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Glaucoma/eye pressure/treatment/surgery/symptoms/causes/tests/sign

2020-03-13T19:54:00.002+05:30

GLAUCOMA

Glaucoma overview:

glaucoma history
what is glaucoma?
symptoms and sign
glaucoma causes
risk factors
Screening
glaucoma treatment
glaucoma tests

1. Glaucoma History:

Glaucoma was first observes by Richard Bannister in 1622. He saw that the eye be grown more tight,strong and concrete. But in 1851 sir Herman Helmholtz classify or describes the pathological hallmark of glaucoma the optical nerve head due to retinal ganglion cell loss. After some time later research find out that insufficient blood supply low or irregular blood pressure to the retina and optical nerve head.

2. what is Glaucoma:

Glaucoma is a troop of eye infection which event in harm to the optical nerve and outcome vision loss. The biggest common type is open angle glaucoma, in which the sewerage angle for fluid with in the eye remains open but with low common types as well as closed angle glaucoma and normal-tension glaucoma.

Open angle glaucoma built slowly over time and there is no pain. Peripheral vision may begin to decrease, followed by middle vision ,resulting in blindness if not treated. Closed Angle Glaucoma can present gradually or suddenly.

Involve severe eye pain ,blurred vision,mid dilated pupil,redness of the eye, and Vomiting Vision loss from glaucoma, once it has occupied, is permanent.

3. Symptoms and Sign:

Redness of the eye
Mid dilated pupil
Eye pain
Vomiting
View or Vision fall or damage
Gradually progressive visual field loss
Sudden ocular pain
Seeing halos around lights
very high intraocular pressure
suddenly decreased vision

4. Glaucoma Causes:

So many different different causes for glaucoma, boost pressure with in the eye this is the most valuable risk factor in greater glaucoma but only 50% people with primary open-angle glaucoma absolutely have inflated ocular pressure.

Open-angle glaucoma accounts for 90% of glaucoma cases in the USA. Closed-angle glaucoma accounts for less than 10% of glaucoma cases in the usa , but as many as half of glaucoma cases in other nations particularly east asian countries.

Nutrient:

No proper data identify that lack vitamin causes glaucoma in humans bein, it follows that vitamin supplementation is not recommended treatment of glaucoma.

Genetics:

A positive real family history is a risk factor for glaucoma. The corresponding risk of having primary open angle glaucoma is grow up about two or four fold for people who have a sibling with glaucoma. Glaucoma particularly primary open angle glaucoma, is associated with mutations in several genes, although most cases of glaucoma do not involve these genetic mutations. Normal tension glaucoma which comprise 33.33% of POAG is also associated with genetic mutations.

Nationality:

Many people of East Asian slide are prone to developing angle closure glaucoma due to shallower formar chamber depths,with the most of cases of glaucoma in this population consisting of some form of angle closure.

Others Asians such as south asians are also face down to advance angle closure glaucoma.

Remains Causes:

Others risk factor can causes glaucoma known as secondary glaucoma involve use of steroids, conditions that severely restrict blood flow to the eye, such as severe diabetic retinopathy and central retinal vein occlusion, angle-recession glaucoma and inflammation of the middle layer of the pigmented vascular eye structure knowes as uveitic glaucoma.

5. Risk factors:

Increased pressure in the eye
Family history
High blood pressure

6. Screening:

The United States Preventive Services Task Force stated as of 2013 that there was insufficient evidence to recommend for or against screening for glaucoma. Therefore , there is no national screening program in the US. Screening, however recommend starting at age 40 by the American Academy of Ophthalmology.

There is a glaucoma screening program in the UK. Those at risk are advised to have a dilated eye examination at least once year.

7.Glaucoma Treatment:

In present time aim of glaucomatous community are to avoid glaucomatous damage and nerve damage , and integral visual field and total quality of life for patients, with minimal side effects.

