Notes for Pakistan

Article 140 : Advocate General of a Province:

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Article 140:

ADVOCATE GENERAL:

Any person, fulfilling the required criteria to be appointed as Justice of High Court i.e. having 10 years practice as an enrolled Advocate of High Court; or has remained a member of a Civil Service given by law and has a period of not less than three years being District Judge in Pakistan; or has hold any Judicial Office for not less than ten years in Pakistan, having at least 40 years of age and is a respectable and law abiding citizen of Pakistan, is capable to be appointed as Advocate General. The Advocate Generals are appointed for each Province by their respective Governors under the Article 193 (2) of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and they remain till the Governor desires or the tenure of the Governor ends or the said Governor resigns. The prior duty of the Advocate General is to provide legal advice to their respective Provincial Governments regarding all legal matters. The Advocate General, at any time, can address the Provincial Assembly as and when the need arises according to the Article 140 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and can take part in the matters of their respective Provincial Assemblies as well, but they are not entitled to case their vote. The Advocate Generals has to submit their resignation in their own handwriting addressed to their respective Governors, in order to resign.

Article 100 : Attorney General (Short Note)

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ATTORNEY GENERAL:

A respectable and law abiding citizen of Pakistan having at least a 05 years of experience as a Justice of High Court either continuously or in terms of installments, or having 15 years of Experience as an enrolled advocate of High Court and competent to be Justice of Supreme Court of Pakistan according to the Article 100 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is capable to be appointed as Attorney General of Pakistan. The appointment of the Attorney General is done by the President of the Country and the Attorney General remains on the said post till the resignation or end of the tenure of the President or till the President desires. The major task of the Attorney General is to provide legal advice to the Federal Government and to perform other legal duties as and when assigned to him by the President. Prior to this, the Attorney General has the right to address in all Courts, Tribunals as well as to speech in National Assembly as and when the need arises besides taking part in any of the proceedings thereof, but is not entitled to cast his vote. The Attorney General, in case of resignation, has to submit his resignation in his own handwriting, addressed to the President of the Country.

What is Investigation? Distinguish between Audit and Investigation, define the scope and objectives of investigation.

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What is Investigation? Distinguish between Audit and Investigation, define the scope and objectives of investigation.

Definition:

Investigation involves inquiry into facts behind the books and accounts, into the technical, financial and the economic position of the business or organisation.

Investigation is an examination of books and records preliminary of financing or for any specified purpose, sometimes differing in scope from the ordinary audit.

Investigation implies an examination of and record for some special purpose.

Audit and Investigation distinguished:

1. Legal binding

Audit of annual financial statements is compulsory under the Companies Ordinance, 1984.
Investigation is not compulsory under Companies Ordinance but voluntary depending upon necessity.

2. Object in view

Audit is conducted to ascertain whether the financial statements show a true and fair view.
Investigation is conducted with a particular object in view, viz to know financial position, earning capacity, prove fraud, invest capital, etc.

3. Period covered

Audit is conducted on annual basis.
Investigation may be conducted for several years at a time, say three years.

4. Parties for whom conducted

Audit is conducted on behalf of shareholders (or proprietor, or partners).
Investigation is usually conducted on behalf of outsiders like prospective buyers, investors, lenders, etc.

5. Documents

Audit is not carried out of audited financial statements.
Investigation may be conducted even though the accounts have been audited.

6. Extent of work

Audit is normally conducted on test verification basis.
Investigation is a through examination of books of accounts.

7. Report

Audit report is addressed to shareholders (or proprietors or partners).
Investigation report is addressed to the party on whose instruction investigation was conducted.

8. Adjustment in net profit

In case of audit net profit disclosed by audited accounts is final without further adjustments.
In case of investigation in order to determine real earnings certain adjustments are always essential.

9. Person performing work

Audit is to be conducted by a chartered accountant.
Investigation may be undertaken even by a non-chartered accountant.

Nature of Investigation:

Investigation is an enquiry into the financial statements of a number of past years with a view to know the real financial position or earning capacity. It is in fact a kind of special audit with predetermined scope depending upon the purpose to be achieved. Investigation is neither accounting nor auditing. Investigation is carried out not in substitution of audit, but in addition to audit. The investigating auditor may even have to investigate the audited accounts.

Scope of investigation:

No general principle can be laid down with regard to the scope of every type of investigation. Scope of investigation, in each case, would be limited to the period or area to be covered by the investigator.

An investigation on behalf of a person intending to purchase running business of a sole trader will be restricted to the determination of value of assets, liabilities, reserves, existing potential and future prospects. An investigation to settle suspected irregularities in cash or stock would normally cover a period from three to six months.

Objectives of Investigation:

The real objective of conducting an investigation by an auditor on behalf of his client is to provide him the desired information in the form of a report about the matter specified. Normally the objective of investigation is to collect, analyze and evaluate facts in respect of desired field of activity with a view on some special purpose as determined by the person on whose behalf the investigation is undertaken. In short investigation is to ascertain the financial position and earning capacity of a business on behalf of a certain person.

The common objectives of investigation are listed below:

1) Proposed purchase of business.

2) Proposed sale of business.

3) Reasons for low profitability.

4) Cause of high employee turn over.

5) Reliability of business data.

6) Proposed investment in particular securities.

7) Suspected fraud.

8) Joining in existing partnership business.

9) Borrowing funds.

10) Lending funds.

11) Proposed purchase of controlling shares in a company.

12) Suspected misfeasance against directors.

13) Detection of undisclosed income for tax purposes.

14) Suspected misappropriation by trustees.

