibley and Ahlquist's Phylogeny and Classification of Birds (1990) is a landmark work on the classification of birds,^[25] although it is frequently debated and constantly revised. Most evidence seems to suggest that the assignment of orders is accurate,^[26] but scientists disagree about the relationships between the orders themselves; evidence from modern bird anatomy, fossils and DNA have all been brought to bear on the problem, but no strong consensus has emerged. More recently, new fossil and molecular evidence is providing an increasingly clear picture of the evolution of modern bird orders.

Early evolution of birds

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Birds diversified into a wide variety of forms during the Cretaceous Period.^[20] Many groups retained primitive characteristics, such as clawed wings and teeth, though the latter were lost independently in a number of bird groups, including modern birds (Neornithes). While the earliest forms, such as Archaeopteryx and Jeholornis, retained the long bony tails of their ancestors,^[20] the tails of more advanced birds were shortened with the advent of the pygostyle bone in the clade Pygostylia.

The first large, diverse lineage of short-tailed birds to evolve were the Enantiornithes, or "opposite birds", so named because the construction of their shoulder bones was in reverse to that of modern birds. Enantiornithes occupied a wide array of ecological niches, from sand-probing shorebirds and fish-eaters to tree-dwelling forms and seed-eaters.^[20] More advanced lineages also specialised in eating fish, like the superficially gull-like subclass of Ichthyornithes ("fish birds").^[21] One order of Mesozoic seabirds, the Hesperornithiformes, became so well adapted to hunting fish in marine environments that they lost the ability to fly and became primarily aquatic. Despite their extreme specialisations, the Hesperornithiformes represent some of the closest relatives of modern birds.

Alternative theories and controversies

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There have been many controversies in the study of the origin of birds. Early disagreements included whether birds evolved from dinosaurs or more primitive archosaurs. Within the dinosaur camp there were disagreements as to whether ornithischian or theropod dinosaurs were the more likely ancestors.^[16] Although ornithischian (bird-hipped) dinosaurs share the hip structure of modern birds, birds are thought to have originated from the saurischian (lizard-hipped) dinosaurs, and therefore evolved their hip structure independently.^[17] In fact, a bird-like hip structure evolved a third time among a peculiar group of theropods known as the Therizinosauridae. A few scientists suggest that birds are not dinosaurs, but evolved from early archosaurs like Longisquama.^[18]^[19]

Dinosaurs and the origin of birds

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Based on fossil and biological evidence, most scientists accept that birds are a specialised sub-group of theropod dinosaurs.^[10] More specifically, they are members of Maniraptora, a group of theropods which includes dromaeosaurs and oviraptorids, among others.^[11] As scientists discover more non-avian theropods that are closely related to birds, the previously clear distinction between non-birds and birds has become blurred. Recent discoveries in the Liaoning Province of northeast China, which demonstrate that many small theropod dinosaurs had feathers, contribute to this ambiguity.^[12]

The consensus view in contemporary paleontology is that the birds, Aves, are the closest relatives of the deinonychosaurs, which include dromaeosaurids and troodontids. Together, these three form a group called Paraves. The basal dromaeosaur Microraptor has features which may have enabled it to glide or fly. The most basal deinonychosaurs are very small. This evidence raises the possibility that the ancestor of all paravians may have been arboreal, and/or may have been able to glide

Evolution and taxonomy

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The first classification of birds was developed by Francis Willughby and John Ray in their 1676 volume Ornithologiae.^[2] Carolus Linnaeus modified that work in 1758 to devise the taxonomic classification system currently in use.^[3] Birds are categorised as the biological class Aves in Linnaean taxonomy. Phylogenetic taxonomy places Aves in the dinosaur clade Theropoda.^[4] Aves and a sister group, the clade Crocodilia, together are the sole living members of the reptile clade Archosauria. Phylogenetically, Aves is commonly defined as all descendants of the most recent common ancestor of modern birds and Archaeopteryx lithographica.^[5]

Archaeopteryx, from the Tithonian stage of the Late Jurassic (some 150–145 million years ago), is the earliest known bird under this definition. Others, including Jacques Gauthier and adherents of the Phylocode system, have defined Aves to include only the modern bird groups. This has been done by excluding most groups known only from fossils, and assigning them, instead, to the Avialae^[6] in part to avoid the uncertainties about the placement of Archaeopteryx in relation to animals traditionally thought of as theropod dinosaurs.

Bird

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Birds (class Aves) are winged, bipedal, endothermic (warm-blooded), vertebrate animals that lay eggs. There are around 10,000 living species, making them the most numerous tetrapod vertebrates. They inhabit ecosystems across the globe, from the Arctic to the Antarctic. Birds range in size from the 5 cm (2 in) Bee Hummingbird to the 3 m (10 ft) Ostrich. The fossil record indicates that birds evolved from theropod dinosaurs during the Jurassic period, around 150–200 Ma (million years ago), and the earliest known bird is the Late Jurassic Archaeopteryx, c 150–145 Ma. Most paleontologists regard birds as the only clade of dinosaurs to have survived the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event approximately 65.5 Ma.