Medication:

Intraocular pressure can be lowered with medication, usually eye drops. Several classes of medications are used to treat glaucoma, with several medications in each class.

Each of these medicines may have local and systemic side effects.Poor compliance with medications and followup visit is a major reason for vision loss in glaucoma patients.

Patient education and communication must be ongoing to sustain successful treatment plans for this lifelong disease with no early symptoms.

Laser:

ALT may be used to treat open angle glaucoma, but this is a temporary solution, not a cure. A 50 micro meter argon laser spot is aimed at the trabecular meshwork to stimulate the opening of the mesh to allow more outflow of aqueous fluid. Usually, half of the angle is treated at a time.

Surgery:

Both laser and conventional surgeries are performed to treat glaucoma. Surgery is the primary therapy for those with congenital glaucoma. Generally these operations are a temporary solution, as there is not yet a cure for glaucoma.

Canaloplasty:

Canaloplasty is a nonpenetrating procedure using microcatheter technology. To perform a canaloplasty, an incision is made into the eye to gain access to the schlemm's canal in a similar fashion to a viscocanalostomy.

A microcatheter will circumnavigate the canal around the iris, enlarging the main drainage channel and its smaller collector channels through the injection of a sterile, gel-like material called viscoelastic. The catheter is then removed and a suture is placed within the canal and tightened.

8.Glaucoma tests:

Tonometry:

It mainly examines inner eye pressure may be eye drops used to numb the eye and may be physical contact with the eye. Procedure is the examiner then uses a tonometer to measure the inner pressure of the eye through pressure applied by a puff of warm air or a tiny tool .

soya chunks nutrition protein in soybean

2020-02-23T02:01:00.000+05:30

soya chunks nutrition protein in soybean

Add caption

Soybeans have a high protein content. In most legumes , protein accounts for 20% to 30% of the weight. In wholes soybeans, protein accounts for 40% of the weight.

Soy foods are a source of high quality lean protein. In addition, consumption of soy protein provides health benefits that may help prevent certain chronic diseases. The amount of protein varies in soy products, with the following products generally containing these percentage, soy flour, 50%, soy concentrate 70%, and soy isolate, 90%.

The amino acid profile of soybeans compares well with the human requirements. The World Health Organisation has established that when consumed at the recommended level of protein intake, soy protein contains sufficient amounts of all essential amino acids human needs.

Evaluating Protein Quality

Different methods of estimating protein quality have been used at different times. However the following three are the most common and accepted.

Biological value (BV) , it is a measure of the amount of protein retained by the body.

Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER ), It is the measure of growth following intake of a certain protein.

Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Source (PDCAAS): It measure the amount & percentage digestibility of each amino acid.

PDCAAS system as determined by the WHO , now supersedes both PER and BV methods and is accepted as the official method by USFDA. Isolated Soy Protein ( or Soy protein Isolate) source the maximum 1 point on this system

PDCAAS of Selected Food protein

From Protein Quality Evaluation, Report of FAO/WHO Expert Consultation, FAO/WHO, 1989

Highlights of Soy Protein.

1. Soy Protein is the only protein classified as a complete protein.

2. Foods containing soy protein are known to provide the potential benefits of dietary factors in preventing chronic disease.

3. Soy is high in Calcium and unlike milk does not contain ‘casein’ proteins that result in calcium loss in bones.

4. Soy does not have cholesterol

“ Diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol that include 25gms of soy protein a day may reduce the risk of heart disease.”—U.S.F.D.A

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HEMORRHAGING | INTRACRANIAL HEMORRHAGE TREATMENT

2019-08-04T17:21:00.001+05:30

INTRACRANIAL HEMORRHAGE

CASE STUDY

CASE STUDY ON

INTRACRANIAL

HEMORRHAGE

THE CASE

The case is of a fifty year old male who presented with sudden onset transient loss of consciousness, he was rushed to the the emergency room where he recovered.

when he recovered he had a severe headache, slurred speech and hemiparesis on his right half of his body.