Classification of investigation:

1. Evaluation investigation

2. Review investigation

3. Survey investigation

4. Analysis investigation

5. Special audit

6. Statutory investigation

1. Evaluation Investigation:

Evaluation investigation is conducted to determine the real worth of business proposed to be purchased or sold, or to determine the performance of machinery or efficiency of the personnel of an organization. In case of proposed purchase of business, the investigation relates to valuating the assets and liabilities and ascertaining the present earning potential and future prospects. In case of sale of business, net worth of business is determined. In case of evaluation of machinery and personnel, the performance of machinery and efficiency of personnel is determined.

2. Review Investigation:

Review investigation is usually conducted to determine the reliability of business data, or to ascertain the compliance with the terms of a contract. Where payment of commission, royalty, subsidy or similar items is based on output or turnover, investigation shall be conducted to determine the correctness of data provided by the party. The secured creditors may desire to know that the borrower has, in fact created a charge, as agreed, on the assets in their favor.

3. Survey Investigation:

Survey investigation is conducted to determine the accounting system, costing methods, manpower efficiency and similar matters. A survey of accounting system, may be carried out to overcome the weaknesses pointed out in audit report, to introduce a budgetary control system, or necessity of strengthening internal check or introduction of internal audit. A survey of cost system may be with a view to improve existing procedures. A survey of manpower may be undertaken to determine the real number of employees required, surplus staff, inefficient workers, etc.

4. Analysis Investigation:

Analysis investigation is conducted with a view to facilitate the decision making by top management in areas of vital importance like price fixation, cost of products or services, reasons for increase in price, ways to control them.

5. Special Purpose Audit:

Special purpose audit is in fact an investigation conducted with a view to determine fraud, losses caused by fire, loss of production due to machinery breakdown, loss of profit as a consequence of fire.

6. Statutory Investigation:

Companies Ordinance provides for statutory investigation in section 263 to 282. Such an investigation may be made on:

a. The report of register of companies.

b. The application of members of the company.

c. In other cases like special resolution of company or under court order.

a. On report of register section 263 (1):

The Securities and Exchange Commission upon a report by the registrar of companies, under section 261 (6) appoint inspector to investigate the affairs of the company and to report thereon, (Section 163(1)).

If the company does not furnish the information required by the registrar, under section 261 (1) within the time allowed or if the information submitted disclose an unsatisfactory position or does not disclose full and fair position, the registrar shall report the position to commission whereupon the commission may order investigation.

b. On application of member section 263 (1) & 264:

Securities and Exchange Commission may appoint inspector to investigate the affairs of any company and to report thereon in such manner as Commission may direct:

Such appointment shall be made as under:

i. In case of company having share capital on the application of members holding at least one-tenth voting powers.

ii. In case of company not having share capital on the application of at least 1/10^th of members.

The application by members must be supported by such evidence as the Commission may require, supporting their claim for investigation. The applicant shall also give security for the payment of cost of investigation, section 264.

c. Investigation in other cases section 263 (1):

Securities and Exchange Commission may order investigation, according to section 265, in the following two circumstances:

a. When company passes a resolution in general meeting required investigation.

b. When investigation is ordered by the court.

When investigation is mandatory section 265 (a)

The shareholders, by a resolution, desire the commission to appoint inspector to investigate the affairs of the company. They need not specify the circumstances in the resolution due to which they desire investigation. This right can be exercised in whosoever hand the company may be i.e. director, receiver appointed by debentures holders, administrator appointed by the court.

When investigation is discretionary section 265 (b)

Securities and Exchange Commission may appoint inspector to investigate company’s affairs if in its opinion there are circumstances suggesting.

a. That the business is conducted with intention to defraud creditors, members or any other person.

b. Company was formed fraudulent or unlawful purpose.

c. Person involved in formation or management is guilty of fraud, misfeasance or other misconduct.

d. Members have not been given full information.

Powers of Inspector

1. Investigate affairs of any other company in the same group.

2. Require officer to produce books, etc, and to assist.

3. Require anybody corporate to give information.

4. Keep books and papers in custody.

5. Examine officers on oath.

6. Seize books and papers.

Inspectors report section 269

The inspector may make interim report, or on the conclusion of investigation shall make a final report to the Commission.

The Elementary Tissues of the Body

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There are four groups of tissue in the body which are known as the elementary tissues. They are:

1. Epithelial Tissue

2. Muscular Tissue

3. Nervous Tissue

4. Connective Tissue

1. Epithelial Tissue:

An epithelium consists of cells which cover surface of the body, e.g. skin, or which line hollow organs, tubes or cavities e.g. blood vessels, and the air cells. There are two main classes of epithelial tissue, each containing several varieties.
a) Simple Epithelium

b) Compound Epithelium

All epithelial cells lie on and are held together by a homogeneous substance called a basement membrane.

a) Simple Epithelium:

This class consists of a single layer of cells, and is subdivided into three varieties.

1. Pavement or Squamous Epithelium

2. Columnar Epithelium

3. Ciliated Epithelium

1. Pavement or Squamous Epithelium:

They are fine thin plates placed edge to edge like the particles in a mosaic pattern or the stones of a pavement. These cells form the alveoli of the lungs. They are found whenever a very smooth surface is essential as in the lining of the heart (serous membrane), lining of blood vessels and lymphatics. When lining these structures the epithelial covering or lining is called endothelium.

2. Columnar Epithelium:

They form a single layer or they are the cells which line the ducts of most glands, the gall bladder, nearly the whole of the digestive tract, in which goblet cells are interspersed, and parts of the genitor urinary tract. In intestine, these have a slightly striated border. In some situations, as when lining the alveoli of secreting glands, the cells of columnar epithelium are short and have a cubical appearance. They are then described as cubical cells.

