ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING SOLUTION

Bringing Sustainability in Coal Mining Operations is need-of-the-hour

2009-07-01T05:00:00.000-07:00

Bringing Sustainability in Coal Mining Operations is need-of-the-hour:

A. Introduction - The importance of sustainable development principles has been increasing within the mining sector over the past two decades. Early work focused mainly on mining metals and commodities other than coal and energy fuels. Because sustainability, however, is an important consideration for all human endeavors now, the coal industry has become active in sustainability efforts. A number of global coal mining companies have embraced sustainability as a key aspect of corporate philosophy.

Continued production of minerals and fossil energy fuels may not fit into commonly understood definitions of sustainability. Mineral and energy extraction and reclamation operations do, however, contribute significantly to sustainability through the benefits they provide to society, when they are conducted in a manner that supports sustainable economies, social structures and environments throughout all phases of mining, including closure. Significant progress can also be made through the inclusion of sustainability concepts in the original design of the operation, as well as in ongoing operations. Innovative engineering, mining and reclamation operations can be optimized through consideration of environmental and economic sustainability goals, side-by-side with traditional technical mining engineering considerations.

B. Abate hazards in coal mining areas by promoting reclamation - Coal mining operations can result in disturbances to the land surface that burden or adversely affect commerce and the public welfare by destroying or diminishing the utility of land for commercial, industrial, residential, recreational, agricultural, and forestry purposes, by causing erosion and landslides, by contributing to floods, by polluting the water, by destroying fish and wildlife habitats, by impairing natural beauty, by damaging the property of citizens, by creating hazards dangerous to life and property, by degrading the quality of life in local communities, and by counteracting governmental programs and efforts to conserve soil, water, and other natural resources. The predicted expansion of coal mining to meet the world’s growing energy needs makes it even more urgent to establish appropriate standards to minimize additional damage to the environment and to productivity of the soil and to protect the health and safety of the public. At the same time it is important to develop programs with associated funding mechanisms to restore the utility of land damaged by past mining.

For example, China has reported it has about 13.3 million acres “derelict” lands of which four million of those acres were caused by past coal mining. This adversely impacts nearly 1/10th of China’s total agricultural acreage. Although mining reclamation began in the early 1960s in China, it has not been consistently implemented and about 40,000 new hectares are presently being disturbed by coal mining activities each year. In India more than 80,000 people have to be shifted to safer places as they are residing in areas which are now considered unstable due to past unscientific mining and the coal mine fires endangering such areas. Large tracts of mined out/subsided areas of the past also require reclamation apart from dealing with fires in some of the old coalfields.

i. Goals and Objectives towards better Environmental Management - Mining becomes a temporary land use through programs of environmental management and land reclamation.
* Establish a nationwide program to protect society and the environment from the adverse effects of coal mining operations.
* Assure that the coal supply essential for any nation’s energy requirements and to its economic and social well-being is provided and strike a balance between protection of the environment and agricultural productivity and the country’s need for coal as an essential source of energy.
* Promote reclamation of mined areas left without adequate reclamation and which continue, in their un-reclaimed condition, to substantially degrade the quality of the environment, prevent damage of the beneficial use of land or water resources, or endanger the health or safety of the public.

ii. Management of topsoil for geo-environmental reclamation - Topsoil is an essential component for land reclamation in mining areas. It is seriously damaged if it is not mined out separately without being contaminated, eroded and protected. Systematic handling and storage practices can protect topsoil while in storage and after it has been redistributed onto the re-graded area. Removed topsoil should be reclaimed technically and its shelf-life period should be ascertained. Soil dumps of different age classes in the area were identified and analyzed critically to evaluate the deterioration of soil quality with respect to time, and compared with those of unmined areas. Changes in soil quality showed a continuous decrease every year and ultimately became biologically sterile. Biological reclamation is essential if the soil is to be stored beyond the shelf-life period.

C. Current Issues -
i. The future of coal extraction - It is widely recognized that coal is and will continue to be a crucial element in a modern, balanced energy portfolio, providing a bridge to the future as an important low cost and secure energy solution to sustainability challenges. Energy demand everywhere is expected to grow substantially. In emerging economy, most of developed and developing nations, almost every energy source is expected to grow, with coal, petroleum and natural gas dominating the energy mix. In these nations, electricity generation relies heavily on fossil fuels; coal is the dominant component which is expected to increase. As per estimation, overall, world use of coal is projected to grow by 44 % by 2025.

In addition, coal and crude oil can both be used as feed stock for conversion into liquid fuels and the choice depends on the price of feed stock. Energy economists maintain that coal liquefaction is viable for crude oil prices greater than $40 per barrel. Experts predict that Coal-to-Liquids (CTL) will be the largest contributor of “un-conventional” fuels.

ii. Corporate policies - The global coal and energy production industries have recently begun a major effort to identify and accelerate the deployment and further development of innovative, advanced, efficient, cleaner coal technologies. A number of coal producers in developed nations are also involved in sustainable development activities, including economic sup-port of communities and regions and environ-mental protection and restoration. These companies have corporate sustainable development policies in place that provide guidance for operations and some report annually on their contributions to sustainability. Challenges facing Mining industry for sustainable development are:
* Ensuring the long-term viability of the minerals industry,
* Control, use, and management of land,
* Using minerals to assist with economic development,
* Making a positive impact on local communities,
* Managing the environmental impact of mines,
* Integrating the approach to using minerals so as to reduce waste and inefficiency,
* Giving stakeholders access to information to build trust and cooperation,
* Managing the relationship between large companies and small-scale mining,
* Sector governance: Clearly defining the roles, responsibilities, and instruments for change expected of all stakeholders.

iii. Traditional mine design considerations - Most mine designs are based on traditional mining engineering factors, such as the quality of the commodity being mined, the geology, topography, hydrology, land ownership, geography, infrastructure, etc. Currently, environmental compliance and sustainability are considered in mine design and operation as a modifying factor to those designs.

iv. Optimization - A cursory review of the available literature on engineering optimization does not reveal any focus on mine design, environmental protection associated with mines or sustainability. Mathematical multi-criteria optimization approaches, however, have previously been used in resource management. Unfortunately, there is a paucity of literature about the practice.

As with any optimization problem, mine design optimization would need to consider all constraints, system parameters and characteristics and desired outcomes in order to build a useful and reliable model. Since optimization of mine design, and in particular coal mine design, to address sustainability along with other parameters has not been widely practiced, identifying the appropriate parameters for measurement and the mathematical or logical relation-ships between these parameters is not a trivial task.

D. Suggested approach - In order to optimize the design of coal mining and reclamation operations, traditional mining engineering considerations and environmental and sustainability goals must be accounted for simultaneously. It is essential to identify all of the parameters, relationships, constraints and desired outcomes related to the widely varying factors that contribute to mine design, as well as the additional factors that should be considered as a part of a new, sustainable design approach.

i. Parameters - For successful optimization of mine design, required parameters must be identified and measured as part of mine design and planning. To build an accurate model of those operations, data must be collected on ongoing operations. This data accounts for the modification of long-term designs as a part of permitting and the acquisition of information during mine operation. The design and operation of current coal mining properties should be evaluated by looking both at permitting documents and additional data which obtained from mining companies and other public and private sources. This data reflects the mining engineering, geologic, economic and other considerations currently integrated into the design and planning process.
It can then be determined how legal, policy, environmental protection and sustainability should be incorporated in mine design. Whenever possible, the effect of environmental and post-mining land use considerations on mine design and operation needs to be quantified in economic terms, so as to be on par with other engineering considerations.

ii. Relationships- Once sufficient data is collected, it will be necessary to determine if and how these parameters influence one another and the desired outcomes for the specific mining operation. These relationships may be apparent based on scientific, engineering or other considerations, or may require detailed statistical analysis in order to determine them. It may not be possible to state the precise interrelationships between numerous parameters, particularly given the lack of complete independence of many of them. It may be possible, however, to derive qualitative rather than quantitative models for those relationships.

iii. Desired Outcomes- In most cases, the ultimate desired outcomes are the profitability and long-term stability of the site. These are driven by corporate realities as well as the concern for long term liability. Coal mining is, after all, a business focused on profitability and long-term economic benefit for the shareholders or other owners. Additional out-comes for community economic benefits, enhanced environmental quality, and corporate image are also significant for many mining companies and in many locations.

The optimization approach must address the relative importance of these outcomes in order to weight them in the development of optimized models. For example, in an area with low avail-ability of safe drinking water, protection of hydrologic resources may prove to be of primary significance, and thus of higher weight in the models, since it will greatly impact the feasibility and long-term profitability of the operation as well as the post-mining health of the community.
The factors related to sustainability in the minerals industry, identified above, can serve as the basis for desired sustainability outcomes. The first factor, industry viability, is ad-dressed primarily through consideration of the economic profitability of an operation. Giving stakeholders access to information; defining the roles, responsibilities and instruments for change; managing the relationship between companies of different scales; benefiting local communities; and, promoting efficient use of minerals, are social factors which may be more difficult to measure and may not directly impact the design and operation of a specific mining property.

However, managing the environmental impact of mines and the control, use and management of lands are both more easily quantified and related to accepted practices and legal frameworks. Future work should focus on the parameters related to these goals. Many of these parameters may already be routinely measured as a part of environmental or other compliance mechanisms.

E. Nation’s Mission To Protect Environment by Enacting Laws– It is of national interest, Governments of every country should be dedicated to protecting the environment of the nation. In other words, to protecting the health and safety of the miner and to protecting the life, health, and property of citizens who are affected by mining or mining activities through the enforcement of suitable state mining and reclamation laws. The laws should ensure that the environment is protected during coal mine operations, and that lands mined for coal are adequately reclaimed after mining is completed. It allows alternative or experimental reclamation practices to encourage technological advances in mine reclamation and innovative post-mining land uses.

i. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) - Some form of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), and accompanying procedures for information disclosure, public participation and judicial or administrative review, have become widely adopted as part of the project and/or policy review process in most countries.

The US government introduced EIAs as an “action-forcing mechanism” to identify, assess, and mitigate environmental and human impacts of government actions in the United States. Since then, EIAs have spread to well over 100 countries, and have been enshrine in Principle 17 of the Rio Declaration, gaining worldwide legitimacy as a critical element of environmental management. EIAs have grown in both strength and scope and are now one of the premiere tools in environmental management in most countries. EIAs should address some of the basic factors listed below:

* Meteorology and air quality. Ambient levels of pollutants such as sulphur dioxide (SO2), oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide (CO), suspended particulate matters, should be determined. Additional contribution of pollutants at the locations are required to be predicted after taking into account the emission rates of the pollutants from the stacks of the proposed plant, under different meteorological conditions prevailing in the area.
* Hydrology and water quality
* Site and its surroundings
* Occupational safety and health
* Details of the treatment and disposal of effluents (liquid, air and solid) and the methods of alternative uses.
* Transportation of raw material and details of material and details of material handling.
* Impact on sensitive targets.
* Control equipment and measures proposed to be adopted including post-mining reclamation.

Preparation of environmental management plan is required for formulation, implementation and monitoring and of environmental protection measures during and after commissioning of projects. Planning for closure and reclamation should begin during the earliest stages of project development, before operations start at a new site, and continues throughout the mine life. Goal is to minimize the disturbance of land in all phases of the mine life and to provide a post-closure land use which is compatible with traditional uses or provides sustainable advantages to the local communities.

ii. Coal Mining Permit Process - Before commencement of coal mining operations, a mining and reclamation permit must be obtained from the Govt. departments. A coal permit should be issued when the mine operator submits an acceptable application and posts adequate bond to cover reclamation costs, should it be necessary for a third party to complete the reclamation process. The operator's permit application must include the requirements for legal and financial compliance, the safeguard of environmental resources, and an operation and reclamation plan. Before opening the site, the employees of the coal mining operation must be trained and certified in accordance with state and federal safety regulations. Mining practices, reclamation, and health and safety procedures are monitored on a regular basis by the Departments' field inspectors.

iii. Following goals, in general, should be accomplished through Permit Process -
* Reviewing permit, revision, field amendments applications for completeness and technical adequacy.
* Ensuring that adequate bond to complete reclamation is posted by the permittee.
* Conducting complete and partial inspections on coal permits as required by state and federal rules and regulations and the specific requirements of the approved permit such that non-compliance items are identified and appropriate abatement measures implemented.
* Conducting annual and mid-term permit reviews in compliance with statutes and regulations.
* Conducting bond release inspections in compliance with statutes and regulations.
* Conducting citizen complaint inspections in compliance with statutes and regulations.
* Gathering evidence and testifying at hearings as required by statutes and regulations.
* Conducting Student Outreach Programs at local area schools to provide students and teachers with a better understanding of the mining process.
* Receiving on-going training and information concerning current technical advances and trends in mining, safety, and reclamation.

F. Summary and Conclusion - It is widely recognized that coal is and will continue to be a crucial element in a modern, balanced energy portfolio, providing a bridge to the future as an important low cost and secure energy solution to sustainability challenges. In response, the global coal and energy production industries have begun a major effort to identify and accelerate the deployment and further development of innovative, advanced, efficient, cleaner coal technologies. A number of coal producers are also involved in sustainable development activities, including economic support of communities and regions, environmental restoration and social well-being.

The designer of coal mining operations needs to simultaneously consider legal, environmental and sustainability goals along with traditional mining engineering parameters as an integral part of the design process. The role of coal in the global energy supply mix makes this of primary importance. There is a need for research into the parameters for mining design that allow the building of models for optimization, the relationships between those parameters, and the desired outcomes that the system is being optimized to produce. In addition to quantifying the economic viability of the operation, a number of sustainability goals should be built into the model and the relative importance of those goals determined.