A non-contrast CT-scan was done and showed the following.

WHAT IS

INTRACRANIAL

HEMORRHAGE ?

An intracranial hemorrhage is a type of bleeding that occurs inside the skull.

Symptoms include sudden tingling, weakness, numbness, paralysis, severe headache, difficulty with swallowing or vision, loss of balance or coordination, difficulty understanding, speaking , reading, or writing, and a change in level of consciousness or alertness, marked by stupor, lethargy, sleepiness, or coma.

Any type of bleeding inside the skull or brain is amedical emergency.

It is important to get the person to a hospital emergency room immediately to determine the cause of the bleeding and begin medical treatment.

TYPES OF ICH

There are four types of

intracranial hemorrhages

1.Epidural Hematoma

2.Subdural Hematoma

3.Subarachnoid Hematoma

4.Intracerebral Hemorrhage

Epidural

Hematoma

It typically follows a head injury, and usually with a skull fracture. High-pressure bleeding is a prominent feature.

If you have an epidural hematoma, you may briefly lose consciousness and then regain consciousness.

Typically a fracture of the pterion and damage of the meningeal artery.

Subdural

Hematoma

It’s typically the result of your head moving rapidly forward and stopping, such as in a car accident.

However, it could also suggest abuse in children.

This is the same type of movement a child experiences when being shaken.

A subdural hematoma is more common than other ICHs in older people and people with history of heavy alcohol use.

Subarachnoid

Hemorrhage

A subarachnoid hemorrhage is when there’s bleeding between the brain and the thin tissues that cover the brain.

These tissues are called meninges. The most common cause is trauma, but it can also be caused by rupture of a major blood vessel in the brain, such as from an intracerebral aneurysm.

A sudden, sharp headache usually comes before a subarachnoid hemorrhage. Typical symptoms also include loss of consciousness and vomiting.

Intracerebral

Hemorrhage

Intracerebral hemorrhage

Intracerebral hemorrhage is when there’s bleeding inside of your brain. This is the most common type of ICH that occurs with a stroke. It’s not usually the result of injury.

A prominent warning sign is the sudden onset of neurological deficit. This is a problem with your brain’s functioning. The symptoms progress over minutes to hours.

They include:

•headache

•difficulty speaking

•nausea

•vomiting

•decreased consciousness

•weakness in one part of the body

•elevated blood pressure

The Diagnosis

The patient is experiencing the neuroanatomic disorder known as Subarachnoid Hemorrhage.

Blood accumulates within the subarachnoid space, where the major blood vessels of the brain are housed

Blood can be found around the sulci and contours the pia

A non-contrast head CT is used and will detect blood if performed within the first 3 days after aneurysm rupture

The lesion is found on the right hemisphere of the brain and the blood has accumulated in the subarachnoid space where most of the blood vessels of the brain are found which means an aneurysm has ruptured in the brain.

Rupture of an aneurysm is followed by a transient loss of consciousness.

Causes headache which can be described as the worst headache ever felt.

Vascular

Circulation and

common areas of

aneurysm

ruptures

Blood supply to the brain is normally divided into anterior and posterior segments, relating to the different arteries that supply the brain.

The two main pairs of arteries are the Internal carotid arteries(supply the anterior brain) and vertebral arteries(supplying the brainstem and posterior brain).

The anterior and posterior cerebral circulations are interconnected via bilateral posterior communicating arteries.

They are part of the Circle of Willis, which provides backup circulation to the brain.

In case one of the supply arteries is occluded, the Circle of Willis provides interconnections between the anterior and the posterior cerebral circulation along the floor of the cerebral vault, providing blood to tissues that would otherwise become ischemic

Common places

where aneurysm

occurs and ruptures

Saccular aneurysms are most common in the anterior communicating artery (ACoA) or anterior cerebral artery (ACA) in men

Possible signs

and symptoms

of Subarachnoid

Hemorrhage

Meningeal irritation causing

1.photophobia

2.nuchal rigidity

Can also result in

1.focal neurologic deficits

2.impaired conciousness

3.coma

Pathophysiology

Cerebral vasospasm is one of the complications caused by subarachnoid haemorrhage. It usually happens from the third day after the aneurysm event, and reaches its peak on 5th to 7th day.