3. Ciliated Epithelium:

It is found lining the air passages and their ramifications such as the frontal and maxillary sinuses. It also lines the uterine tubes or oviducts and part of the uterus and the ventricles of the brain.

Ciliated cells are like columnar cells in shape, but they have in addition fine hair like processes attached to their free edge. These processes are called cilia. The ciliary processes keep up a continual movement directed towards the external opening. This movement has been likened to the movement seen in a field of corn, blown in one direction by the wind. In the respiratory passages the constant movement prevents dust, mucus, entering the lungs, and in the uterine tubes the movement conveys the ovum into the uterus.

Goblet cells are mucus-secreting cells which lie in the walls of glands and ducts lined by columnar cells, either plain or ciliated. Goblet cells secrete mucus or mucin and express it on to the surface; they act as mucus-secreting glands and are most numerous where a considerable amount of mucus covers the surface as in the stomach, colon, and trachea.

b) Compound Epithelium: It consists of more then one layer of cells. Stratified Epithelium forms the epidermal layers of the skin. It also lines the mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, the lower part of the urethra, the anal canal and the vagina, and covers the surface of the cornea. In these areas it does not become cornified.

Transitional Epithelium is a compound stratified epithelium consisting of three layers of cells. It lines the urinary bladder, the pelvis of the kidney, the ureters and the upper part of the urethra. The deeper layers of cells in transitional epithelium are of the columnar type of cell with rounded ends which make them pyriform or pear shaped.

Functions of Epithelial Tissue:

The epithelial tissue which forms the covering of the body, the skin and the lining of the cavities which open on to the surface is mainly protective.

It prevents injury to the underlying tissues.

It prevents the loss of fluid from these tissues and also prevents the passage of fluid into the structures which are covered by skin.

The micro organisms cannot pass through healthy skin but they can and do pass through abraded skin.

(a) Glands:

A gland is a secretory organ which may exist as a separate organ such as the liver, pancreas and spleen or may be simply a layer of cells as the simple tubular glands of the alimentary canal, body cavities etc. All glands have a rich blood supply. Their special function is to select from the blood stream certain substances, which they then elaborate into their important juices or secretions.

There is a tremendous variety of glands, each with its different function, making a collective description and classification difficult. A simple classification is as follows:

a. Glands which pour their secretion directly on to the surface include the sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and the gastric and intestinal glands.

b. Glands which pour their secretion indirectly, by means of ducts, on to the surface include the salivary glands, pancreas, and liver.

c. Ductless glands: These form the group described as endocrine organs. These are the glands of internal secretion. A great deal of the well being of the body depends on these glands, which through their secretions exert an important chemical control on the functions of the body.

(b) Membranes:

Layers of specialized cells which line the cavities of the body are described as membrane. The three principal membranes are:

1. Mucous membrane

2. Synovial membrane

3. Serous membrane

All these membranes secrete a fluid to lubricate or moisten the cavity they line.

1. Mucous membrane is found lining the alimentary tract, the respiratory tract, and parts of the genitor urinary tract. It varies in character in the different areas. In the digestive tract it consists of columnar epithelial cells closely packed together. Some of them become distended with mucous secretion and are then called goblet cells. The cell becomes more and more distended and finally ruptures and discharges it secretion on to the surface.

Mucus is the secretion of the membrane and consists of water, salts, and a protein, mucin, viscid character to the secretion.

2. Synovial Membrane lines the cavities of joints. It consists of fine connective tissue, with a layer of squamous endothelial cells on the surface. The secretion of synovial membrane is thick and glairy in character.

3. Serous Membranes are found in the chest and abdomen, covering the organ contained therein and lining these cavities.

The pleura covers the lungs and lies the thorax.

The pericardium covers the heart as a double layer.

The peritoneum covers the abdominal organs and lines the abdomen.

The characteristics which are common to all three serous membranes are, that each consists of a double layer of membrane having an intervening potential cavity which receives the fluid secreted by the membrane. This serous fluid is very similar to blood serum or lymph. It acts as a lubricant, and in addition it contains protective substances and removes harmful products, passing these on to the lymphatic system to be dealt with.

2. Muscular Tissue: Muscle is a tissue which is specialized for contraction, and by means of this, movements are performed. It is composed of cylindrical fibres which correspond to the cells of other tissues. These are bound together into little bundles of fibres by a form of connective tissue which contains a highly specialized contractile element.

Types of Muscle:

1. Striped (striated skeletal or voluntary muscle):

The individual muscle fibres are transversely striated by alternate light and dark markings. Each fibre is made p of a number of myofibrils and enclosed in a fine membrane. The sarcolemma (meaning – muscles sheath).

2. Unstriped (unstriated, smooth or involuntary muscle):

This type will contract without nervous stimulation although in most parts of the body its activity is under the control of the autonomic (involuntary) nervous system. This variety is composed of elongated spindle shaped muscle cells which retain the appearance of a cell.

Involuntary muscle is found in the coats of blood and lymphatic vessels, in the walls of the digestive tract and the hollow viscera, trachea, and bronchi, in the iris and ciliary muscle of the eye, and in the involuntary muscles in the skin.

3. Cardiac Muscle is found only in the muscle of the heart. It is striated like voluntary muscle. But it differs in that its fibres branch and anastomose with each other; they are arranged longitudinally as in striated muscle, are characteristically red in colour and not controlled by the will.

Cardiac muscle possesses the special property of automatic rhythmical contraction independent of its nerve supply.