References:
1. Energy Information Administration (EIA), 2007. Annual Energy Outlook 2007 with Projections to 2030. Washington: US Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration. http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/ in-dex.html accessed March 30, 2007.
2. Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), 2007. G3 Sustainability Reporting Guidelines. www.globalreporting.org accessed March 30, 2007.
3. Gibson, R.B., S. Hassan, S. Holtz, J. Tansey and G. Whitelaw, 2005. Sustainability Assessment. London: Earthscan Publications.
4. International Energy Agency (IEA), 2004. World Energy Outlook 2004, Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development/International Energy Agency.
5. International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) and World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD), 2002. Breaking new ground: The report of the Mining, Minerals, and Sustainable Development Project. London: Earthscan Publica-tions.
6. Stadler, W. (ed.), 1988. Multicriteria optimization in engineering and in the sciences. New York: Plenum Press.
7. Waddell, S. and B. Pruitt, 2005. The Role of Coal in Cli-mate Change: A Dialogic Change Process Analysis. Presented at the Generative Dialogue Project Launch Meeting, New York, NY, October 6-8, 2005.
8. World Coal Institute (WCI), 2007. Environment and Society. http://www.worldcoal.org/environment_&_so-ciety.asp
9. http://sharynmunro.com/?p=134
10. http://www.sustainableenergyresources.co.uk/fossil_fuels/fossil_fuels.asp

Energy Mix Strategies for oil importing country – Important in the scenario of energy security and global warming:

2008-08-05T00:51:00.000-07:00

Energy Mix Strategies for oil importing country – Important in the scenario of energy security and global warming:

A. We are aware of the problems of environmental pollution and the adverse consequences of global warming causing due to CO2 emission. To restrict environmental pollution, to mitigate the CO2 emission and rate of increase of CO₂ concentration in the atmosphere, responsive long term energy mix strategies exploiting the maximum potential of non-greenhouse gas emitting energy sources need to be developed and implemented as rapidly as possible. The future energy mix will not only depend on environmental issues, but also will depend on technological, economic, supply, logistics and political factors. It is generally accepted that for many decades fossil fuels will continue to be the major energy source world over. Natural gas being the lowest fossil fuel greenhouse gas emitter will increase the share in energy scenario world over. Countries having or exporting fossil fuels cannot easily turn away from their use and likewise the industrially & economically dynamic countries of Asia such as China, Japan and India cannot radically shift from fossil fuels towards uncertain and currently costly renewable for their growing power needs.

B. National and regional factors are the most important in guiding country's energy mix. Percentage share of energy differ considerably today and they will in the future. For example, today China is more than 90% dependent on various forms of fossil fuels. On the other hand, France and Sweden have reduced their dependence on fossil fuels to less than 50% and 35% respectively by using nuclear and hydro-power to a great extent. Moreover, out of all the fossil fuels coal is the workhorse of global electric power sector and is used to generate more than half of the electricity world consumes. Coal is also world’s most abundant fossil fuel, with supplies projected to last almost 250 years or more. As coal-fired power plants generally produce the lowest-cost electricity and coal is abundant, most of the country’s economic and energy security depend on the continued use of the fuel.

C. Therefore, on the global level, it is difficult to make a policy decisions to foster a reduced reliance on fossil fuel. Decision makers are confused on how to proceed for country’s energy mix for the future as there is general support for cost effective energy efficiency techniques and on the supply side an endorsement of an increased use of renewable and sustainable energy sources. In fact, both the efforts are necessary at present; but ‘renewable and sustainable energy sources’ have limited potential over the near term. However, in the developed and industrialized countries, the significant energy efficiency gains and use of renewable energy sources have been seen over the past two decades, that changed the dependence on fossil fuels and energy scenario to a great extent on their industrial and residential front.

D. The supply potential from renewable energy sources, at present, is difficult to assess since they are only emerging technologies and currently not suitable for meeting large energy demand of a country. With differing relevance for the various renewable energy sources, technological improvements are needed and basic challenges exist in reducing costs, improving efficiency and reliability, solving energy storage problems and integrating the technologies into existing energy systems. In most of the developed countries many decision makers in the opinion that, non-hydroelectric renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind will not be economically competitive for large scale production in the foreseeable future and that they will play no more than a limited role in the decades to come. They opine that, even with adequate support and subsidies the share of such renewable energy sources could reach only 5-8% (including about 3% non-commercial energy share) of primary energy supply by 2020.

E. Fortunately, hydroelectric has already been extensively developed and in use in Europe and North America (some 50% of the estimated maximum economic potential). Its greatest potential lies primarily in Asia, South America and Africa, where the trend will likely be towards small capacity units as concerns grow about the damaging environmental and social impacts of large dams.

F. Energy security and implementing proper energy mix strategies for oil importing countries are very much crucial especially in the scenario of rapid industrialization. For those countries, in my opinion, renewable energy must be developed in parallel with nuclear power and a clean-up of coal-fired power station technology, if these nations are to meet increasing demand without relying on enormous and potentially debilitating natural gas imports. For a nation the provision of sufficient, affordable and secure energy is crucial for any modern economy. Many countries are facing the challenge of bridging the widening gap between energy supply and demand. At the same time, across the globe, those same economies are facing challenges such as climate change, limited resources and rising costs. Therefore, for oil importing countries, energy mix should shift more towards, nuclear power and clean coal technology.

G. There are very large amounts of remaining oil, gas and coal left in the world and in the absence of concerted government initiatives, it may take many years before alternative energy sources such as wind and solar become a significant part of the world’s energy mix. It is true that some renewable sources such as bio-fuels and wind have attained ten-fold production increases throughout the past ten years. However, global energy demand is increasing at such a rate that, if we ignore hydro-electricity, renewable energy - as a proportion of total energy supply - may well remain at less than 2 per cent of the total market for many years to come. It may be noted here that, global climate change may be best addressed in the short term by energy conservation, by increasing fuel efficiency, and by subsurface storage of the carbon dioxide that results from burning fossil fuels. At the same time, the greatest advantages of nuclear power is that it avoids the wide variety of environmental problems arising from burning fossil fuels, apart from economically generating a high amount of electrical energy in one single plant using small amount of fuel.

H. Therefore, concerted efforts by such economies, in order to have secured energy for their sustainable developments, should involve large scale nuclear expansion, the development of clean coal-fired power stations, implementation of hydro-electric power to maximum potential and a increase in renewable energy sources such as solar and wind.

Glass recycling – An effective way to save energy and environment:

2008-07-31T21:36:00.000-07:00

Glass recycling – An effective way to save energy and environment:

Generally, beer, wine bottles and other food jars etc., are among the few normal household glass items put into landfills every day. The glass in these items can take up space in the landfills for up to 4000 years.

A. The beauty of glass is, it is one of the few materials that can be recycled indefinitely, yet only about 22 percent of the glass produced today is from recycled materials. Glass is generally produced from sand, lime and soda and uses about 40 percent more power to produce from raw materials than it does with recycled materials.

B. It may be noted, “For every ton of glass that is recycled to make new glass products 693 pounds of carbon dioxide is saved”.

C. However, not all the glass items are recyclable. The glass in light bulbs, cook ware and window panes are not recyclable due to some special additives used to the glass. These additives are ceramics and other impurities that generally contaminate the recycling process. The glass that cannot be recycled only plays a small part of the glass that is put into the landfills though.

D. The process of glass recycling is less extensive than the process of making it from raw materials. Once glass is picked up and taken to the recycle center it is separated by color and then broken into small pieces. The broken glass pieces are then crushed and sorted before being cleaned and added to raw materials to make the final glass product. Crushed glass melts at a lower temperature than the raw materials and therefore the more recycled material that is in the mixture the less energy it takes to melt the materials into glass.

E. Producing glass from all raw materials creates nearly 400 pounds of mining waste and by replacing 50 percent of the raw material with recycled glass about 75 percent of that waste is reduced.

F. Reusing glass is another way to recycle - Even better than glass recycling is actually reusing the glass containers, as this uses no energy at all! Whilst returning bottles in exchange for a refundable deposit was at one time commonplace, nowadays milk bottles are one of the few types of glass bottle which are returned for reuse. You can, however, reuse glass bottles and jars yourself, perhaps for homemade jam etc.

G. The benefits of glass recycling are crystal clear - Because glass containers are almost always recycled into other glass containers. Metals or plastics, on the other hand, often become entirely different products. A recycled glass container is just as strong as one made from virgin material, and it can be recycled again and again without any loss of quality. This makes glass recycling one of the best examples of “closing the loop.”

H. Advantages of glass recycling are given in the following points–

(a) Recycling reduces the demand for raw materials. There is no shortage of the materials used, but they do have to be quarried from our landscape, so from this point of view, there are environmental advantages to recovering and recycling glass. For every tonne of recycled glass used, 1.2 tonnes of raw materials are preserved.

(b) The cost savings of recycling is in the use of energy. Compared to making glass from raw materials for the first time, cullet melts at a lower temperature. So we can save on energy needed to melt the glass.

(d) Recycling glass reduces the space in landfills that would otherwise be taken up by used bottles and jars.

(e) Using glass for recycling means there are less glass objects lying around in he landfill or bin.

Desert Solar Power – Future of environmentally clean and sustainable Energy:

2008-07-30T23:25:00.000-07:00

Desert Solar Power – Future of environmentally clean and sustainable Energy:

A recent renewed interest in alternative energy technologies has revitalized interest in solar thermal technology, a type of solar power that uses the sun’s heat rather than its light to produce electricity. Although the technology for solar thermal has existed for more than two decades, projects have languished while fossil fuels remained cheap. But solar thermal’s time may now have come — and mirrored arrays of solar thermal power plants, hopefully, will soon bloom in many of the world’s deserts.

Large desert-based power plants concentrate the sun’s energy to produce high-temperature heat for industrial processes or to convert the solar energy into electricity. It is quite interesting to note that, as per the recent reports on Solar Power, the resource calculations show that just seven states in the U.S. Southwest can provide more than 7 million MW of solar generating capacity, i.e., roughly 10 times that of total electricity generating capacity of U.S. today from all sources.

In US, as per report, four more concentrating solar technologies are being developed. Till now, parabolic trough technology (i.e., tracking the sun with rows of mirrors that heat a fluid, which then produces steam to drive a turbine) used to provide the best performance at a minimum cost. With this technology, as per the report, since the mid-1980s nine plants, totaling about 354 MW, were operating reliably in California’s Mojave Desert. Natural gas and other fuels provide supplementary heating when the sun is inadequate, allowing solar power plants to generate electricity whenever it is needed. In addition, in order to extend the operating times of solar power plants new heat-storing technologies are being developed as well.

Realizing the advantages of solar energy and seeing the success of desert solar power installed, several solar power plants are now being planned in the U.S. Southwest. Renewed Governmental supports and rising fossil fuel prices including natural gas, lead to new interest in concentrating solar power among many entrepreneurs. Efficiency of concentrating solar technologies has also been improved substantially, since then. While earlier trough plants needed a 25 percent natural gas-fired backup, the new improved plants will require only about 2 percent backup. As per recent news in US, utilities in states with large solar resources such as Arizona, California, Nevada, and New Mexico etc., are considering installation of solar dish systems on a larger scale. As per the latest estimation, within the next decade more than 4,000 MW of central solar plants will be installed. It’s quite encouraging!!

Concentrating Solar Technologies -

(a) Parabolic trough technologies track the sun with rows of mirrors that heat a fluid. The fluid then produces steam to drive a turbine.

(b) Central receiver (tower) systems use large mirrors to direct the sun to a central tower, where fluid is heated to produce steam that drives a turbine. Parabolic trough and tower systems can provide large-scale, bulk power with heat storage (in the form of molten salt, or in hybrid systems that derive a small share of their power from natural gas).

(c) Dish systems consist of a reflecting parabolic dish mirror system that concentrates sunlight onto a small area, where a receiver is heated and drives a small thermal engine.

(d) Concentrating photovoltaic systems (CPV) use moving lenses or mirrors to track the sun and focus its light on high-efficiency silicon or multi-junction solar cells; they are potentially a lower-cost approach to utility-scale PV power. Dish and CPV systems are well suited for decentralized generation that is located close to the site of demand, or can be installed in large groups for central station power.

Conclusion – Now also the cost of solar power is quite high. In fact, for solar energy to achieve its potential, plant construction costs will have to be further reduced via technology improvements, economies of scale, and streamlined assembly techniques. Development of economic storage technologies can also lower costs significantly. According to renewable energy department, a solar plant covering 10 square miles of desert has potential to produce as much power as the Hoover Dam of US produces. Thus, desert-based power plants can provide a large share of the nation’s commercial energy needs.

Solar power – Energy that is most sustainable to protect our economy and environment:

2008-07-29T23:20:00.000-07:00

Solar power – Energy that is most sustainable to protect our economy and environment:

Originally developed for energy requirement for orbiting earth satellite - Solar Power – have expanded in recent years for our domestic and industrial needs. Solar power is produced by collecting sunlight and converting it into electricity. This is done by using solar panels, which are large flat panels made up of many individual solar cells. It is most often used in remote locations, although it is becoming more popular in urban areas as well.

There is, indeed, enormous amount of advantages lies with use of solar power specially, in the context of environmental impact and self-reliance. However, a few disadvantages such as its initial cost and the effects of weather conditions, make us hesitant to proceed with full vigor. We discuss below the advantages and disadvantages of Solar Power:

Advantages -

(a) The major advantage of solar power is that no pollution is created in the process of generating electricity. Environmentally it the most Clean and Green energy. Solar Energy is clean, renewable (unlike gas, oil and coal) and sustainable, helping to protect our environment.

(b) Solar energy does not require any fuel.

(c) It does not pollute our air by releasing carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide or mercury into the atmosphere like many traditional forms of electrical generation does.

(d) Therefore Solar Energy does not contribute to global warming, acid rain or smog. It actively contributes to the decrease of harmful green house gas emissions.

(e) There is no on-going cost for the power it generates – as solar radiation is free everywhere. Once installed, there are no recurring costs.

(f) It can be flexibly applied to a variety of stationary or portable applications. Unlike most forms of electrical generation, the panels can be made small enough to fit pocket-size electronic devices, or sufficiently large to charge an automobile battery or supply electricity to entire buildings.

(g) It offers much more self-reliance than depending upon a power utility for all electricity.

(h) It is quite economical in long run. After the initial investment has been recovered, the energy from the sun is practically free. Solar Energy systems are virtually maintenance free and will last for decades.

(i) It's not affected by the supply and demand of fuel and is therefore not subjected to the ever-increasing price of fossil fuel.

(j) By not using any fuel, Solar Energy does not contribute to the cost and problems of the recovery and transportation of fuel or the storage of radioactive waste.

(k) It's generated where it is needed. Therefore, large scale transmission cost is minimized.

(l) Solar Energy can be utilized to offset utility-supplied energy consumption. It does not only reduce your electricity bill, but will also continue to supply your home/ business with electricity in the event of a power outage.

(m) A Solar Energy system can operate entirely independently, not requiring a connection to a power or gas grid at all. Systems can therefore be installed in remote locations, making it more practical and cost-effective than the supply of utility electricity to a new site.

(n) The use of solar energy indirectly reduces health costs.