Modern birds are characterised by feathers, a beak with no teeth, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a lightweight but strong skeleton. All birds have forelimbs modified as wings and most can fly, with some exceptions including ratites, penguins, and a number of diverse endemic island species. Birds also have unique digestive and respiratory systems that are highly adapted for flight. Some birds, especially corvids and parrots, are among the most intelligent animal species; a number of bird species have been observed manufacturing and using tools, and many social species exhibit cultural transmission of knowledge across generations.

Lutino Greenfinch hens in the flight.

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ELEVAGE ET REPRODUCTION DES CANARIS DE COULEURS

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LE POURQUOI DU SITE

A travers ce site, les passionnés et éleveurs des canaris de couleurs découvront les canaris de mon propre élevage. Vous y trouvez les critères de choix quand vous achetez un canari, les accessoires et cages, les soins et maladies des canaris ainsi que les méthodes d'élevage et reproduction inspirées de ma propre expérience avec les canaris de couleurs. Vous y trouvé aussi, la définition des canaris rouges mosaïques conforme à leurs standards. Les photos de tous les oiseaux que j'élève sont regroupées dans le volet Mon Elevage.
Il est à signaler qu'en Algérie, peu d'éleveurs des oiseaux de cage font l'élevage et la reproduction des canaris de race. Ce qui m'a donné l'idée de construire ce site pour partager les conseils de pratique que j'ai acquis d'une passion avec mes canaris de couleurs.
Par ailleurs, mon parcours avec ces canaris a germé en 2003 suite à mon tout premier couple rouge mosaïque acquis d'Espagne. En saison 2006, j'ai entamé ma première expérience avec un couple de canari lizard né 2004 en Espagne. Après la période de reproduction de la saison 2006, j'ai eu quinze rouges mosaïques et deux jeunes lizards. Parmi mon élevage, j'ai un couple de canaris orange qui m'a donné cinq jeunes en saison 2006. Le reste de mon élevage est limité à un tarin barbue, deux chardonneretes et cinq chardonnerets élégants. En janvier 2007, j'ai acquis d'Espagne deux couples d'agate opale rouge mosaïque nés 2006. Lors de la saison de reproduction 2009, j'ai fais passé une femelle agate rouge mosaïque sur deux mâles, le premier est un agate classique porteur d'Isabelle pastelle et le second, est un agate opal rouge mosaïque. Ainsi, cette saison était sans mes canaris rouge mosaïque que j'ai tout cédé pour cause de punirie en pâtée colorante et l'indisponibilité de sujets de travail. En remettant le pendule à l'heure avec les Agates rouge mosaïque, j'ai pu formé ma souche en Agate classique (06 dont une Isabelle pastelle) et en porteur d'Opale rouge mosaïque (04). Rien comme résultats chez le couple verdier idem pour le couple tarin barbue. Pour ce qui est de chardonnerets, j'ai eu un oisillon avec un seul couple, mais malheureusement tombé du nid et décédé de suite.
La saison 2009 était une saison marqué par le bagage des jeunes de l'année avec des bagues Oficielles de la COM (Confidération Mondiale Ornithologique) portant mon numéro de stam 002 AOA (Association Ornithologique Algéroise) dont je suis membre fondateur en 2007. Cette association régionale recevrait bientôt l'agrément et son siège est à la maison des jeunes de Bouzaréah.
Le climat à Ain Oussera où je pratique mon élevage est sec autrement dit, chaud l'été et froid l'hivers. En été, la température de l'eau des abreuvoirs peut atteindre 34°C à l'ombre. Je devrais chagé l'eau deux fois par jour. A la mi-juin, je close la période de reproduction de l'ensemble de mes oiseau élevés. Durant la saison de mue, de juillet au septembre, tous mes oiseaux se retrouve en volière intérieur. Une fois la mue terminée je sélectionne mes couples reproducteurs pour les préparer à la reproduction en février. La chambre d'élevage est dotée d'un chauffage centrale où la température est maintenue à 20°C durant la saison d'hivers. En été la température maximale dans la pièce est de 28°C. Je n'accouple jamais une femelle âgée de moins de 10 mois car de telle épreuve, met en péril la vie de la canarette manifestée par la rétention de l'oeuf, entre autres. Il en est de même pour l'accouplement Frères et Soeurs.

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Parrot Forums are a great way to chat and converse with other like minded Parrot owners and gain Expert Parrot Advice from people just like you, Parrot Owners.
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