3. Nervous Tissue:

The nervous tissue consists of three kinds of matter (a) grey matter, forming the nerve cells, (b) white matter, the nerve fibres and (c) neuroglia, a special kind of supporting cell, found only in the nervous system, which holds together and supports nerve cells and fibres. Each nerve cell with its processes is called a neurone.

Nerve cells are composed of highly specialized granular protoplasm, with large nuclei and cell walls on other cells. Various processes arise from the nerve cells; these processes carry the nerve impulses to and from the nerve cells.

4. Connective Tissue: Connective tissue provides the frame work of the body. There are several varieties of connective tissue.

Areolar Tissue: This consists of loosely woven tissue which is distributed widely throughout the body. It is placed immediately beneath the skin and mucous surfaces forming the subcutaneous and sub-mucous tissue, and it also forms the sheaths of fascia which support and bind and connect together muscles, nerves, blood vessels, and other organs.

Describe briefly Reproduction, mitosis, karyokinesis,centrosome and chromosomes

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Reproduction means a cell does not go on growing indefinitely in size but at a certain optimum point divides into two daughter cells. Further, certain cells will undergo division to replace worn-out cells or those destroyed by disease. This kind of cell division is called mitosis or karyokinesis.

Activity begins in the nucleus. The nuclear membrane disappears and the chromatin changes character and becomes long filaments called chromosomes.

The centrosome divides and the two new centrosomes move away from each other to each end of the nucleus called the poles.

The chromosomes are then attracted to the poles and lie near the new centrosomes. The chromatin of which nucleus is formed now comes to rest and two new nuclei exist. Finally the protoplasm of the cell constricts and divides and the two new cells are complete.

Each new daughter cell resulting from mitosis contains forty six chromosomes, so that during mitosis each chromosome must duplicate itself. The process of chromosomal duplication is one of the least understood of the cell’s activities.

However, mitosis is not the only kind of cell division. In the sex organs, the ovary and testis, another kind of cell division occurs called meiosis. During the formation of the sex cells, or gametes, the number of chromosomes is halved, so that the spermatozoon contains only twenty-three chromosomes and the egg-cell or ovum, twenty three.

When fertilization occurs, that is when spermatozoon and ovum fuse to form the cell (zygote) which develops into a new individual the normal chromosomal complement of forty six is restored. By this means a mixing of the hereditary determinants or genes, from male and female is achieved.

Abou ben Adhem (Summary)

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James Henry Leigh Hunt

This poem has been written by James Henry Leigh Hunt. In this poem the poet says that Abou ben Adhem was a pious man. He was the leader of his tribe. He was very kind and gentle to his people. One night he woke up from a sound sleep. As he woke up, he found straight light in his room. An angel was writing some thing in a golden book. Abou picked up courage and asked the angel what he was writing. The angel replied that he was writing the names of those persons who loved God. Abou asked him if his name was there. The angel replied in negative. Abou did not loose heart and asked the angel to write his name as a person who loved his fellow men. The angel did so and went away. Next night the angel came again and showed Abou the names of those person whom God had blessed. Abou was very much surprised and overjoyed to see his name at the top of the list.

Abou ben Adhem and the Angel

Lines from the Lay of the Last Minstrel (Summary)

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Walter Scott

In this poem, the poet Sir Walter Scott says that the man who has no love for his country is quite worthless. If he does not feel excitement as he comes back from a foreign country, he is a dull fellow. Nobody loves such a man and no singer sings in his honor though he has a lot of wealth and holds a high office. He is a selfish mean fellow, and always thinks about his interest only. He will be completely forgotten after his death and will be totally ignored in poetry and songs.

The Lay of the Last Minstrel

What is Nucleus (Short Note), what does it contains and definition

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The nucleus consists of a more compact mass of protoplasm, separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear membrane which is also selectively porous, allowing substances to escape from the nucleus into the cytoplasm or substances to pass into it. The nucleus controls the cell and all its activities. Without a nucleus the cell would die.

The nucleus contains many protein-rich threads lying in nuclear sap. In the ‘resting cell’ the threads are collectively spoken of as chromatin. These threads or chromosomes are vital to the everyday activities of the cell and are responsible for determining the hereditary characteristics of the human body. On the chromosomes in linear arrangement sit the genetic or hereditary determinants, the genes. The number of chromosomes in a body cell is constant for a particular species of organism. In man there are twenty three pairs of forty six chromosomes.

Cytoplasm (Short Note)

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This contains the following essential requirements:

1. Mitochondria: Small, rod-like structure which are closely connected with the catabolic, or respiratory, processes of the cell body.

2. Golgi Apparatus: A canal like structure lying next to the nucleus and involved in the secretory activities of the cell.

3. Ground Cytoplasm: A highly complex colloidal material in which the other structures are embedded. It is highly concerned with the anabolic, or synthetic, activities of the cell.

4. Centrosome: A minute dense part of the cytoplasm, ling close to the nucleus. It plays an important part during cell division.

5. Cell Membrane: The cell boundary is no-static envelope. Many important functions are concerned with it, but in particular it acts as a selective sieve through which certain substances are allowed to pass into the cell, or which prevents other substances from gaining access to it. Thus it is moist important in maintaining the correct chemical composition of protoplasm.

Cell Structure (Short Note)

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In considering the structure of the cell it is essential to relate its parts to its function.

The protoplasm of the cell is composed of a centrally placed body, the nucleus, and the cytoplasm or remainder of the protoplasm, which surrounds the nucleus.

Cytoplasm:

This contains the following essential requirements:

1. Mitochondria: Small, rod-like structure which are closely connected with the catabolic, or respiratory, processes of the cell body.