(o) They operate silently, have no moving parts, do not release offensive smells and do not require you to add any fuel.

(p) More solar panels can easily be added in the future when your family's needs grow.

(q) Solar Energy supports local job and wealth creation, fuelling local economies.

Disadvantages –

(a) The initial cost is the main disadvantage of installing a solar energy system, largely because of the high cost of the semi-conducting materials used in building solar panels.

(b) The cost of solar energy is also high compared to non-renewable utility-supplied electricity. As energy shortages are becoming more common, solar energy is becoming more price-competitive.

(d) The efficiency of the system also relies on the location of the sun, although this problem can be overcome with the installation of certain components.

(e) The production of solar energy is influenced by the presence of clouds or pollution in the air. Similarly, no solar energy will be produced during nighttime although a battery backup system and/or net metering will solve this problem.

(f) As far as solar powered cars go - their slower speed might not appeal to everyone caught up in today's fast track movement.

Conclusion - Solar power technology is improving consistently over time, as people begin to understand the benefits offered by this incredible technology. As our oil reserves decline, it is important for us to turn to alternative sources for energy. Therefore, it would be better that converting some of the world's energy requirements to solar power are in the best interest of the worldwide economy and the environment. Since we all are aware of the power of the sun and the benefits we could get from it.

Bio-degradable plastics – development and use are the key for improvement of environment:

2008-07-28T01:15:00.000-07:00

Bio-degradable plastics – development and use are the key for improvement of environment:

A. At present, we make almost 100% of plastics of our requirement from oil and natural gas. Petroleum-based plastics are basically non-degradable. As concern grow about the potential bad effects of petroleum-based non-degradable plastics on the environment, the viability of petroleum-based plastics are in question. At the same time, the increased dependence on oil and gas imports due to manufacture of such petroleum-based products, make us think about the possible solution. In this respect, searching for suitable degradable polymers for various applications as per the need, have become very important aspect in today’s science and technological affair for research.

B. As per reports of various environment protection agencies, plastics alone account for more than 25% (by volume) of municipal waste generated. Plastic’s low density and slowness to decompose makes them a visible pollutant of public concern. Some of the techniques adopted for integrated waste management, which include recycling, source reduction of packaging materials, composting of degradable wastes, incineration etc., may help reduce waste disposal problem; but this will not solve the importation of petroleum products and problem with non-degradability of plastics. As per statistics, about 80% of post-consumer plastic waste is sent to landfill – degrading land masses and causing water pollution, 8% is incinerated – causing unwanted emission and only 7% is recycled. The situation is so acute in some countries of Europe of Japan that today few sites left that can be used for landfill. Since the main bulk of domestic waste is made up of plastics there is a great deal of interest in recycling plastics and in producing plastic materials that can be safely and easily disposed of in the environment.

C. The option to get rid of the adverse effects of non-degradable petroleum-based plastics may be to make bio-degradable plastics suitable for our various applications. Some of the manufacturers in developed countries have already developed some type of degradable plastics made from agricultural products such as corn, potato etc. In fact, bio-degradable plastics can be made from lactic acid. Lactic acid is produced (via starch fermentation) as a co-product of corn wet milling, which can be converted to polyactides (PLA). Alternatively, it can be produced using the starch from food wastes, cheese whey, fruit or grain sorghum.

D. The properties of the plastics changes as per the applications for which it is needed. Some plastics need to be durable like the parts in a car. Yet, there are many plastics that are only used once or have a limited life before being thrown into a landfill or incinerator. Plastics, unlike most organic polymers, are poorly degraded by microbes (although recently some genetically engineered microbes / bacteria have been invented to transform plastic waste into useful eco-friendly plastics – but it is still in research stage). Environmentally degradable polymers are one potential solution to replacing petroleum-based polymers. Potential uses for these polymers are plastics intended for one-time or limited use, for example those used as fast-food wrappers and water-soluble polymers in detergents and cleaners, and for use in the printing industry. Thus, an ideal degradable product would:

(a) Perform the intended task effectively;

(b) Produce little or no side effects in any non-intended target;

(d) Produce no harmful substances when it breaks down.

E. Waste disposal: The question now arises, how best to dispose of domestic wastes. The ways of disposing of waste and time required for degradation is very important factors in development of bio-degradable plastics. Current bio-degradable polymers are designed to degrade either biologically or chemically, depending on the disposal environment that they will encounter after use. Ideally, degradation pathways should ultimately lead to the bio conversion of the polymer into carbon dioxide (aerobic) or carbon dioxide/methane (anaerobic) and biomass. Environmental laws and regulations and consumer demands for environmentally friendly products are beginning to have an impact on the use of degradable polymers. As a result degradable polymers, when combined with other degradable plastics, will begin playing a crucial role in helping to solve our waste disposal problems and reducing petroleum imports.

F. Properties of bio-degradable polymers: These new polymers developed from agricultural products described above are truly degradable. These polymers may be used in many applications as well. Some are impervious to water, moisture etc., and retain their integrity during normal use, but readily degrade when they are kept in a biologically rich environment. The amazing part is the full biodegradability can occur only when these materials are disposed of properly in a composting site or landfill. Today, there are three major degradable polymers groups that are either entering the market or are positioned to enter the market. They are

(a) polyactides (PLA),

(b) polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) and

G. Design for Bio-Degradation of Polymer: Following few points are given to attain bio-degradability.
(a) Some organic chemicals degrade only very slowly, and so the level in the environment can rise steadily. These are the persistent organic pollutants (or "POPs").

(b) In contrast, all chemicals produced in nature are 100% degradable and understanding why this is the case is an important part of being able to design synthetic degradable materials.
(c) For example, natural polymers such as carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids usually have oxygen or nitrogen atoms in the polymer backbone. If these atoms are included in synthetic polymers, the material is more easily degraded. A carbon-oxygen double bond (carbonyl group) absorbs light energy, and so can make a substance photodegradable.
(d) These features can be seen in the structures of some degradable polymers that are already in use.

H. Bio-degradable polymers are quite new. Only during last five years some bio-degradable polymers for applications have been in use in some of the developed world. Although they are degradable, the industry has not promoted them. One reason is these new polymers are higher priced than the commodity polymers typically in use in plastics applications. However, producers are currently working toward bringing down the price of degradable polymers by increasing production capacity and improving process technology.

I. Price competitiveness and future growth of bio-degradable polymers: The trend observed regarding bringing down the prices of degradable polymers in last five years is quite encouraging. In US, five years ago PLA and PHB sold for more than USD 25.00 per pound. Today PLA, depending on quantities, is between USD 1.50 and USD 3.00 per pound and PHB, in large quantities is near USD 4.00 per pound.

Though recent advances in production technology have helped lower prices of some degradable resins, prices are still higher than for petroleum-based plastics. This suggests that in the short term, companies making degradable polymers will continue to focus on niche markets. As production capacity increases it is expected that future prices to fall to roughly USD 1 per pound. Moreover, due to sharp increase in prices of petroleum-based plastics in recent time, the prices of bio-degradable polymers will become very much competitive soon.

J. Further, several factors, besides cost, will be important in determining the future growth of degradable polymers. One major obstacle is a lack of a composting infrastructure. Large-scale composting would provide the ideal disposable environment for spent degradable. Future legislation will depend not only on the environmental awareness of planners and politicians but also on their perceptions of how degradable polymers may affect the development of plastics recycling.

R&D priorities in biotechnology are essential to take care of post-Kyoto challenges:

2008-07-25T04:02:00.000-07:00

R&D priorities in biotechnology are essential to take care of post-Kyoto challenges:

A. Global Warming: The third session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate change, held in Kyoto, Japan, on December 1997, agreed on a protocol which includes each party’s quantitative commitment to reduce its emissions of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide (CO2) by 2010. The protocol specifies that the European Union will commit itself to reducing its greenhouse gas emissions by 8 per cent by 2010 from the level of 1990 (base year), the United States by 7 per cent, and Japan and Canada by 6 per cent. As an essential element in achieving this goal, industry must reduce energy consumption in order to maintain development while helping to meet these targets.

This would include a shift from present petrochemical industry processes, which consume large quantities of energy under conditions of high temperature and pressure, to more energy-efficient biological processes, which use renewable resources such as biomass to produce useful substances under normal temperatures and pressures. For example, future processes will focus more on producing efficiently alternative fuels such as ethanol, which contribute less to global warming and are also likely to produce environmentally benign products, such as biodegradable plastics, which breaks down in natural settings after use.

As a result, biotechnology should become an increasingly valuable tool for developing environmentally friendly products and processes and for preventing the Earth from warming.

B. R&D priorities in biotechnology for promotion of clean industrial products and processes: If biotechnology is to become an increasingly important source of clean industrial products and processes, R&D efforts will need to focus on a number of priority areas. Among those that deserve prompt and focused research in the near future are:

a. Innovative products derived from biological sources that contribute to sustainability;

b. Wider exploration of biological systems (enzymes, micro-organisms, cells, whole organisms);

c. Greater emphasis on the use of bioconsortia, including establishing them and developing production and degradation processes based on them;

d. Novel methodologies for developing biological processes (bio-molecular design, genomics);

e. Innovative biocatalyst technology for use in areas where conventional biocatalysts have not yet been exploited (e.g. the petrochemical industries);

f. Biological recycling processes that convert unused resources to useful substances;

g. Emphasis on engineering, especially large-scale engineering, process intensification, measurement, monitoring and control systems;

h. Greater emphasis on biodiversity and widening the search for novel genes (bioprospecting), a process that will require, in parallel, the construction of infrastructures such as culture collections, comprehensive biological databases, and the development of bioinformatics;

i. Focus on development and application of recombinant technology.

Global Warming - Each one degree rise in the temperature of the world's oceans is equivalent to 1.4 BILLION one Megaton atom bombs!!!

2008-07-24T03:38:00.000-07:00

Global Warming - Each one degree rise in the temperature of the world's oceans is equivalent to 1.4 BILLION one Megaton atom bombs!!!

We all know, the earth is surrounded by a cover of gasses as atmosphere. This atmosphere allows most of the light to pass through, which reaches the surface of earth.

This light from sun is absorbed by the earth surface and converts into heat energy. This heat energy is re-emitted by the surface of the earth during night.

Due excessive presence of some gasses in the atmosphere, this escape of heat from earth surface is prevented, resulting in heating of earth called ‘global warming’.

The gasses which are responsible for causing global warming are called ‘greenhouse gasses’. Carbon dioxide is one of the most important greenhouse gases. This carbon dioxide mostly comes to atmosphere as air pollution from vehicles, coal-fired power plants and other industries burning fossil fuels. Human population increase and large scale deforestation are also responsible for carbon dioxide generation.

Thus, Global Warming adds energy to the Earth's biosphere.

The climate change which we are experiencing is due to global warming.

Heat is the fuel of weather systems. More heat, more extreme weather.

Energy drives the water cycle.

The more energy there is the faster the water cycle is driven and the more extreme the weather patterns become.

Each one degree rise in the temperature of the world's oceans is the equivalent to 1.4 BILLION one Megaton atom bombs; that is a lot of energy! This tremendous amount of devastating energy, generating because of our faulty creation “Global Warming” is responsible for the present climate change.

Thus, it shouldn't be surprising that the result is more extreme weather. More rain, more drought and more storms.

The harmful effects of presence of greenhouse gasses in atmosphere are global warming, climate change, ozone depletion, sea level rise, adverse effects on biodiversity etc.

Therefore, our prime responsibility is not to promote any industrialization which enhances carbon emission, rather than reduction.

Proper energy mix, which generates electricity without emission, is essential. Energy mix should include –

(a) substantial enhancement of Nuclear power in the industrialized countries;

(b) only clean coal technology / green coal to be used for power generation;

(d) substantial effort needed to enhance research and implementation for provision of generation of clean energy from renewable sources such as solar and wind.

Biotechnology and industrial sustainability in producing clean industrial products:

2008-07-22T01:04:00.000-07:00

Biotechnology and industrial sustainability in producing clean industrial products:

A. Introduction: Various points have been given below regarding role of biotechnology and industrial sustainability in producing clean industrial products:

a. Industrial sustainability demands a global vision and co-ordinated policy approaches.
b. In an industrial context, sustainability is equated with clean industrial products and processes.
c. Biotechnology is competitive with and in many cases complements chemical methods for achieving clean technologies.
d. It is essential to determine what is clean or cleaner, using Life Cycle Assessment and related methods.
e. Biotechnology is a versatile enabling technology that provides powerful routes to clean industrial products and processes and is expected to play a growing role.

B. Biotechnology and CO2 emissions: Fossil carbon represents the single most important raw material for energy generation and for chemicals manufacture, but its oxidation product, CO2, is an important greenhouse gas. Any means of reducing fossil carbon consumption, either by improving energy efficiency or by substituting alternative resources will directly result in lowered CO2 production and thus reduce global warming.

C. Industrial processes: Use of biotechnology has already resulted in energy reduction in industrial processes. In only a few instances can the reductions be quantified, and these are presented in this report. Others are only available as anecdotal evidence. As yet, there are insufficient data to allow scaling up these figures to cover whole industrial sectors.

Examples: a. Ammonium acrylate, a key intermediate in the manufacture of acrylic polymers, is made by hydrolyzing acrylonitrile to acrylic acid and reacting this with ammonia. The reaction is energy-intensive and gives rise to by-products which are difficult to remove. A process, based on a bacterial enzyme which directly synthesises ammonium acrylate of the same quality under less energy-demanding conditions, has been operating for several years at full scale.

b. In paper making, treating cellulose fibres in the pulp using cellulase and hemicellulase enzymes allows water to drain more quickly from the wet pulp, thereby reducing processing time and energy used for drying. Trials have shown that machine speeds can be increased by up to 7 per cent and energy input reduced by as much as 7.5 per cent. Replacing thermomechanical pulping by biopulping has resulted in up to 30 per cent reduction in electrical energy consumption.

D. Materials: Biomass, as it grows, consumes CO2. Substances made from such renewable raw materials are therefore a zero net contributor to atmospheric greenhouse gases, unless fossil fuel is used in their manufacture. A wide range of chemicals and structural materials can be based on biological raw materials including biodegradable plastics, biopolymers and biopesticides, novel fibres and timbers. Plant-derived amides, esters and acetates are currently being used as plasticisers, blocking/slip agents and mould-release agents for synthetic polymers. Uses of biohydrocarbons linked to amines, alcohols, phosphates and sulphur ligands include fabric softeners, corrosion inhibitors, ink carriers, solvents, hair conditioners, and perfumes.