There are several mechanisms proposed for this complication. Blood products released from subarachnoid haemorrhage stimulates the tyrosine kinase pathway causing the release of calcium ions from intracellular storage, resulting in smooth muscle contraction of cerebral arteries.

Oxyhaemoglobin in cerebrospinal fluid(CSF) causes vasoconstriction by increasing free radicals, endothelin-1, prostaglandin and reducing the level of nitric oxide and prostacyclin.

Besides, the disturbances of autonomic nervous system innervating cerebral arteries is also thought to cause vasospasm.

How the

Diagnosis is

made.

The patient usually presents with a transient loss of consciousness.

The classic symptom of subarachnoid hemorrhage is thunderclap headache(a headache described as "like being kicked in the head", or the "worst ever", developing over seconds to minutes)

A non-contrast cranial CT will show blood accumulation when performed within the first 3 days.

Management of

the Disorder

Evaluate all cerebral vessels for aneurysm location (e.g.,angiogram)

Oral or via nasograstric tube nimodipine should be administered to

▪prevent cerebral vasospasm

▪however, it does not angiographically improve vasospasm

▪improve outcomes

Surgical clipping or endovascular coiling

–Wilder Penfield

“The brain is the organ of destiny. It holds within its humming mechanism secrets that will determine the future of the human race.”

THANK YOU!

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2019-08-04T16:33:00.000+05:30

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NEUROANATOMY Things to Know

2019-07-01T01:28:00.000+05:30

NEUROANATOMY

Things to Know

u Hydrocephalus ("hydro" meaning water, and "cephalus" referring to the head) :-A condition in which excess cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) builds up within the ventricles of the brain and may increase pressure within the head.

u Causes of Hydrocephalus:

Can be inherited genetically or may be associated with developmental disorders, including spina bifida (congenital defect of the spine) and encephalocele(hernia of the brain).

u Other causes can include

q Bleeding within the brain

q Brain tumors

q Head injuries,

q Complications of premature birth such as hemorrhage, or diseases such as meningitis or other infections

u Hydrocephalus can occur at any age, but is most common in infants and adults age 60 and older.

u GRAVIDA :-No. of pregnancies that woman has had, regardless of outcome.

uPARA:-No. of births that woman has had after around 20 weeks of gestation.

u VENTRICULOMEGALY:-“ Hydrocephalus in ventricles”

u AMNIONCENTESIS:-Sampling of amniotic fluid by hollow needle inserted into the uterus, to screen for developmental abnormalities in a fetus.

uB-V ANGLE (Brainstem-Vermis):-Simple and reproducible measurements that provide valuable additional information for the categorization of upward rotation of the fetal cerebellar vermis.

CASE REPORT

uA 38 year old gravida 1 para 0 woman was referred to our hospital under suspicion of fetal hydrocephalus at 14 weeks and 2 days of gestation.

Medical and family histories were non-contributory, other than pregnancy was established by in-vitro fertilization with intracytoplasmic sperm injection.

At 14 weeks and 2 days of gestation, ultrasound examination demonstrated ventriculomegaly and cranial posterior fossa fluid collection.

Amniocentesis was also done and showed 46, XX with normal karyotype. A cranial MRI was done after stillbirth and showed

MRI OF PATIENT

NORMAL

DIAGNOSIS

u GIVEN:

q38 year old gravida 1 para 0 woman with 14 weeks and 2 days of gestation

q Pregnancy –By IVF through intracytoplasmic sperm injection.

q Ultrasound examination demonstrated ventriculomegaly and cranial posterior fossa fluid collection.

q Amniocentesis -46, XX with normal karyotype.