2. Golgi Apparatus: A canal like structure lying next to the nucleus and involved in the secretory activities of the cell.

3. Ground Cytoplasm: A highly complex colloidal material in which the other structures are embedded. It is highly concerned with the anabolic, or synthetic, activities of the cell.

4. Centrosome: A minute dense part of the cytoplasm, ling close to the nucleus. It plays an important part during cell division.

Nucleus:

The nucleus consists of a more compact mass of protoplasm, separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear membrane which is also selectively porous, allowing substances to escape from the nucleus into the cytoplasm or substances to pass into it. The nucleus controls the cell and all its activities. Without a nucleus the cell would die.

Body Planes in Anatomy

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For the identification of specific areas, the body can be divided by imaginary flat surfaces or planes.

The midsagittal plane divides the left and right sides of the body lengthwise along the midline into externally symmetrical sections. If a longitudinal plane is placed off-centre and separates the body into asymmetrical left and right sections, it is called a sagittal plane. A frontal plane divides the body into asymmetrical anterior and posterior sections.

A transverse plane divides the body horizontally into upper (superior) and lower (inferior) sections. A transverse (or horizontal) plane is at right angles to the midsagittal, sagittal, and frontal planes. Transverse planes do not produce material halves.

The system of planes is also used with parts of the body, including internal parts. If your laboratory manual or any other refers a book for drawing of a sagittal section, frontal section, or a transverse section, you should be aware of what is actually being shown and how it relates to the corresponding plane. A cut that produces exposed surface of the head is called a midsagittal section. A cut along a frontal plane produces a frontal section.

Relative Directional Terms of the Body in Anatomical Terminology

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Some of the directional terms of the body are defined as follows:

Term

Definition and Example

Superior (cranial)

Inferior (caudal)

Anterior (ventral)

Posterior (dorsal)

Medial

Lateral

Proxima

Distal

Superficial

Deep

Peripheral

Toward the head.

e.g.: The leg is superior to the foot.

Toward the feet or tail region.

e.g.: The foot is inferior to the leg.

Toward the front of the body.

e.g.: The nose is anterior to the ears.

Toward the back of the body.

e.g.: The ears are posterior to the nose.

Toward the midline of the body.

e.g.: The nose is medial to the eyes.

Away from the midline of the body.

e.g.: The eyes are lateral to the nose.

Toward (nearer) the trunk of the body or the attached end of a limb.

e.g.: The shoulder is proximal to the wrist.

Away (farther) from the trunk of the body or the attached end of a limb.

e.g.: The wrist is distal to the forearm.

Nearer the surface of the body.

e.g.: The ribs are more superficial than the heart.

Farther from the surface of the body.

e.g.: The heart is deeper than the ribs.

Away from the central axis of the body.

e.g.: Peripheral nerves radiate away from the brain and spinal cord.

The Systems of the Body

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The systemic Anatomy has been divided into two classes:

(I) According to the headings of different terms employed to indicate the knowledge of certain parts.

Examples:

Osteology is the knowledge of bones

Arthrology tells about joints.

Myology deals with muscles.

Splanchnology tells about organs or viscera.

Neurology discusses about nerves and nerve structure.

(II) According to the functions, they are grouped as following:

The locomotor system

The blood vascular system

The digestive system

The respiratory system

The ductless glands

The urogenital system

The nervous system

The special sense organs

The excretory system

1. The Locomotor System:

It includes the parts concerned with the movement of the body. It has three basic components:

(a) Skeletal system:

Consisting of bones, certain cartilages and membranes.

(b) Articulatory system:

Which deals with joints or articulation.

Includes muscles, fascia and tendon sheaths.

2. The Blood Vascular System:

It includes Circulatory System and Lymphatic System. The blood is pumped round the body by heart, oxygen is brought from the lungs and carbon dioxide is collected from the tissues. The food passes to the liver and then to general circulation and waste products are passed to kidneys.

3. The Digestive System:

It consists of alimentary canal and glands and organs associated with it. The food is broken down by enzymes in digestive tract and is taken by blood to liver and from there it is finally taken to the tissues.

4. The Respiratory System:

It contains passage and organs concerned with breathing, the oxygen from air is taken into blood and carried to the tissues. The waste product carbon dioxide is carried by the blood from body tissues to the lungs and breaths-out in expired air.

5. The Ductless Glands:

They are grouped together because of the internal secretions which they produce. The spleen is included sometimes in this group because it also has no duct, though it does not produce an internal secretion.

6. The Urogenital System:

It includes organs of the urinary system and reproductive system. The waste products of the body except carbon dioxide are excreted by kidneys.

7. The Nervous System:

It is composed of central nervous system which includes brain and the spinal cord. It also has peripheral nervous system consisting of the nerves given of from brain and spinal cord.

The autonomic nervous system includes sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves. It is also known as involuntary nervous system. The central and peripheral systems are often grouped together and are called as Cerebrospinal Nervous System.

8. The Special Sense Organs:

The taste, smell, sight, hearing and tactile functions of skin are discussed here. It is through theses organs that the individual is kept aware of the external forces and thus protects himself.

9. The Excretory System:

It is a term sometimes employed to describe collectively the organs that deal with the excretion of waste products from the body. It includes urinary system, the lungs for elimination of carbon dioxide and colon which excretes certain insoluble substances in faeces.

Anatomical Positions

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Anatomical Positions

The human body is studied from the erect position with the arms by the side and the palms of the hands facing forward, the head erect and eyes looking straight in front.

The various parts of the body are then described in relation to some imaginary lies on planes.