E. Chemicals from biological feedstocks: It is no longer necessary to start with a barrel of oil to produce chemicals. Corn, beets, rice – even potatoes – make excellent feedstocks. The fact that micro-organisms transform sugars into alcohol has been known for a very long time. But only since the advent of genetic engineering is it feasible to think about harnessing the sophistication of biological systems to create molecules that are difficult to synthesise by traditional chemical methods.

For example, the polymer polytrimethylene terephthalate (3GT) has enhanced properties compared to traditional polyester (2GT). Yet commercialization has been slow to come because of the high cost of making trimethylene glycol (3G), one of 3GT’s monomers. The secret to producing 3G can be found in the cellular machinery of certain unrelated microorganisms. Some naturally occurring yeasts convert sugar to glycerol, while a few bacteria can change glycerol to 3G. The problem is that no single natural organism has been able to do both. Through recombinant DNA technology, an alliance of scientists from DuPont and Genencor International has created a single micro-organism with all the enzymes required to turn sugar into 3G. This breakthrough is opening the door to low-cost, environmentally sound, large-scale production of 3G. The eventual cost of 3G by this process is expected to approach that of ethylene glycol (2G). The 3G fermentation process requires no heavy metals, petroleum or toxic chemicals. In fact, the primary material comes from agriculture – glucose from cornstarch. Rather than releasing carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, the process actually captures it because corn absorbs CO2 as it grows. All liquid effluent is easily and harmlessly biodegradable. Moreover, 3GT can readily undergo methanolysis, a process that reduces polyesters to their original monomers. Post-consumer polyesters can thus be repolymerised and recycled indefinitely.

F. Clean fuels: While biomass can be consumed (incinerated) directly to produce energy, it can also be converted into a wide range of chemicals and liquid fuels. Although, in energy terms, annual land production of biomass is some five times global energy consumption, biomass presently provides only 1 per cent of commercial energy. Biomass energy cannot compete at present-day prices with fossil fuels and has so far penetrated the market only where governments have effectively subsidised its use. Bioethanol is a CO2-neutral alternative liquid transportation fuel. As new technologies – including continuous fermentation, production from lignocellulosic (wood and agricultural crop) waste – and more efficient separation techniques are developed, the cost of bioethanol will compete with that of gasoline. Over a 20-year period, US ethanol production, based solely on lignocellulosic waste, could rise to 470 million tonnes a year, equal to present gasoline consumption in energy terms.

Characteristics of Pollutants from Car Exhaust and suggested solution:

2008-07-19T00:48:00.000-07:00

Characteristics of Pollutants from Car Exhaust and suggested solution:

The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of fuel and an oxidizer (typically air) occurs, and generates gases at high temperature and pressure, which are permitted to expand to perform useful work. Internal combustion engines are most commonly used in automobiles such as trucks, cars, motorcycles etc.; in a wide variety of aircraft and locomotives; running of various equipments, and they appear mostly in the form of turbines where a very high power is required, such as in jet aircraft, helicopters, and large ships.

Motor fuel, by which almost all internal combustion engine runs, is obtained from crude oil. Its major constituents are the elements carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O) and nitrogen (N), along with some amounts of sulfur (S). In other words, motor fuel contains hydrocarbons and organic compounds containing nitrogen and sulfur. When these are burned in air the products are water (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx). Nitrogen gas in the atmosphere may also react with oxygen at the high temperatures in the combustion chamber to form oxides.

Characteristics of Pollutants from Car Exhaust:

a. Carbon dioxide (CO2) - This gas is naturally present in the atmosphere at low concentration (approximately 0.035%). It absorbs infrared energy and is thus a greenhouse gas, a contributor to global warming. Concentrations of CO2 in the earth's atmosphere appear to be increasing. This is a great concern as it has a substantial effect on the climate. The internal combustion engine contributes to the increased concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere.

b. Carbon monoxide (CO) - The main source of CO in cities is the internal combustion engine, where it is produced by incomplete combustion. Anthropogenic sources account for approximately 6% of the 0.1 ppm concentration of CO in the earth's atmosphere globally. In an urban area, the concentration can be much higher. CO is highly toxic. It binds to haemoglobin more strongly than oxygen does, thus reducing the capacity of the haemoglobin to carry oxygen to the cells of the body. CO also has the nasty habit of sticking to haemoglobin and not coming off. This means that a fairly small amount of it can do a lot of damage. However, CO can be oxidized to the far less harmful CO2, if there is enough O₂ available. At higher air-fuel ratios the level of CO emission goes down. CO can also be oxidized to CO2 in a catalytic converter.

c. Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) - While some nitrogen may be present in the fuel, most oxides of nitrogen are produced when elemental nitrogen (N2) in the air is broken down and oxidized at high temperatures (approximately at 700 degree Celsius or greater) and pressures within the internal combustion engine. Nitrogen monoxide (NO) is produced in higher concentration than nitrogen dioxide (NO2) but the two species are in any case inter-convertible by means of photochemical interactions. Other oxides of nitrogen, such as N₂O₄, may occur; but chances are rare. NO and NO₂ are toxic species. Oxides of nitrogen also play a major role in the formation of photochemical smog.

d. Hydrocarbons (HC) - Hydrocarbon fuel, sometime, passes through the process unconsumed and is expelled into the atmosphere along with other exhaust fumes. Fuel close to the wall of the combustion chamber may be quenched by the relative coolness of that area and not be burned. Also, if the engine is poorly designed or is not in proper working order the proportion of unburned fuel rises. Some hydrocarbon fuels are also released to the atmosphere by direct evaporation from fuel tanks. It may be noted; hydrocarbons can be dangerous to human health and are also part of the makeup and cause of photochemical smog.

e. Benzene and its derivatives (C6H6) - Benzene is, of course, a hydrocarbon, but is sufficiently different from straight-chain hydrocarbons. The six carbons (C) in benzene form a regular hexagon, with one hydrogen (H) attached to each carbon and sticking out. All 12 atoms lie on one plane. This structure of benzene is quite stable — stable enough for a large proportion of the benzene in fuel to pass unchanged through the combustion process. There is quite a lot of benzene in fuel. It acts as an anti-knock agent, making cars run more smoothly. Since the abolition of lead additives as anti-knock agents, the levels of benzene and benzene-related compounds (modified form where one or more hydrogen have been removed to form a phenyl ring and other things have been attached in their places) in car fuel have increased. Benzene (C6H6), and also many of its derivatives such as toluene (PhCH3) and phenol (PhOH), is carcinogenic (the level of toxicity varies). Benzene vapors are therefore quite dangerous. It has been suggested that benzene is more dangerous to filling station attendants than to the general public in the streets as the concentration of benzene will be higher in the raw fuel than in the combustion products.

f. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) - Fossil fuels are derived from once-living organisms. Some sulfur occurs in protein and will still be present in the fuel. Under combustion this sulfur reacts with oxygen to form sulfur di- and trioxide. Sulfur dioxide emission does occur from cars. SO2 and SO3 are acidic pollutants which dissolve in moisture in the atmosphere to form sulfurous and sulfuric acids (H2SO3 and H2SO4), which are components of 'acid rain'. These corrode metal surfaces and weather limestone buildings.

Acid rain also mobilizes toxic aluminum ions in the soil, washing them out into streams and ponds. This causes sticky mucus to accumulate in the gills of fish and eventually kills them. Trees and other plants which absorb aluminum ions will be damaged. In humans, sulfur dioxide irritates the eyes, the mucous membranes and the respiratory tract, along with the skin in general. SO2 also has the effect of slowing down the movements of the cilia (the hairs in the trachea which act to prevent dust entering into lungs), thus exacerbating the irritation caused by allowing more pollutant to access the respiratory system.

g. Particles micro-particulate, 10 microns (Particulate matters – PM10) - These are ultra-fine particles which are less than one-hundredth of a millimeter across. Thus they are too small to settle or be dispersed by rain. These particles absorb acidic gases which are also present in exhaust fumes and, when inhaled, penetrate into the microscopic air sacs of the lungs (alveoli). Scavenging white blood cells are overwhelmed by these particles, and release a stream of chemicals that trigger an inflammatory reaction in the lungs, and increase the stickiness of red blood cells, thus increasing the likelihood of blood clots. The main victims of this type of pollution are the elderly, smokers, and those suffering from chest complaints, heart conditions and asthma. It is considered that PM10s may be the most important and dangerous component of vehicle pollution. These particles can drift for miles, and accumulate inside buildings. The major source of PM10s in urban air is motor vehicles, particularly diesel engines.

h. Photochemical Smog - Reactive pollutant hydrocarbons in the presence of NOx and under certain atmospheric conditions can produce a brown haze known as photochemical smog. It is formed by photochemical reactions (that is, reactions catalyzed by light) between NOx and hydrocarbons (HC). Photochemical smog is most common on windless sunny days when the ingredients are not dispersed and there is plenty of light energy available to power the reaction. Photochemical smog is characterized by the presence of particulate matter (which creates a sort of haze), oxidants such as ozone, and noxious organic species such as aldehydes.

Suggested Solutions to the vehicle exhaust problems:

(i) Catalytic Converters - Most modern cars contain catalytic converters. In these, exhaust fumes and added air pass over a catalyst where they are broken down to less harmful products.

(ii) Drive less.

(iii) Use cleaner engines – Use cars that are designed to be more fuel-efficient and less pollutant.

(iv) Drive hybrid vehicles - Whether a hybrid engine is more environmentally sound than a normal engine depends on how the car is used. For city stop-start driving, they're usually better.

(v) Keep your car in good working order

(vi) Use smaller cars.

(vii) Drive intelligently - The way a car is driven can have a huge effect on its fuel-consumption and hence on its effect on the environment.

Biotechnology for development of sustainable clean technology - Strategies:

2008-07-17T00:04:00.000-07:00

Biotechnology for development of sustainable clean technology - Strategies:

Many developed countries started using biotechnology as a means of achieving clean or cleaner industrial products and processes. It compares biotechnological processes with competing means of securing similar goals.

Meaning of Clean technology - All stages of the life cycle of a product or process may adversely affect the environment by using up limited resources of materials and energy or by creating waste. Any substitution or change that reduces consumption of materials and energy and production of waste – including, for example, recycling of materials and energy – may be regarded as more environmentally friendly or ‘‘clean’’. Clean technology may also be equated with reduced risk.

Life Cycle Assessment is one way of comparing the relative cleanliness of a product or process.

Cleaner processes and products mean processes and products that consume less energy and material resources, generate less pollution or waste, or use renewable resources rather than petroleum or coal-based feedstock as feed. There are many reasons why an operator would switch to a cleaner process or product. Some of the more important factors most often mentioned are:

(a) Availability of raw materials;

(b) Cost factors;

(d) Safety and health considerations;

(e) Environmental considerations;

(f) Product liability;

(g) Public image.

Thus, it is the duty of developed countries to appreciate the potential role of biotechnology in clean industrial processes and sets the stage for viewing clean processes in the context of industrial sustainability. The extents to which biotechnological thinking and practices are being introduced into industrial sectors, which have serious environmental impacts, are to be enhanced. The economic competitiveness of biotechnology for clean products and processes in these sectors are the major concerns, which Government / authorities required to be take a note and policy implementation should be in tune with sustainable development.

Scientific and technological innovations across the range of biotechnologies and the opportunities for their adoption, as well as R&D priorities are to be spelt out.

The following few points are to be kept in mind while framing strategies for promotion of biotechnology for development of clean technology, in the context of industrial sustainability:

(a) Global environmental concerns will drive increased emphasis on clean industrial products and processes.

(b) Biotechnology is a powerful enabling technology for achieving clean industrial products and processes that can provide a basis for industrial sustainability.

(c) Measuring the cleanliness of an industrial product or process is essential but complex; Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is the best current tool for making this determination.

(d) The main drivers for industrial biotechnological processes are economic (market forces), government policy, and science and technology.

(e) Achieving greater penetration of biotechnology for clean environmental purposes will require joint R&D efforts by government and industry.

(f) For biotechnology to reach its full potential as a basis for clean industrial products and processes, beyond its current applications, additional R&D efforts will be needed.

(g) Because biotechnology, including recombinant DNA technology and its applications, has become increasingly important as a tool for creating value-added products and for developing biocatalysts, there is a strong need for harmonised and responsive regulations and guidelines.

(h) Market forces can provide very powerful incentives for achieving environmental cleanliness objectives.

(i) Government policies to enhance cleanliness of industrial products and processes can be the single most decisive factor in the development and industrial use of clean biotechnological processes.

(j) Communication and education will be necessary to gain penetration of biotechnology for clean products and processes into various industrial sectors.

Deforestation for food and fuel – A devastating consequence of overpopulation - to be checked immediately:

2008-07-15T00:12:00.000-07:00

Deforestation for food and fuel – A devastating consequence of overpopulation - to be checked immediately:

Tropical rainforests are incredibly rich ecosystems that play a fundamental role in the basic functioning of the planet. Rainforests are home to probably 50 percent of the world's species, making them an extensive library of biological and genetic resources. In addition, rainforests help maintain the climate by regulating atmospheric gases and stabilizing rainfall, protect against desertification, and provide numerous other ecological functions. These precious systems are among the most threatened on the planet because of unchecked population growth and rising demand.

As per the rough estimate, each day at least 80,000 acres (32,300 ha) of forest disappear from Earth.Rising demand for food, biofuels, wood for paper, building and industry made forest cover worldwide most vulnerable. The result of it is more deforestation, more conflict, more carbon emissions, more climate change and less prosperity for everyone. Growth in population, especially in developing countries, is the major culprit for irresponsible deforestation, degradation of global environment and climate change.

Demand for land worldwide to grow more food, fuel crops for future energy security and wood is set to outstrip supply, leading to the probable destruction of forests. Tropical forests in Asia, Africa and South America are at most vulnerable position as growth in population in developing countries in those continents is quite large.

Many reports suggests that, because of the rising demand for food and biofuel, by another two decades, more than 500 million hectares of extra land will be needed worldwide for growing crops and trees; but only 200 million hectares will be available without dipping into tropical forests. Thus, tropical forest areas are bound to be affected extensively in next couple of decades. Analysis of figures from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) shows that tropical deforestation rates increased 8.5 percent from 2000-2005 when compared with the 1990s, while loss of primary forests may have expanded by 25 percent over the same period.