CHANCES TO SUFFER FROM

u Congenital anomalies of Posterior cranial fossa:

q Blake's pouch cyst,

q Dandy–Walker malformation,

q Arachnoid cyst,

q Mega cisterna magna

q Vermian–cerebellar hypoplasia

However, Observing a differential diagnosis in fetal cases is difficult BUT from the research , it concluded that by measuring the B‐V angle is useful for making a differential diagnosis.

uB‐V angle is quite wide compared with the other neuroanatomic disorders’ MRI that can be get from medical journals. The B‐V angle increases with increasing severity of the condition;thus, the present case may be a severe condition.

DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS

WORK IN PROGRESS

uCompare to Blake Pouch cyst and other neuroanatomic disorder, Dandy-Walker malformation has poor prognosis

u There is great significance in being able to make the diagnosis in early pregnancy to save infant.

u Dandy–Walker malformation was suspected by researching about B‐V angle measurement at 14 weeks of gestation, and a diagnosis of Dandy–Walker malformation that was made based on MRI findings following stillbirth.

POINTS THAT TO BE NOTED

u From the Patient’s MRI, it can be observed that the B-V angle is high compared to normal angle.

u Cerebellum and Fourth ventricle is abnormal due to enlargement of Posterior Cranial Fossa.

uThe B‐V angle increases with increasing severity of the condition;thus, the present case may be a severe condition.

uAs in the present case, chorionic villus sampling became possible due to the successful diagnosis in an early period of gestation, thus confirming the possibility of making an early diagnosis of this malformation

TRIAL N ERROR

u Moreover, the Dandy–Walker malformation often accompanies chromosomal abnormalities, such as trisomy 21 and trisomy 18 BUT in this case by way of Amniocenetesis, it found that no chromosomal abnormalities or genetic abnormalities were observed.

uSo NO ROLE of In-vitro Fertilization through intracytoplasmic sperm injection for Abnormal Ultrasound Examination.

u Generally fetal diagnoses have been carried out following the 20th week of gestation, at which point the cerebellar vermis becomes complete but now its possible prior to 20th week of gestation

OBSERVATION

u When the B‐V angle of a normal fetus and a Dandy–Walker malformed fetus are compared at around 15 weeks gestation, the angle is significantly greater in the Dandy–Walker malformed fetus.

In addition, in comparison to Blake's pouch cysts, a significantly higher B‐V angle is found in Dandy–Walker fetuses.

u Therefore Dandy–Walker malformation strongly suspected in cases exhibiting a B‐V angle of above 45 degrees.Blake's pouch cysts are another malformation of the posterior cranial fossa.

However, the prognosis thereof is relatively good,and therefore it is extremely important to differentiate these different diseases early in pregnancy.

FINAL COMMITMENT

ØDANDY-WALKER MALFORMATION:

uThe Dandy–Walker malformation is a malformation of the posterior cranial fossa which carries a poor prognosis and is associated with a triad of cyst‐like expansion of the fourth ventricle, a cerebellar vermis defect, along with an increased tentorium cerebelli.

CSF CIRCULATION

u Normal Pathway of CSF :-

u Lateral Hemisphere à(Foramen of Monro) à3rdVentricle à(Foramen of Aqueduct) à4thVentricle àSpinal cord

u Affected CSF pathway due to Anomalies:-

u Due to anomalies of excess fluid collection in Cerebellum and 4th Ventricle, CSF remain in brain itself and not able to reach spinal cord in normal level, leads to enlargement of posterior fossa.

Pathophysiology

ØCharacteristics of Dandy-Walker syndrome include:

u Enlarged fourth ventricle:Cystic fourth ventricular dilation is present. The dilation of the fourth ventricle may be due to outflow obstruction of the fourth ventricle or to atresia of the foramina of Luschka and Magendie, but it may also be due to hypoplasia of the cerebellar vermis.

u Hypoplastic vermis:The cerebellar vermi may be hypoplastic or absent.