The Median plane runs through-out the enter of the body, any structure which lies nearer to median plane of the body in comparison to other structure away from it is said to be Medial.

e.g.: The hamstring muscles which lie in the inner side of the thigh are medial to those muscles which are at the side of the thigh.

The term internal and external is used to describe the relative distance to an organ or structure from the center of the cavity.

e.g.: The ribs have an internal surface that is near to the chest cavity and an external surface that is on the outer side, further away from the cavity. The internal carotid artery is inside the cranial cavity, whereas the external carotid artery lies outside the cavity.

The superficial and deep are used to denote relative distance from the surface of the body.

The superior and inferior denote positions relatively high or low, particularly in relations with the trunk e.g.: superior and inferior surfaces of the clavicle.

The anterior and posterior are synonymous with ventral and dorsal. These terms are only applied to man in anatomical position.

e.g.: Anterior and posterior Tibial arteries lie in front and behind of the leg. It should be kept in mind that while describing hands and feet, the anterior part is called palmer and posterior as dorsal for hands, and for feet it is planter as anterior and dorsal as posterior.

The term proximal and distal are employed to describe nearness to or distance from a given point particularly in relations to limbs.

e.g.: The proximal phalanges are near to the wrist than distal.

Terms Used in Anatomy (Short Note)

2012-11-09T16:38:00.000+05:00

Allah has created human body in a strange manner. Some what it is symmetrical and in some places it is also asymmetrical.

Symmetrically speaking we have similar right and left limbs, there are left and right eyes, ears, right and left lungs and right and left kidneys.

Asymmetrically the spleen lies entirely on left side. The larger part of liver lies on right side, the pancreas lies partly on each side.

Anatomy and Types of Anatomy

2012-11-09T16:34:00.000+05:00

Anatomy can be defined as the study of structure of the body and of the relationship of its constituents parts to each other.

It is a great information cadre, which deals with lots of other definitions at the same time.

1. Regional Anatomy

2. Systemic Anatomy

3. Functional Anatomy

4. Macroscopic Anatomy

5. Microscopic Anatomy

1. Regional Anatomy: It is a geographical study made in each region of the body.

Example: Arms, Head, Chest.

2. Systemic Anatomy: It deals with the structures commonly present in all regions like bones, muscles, nerves and blood vessels etc, which basically denote the presence of different systems.

3. Functional Anatomy: This deals with the functional attitude of the body which is closely related to physiology.

4. Macroscopic Anatomy: It deals with the description of the structure of body observed through naked eye.

5. Microscopic Anatomy: It’s the study of the structures of the body with the help of microscope.

Anatomy has two additional helps by Histology and Cytology.

Histology: It is the study of the fine structures of the body.

Cytology: It is the study of the cells.

Osmosis (Short Note)

2012-10-26T14:04:00.002+05:00

Osmosis is a process by which solvent molecules (water) diffuse across selectively permeable membrane, from a region of low solute concentration to the high solute concentration. Due to osmosis water moves from one cell to another cell. It also maintains the turgidity of cells. With the help of this process plants absorbs large quantity of water by roots.

Diffusion (Short Note)

2012-10-26T14:01:00.001+05:00

It is the movement of molecules from the area of higher concentration to the area of lower concentration. A few substances freely diffuse across the cell membrane. For example oxygen, carbon dioxide, diffuse in and out of the cells.

Diffusion is an essential step in biological processes like photosynthesis, respiration etc. During stomatal transpiration, water vapours from the intercellular spaces escape out in the outer atmosphere by this process.

Aims, Objectives, Importance and Classification of Plant Systematics

2012-08-26T12:28:00.002+05:00

Question: Describe aims, objectives and importance of plant systematics (classification).

Answer: Classification is the arrangement of plants into groups having common characteristics. These groups are arranged into a system. Similar species of flowering plants are placed in a Genus, similar genera grouped into families; families with common features are arranged into orders; orders into classes and classes into divisions.

The aim of classification is to place the plants into a hierarchy of ranks or categories such as species, genera, families and so on. In addition to expressing relationship based on common features, classification serves as a filing and information retrieval system and allows easier reference to organisms comprising the filing system i.e. it provides an idea bout the sequence of evolution of plants from simple to more complex and from more primitive to more advanced types.

The criteria of the classification are the characters on which the classification is based. The characters of an organism are all the features or attributes (leaf width, stamen number, corolla length, locule number, placentation, etc) possessed by the organism that may be composed, measured, counted, described or otherwise assessed. This means that indifferences, similarities and discontinuities between plants and taxa are reflected in their character. The characters of a taxon are determined by observing or analyzing samples of individuals and recording the observations or by conducting controlled experiments.

Certain characters which are used in description, delimitation or identification are called Diagnostic characters, whereas the characters of constant nature which are used to help define a group are termed as synthetic characters. A character may be qualitative character when it refers to such things as flower colour, odour, leaf shape etc. or quantitative character when it expresses the features that can be counted or measured such as size, length, and breadth, etc. Important characters are:

(i) to provide information for construction of taxonomic system.

(ii) to supply characters for construction of keys for identification.

(iii) to furnish features useful in the description and delimitation of taxa; and

(iv) to enable the scientists to use predictive value of classification.

Morphological and anatomical characters are used for the purpose of classification. Structures are observed with the eye, hand lens or light microscope or by using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Modern instrumentation allows comparative studies of physiological rates such as photosynthesis and analysis of chemical compounds produced by the plants. For classification purpose, there is increasing use of evidence from the fields such as cytology, biogeography, paleo-botany, phyto-chemistry, population biology, molecular biology and ulra structure.