Some of the studies also suggest that, if the current level in agricultural yield continues, the amount of additional agricultural land required just to meet the world's projected food demand in 2050 would be about three billion hectares and nearly all would be required in developing countries. In such a scenario, tropical forest areas in developing countries would be destroyed, without repair, almost completely.

However, some academics place their hopes in agricultural technologies including genetic engineering to boost crop yields.

The main area of concern is, since the spectacular success of the expected green revolution is, so far, quite slow. In some areas, yields are falling - a trend, which is most likely to be, intensified by climate change due to global warming. Moreover, eating into tropical forests to create extra agricultural land would, in turn, deepen climate change. Further, greenhouse gases may also rise because of extensive deforestation. As these forests fall, more carbon is added to the atmosphere, climactic conditions are further altered, and more topsoil is lost to erosion.

Solar Power – Development in new technology making it economically competitive:

2008-07-11T00:42:00.000-07:00

Solar Power – Development in new technology making it economically competitive:

We all know that solar power is excellently exciting. Just lay down a sheet or a panel exposing sun and every day, for the life of the device, you get free power. There are no fuel costs, no running or maintenance cost. It is a renewable resource, meaning no end of raw material. Therefore, we do not have to worry about the sun ever going away. Although the sun may disappear behind a few clouds for a few minutes, disappear completely at night, or for hours during the winter, we can always expect it to come back in full force. Apart, solar power is non-polluting. Unlike oil, solar power does not emit any greenhouse gases or carcinogens into the air. Solar power is good for the environment and make our atmosphere clean. Solar power is silent powered also, i.e., no noise pollution.

There are so many advantages of solar power that it is amazing that it is not yet more common. Perhaps the main reason for this is that at the onset, solar power can be expensive. Unfortunately, the size of the initial investment keeps the cost of solar generated power higher than the cost of coal. At this juncture it is worth noting that, if you take into account the environmental costs of burning coal, solar power is already slightly more economically sound. But we're not taxing carbon (yet) so we've got to make solar power cheaper. Of course, solar cells are not cheap. However, technology for this is improving, and it will continue to improve as the cost of other forms of power increase. There are few of the finest examples that are working to bring solar power to grid parity. Some of these useful technologies are briefed below:

1. The most expensive part of a traditional photovoltaic array is the silicon wafers. To solve this cost problem (and also the problem of the environmentally wasteful process of creating the silicon crystals) several people are concentrating the sunlight thousands of times onto an extremely small solar panel. They decrease the amount of solar material needed by thousands of times, and produce just as much power.

Technologies collectively known as concentrating photovoltaic are starting to enjoy their day in the sun, thanks to advances in solar cells, which absorb light and convert it into electricity, and the mirror- or lens-based concentrator systems that focus light on them. The technology could soon make solar power as cheap as electricity from the grid. The idea of concentrating sunlight to reduce the size of solar cells - and therefore to cut costs -has been around for decades. The result is solar power that is nearly as cheap (if not as cheap) as coal.

The thinking behind concentrated solar power is simple. Because energy from the sun, although abundant, is diffuse, generating one gigawatt of power (the size of a typical utility-scale plant) using traditional photovoltaic requires a four-square-mile area of silicon. A concentrator system would replace most of the silicon with plastic or glass lenses or metal reflectors, requiring only as much semiconductor material as it would take to cover an area of much smaller in size. Moreover, because of decrease in the amount of semiconductor needed makes it affordable to use much more efficient types of solar cells. The total footprint of such plant, including the reflectors or lenses, would be only two to two-and-a-half square miles.

The big problem of this technology is very hot piece of silicon. You have to keep the silicon cool, even with sunlight magnified 2000 times on it. Otherwise the silicon will melt, and it's all over. Scientists are working prototypes already and are hoping to go commercial in the coming years.

2. Another solution to the problem of limited and expensive crystalline silicon is to just not use it. This is why there are so many solar startups right now working on solar technology using non-crystalline silicon or other thin-film solutions. Many have already broken out of the lab and into manufacturing. One of the leading technologies, not using expensive crystalline silicon is ‘Nano-solar’ prints. Nano-solar prints it's mixture of several elements in precise proportions onto a metal film. The production is fast, simple and cheap, at least for now. Some fear that shortages in indium will bring a halt to nano-solar's cheap printing days. Though scientists make some efficiency sacrifices when compared to crystalline silicon, they are so much cheaper to produce that they might soon even beat coal in cost per watt.

The advantages of ‘Nano-solar’ prints are, they are super cheap, ultra-adaptable solar panels that can be printed on the side of pretty much anything, promising solar power anywhere you want it. At the present condition, they still slide under coal's $2.1-a-watt energy cost, though they're not mass produced at the scale needed to bring it to the 30-cents-a-watt level.

3. While the first two options provide the most efficient path to solar electricity, but converting photons directly into electrons, a less efficient, though simpler, option might turn out to be the real cost-effective. Simply by focusing hundreds or even thousands of mirrors onto a single point, scientists are hoping to create the kind of heat necessary to run a coal fired power plant, but without use of coal. The heat would boil water which would then be used to turn turbines. In other words, it is nothing but, concentrated thermal solar power, which concentrates the heat from the sun to power turbines or sterling engines.

The advantage of such a system is converting the existing steam turbines being produced for traditional power plants, and the rest of the technology just involves shiny objects and concrete. The problems however, are these things too hot to handle. The material holding the boiler has to be able to withstand the extreme heat that these installations can produce. That kind of material, that won't melt or degrade under such extreme heat, can be quite expensive.

Co- Generation Power Plant means to provide heat, power and environmental benefits:

2008-07-07T23:39:00.000-07:00

Co- Generation Power Plant means to provide heat, power and environmental benefits:
‘Co-generation’ - known as combined heat and power, distributed generation, or recycled energy - is the simultaneous production of two or more forms of energy from a single fuel source. Cogeneration power plant simultaneously generates both electricity and useful heat from a common fuel source. It produces heat for industrial processes and uses a recovery boiler to generate electricity.

A. Cogeneration power plant generally includes reciprocating engines, combustion turbines, micro-turbines, backpressure steam turbines, and fuel cells. Cogeneration power plants often operate at 50 to 70 percent higher efficiency rates than single-generation facilities. In practical terms, what cogeneration usually entails is the use of what would otherwise be wasted heat (such as a manufacturing plant’s exhaust) to produce additional energy benefit, such as to provide heat or electricity for the building in which it is operating. Cogeneration is great for the bottom line and also for the environment, as recycling the waste heat saves other pollutant-spewing fossil fuels from being burned.

B. As of now, most of the thousands of cogeneration plants operating across the United States and Canada are small facilities operated by non-utility companies and by institutions like universities and the military. Cogeneration saves its customers up to 40% on their energy expenses, and provides even greater savings to our environment. Cogeneration, as previously described above, is also known as “combined heat and power” (CHP). Cogeneration is a proven technology that has been around in US for over 100 years. In fact, America’s first commercial power plant was a cogeneration plant that was designed and built by Thomas Edison in 1882 in New York.

C. Primary fuels commonly used in cogeneration include natural gas, oil, diesel fuel, propane, coal, wood, wood-waste and bio-mass. These "primary" fuels are used to make electricity, a "secondary" fuel. This is why electricity, when compared on a btu to btu basis, is typically 3-5 times more expensive than primary fuels such as natural gas. Due to competitive pressures to cut costs and reduce emissions of air pollutants and greenhouse gasses, owners and operators of industrial and commercial facilities are actively looking for ways to use energy more efficiently. One option is cogeneration, also known as combined heat and power (CHP). Cogeneration/CHP is the simultaneous production of electricity and useful heat from the same fuel or energy. Facilities with cogeneration systems use them to produce their own electricity, and use the unused excess (waste) heat for process steam, hot water heating, space heating, and other thermal needs. They may also use excess process heat to produce steam for electricity production. Cogeneration technologies are conventional power generation systems with the means to make use of the energy remaining in exhaust gases, cooling systems, or other energy waste stream. Typical cogeneration prime movers include: Combustion turbines, Reciprocating engines, Boilers with steam turbines, Micro-turbines, Fuel cells.

D. A typical cogeneration system consists of an engine, steam turbine, or combustion turbine that drives an electrical generator. A waste heat exchanger recovers waste heat from the engine and/or exhaust gas to produce hot water or steam. Cogeneration produces a given amount of electric power and process heat with 10% to 30% less fuel than it takes to produce the electricity and process heat separately. There are two main types of cogeneration techniques: (a) "Topping Cycle" plants, and (b) "Bottoming Cycle" plants.

(a) "Topping Cycle" plants - A topping cycle plant generates electricity or mechanical power first. Facilities that generate electrical power may produce the electricity for their own use, and then sell any excess power to a utility. There are four types of topping cycle cogeneration systems.
(i) The first type burns fuel in a gas turbine or diesel engine to produce electrical or mechanical power. The exhaust provides process heat, or goes to a heat recovery boiler to create steam to drive a secondary steam turbine. This is a combined-cycle topping system.
(ii) The second type of system burns fuel (any type) to produce high-pressure steam that then passes through a steam turbine to produce power. The exhaust provides low-pressure process steam. This is a steam-turbine topping system.
(iii) A third type burns a fuel such as natural gas, diesel, wood, gasified coal, or landfill gas. The hot water from the engine jacket cooling system flows to a heat recovery boiler, where it is converted to process steam and hot water for space heating.
(iv) The fourth type is a gas-turbine topping system. A natural gas turbine drives a generator. The exhaust gas goes to a heat recovery boiler that makes process steam and process heat. A topping cycle cogeneration plant always uses some additional fuel, beyond what is needed for manufacturing, so there is an operating cost associated with the power production.

(b) "Bottoming Cycle" plants - Bottoming cycle plants are much less common than topping cycle plants. These plants exist in heavy industries such as glass or metals manufacturing where very high temperature furnaces are used.

A waste heat recovery boiler recaptures waste heat from a manufacturing heating process. This waste heat is then used to produce steam that drives a steam turbine to produce electricity. Since fuel is burned first in the production process, no extra fuel is required to produce electricity.

E. An emerging technology that has cogeneration possibilities is the fuel cell. A fuel cell is a device that converts hydrogen to electricity without combustion. Heat is also produced. Most fuel cells use natural gas (composed mainly of methane) as the source of hydrogen. The first commercial availability of fuel cell technology was the phosphoric acid fuel cell, which has been on the market for a few years. Other fuel cell technologies (molten carbonate and solid oxide) are in early stages of development. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) may be potential source for cogeneration, due to the high temperature heat generated by their operation.

F. Environmental Issues - While cogeneration provides several environmental benefits by making use of waste heat and waste products, air pollution is a concern any time fossil fuels or biomass are burned. The major regulated pollutants include particulates, sulfur dioxide (SO2), and nitrous oxides (NOx). Some cogeneration systems, such as diesel engines, do not capture as much waste heat as other systems. Others may not be able to use all the thermal energy that they produce because of their location. They are therefore less efficient, and the corresponding environmental benefits are less than they could be. The environmental impacts of air and water pollution and waste disposal are very site-specific for cogeneration. This is a problem for some cogeneration plants because the special equipment (water treatment, air scrubbers, etc.) required to meet environmental regulations adds to the cost of the project. If, on the other hand, pollution control equipment is required for the primary industrial or commercial process anyway, cogeneration can be economically attractive.

G. Cogeneration Benefits - Cogeneration offers energy, environmental, and economic benefits, including:
(a) Saving money - By improving efficiency, cogeneration systems can reduce fuel costs associated with providing heat and electricity to a facility.
(b) Improving power reliability - Cogeneration systems are located at the point of energy use. They provide high-quality and reliable power and heat locally to the energy user, and they also help reduce congestion on the electric grid by removing or reducing load. In this way, cogeneration systems effectively assist or support the electric grid, providing enhanced reliability in electricity transmission and distribution.
(c) Reducing environmental impact - Because of its improved efficiency in fuel conversion, cogeneration reduces the amount of fuel burned for a given energy output and reduces the corresponding emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases.
(d) Conserving limited resources of fossil fuels - Because cogeneration requires less fuel for a given energy output, the use of cogeneration reduces the demand on our limited natural resources—including coal, natural gas, and oil—and improves energy security.

Thus, co-generation units bring about the utmost economical and ecological advantage in a field where they can be meaningfully employed.

Environmental protection using Biotechnology – An overview:

2008-07-03T23:42:00.000-07:00

Environmental protection using Biotechnology – An overview:

A. The surroundings around us are termed as ‘environment’. Our environment includes the abiotic component (the non living) and biotic component (the living). The abiotic environment includes air, water and soil; and the biotic environment consists of all living organisms such as plants, animals and microorganisms. Environmental pollution broadly refers to the presence of undesirable substances in the environment which are harmful to man and other organisms. There has been a significant increase in the levels of harmful environmental pollution mostly due to direct or indirect human activities in recent past. The major sources of environmental pollution are industries, agricultural and other anthropogenic and biogenic sources etc. The pollutants are chemical, biological and physical in nature.

B. Controlling the environmental pollution and the conservation of environment and biodiversity and controlling environmental pollution are the major focus areas of all the countries around the world. In this context, the importance and impact of biotechnological approaches and the implications of biotechnology has to be thoroughly evaluated. There have been serious concerns regarding the use of biotechnological products and the impact assessment of these products due to their interaction with the environmental factors. A lobby of the environmentalists has expressed alarm on the release of genetically engineered organisms in the atmosphere and have stressed on thorough investigation and proper risk assessment of theses organisms before releasing them in to the environment. The effect of the effluents from biotechnological companies is also a cause of concern for everyone. The need of the hour is to have a proper debate on the safety of the use of the biotechnological products. The efforts are not only on to use biotechnology to protect the environment from pollution but also to use it to conserve the natural resources. As we all know that microorganisms are known natural scavengers so the microbial preparations (both natural as well as genetically engineered) can be used to clean up the environmental hazards.

C. Biotechnology is being used to provide alternative cleaner technologies which help to further reduce the hazardous environmental implications of the traditional technologies. Some of the well known examples and mechanisms are:

(i) Some fermentation technologies have some serious environmental implications. Various biotechnological processes have been devised in which all nutrients introduced for fermentation are retained in the final product, which ensures high conversion efficiency and low environmental impact.