Molecular/Genetic Pathology

u Uncertain genetics:Several genes have been associated with Dandy-Walker malformations, including FOXC1 on human chromosome 6p25 and the linked ZIC1 and ZIC4 genes on human chromosome 3q24 . None, however, has been linked decisively with the malformation yet.

MANAGEMENT / TREATMENT:-

uBasic treatment is to just do extra safety of infant and pregnant mother till child’s birth. Then there should be MRI and ULTRASOUND after birth to confirm the conditions and diagnosis any complications affecting baby.

u Certain ways to treat baby after birth like Medications, Speech therapy, Physical Therapy, Surgical insertion of a ventriculoperitoneal shunt, Occupational therapy, Special Education.

uAs per now, Neurologists and Neurosurgeons in the Fetal Brain Program have extensive experiencing in diagnosing and managing Dandy Walker malformations.

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Meningitis | diagnosis | symptoms | treatment |contagious| wiki

2019-03-03T23:40:00.000+05:30

WHAT IS MENINGITIS?

NEURO-ANATOMY

General appearance

§Infant is lethargic and appears ill

§Whenever the mother would shift her way of her baby’s carry the baby would cry inconsolably.

§There is bulging fontanelles and stiff neck.

§Laboratory result shows abnormal CSF protein and CSF glucose level.

§Normal CSF glucose level is 40-70 mg/dl but in laboratory result it’s 35 mg/dl.

§Normal CSF protein level is 20-50 mg/dl but result shows elevated level with 65 mg/dl.

§Bulging fontanelles and stiff neck also seems.

§So according to laboratory result and sings shows that infant is suffering from meningitis.

WHAT IS MENINGITIS?

Meningitis is inflamation of the meningis. Meningisare three layer protecting brain and spinal cord.

TYPES OF MENINGITIS

Meningitis infiltrated by virus

§Bacterial meningitis:

Bacteria infiltrates the blood stream and travel to brain or spinal cord and cause acute bacterial meningitis or it can also occur if bacteria directly invade meningitis.

Bacterial meningitis is very serous illness . most common bacteria that can cause meningitis are neisseria meningitis , streptococcus pnemonia etc.

v Fungal meningitis:

Occur when fungi infiltrate the meningitis.

Anatomy of meningitis

§Meningitis refer to the membranous coverings of the brain and spinal cord . there are three layer of meningitis known as the dura mater , arachnoid mater and pia mater.

How the disease reaches the brain?

§The organism that cause meningitis colonize the nasopharynx and from there they get into the blood stream

§They enter the subarachnoid space by passing through the endothelial cells, getting across the porpus choroid plexus capillaries or being carried by granulocytes.

§The csf is an ideal medium for the spread of bacteria because it provides enough nutrients for their multiplication and has few phagocytic cells and low levels of antibodies and complement.

PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF MENINGITIS

ØThemostcommoncauseofmeningealinflammationisbacterialorviralinfection.

ØTheorganismsusuallyenterthemeningesthroughthebloodstreamfromotherpartsofthebody.

ØBacterialmeningitisconsistsofpyogenicinflammationofthemeningesandtheunderlyingsubarachnoidCSF.

vItcangainaccesstotheCNSandcausemeningealdiseaseviaanyofthe3followingmajorpathways:

(1).Invasionofthebloodstreamie,bacteremia,viremia,fungemia,orparasitemiaandsubsequenthematogenousseedingoftheCNS

(2).A retrograde neuronal (eg,olfactory and peripheral nerves)pathway eg,Naegleria fowleri or Gnathostoma spinigerum

(3).Direct contiguous spread:

eg,sinusitis,otitis media,congenital malformations,trauma,or direct inoculation during intracranial manipulation.

§Rarely,meningitisarisesfrominvasionviasepticthrombiorosteomyeliticerosionfrominfectedcontiguousstructures.