Vegetative parts of angiosperms such as leaves stems and roots are relatively large and easy to observe but they generally provide fewer characters for classification than reproductive structures such as sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils. Vegetative features of flowering plants, especially size and shape, tend to be more influenced by environmental features than are reproductive features. As a result certain vegetative characters are less reliable and less useful than reproductive characters in classification of plants.

Union of sepals, petals, stamens and corpels; epipetalous condition, placenlation, hypogyny, epigyny and perigyny; number of cotyledons, presence and absence of endosperms, structure of fruit and seed are common reproductive characters used for classification. Phylotais, venation and presence of absence of stipules, are vegetative characters used for classification.

Morphological Characters of an Angiospermic Plant

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Question: Give morphological characters of an Angiospermic Plant.

Answer: An angiospermic plant consists of vegetative organs, the roots, stem and branches and leaves and reproductive organs, the flowers and fruit. Vegetative organs are meant for absorption of raw material (water and minerals), manuface of food and its utilization for growth and development. These organs are not directly connected with reproduction; they may give rise to new plants. This method of reproduction involving vegetative organs of the plant is termed as vegetative reproduction.

Roots are usually non green and grow under the soil. These anchor the plant and absorb water and minerals from the soil. In certain instances these act as storage organs e.g. Radish.

Stem forms the aerial axis of the plant. Stem axis elongates with the help of terminal bud present at its apex. This stem bears branches, leaves and flowers. Stem is responsible for conduction of absorbed material from root to different plant parts, food manufactured in leaves and food storage in some cases. It also bears flowers which are responsible for reproduction leaves are usually green and are lateral outgrowth of stem and its branches. The place where the leaf is attached to the stem is called a Node and the part of stem between successive nodes is called an internode. Axillary space between a leaf and stem or its branch is called axil of the leaf. In the axil of the leaves, buds called axillary buds are found.

Each leaf usually consists of a stalk called petiole and an expanded green potion known as lamina. In lamina a prominent median vein called mid rib is present. Also many small veins are present.

Flowers vary in size, form and colour in different species. Each flower is composed of four types of floral leaves, the sepals, petals, stamens and corpels, arranged in whorls on thalamus. These whorls are known as calyx, corolla, Androecium and Gynoecium. Sepals and petals are together referred to as perianth. Each stamen consists of a filament and an anther while each corpel is differentiated into a stigma, style and ovary. Ovary contains small rounded or oval bodies, the ovules which develop into seeds. The ovary on ripening forms fruit the seeds on germination produce seedlings which develop into new plant.

Health is Wealth (Summary)

2012-04-27T20:32:00.000+05:00

One day Kashif went for shopping with his mother. As he was fond of sweets, so he asked mother to purchase some from a shop. But his mother refused to buy sweets from that shop because flies were sitting on sweets. After it Kashif asked her to buy sweets from another shop which see-med to be clean. Mother refused on the grounds that she had seen a man sweeping the road along the shop. On asking mother explained that flies and dust carried germs and germs were injurious to health.

Kashif wented to know more about germs. His mother told him that when flies walk on dirty things, the germs stick to their legs. The flies carry those germs to our food. When we eat food, the germs get into our bodies and make us ill. So we should never eat such sweets and food which are non properly covered. She further told Kashif that a great number of diseases are caused by germs. For instant typhoid is caused by flies, Malaria is caused by a kind of mosquito bite. So we should make our surroundings clean and use kerosene oil and D.D.T powder. By doing so we can get rid of diseases. In this way we can preserve our health because health is wealth.

What the Quaid-eAzam Said (Summary)

2012-04-27T20:31:00.003+05:00

Muhammad Ali Jinnah whom out of love people called Quaid-e-Azam was born on 25^th December 1876. He passed his matriculation examination at the age of sixteen. Then he went for higher studies to England. He received degree of law from London. On return he started practice of law at Karachi and then at Bombay. He took active part in politics. He first joined Indian National Congress and then All India Muslim League. It was through his efforts that Muslims of Sub-continent got independence on 14^th August 1947. He become first Governor General of newly created country.

Quaid-e-Azam after creation of

Pakistan

made several speeches, which are to guide us. In his eye all Pakistanis were equal without any distinction of colour, cast, creed and religion. He said

Pakistan

can be developed if the people served it devotedly. He laid emphasis on acquiring education and said if we do not educate our selves well, we will be left behind by the world community. In another speech he said we should take education in wide prospect. It is for mobilizing our people and building up character of our future generations.

The Role of Women in the Pakistan Movement (Summary)

2012-04-27T20:29:00.002+05:00

The Muslim women played great role in the struggle for Pakistan. The great leaders from all over Sub-continent were in the fore front in fight for Pakistan and our women stood side by side with them. They went from house to house to raise funds for Pakistan Movement, they encouraged their men to make every sacrifice for attainment of Pakistan. They organized meetings and processions to attract the attention of world of their great cause.

Mother of Moulana Shoukat Ali and Moulana Muhammad Ali, Bi Aman proved guidance and encouragement for both brothers. Lady Muhamad Ali addressed large gatherings of Muslims dressed in burqah. Miss Fatima Jinnah made untiring efforts in looking after Quaid-e-Azam. Begum Ra’ana Liaquat Ali Khan worked at secretary to her husband to save the salary. Lady Nusrat Haroon, Lady Sughra Hidayatullah, Begum Khair-unnisa Shaban, Miss Fakhr-unnisa Wali Muhammad Effendi, Begum Jahan Ara Shahnawaz, Begum Salma Tassaduq Hussain, Getti Ara Bashir Ahmed and counless other ladies worked in different ways for achievement of Pakistan. Their efforts for establishment of

Pakistan

can not be for gotten.