(ii) In paper industry, the pulp bleaching technologies are being replaced by more environmentally friendly technologies involving biotechnology. The pulp processing helps to remove the lignin without damaging valuable cellulosic fibres but the available techniques suffer from the disadvantages of high costs, high energy use and corrosion. A lignin degrading and modifying enzyme (LDM) was isolated from Phanerochaete chrysosporum and was used, which on one hand, helped to reduce the energy costs and corrosion and on the other hand increased the life of the system. This approach helped in reducing the environmental hazards associated with bleach plant effluents.

(iii) In Plastic industry, the conventional technologies use oil based raw materials to extract ethylene and propylene which are converted to alkene oxides and then polymerized to form plastics such as polypropylene and polyethylene. There is always the risk of these raw materials escaping into the atmosphere thereby causing pollution. Using biotechnology, more safer raw materials like sugars (glucose) are being used which are enzymatically or through the direct use of microbes converted into alkene oxides.e.g. Methylococcus capsulatus has been used for converting alkene into alkene oxides.

(iv) Bioremediation is defined as ‘the process of using microorganisms to remove the environmental pollutants where microbes serve as scavengers. The removal of organic wastes by microbes leads to environmental cleanup. The other names/terms used for bioremediation are bio-treatment, bio-reclamation, and bio-restoration. The term “Xenobiotics” (xenos means foreign) refers to the unnatural, foreign and synthetic chemicals such as pesticides, herbicides, refrigerants, solvents and other organic compounds. The microbial degradation of xenobiotics also helps in reducing the environmental pollution. Depending on the method followed to clean up the environment, the bioremediation is carried out in two ways:

(a) In situ bioremediation – involves a direct approach for the microbial degradation of xenobiotics at the site of pollution which could be soil, water etc. The in situ bioremediation is generally used for clean up of oil spillages, beaches etc.;

(b) Ex-situ bioremediation - In this the waste and the toxic material is collected from the polluted sites and the selected range of microorganisms carry out the bioremediation at designed place. This process is an improved method over the in situ bioremediation method.

(v) Pseudomonas which is a soil microorganism effectively degrades xenobiotics. Different strains of Pseudomonas that are capable of detoxifying more than 100 organic compounds (e.g. phenols, biphenyls, organophosphates, naphthalene etc.) have been identified. Some other microbial strains are also known to have the capacity to degrade xenobiotics such as Mycobacterium, Alcaligenes, Norcardia etc.

D. In recent years, efforts have been made to create genetically engineered microorganisms to enhance bioremediation. This is done to overcome some of the limitations and problems in bioremediation. These problems are: a) Sometimes the growth of microorganisms gets inhibited or reduced by the xenobiotics. b) No single naturally occurring microorganisms has the capability of degrading all the xenobiotics present in the environmental pollution. c) The microbial degradation is a very slow process. d) Sometimes certain xenobiotics get adsorbed on to the particulate matter of soil and thus become unavailable for microbial degradation.

E. As the majority of genes responsible for the synthesis of enzymes with biodegradation capability that are located on the plasmids, the genetic manipulations of plasmids can lead to the creation of new strains of bacteria with different degradative pathways. Well known example of genetic manipulations of plasmids is development of ‘Superbug’, which is used for degrading a number of hydrocarbons of petroleum simultaneously such as camphor, octane, xylene, naphthalene etc.

F. We all know that, carbon dioxide (CO2) is the main cause of green house effect and rise in the atmospheric temperature. There is a steady increase in the CO2 content due to continuous addition of CO2 from various sources particularly from industrial processes. It is very clear that the reduction in atmospheric CO2 concentration assumes significance. Biotechnological methods have been used to reduce the atmospheric CO2 content at two levels:

(a) Photosynthesis- Plants utilize CO2 during the photosynthesis which reduces the CO2 content in the atmosphere;

(b) Biological Calcification- Certain deep sea organisms like corals, green and red algae store CO2 through a process of biological calcification. As the CaCO3 gets precipitated, more and more atmospheric CO2 can be utilized for its formation.

G. The sewage is treated to get rid of these undesirable substances by subjecting the organic matter to biodegradation by microorganisms. The biodegradation involves the degradation of organic matter to smaller molecules, such as CO2, NH3, PO4 etc., and requires constant supply of oxygen. The process of supplying oxygen is expensive, tedious, and requires a lot of expertise and manpower. These problems are overcome by growing micro-algae in the ponds and tanks where sewage treatment is carried out. The algae release the O2 while carrying out the photosynthesis which ensures a continuous supply of oxygen for biodegradation. The algae are also capable of adsorbing certain heavy toxic metals due to the negative charges on the algal cell surface which can take up the positively charged metals. The algal treatment of sewage also supports fish growth as algae are a good source of food for fishes.

H. The environmental impact assessment system requires proponents to foresee possible environmental impacts when a development project is being planned, and to conduct an environmental assessment. However, debate continues on exactly what kinds of environmental protection measures are needed and how they should be integrated into a given project to achieve desirable environmental results. Actions to deal with global warming and to prevent ozone layer depletion are gaining momentum, but currently available technologies may not be enough to meet the required targets. Technological advances are needed in order to make progress in solving these issues, as well as with the problem of dioxins. New developments are also needed in technologies for pollution removal and environmental restoration, in cases where environmental pollution has already been generated or is already accumulating in the environment.

Environmental biotechnology – serving the future

Like white biotechnology, environmental biotechnology, often referred to as “grey biotechnology”, also focuses on sustainability. For instance, environmental biotechnology deals with the treatment of sewage water, the purification of exhaust gas or the decontamination of soils or ground water using specific microorganisms.

The use of organisms for the removal of contamination or pollutants is generally referred to as bioremediation. Originally, bioremediation was mainly used in cleanup operations, including the decomposition of spilt oil or slagheaps containing radioactive waste. In addition, bioremediation is also the method of choice when solvents, plastics or heavy metals and toxic substances like DDT, dioxins or TNT need to be removed.

Bioadsorption processes using newly developed bioadsorbers made from renewable materials are currently being developed. These adsorbers function as ion exchangers and are used in the elimination and disposal of toxic heavy metals. The industrial use of mineral resources leads to the drastic accumulation of these pollutants in the biosphere. The new bioadsorbers are used for the elimination of heavy metals and radionuklids from industrial wastewater, ore mine wastewater, seepage water from dumpsites or wastewater from nuclear power stations.

Energy security – ‘Clean Coal’ has potential to change the world from pariah to paragon of virtue in high oil price regime.

2008-07-01T23:34:00.000-07:00

Energy security – ‘Clean Coal’ has potential to change the world from pariah to paragon of virtue in high oil price regime.

A. The thirst of populous emerging economies for energy and the industrial countries’ sustained need for energy will ensure a further rise in demand. However, it looks as if the supply of oil, and later also natural gas, will not keep pace with this demand. Only by leveraging every possible means will it be possible to compensate the imbalances emerging on the horizon. However, during the transition to the renewable sources of energy such as wind and solar age, an energy gap will have to be filled.

B. With oil currently trading at around USD 140/bbl, coal-to-liquid technology is already an interesting alternative from a purely commercial point of view. Coal offers great potential as a substitute for oil and natural gas in the medium term, but so far its versatility has been underestimated. Going forward, coal could attract more attention in all three major energy sectors – power generation, the heating market and transport – provided that the right technologies delivering higher efficiency and lower environmental burdens take root. Environmental risks emphasize need for “clean coal”. Global warming is one of the biggest dangers facing human existence on earth, and combating this danger is therefore one of the greatest challenges. Since coal causes 40% of global CO2 emissions, only advanced technology can pave the way to a better future. The required quantum leaps in technology could, however, open the doors to the global mass markets. The need for investment is very high not only in emerging economies like China and India but also in US and Europe. CO2-free coal-fired power plants could become a milestone on the way to a better energy future in spite of their additional fuel consumption.

C. Worldwide prospects for energy is actually quite good, but only if all possible levers are used. These include steps – apart from urgently needed conservation and efficiency-enhancing strategies – to diversify the range of energy carriers with an even greater drive to mobilize renewable energies and to continue developing potential alternative technologies. In public debate about our energy options after the petroleum age virtually no consideration is given to coal or else it gets very bad reviews. In the developed countries, coal is usually considered synonymous with a dangerous climate killer; in the developing countries, for inhuman labor conditions in the mining industry, the talk is of ‘blood coal’. At best, coal is given credit for its valuable contribution to energy security during the industrialization era.

D. Today, coal is used in the industrial countries above all as a source of fuel for generating electricity, for the heating market and for metal production. In some of the emerging economies, coal is still used in some places to fire steam engines. Going forward, coal could attract much more attention in all three major energy sectors – power generation, heating and transport – provided that the right technologies with higher efficiency levels and a low environmental impact take root. In this sense, the versatility of coal has been underestimated. As a substitute for the hydrocarbon fuels oil and natural gas, which will become increasingly scarce in the relatively near future, coal offers considerable potential for improving our energy structures in future. However, only advanced technologies and innovations will be able to pave the way for coal into a better future.

E. As mentioned above, environmental risk emphasizes need for “clean coal”. Global warming is one of the biggest dangers facing human existence on earth, and combating this danger is therefore one of the greatest challenges facing mankind. Fossil fuels, especially those that pose the greatest threat to the earth’s climate, will only have a future if they can be reinvented from an ecological standpoint. Coal accounts for 40% of global output of carbon dioxide (CO2). The ‘bridge to the future’ must therefore lead to ‘clean coal’, which if possible has to be climate neutral and thus acceptable to the public at large. If ‘King Coal’, the mythical figure of the coalmining saga, stops wearing a black robe in future and instead dons an environmentally-friendly white robe, his days will not be numbered and he may go on to prosper the second time round. Until renewable sources of energy are finally mature and established enough to shoulder the burden of the world energy supply largely on their own, the purified ‘clean coal’ may develop into one of the biggest sources of hope for a more secure energy supply.

F. One advantage of coal is that it offers the greatest range of global reserves among the fossil fuels. Plenty of coal reserve, up to about more than 200 years worth, is readily available, almost all over the world. By contrast, the ranges for oil (42 years) and natural gas (63 years) are much smaller.

G. The search for alternatives to conventional fuels did not seem to be an urgent task in late 1998 when a barrel of oil cost less than USD 10. Not quite 10 years later, with oil going for an annual average price of USD 65 in 2006. The most prominent participants in the contest for the fuels of the future are:

(i) First-generation bio-fuels are increasing in popularity in the most diverse countries of the world, such as Brazil, the US and Germany. In Brazil, they have long since become commercially competitive. Research on the second generation, the synthetic bio-fuels (biomass-to-liquids, or BTL), is continuing briskly.

(ii) Natural gas has been a common fuel in some countries for years. More appears to be possible if the catalytic conversion of natural gas proves able to secure the availability of a synthetic fuel, so called GTL (gas-to-liquids), on an industrial scale. GTL and BTL will mean fewer emissions and higher efficiency.

(iii) By means of liquefaction (coal-to-liquids, CTL), coal may directly replace oil even as a fuel. Thanks to higher reserve and resource ranges, coal as a substitute would clearly have an advantage over fuels based on natural gas.

(iv) Nuclear energy will be one of the major contributors to the world energy sources. Although, there is furious opposition against nuclear energy in some part of the world, the advantage of its potential of delivery of clean energy is the major plus point makes it better option.

H. A total of USD 10 trillion is expected to be invested in power generating plants around the globe up to 2030, with over USD 2 trillion being invested in China alone. The need for investment is very high all over the world. For investments, not only the direct costs but also the implications for the world climate will increasingly gain importance. This holds all the more so as over the past 30 years the share of CO2 emissions from coal has risen from 35% to 40% – with total emissions rising by 70% globally. One much more revolutionary project is a plan to develop emission-free coal-fired generating plants. Upstream and downstream CO2 sequestration, for which there are several different methods, aims for climate conservation. Thus, new power generation technology for fewer emissions will become the backbone of industrialization.

Biotechnology to address many global environmental concerns:

2008-06-29T23:11:00.000-07:00

Biotechnology to address many global environmental concerns:

A. Industrial biotechnology has come of age. Improved industrial sustainability through biotechnology addresses many global environmental concerns. Biotechnology has clear environmental advantages and is economically competitive in a growing number of industrial sectors. It enables reductions of material and energy consumption, as well as pollution and waste generation, for the same level of industrial production. Continued technical innovation, including that based upon recombinant DNA technology, is vital for the wider utilisation of biotechnology by industry.

B. With biotechnology, the emphasis is no longer on the removal of pollutants from an already damaged environment, but on the need to reshape industrial process technologies to prevent pollution at the source. Achieving ‘‘clean technology’’ or ‘‘industrial sustainability’’ – the two terms are largely congruent – will not be possible without a steady stream of creative innovations based on advanced science and technologies, among which biotechnology is likely to play an increasing role.

C. Although definitions of sustainable development have frequently proved elusive, it is clear that any move towards industrial sustainability will affect all stages of a product’s or process’s life cycle. It will require new design principles based on a global and holistic approach to reducing environmental impacts: global because these impacts transcend national borders, holistic because short-term, piecemeal solutions to address a succession of issues in isolation will be less and less effective. One important means of integrating environmental issues into industrial design and operations is the adoption of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).

D. There are three main drivers of clean technology:
(a) Economic competitiveness, with companies considering the advantages of clean products and processes in terms of market niches or cost advantages;
(b) Government policies, which enforce or encourage changes in manufacturing practices; and
(c) Public pressure, which takes on strategic importance as companies seek to establish environmental legitimacy.

E. It is possible to foresee a growing role for industrial process biotechnology, both because it may afford clear economic and environmental benefits, and because the power of the tool itself continues to grow. The expectations of greater cleanliness come from the observation that living systems manage their chemistry rather more efficiently than man-made chemical plants, and that their wastes tend to be recyclable and biodegradable. This, along with our increasing ability to manipulate biological materials and processes, strongly points to a significant impact on the future of manufacturing industries.

F. Here there is a brief picture of how modern process biotechnology is penetrating industrial operations:

(i) Biotechnology embraces a wide range of techniques, and none of these will apply across all industrial sectors. Nonetheless, the technology is so versatile that many industries that have not used biological sciences in the past are now exploring the possibility of doing so. Already, the economic competitiveness of a variety of biotechnological applications to achieve cleanliness has been established. This is essential, as environmental benefits alone have seldom driven the adoption of biotechnology-based processes. Such processes have been successfully integrated into some large-scale operations. However, a number of problems remain for industrial applications, particularly the entrenched infrastructure of companies that have traditionally relied on physical and chemical technology alone and whose engineers have no training in life sciences or technologies.