What is Economics? Adam Smith's Definition of Economics. Alfred Marshall's Economics

2012-03-04T21:30:00.000+05:00

What is Economics? Explain the main features of Adam Smith’s definition of Economics.

Economics is the social science that studies the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Greek for “oikos” means house and “nomos” means custom or law, hence the term economics means “rules or laws o household”.

A definition that captures much of modern economics is that of Lionel Robbins in 1932 essay which states as “the science which studies human behaviour as a relationship between ends and scare means which have alternative uses.”

According to Alfred Marshall “Economics is the study of people in the ordinary business of life”. In short economics includes the study of labour, land and investment of money, income and production and taxes and government expenditures. Economist seeks to measure well-being to learn how well-being may increase overtime and to evaluate the well-being of the rich and the poor.

Adam Smith’s Definition of Economics:

Adam Smith wrote a book in 1776 whose title was “Wealth of Nations”. In his book he discussed the word ‘wealth’ through its four aspects: production of wealth, exchange of wealth, distribution of wealth and consumption of wealth. Therefore it can be said according to Adam Smith: “Economics is a science of wealth”. Wealth means goods and services transacted with the help of money. Let’s discuss four aspects of wealth; first one is production of wealth it shows as to how goods and services are produced. Goods and services are produced by the combination of four factors of production i.e. land, labour, capital and organization. Second aspect is exchange of wealth there are many procedures of goods and services in a society. Every procedure produces goods and services more than his personal requirement. The exchange of wealth enables everyone in the society to satisfy his multiple wants. Third aspect is distribution of wealth, which means the distribution of goods and services among different sections or individuals of a society. As known by explanation of exchange of wealth that procedures of goods and services exchange the surplus wealth with each other through out the year. The last and forth aspect is consumption of wealth that is using up the utility of goods and services for the satisfaction of wants is called the consumption of wealth.

According to Adam Smith “Economics was concerned with, An Enquiry into the Nature and Causes of Wealth of Nations.” As per definition of Adam Smith a key position was assigned to wealth in the study of Economics. The first person who introduced “Economics” as a subject was Adam Smith (1723-1790). He wrote the first book in economics entitled the “wealth of nation” in 1976. In this book he considered economics as a subject in which we study production of wealth, distribution of wealth, consumption of wealth and exchange of wealth. Production of wealth means the production of goods and services by combining four factors of production 1) Land: It is the natural resources such as Sea, Minerals, Live Stock and forest. 2) Labour: It is the mental or physical work, which is done for the sake of reward. 3) Capital: It means man made resources which help to produce goods and services. 4) Organization: It is the act of combing four factors of production to produce goods and services for the sake of profit. The production of wealth means production of goods and services. After the completion of production process this wealth is distributed among the four factors of production for their performance. Rent is given to land, wages to labour, and interest to capital and profit to organization. When people get their share from the production, they use it to satisfy their wants. They spent their income to purchase of goods and services. The surplus goods and services are exchanged with other surplus goods and services for the satisfaction of wants.

Allama Iqbal (Summary)

2012-02-16T19:03:00.000+05:00

Poet of the east Allama Muhammad Iqbal was born on 9^th November 1877 in Sialkot. He received his early education in his native town. He passed M.A from university of Punjab in 1899. In that year he was appointed as a professor in Arabic in Oriental college Lahore. He served as professor till 1905. Then left for London for higher studies. In London he received law degree. After that he received Ph.D degree from

Germany

on his work in Persian philosophy. For that he is known as Dr. Muhammad Iqbal.

Allama Iqbal was not only a great poet ut also a great philosopher. He was well versed in eastern as well as western philosophy. He spent much part of his life in study of Islam. He also took part in active politics. He bcame member of Punjab legislative council from 1926 to 1929. He was elected President of the All India Muslim League Punjab. In 1930 he presided over the Allahabad session of the All India Muslim League. On this occasion he made a clear demand for separate state of Muslims in South Asia. He directed all his efforts towards achievement of this goal.

Allama Iqbal was held in great estecm by Quaid-e-Azam. Time and again he took advices from him. Allama Iqbal died in 1938. But the Muslim state proposed by him came into being on 14^th August 1947.

Notes for Pakistan

Article 140 : Advocate General of a Province:

Article 100 : Attorney General (Short Note)

What is Investigation? Distinguish between Audit and Investigation, define the scope and objectives of investigation.

The Elementary Tissues of the Body

Describe briefly Reproduction, mitosis, karyokinesis,centrosome and chromosomes

Abou ben Adhem (Summary)

Lines from the Lay of the Last Minstrel (Summary)

What is Nucleus (Short Note), what does it contains and definition

Cytoplasm (Short Note)

Cell Structure (Short Note)

Body Planes in Anatomy

Relative Directional Terms of the Body in Anatomical Terminology

The Systems of the Body

The locomotor system The blood vascular system The digestive system The respiratory system The ductless glands The urogenital system The nervous system The special sense organs The excretory system

Anatomical Positions

Anatomical Positions

Terms Used in Anatomy (Short Note)

Anatomy and Types of Anatomy

Osmosis (Short Note)

Diffusion (Short Note)

Aims, Objectives, Importance and Classification of Plant Systematics

Morphological Characters of an Angiospermic Plant

Health is Wealth (Summary)

What the Quaid-eAzam Said (Summary)

The Role of Women in the Pakistan Movement (Summary)

What is Economics? Adam Smith's Definition of Economics. Alfred Marshall's Economics

Allama Iqbal (Summary)

The locomotor system

The blood vascular system

The digestive system

The respiratory system

The ductless glands

The urogenital system

The nervous system

The special sense organs

The excretory system