(ii) Chemicals manufacturing is a major generator of materials, a major consumer of energy and non-renewable resources, and a major contributor to waste and pollution. In these sub-sectors, market penetration of biotechnology varies. It is in the fine chemical industries that the impact of clean biotechnology is most visible.

(iii)While fossil carbon (oil, coal) is the single most important raw material for energy generation and for chemicals, the concomitant CO2 emissions are a source of increasing concern because CO2 is a major greenhouse gas. Biotechnology can contribute to reducing fossil carbon consumption and hence global warming in various ways: improving industrial processes and energy efficiency, and producing biomass-based materials and clean fuels.

(iv) In pulp and paper, market penetration of biotechnology used for clean production is particularly high in many of the developed nations, and biotechnology is becoming more important in the manufacture of textiles and leather throughout the western world.

(v) In the food and feed sector, the impact of biotechnology on clean industrial processes seems to be greatest in the United States.

(vi) Biotechnology for mining and metals recovery covers two major technologies: bioleaching/minerals bio-oxidation, where superior cleanliness and economic profitability have been claimed in specific cases, and metals bioremediation and recovery.

(vii) In the energy sector, biotechnology has had a major effect both on economics and on environmental impacts. It has improved the overall efficiency of processes, particularly in the area of pollution control. Processes currently under development, such as bio-diesel, bio-ethanol and bio-desulphurisation, seek to replace energy-intensive and polluting systems with systems that are more environmentally friendly. The effect of rDNA methods on these technologies will be great, but large-scale application of rDNA has only recently begun and has not yet had dramatic effects.

G. Although the potential of biotechnology to reduce raw materials and energy consumption as well as wastes is attractive, there is a need for further encouragement, notably by government, particularly when the economic advantages are not overwhelming in the early stages of adoption.

Energy security and reduction of greenhouse gases for cleaner environment – Most challenging issues of present day:

2008-06-27T23:56:00.000-07:00

Energy security and reduction of greenhouse gases for cleaner environment – Most challenging issues of present day:

It has become essential to every nation to access to cheap energy for their smooth functioning and upliftment of their economies. However, the uneven distribution of energy supplies among all the nations and the critical need for energy has led to significant vulnerabilities. Global energy security has become synonym to political stability and good administration.

Political instability of several energy producing countries, the manipulation of energy supplies, the competition over energy sources, attacks on supply infrastructure and accidents and natural disasters are the threat to energy security of any nation. It is also the limited supplies of the most common forms of primary energy, i.e. Oil and Gas that changes perceptions on this topic.

Although plenty of coal, up to about more than 200 years worth, is readily available, almost all over the world, coal is not the fossil fuel of choice for many more advanced countries because of its highly polluting nature. The potential need to change our perception on primary energy sources in the foreseeable future and implementation of new technology, are the solution of the energy security question. Improper planning and ineffective strategies at macro level may lead to higher energy prices, more limited access to sources of energy, competitions and political troubles, which in turn make the threat even larger, as energy plays an important role in the national security of any given country.

One of the leading threats to energy security is the significant increase in energy prices all over the world. Long term measures to increase energy security lies on reducing dependence on any one source of imported energy, increasing the number of sources of energy and suppliers. Greater investment in native renewable energy technologies and energy conservation are envisaged in many of the developed nations. Certainly, every nation’s ultimate goal is to power their entire country with renewable green energy such as solar, wind, and other renewable sources. However, our current technology is not to the point where this would be affordable. Solar and wind do not currently have the energy density to supply us with all the power we need.

Therefore, under the above scenario, on broader sense, two technologies may be very useful and relevant, they are:

(i) Nuclear power, and

(ii) Green-coal power (Clean coal technology).

Nations of developed and emerging economies should think of energy mix of above two technologies in a big way to achieve fair amount of energy security. The raw materials for the above energy mix are present, almost, world over. The cost of power generated by above two technologies and energy mix is also reasonable and within reach of the general population and industries. After all, nuclear power is our one of the best option for clean energy today. In the above energy mix, Hydro-power may also be included, wherever available.

With the huge advances in technology in recent years, any shortcomings we face for the above two mix of energy, can be sorted out easily. Further, dependence on agricultural based biofuel can also be reduced, enhancing chances of availability of more food, thereby reducing poverty.

Green coal for power - To take care of post-Kyoto issues from energy security point-of-view:

2008-06-25T23:20:00.000-07:00

Green coal for power - To take care of post-Kyoto issues from energy security point-of-view:

a. Coal is the world’s most abundant and important source of primary energy. Turning a potential pollutant into a clean, green fuel for economical power production has become a matter for concern on a global scale. Coal continues to dominate the energy industries as the single most important and widely-used fuel. Delivering around 27 per cent of the world’s consumption of primary energy, almost half of which is used for electricity generation; reserves of coal are spread worldwide throughout some 100 developed and developing countries, sufficient to meet global needs for the next 250 years.

b. Although a combination of economic and environmental pressures has forced the closure of older, inefficient, fossil fuelled thermal stations, the massive growth in power demand on a world scale will continue to be met predominantly by coal-fired plant for the foreseeable future. In many of the rapidly developing and industrializing regions of the world the rate of consumption of coal as a primary fuel for electricity generation is actually increasing. In energy-hungry India alone, coal-burn for power generation is forecast to more than double in the next few years to 350 million tonnes per year. Annual coal production in China, the world’s largest producer, has rocketed to over 1,500 million tonnes. Nevertheless, post-Kyoto issues have heightened environmental awareness, forcing the pace of technological change in the use of this abundant but potentially polluting fuel for power generation. The environmental threat posed by the release of even more millions of tonnes of toxic pollutants, acidic and greenhouse gases from both new and existing coal-burning power stations is widely accepted. Currently, signatories to the Kyoto Protocol are focusing on solutions to the problem of global warming, including the reduction of CO2 and other ‘greenhouse’ gases. In many other non- signatory countries, major programmes have been implemented by utilities and power producers to reduce SOx, NOx and CO2 emissions. Additional environmental concerns have also emerged, including the potential health impacts of trace emissions of mercury and the effects of particulate matter on people with respiratory problems.

c. In contrast with both natural gas and LPG, hard coal can contain a wide range of compounds including sulfur in addition to useful hydrocarbons. The percentage of sulfur can vary widely, with relatively low concentrations in the highest quality anthracite and very high amounts in lignite, generating large volumes of SOx. As well as the need to treat the fuel prior to firing and control closely the combustion process itself to limit the production of nitrogen oxides, coal-fired stations based on conventional pulverized coal technology can only reduce SOx emissions through the use of post-combustion treatments. Further problems still remain through the safe disposal of fly ash which can contain high levels of toxic compounds including heavy metals.

d. Enormous environmental problems faced by operators of older, coal-fired generating plants all over the world, plants were forced to take drastic action after various public protests about the deadly effects of SOx emissions and other emissions. Emissions from coal and lignite-fired units at various power generating stations caused widespread damage, killing livestock and crops downwind of the plant and causing respiratory illness in the population in many countries. The plants were forced to cut output. This tends to place an unacceptably high strain on the commercial viability of an existing power station in many of the developing nations and represents a completely uneconomic option for the majority of obsolescent installations. Power producers in industrialized developed countries are therefore adopting a variety of leading-edge clean-coal technologies for electricity generation.

e. New clean coal technologies are providing an attractive and economically viable option to post-combustion systems. Applying the latest combustion, steam and process technologies in new power plant or upgrading existing coal-fired generating facilities provides significant improvements in thermal efficiency, reducing environmental impact and energy costs to the consumer. At the same time, higher thermal efficiencies result directly in reduced fuel costs, improving profitability and market position for the independent power producer.

(i) For new and smaller coal-fuelled generating plant, boilers using well-proven circulating fluidized-bed CFB technology provide a cost-effective and efficient system capable of meeting current and future environmental standards. They are now being widely used and successfully operated in coal-fired generating units, burning a very wide range of coal and other fuels with widely differing heat values and mineral content. These can typically include anthracite, semi-anthracite, bituminous and sub-bituminous coal, lignite and even ‘gob’ – a form of high-ash bituminous coal waste.

(ii) As an alternative to direct combustion based systems, coal gasification is becoming increasingly attractive, with Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) technology offering one of the best ‘clean’ options for effective power production. Gasification systems use steam and controlled amounts of air or oxygen under high temperatures and pressures to react with coal to form clean synthetic gas or ‘syngas’. Current systems provide efficient clean-up of the gas-stream to produce a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen which can be used subsequently as a ‘clean’ fuel or a basic feedstock for liquefaction.

f. Used as a fuel for power generation in a typical IGCC generating plant, a syngas-fired gas turbine drives a generator, with exhaust heat from the gas turbine recovered to produce steam to power a steam turbine in conventional ‘combined cycle’. IGCC power generating systems are presently being developed and operated in Europe and the US, with commercial systems capable of operating at thermal efficiencies approaching 50 per cent. NOx and Sox emissions levels are minimized with the potential for carbon-capture and sequestration of the CO in the sysngas stream being actively researched as design strategies for near-term and future coal-based IGCC plants. Elemental sulfur is removed from the syngas before combustion and is a highly saleable commercial byproduct. If the gasifier is fed with oxygen rather than air, the flue gas contains highly concentrated CO2 which can readily be captured, at about half the cost of that from conventional plants.

g. As an alternative to the direct use of syngas as a fuel for electricity generation, it can also be processed using modern gas-to-liquids (GTL) technologies to produce a wide range of liquid hydrocarbon fuels such as gasoline and diesel oil. Coal-to-oil is a long-established technology in coal-rich South Africa.

h. Nevertheless, clean coal technology is moving very rapidly in the direction of coal gasification, with a second stage designed to produce a concentrated and pressurized carbon dioxide stream followed by separation and geological storage. This has the potential to provide extremely low emissions of conventional coal pollutants, and as low-as-engineered carbon dioxide emissions – a vital step in the fight to prevent irreversible climate change.

Faster ocean warming due to climate change – One of the reasons of catastrophic sea level rising:

2008-06-23T23:56:00.000-07:00

Faster ocean warming due to climate change – One of the reasons of catastrophic sea level rising:

a. It has been reported recently by some of the climate research agencies in US, Australia, UK etc. that, oceans all over the world are getting warmed at a much faster rate than it used to be earlier or what was thought to be. It is estimated that, the rate of warming of world’s oceans is about 50% faster over the last half century than it was thought previously. Thus, world’s oceans have warmed more quickly due to climate change than expected.

b. It may be noted, higher the ocean temperatures, higher the expansion of ocean water – which contributes to rise in sea levels. Expansion ocean water means more floods, submerging smaller island nations, threatening to wreak havoc in low-lying places and densely-populated delta regions around the globe. A third of the world’s population living within 50 km of the coasts and a great proportion and a large proportion of them live much closer to the shoreline. Even a modest sea level rise could inundate low-lying regions, accelerate coastal erosion and force the relocation of communities and infrastructures.

c. Rising sea levels are driven by two things – (i) the thermal expansion of sea water, and (ii) additional water from melting sources of ice. Both these processes are caused by global warming.

d. For example, the glaciers or ice sheet that cover Arctic region contains enough water to raise world ocean levels by seven meters, which would bury sea-level cities from Dhaka to Shanghai in Asia and many more similar cities in other parts of the world. If the Greenland and the West and East Antarctica ice sheets were to melt, it would be enough to raise the sea level by approximately 65 meters. A one-foot rise in sea level might well translate to a 200-foot retreat of shoreline. Therefore, it could be imagined about the future coastal map how catastrophic it would be. Among the most vulnerable are countries with large populations in deltaic coastal regions such as Bangladesh, Vietnam, China and Egypt. Two populous island nations, the Philippines and Indonesia, have millions who face displacement from their homes from sea level rise. Several small island state nations including the Maldives in the Indian Ocean and the Marshall Islands and Tuvalu in the Pacific could face extinction.

e. Global heating effects are strong in melting of snow and ice, rising global mean sea level, widespread changes in precipitation amounts, ocean salinity, wind patterns and aspects of extreme weather including droughts, heavy precipitation, heat waves and the intensity of tropical cyclones. The rate of rise in temperatures depends on if and how fast emissions are reduced and on possible adverse feedbacks in the climate system. Temperatures are sure to rise faster in the next decades as well. Experts opine that, hot extremes, heat waves, and heavy precipitation events will continue to become more frequent. It is certain that the ocean would become more acid from taking up more carbon dioxide.

f. Therefore, it is very important, now, to figure out and estimate how much each of these factors contributes to rising sea levels. Further, it is critically important to understand global warming, climate change and forecasting future ocean temperature rise, as well. The fact is, up to now there has been a perplexing gap between the projections of computer-based climate models, and the observations of scientific data gathered from the world’s oceans.

Thinning of ozone layer – Effective checking would reduce global warming and enhance standard of environment:

2008-06-23T02:07:00.000-07:00

Thinning of ozone layer – Effective checking would reduce global warming and enhance standard of environment:

For nearly a billion years, ozone molecules in the atmosphere have protected life on Earth from the effects of ultraviolet rays. It is a form of oxygen (O2). We all know that, oxygen we need to live and breathe. Normal oxygen consists of two oxygen atoms. Ozone, however, consists of three oxygen atoms and has the chemical formula O3. Ozone is formed when an electric spark is passed through oxygen. Over millions of years the action of sunlight and specifically the action of ultra violet light or UV on oxygen has created a layer of ozone high up in the atmosphere. This ozone layer resides in the stratosphere and surrounds the entire Earth. The action of UV light on this layer both destroys and creates ozone, a constant process going on silently. Thus, this process of absorbing portion of UV light, protecting us from the harmful exposure. In fact, UV-B radiation (280- to 315- nanometer (nm) wavelength) from the Sun is partially absorbed in this ozone layer. As a result, the amount of UV-B reaching Earth’s surface is greatly reduced. UV-A (315- to 400-nm wavelength) and other solar radiation are not strongly absorbed by the ozone layer. Human exposure to UV-B increases the risk of skin cancer, cataracts, and a suppressed immune system. UV-B exposure can also damage terrestrial plant life, single cell organisms, and aquatic ecosystems. In the past 60 years or so human activities have contributed to the deterioration of the ozone layer to a great extent.

Mechanism of Ozone hole - The criticality of ozone layer can be understood from the fact that, only 10 or less of every million molecules of air is ozone. The majority of these ozone molecules reside in a layer between 10 and 40 kilometers above the surface of the Earth known as stratosphere. Each spring in the stratosphere over Antarctica (spring in the southern hemisphere is from September through November.), atmospheric ozone is rapidly destroyed by chemical processes. As winter arrives, a vortex of winds develops around the pole and isolates the polar stratosphere. When temperatures drop below -78°C, thin clouds form of ice, nitric acid, and sulfuric acid mixtures. Chemical reactions on the surfaces of ice crystals in the clouds release active forms of CFCs. Ozone depletion begins, and the ozone “hole” appears.

Over the course of two to three months, approximately 50% of the total column amount of ozone in the atmosphere disappears. At some levels, the losses approach 90%. This has come to be called the Antarctic ozone hole. In spring, temperatures begin to rise, the ice evaporates, and the ozone layer starts to recover.

Thus, ozone "hole" is a reduction in concentrations of ozone high above the earth in the stratosphere. The ozone hole is defined geographically as the area wherein the total ozone amount is less than 220 Dobson Units. The ozone hole has steadily grown in size and length of existence over the past two and half decades. Now, the size of ozone hole over Antarctica is estimated to be about 30 million sq. km.

It has been observed that, man-made chlorines, primarily chloroflourobcarbons (CFCs), contribute to the thinning of the ozone layer and allow larger quantities of harmful ultraviolet rays to reach the earth.

Effects of ozone layer depletion - UV-B (the higher energy UV radiation absorbed by ozone) are generally accepted to be a contributory factor to skin cancer. In addition, increased surface UV leads to increased troposphere ozone, which is a health risk to humans. The increased surface UV also represents an increase in the vitamin D synthetic capacity of the sunlight. The cancer preventive effects of vitamin D represent a possible beneficial effect of ozone depletion. In terms of health costs, the possible benefits of increased UV irradiance may outweigh the burden. In other words, a thinning of the ozone layer is the key factor in the greenhouse effect, and exposes life on Earth to excessive ultra violet radiation, which can increase skin cancer and cataracts, reduce immune-system responses,

As far as effect on plant is concerned, an increase of UV radiation would be expected to affect crops. A number of economically important species of plants, such as rice, depend on cyanbacteria residing on their roots for the retention of nitrogen. Cyanobacteria are sensitive to UV light and they would be affected by its increase. Thinning of the ozone layer also interfere with the photosynthetic process of plants,

Research has shown a widespread extinction of oceanic phytoplankton (a crucial source of food to aquatic life) is because of thinning of ozone layer. Researchers speculate that the extinction of plankton was caused by a significant weakening of the ozone layer at that time when the radiation from the supernova produced nitrogen oxides that catalyzed the destruction of ozone. Plankton is particularly susceptible to effects of UV light, and is vitally important to marine food webs.

Biotechnology in agriculture – Bid to eradicate hunger by increase in yield - To overcome climate challenges:

2008-06-21T00:36:00.000-07:00

Biotechnology in agriculture – Bid to eradicate hunger by increase in yield - To overcome climate challenges:

Now it is known fact that, because of global warming, climate change is taking place. The effects of climate change are erratic behavior of nature, such as intensified drought, flood, cyclone etc. Now, it has become challenge to us to grow more food despite having erratic changes in world climate and nature. Further, explosive growth of population worldwide and need of using ethanol (bio-fuel) blended gasoline made us think about the increase in agriculture production.

Under the above backdrop, it is felt, biotechnology in agriculture would become the key to feeding growing population; take care of agricultural production in the adverse climatic conditions both for food and production of ethanol. Overcoming climate challenges like crop-killing droughts etc., are very important, for which science of biotechnology can be very much useful. Biotechnology scientists believe that, it can increase corn and soybean yields by 40 per cent over the next decade. New tools and biotechnology can work in conjunction with better breeding and higher yielding seed to give maximum benefit to human being.

We all know that, crop shortages this year have sparked riots in some countries and steep price hikes in markets around the globe causing lot of miseries and death due to starvation.

Now the question is how to address these issues effectively in order to achieve sufficient agricultural production to overcome crop shortages. Despite persistent reluctance in number of nations and environmental groups, genetically modified (GM) crops have been on the rise. Growing food and bio-fuel demands have been helping push growth of GM crops.

Water scarcity is one of the major problems, which is expected in doubling in severity over the next few decades even as the world population explodes, and will only be worsened by global warming climate change. With about nine billion people expected to populate the globe by next couple of decades and about 85 per cent of the population seen in lesser developed countries, decreased land for agriculture and multiple demands on water use will come hand in hand with an expected doubling in food demand.

Scientists opine that, by using conventional and biotech genetically modifications, crops can be engineered to yield more in optimum as well as harsh climatic conditions, can be made healthier, pest resistant and can be developed in ways that create more energy for use in ethanol production. As food prices increase worldwide and shortages causing starvation deaths; use of GM crops certainly brings a more practical perspective to the debate. Number of tools can be brought to bear with biotechnology to solve the crisis.

As discussed, the most widespread application of genetic engineering in agriculture by far is in engineered crops. Thousands of such products have been field tested and over a dozen have been approved for commercial use. The traits most commonly introduced into crops are herbicide tolerance, insect tolerance, and virus tolerance. In recent time, number of companies is engaged in developing genetically engineered seeds such as, disease-resistant biotech wheat, drought-resistant corn, crops that need less fertilizer and corn that more efficiently can be turned into ethanol. Biotechnology can also address health concerns of consumer and can contribute to healthier life as in the case of soybean oil where about 90% reduction in saturated fat and trans fat has been achieved.

At present, it is a challenge to world community to increase access to agriculture’s tools and any nation’s focus should be on its self-sufficiency, which by adopting biotechnology can be achieved, it is felt. Agriculture is an extremely complex system and needs expertise in technology to sustain an equitable growth for the farmers. Therefore, in my opinion, it is important to create partnerships, relationships among both the biotechnologists and farmers in order to bring practicality to address the problems.

Abnormal rise in greenhouse gas, methane, in the earth atmosphere causing arctic ice to vanish in a couple of years!!

2008-06-18T23:05:00.000-07:00

Abnormal rise in greenhouse gas, methane, in the earth atmosphere causing Arctic ice to vanish in a couple of years!!

It has been reported that, due to rapid, unchecked and unethical industrialization in many parts of the globe, the concentration of methane, a very prominent greenhouse gas, has been rising and in last one year alone it has risen by about 0.5%. We all know that, methane is the second most important gas causing man-made climate change. Each molecule causes about 25 times more warming than a molecule of CO2, though it survives for shorter times in the atmosphere before being broken down.

Further, it has also been known to us that, already global climate is at great disastrous condition because of present rise in carbon dioxide (CO2) levels, which is significantly higher than the average annual increase for the last 30 years. It has also been recently reported that, CO2 concentration has risen by 2.4 parts per million (ppm) in last one year; as against the average annual increase of 1.65ppm between 1979 and 2007. Thus, it shows evidence that, concentrations of greenhouse gases are rising faster than they were a decade ago. The methane concentration figure is more awesome and potentially of more concern.

Because of the above abnormal rise in greenhouse gases in last one year or so, scientists fear that, it could reflect melting of permafrost and drying of tropical wetlands more rapidly. It has also been reported that, concentrations of greenhouse gases have been more or less stable since about 1999 and thereafter rapid increases.

Industrial reforms in Asia, Europe and South American countries in last one decade reflected abnormal rise in greenhouse gases, especially of carbon dioxide and methane. Changes of methods rice farming processes and the capture of methane from landfill sites contributed to this rise, it is felt. Also, possibilities of release of methane from frozen zones of the world, notably the Arctic permafrost, as they warm cannot be ruled out.

The rapid unchecked increase in coal fired industries (without cleaning coal) such as power plants, steel plants etc., are mostly responsible for rise in concentration of CO2.

The sustained rise of greenhouse gases along with El Nino and La Nina (opposite of El Nino) conditions, the earth is experiencing warming effects. As per the new scientific analysis, because of the warming, the arctic snow melted most rapidly in last one year. They also predict that, the sea level could rise by more than one and half meters by another half century or so. Sea level rise of this magnitude would have major impacts on low-lying countries such as Bangladesh. Scientists also fear that, due to abnormal rise in average global temperature, in next five of six years there may not be any arctic ice left during summer.

Coal is Essential for Energy Security for many – Strategies to enlarge supply base and reduce environmental impacts are the prerequisites:

2008-06-15T23:54:00.000-07:00

Coal is Essential for Energy Security for many – Strategies to enlarge supply base and reduce environmental impacts are the prerequisites:

A. More and more frequent environmental problems and disasters – floods, forest fires, tornados, air pollution in big cities – cause growing concerns everywhere. Energy harvesting, conversion, production and use contribute to these environmental burdens.

Hence, improving the environmental performance of the energy sector is of paramount importance. Thus, wider application of cleaner fuels and conversion technologies is a key element in the strategy to improve the environmental performance of the energy sector. Further, the lower price of coal as compare to petroleum based fuels; the interest in coal is renewed because of the more even geopolitical distribution of coal reserves and of larger supply bases of coal allover the world.

In fact, the environmental concerns about coal are not associated with coal itself, but with its utilization in different stages of the energy chain. Novel and more environmentally friendly technologies for coal utilization, commonly known as “Clean Coal Technologies” (CCT), are believed to be able to bring coal back into the picture. Hence, CCT recently enjoy a growing interest almost all parts of the world. At present, this interest mostly focuses on cleaner coal conversion through increased efficiency and CO2 capture technologies, for which large R&D efforts are ongoing worldwide.

B. Market implementation of CCT is expected to cause an increase in coal use. Coal demand could also rise significantly because the recent sharp increase in oil prices has a lower impact on coal than on gas prices. This is explained by the more favorable geopolitical distribution of coal reserves compared to that of gas. As a result, coal has become cheaper in relative terms than oil and gas. All in all, in a scenario of soaring oil & gas prices, coal is predicted to be the energy source with the fastest growing demand. The expected increase in coal demand for power generation raises the question of its secure availability in the future. Thus, enlargement of the coal supply base is essential throughout the world, with adoption of cleaner technology.

C. The enlargement of the coal supply base can take place in four main directions:

(a) More powerful mapping techniques for coal reserves - Modern geophysics and seismic techniques, improve mine planning and exploitation by reducing geological uncertainties and increasing extraction efficiencies. At the same time, they can reduce environmental externalities and energy use for coal extraction.

(b) Improvement of existing under-ground mining technologies - Underground (deep) coal mining accounts for about 60% of world coal production. Current best coal recovery rates for underground mining are 50-60% for the “room-and-pillar” technology and about 75% for “longwall” mining. The implementation of modern automated and computerized mining technologies can increase these recovery rates.

(c) Research and development for underground coal gasification - Underground gasification of coal deposits which are not technically or economically exploitable (anymore) with conventional mining technologies, can add enormous coal supply potential in Europe and worldwide. At present underground coal gasification is at an experimental stage. Significant further efforts are necessary to make it technically and economically viable. In many of the countries like India etc., commercialization of underground gasification technologies may reduce the energy import dependence and enhance energy security scenario, apart from creating new employment.

(d) Utilization of coalmine methane (CMM) gas - Methane gas, released from coalmines, has always raised serious safety and environmental concerns. Methane is highly explosive when accumulated in confined areas. It is also a powerful greenhouse gas with 20- times stronger global warming potential than carbon dioxide. On the other hand, CMM, which consists mainly of natural gas, is a suitable clean fuel. The capture and useful utilization of CMM can bring important synergy benefits in terms of enhanced security of supply and better environmental and safety performance of coal mining.

D. Therefore, for realizing the full potential of CCT, coal is sufficiently

(a) Abundant… only if we keep working on the enhancement of coal reserves,

(b) Cheap… as long as the supply continues to match the demand,

To reach market maturity, clean coal technologies, covering extraction, preparation and conversion, need a long term vision and investment security. In the present pre-commercial stage they need firm political commitment and further R&D support.

Pollution problems of plastics - Strategies to reduce the environmental impact:

2008-06-12T22:42:00.000-07:00

Pollution problems of plastics - Strategies to reduce the environmental impact:

Industrial practices in plastic manufacture can lead to polluting effluents and the use of toxic intermediates, the exposure to which can be hazardous. Better industrial practices have led to minimizing exposure of plant workers to harmful fumes.

There is growing concern about the excess use of plastics, particularly in packaging. This has been done, in part, to avoid the theft of small objects. The use of plastics can be reduced through a better choice of container sizes and through the distribution of liquid products in more concentrated form. A concern is the proper disposal of waste plastics. Litter results from careless disposal, and decomposition rates in landfills can be extremely long. Consumers should be persuaded or required to divert these for recycling or other environmentally acceptable procedures. Marine pollution arising from disposal of plastics from ships or flow from storm sewers must be avoided.

Recycling of plastics is desirable because it avoids their accumulation in landfills. While plastics constitute only about 8 percent by weight or 20 percent by volume of municipal solid waste, their low density and slowness to decompose makes them a visible pollutant of public concern. It is evident that the success of recycling is limited by the development of successful strategies for collection and separation. Recycling of scrap plastics by manufacturers has been highly successful and has proven economical, but recovering discarded plastics from consumers is more difficult.

Strategies to Reduce the Environmental Impact of Plastics:

(a) Reduce the use - Source reduction Retailers and consumers can select products that use little or no packaging. Select packaging materials that are recycled into new packaging - such as glass and paper. If people refuse plastic as a packaging material, the industry will decrease production for that purpose, and the associated problems such as energy use, pollution, and adverse health effects will diminish.

(b) Reuse containers - Since refillable plastic containers can be reused for many times, container reuse can lead to a substantial reduction in the demand for disposable plastic and reduced use of materials and energy, with the consequent reduced environmental impacts. Container designers will take into account the fate of the container beyond the point of sale and consider the service the container provides.

(c) Require producers to take back resins - Get plastic manufacturers directly involved with plastic disposal and closing the material loop, which can stimulate them to consider the product’s life cycle from cradle to grave. Make reprocessing easier by limiting the number of container types and shapes, using only one type of resin in each container, making collapsible containers, eliminating pigments, using water-dispersible adhesives for labels, and phasing out associated metals such as aluminum seals. Container and resin makers can help develop the reprocessing infrastructure by taking back plastic from consumers.

(d) Legislatively require recycled content - Requiring that all containers be composed of a percentage of post-consumer material reduces the amount of virgin material consumed.

(e) Standardize labeling and inform the public - Standardized labels for "recycled," "recyclable," and "made of plastic type X" must be developed for easy identification.