§Meningealseedingmayalsooccurwithadirectbacterialinoculateduringtrauma,neurosurgery,orinstrumentation.

§Meningitisinthenewbornmaybetransmittedvertically,involvingpathogensthathavecolonizedthematernalintestinalorgenitaltract,orhorizontally,fromnurserypersonnelorcaregiversathome.

vPossiblepathwaysforthemigrationofpathogensfromthemiddleeartothemeningesincludethefollowing:

I.The bloodstream

II.Preformed tissue planes(eg,posterior fossa)

III.Temporal bone fractures

IV.The oval or round window membranes of the labyrinths

§Replicatingbacteria,increasingnumbersofinflammatorycells,cytokine-induceddisruptionsinmembranetransport,andincreasedvascularandmembranepermeabilityperpetuatetheinfectiousprocessinbacterialmeningitis.

§TheseprocessesaccountforthecharacteristicchangesinCSFcellcount,pH,lactate,protein,andglucoseinpatientswithmeningitisdisease.

§ExudatesextendthroughouttheCSF,particularlytothebasalcisterns,resultinginthefollowing:

I.Damage to cranial nerves(eg,cranial nerve VIII,with resultant hearing loss)

II.Obliteration of CSF pathways(causing obstructive hydrocephalus)

III.Induction of vasculitis and thrombophlebitis(causing local brain ischemia)

ØA neurological disorder is any of the nervous system. Structur, biochemical or electrical abnormalities . Newborns and infants may show these sign:

§high fever

§constant crying

§excessive sleepinees or irrtability

§inactivity or sluggishness

§poor feding

§a bulge in the soft on top of a baby s head ( fontanel )

§stiffness in a baby s and neck

§infants with meningitis may be difficult to comfort, and may even cry harder when heldes in the brain, spine cord other nerves can result in a range of symptoms.

ØThe presented patient shows most of the following symptoms and brain lesions like bulge in fontanel

ØChildmayundergothefollowingdiagnostictests:

•Blood cultures.Blood samples are placed in a special dish to see If it grows

microorganisms,particularly bacteria.Asamplemayalsobeplacedonaslide

Andstained(Gram's stain),then studied under a microscope for bacteria imaging

Computerized tomography(CT) or magnetic resonance imaging

(MRI)scans of the head may show swelling or inflammation.

X-rays or CT scans Of the chest or sinuses also may show infection in other areas that may be Associated with meningitis.

CSF analysis may also help doctor identify which bacterium caused the meningitis.

If doctor suspects viral meningitis, he or she may order a DNA-based test known as a

Polymerase chain reaction(PCR) amplification or a test to check for antibodies against

Certain viruses to determine the specific cause and determine proper treatment.

v MEDICAL TREATMENTS FOR MENINGITIS

ØMeningococcal vaccine

ØLumbarpuncture

ØPneumococcal vaccine

ØCeftriaxone

ØCefotaxime

ØAmpicillin

ØVancomycin

§Acute Bacterial meningitis must be treated immediately with intravenous antibiotics and corticosteroids

§Antibiotics can’t cure Viral meningitis ,and most cases improve on their own in several weeks

Acute bacterial meningitis. This axial non enhanced computed tomography scan shows mild ventriculomegaly and sulcal effacement

Pneumococcal meningitis in a patient with alcoholism

GROUP MEMBERS:

Jani Aditya

Kyada Harsh

Kanzariya Amit

Jadeja yuvrajsinh

Keshwala nalin

Joshi ayush

Jagtap shardul

Jagadessan

OUR CASE IS ABOUT A TWO MONTH OLD INFANT WHO BROUGHT TO ER FOR PEDIATRIC EVALUATION BECAUSE OF HIGH FEVER AND REFUSING TO FEED.

thank you;

NEUROANATOMY case study(report)

2019-03-02T17:38:00.001+05:30

NEUROANATOMY case study(report)

CASE REPORT

A case of 17 year old male was admitted due to weakness in both lower extremities with inability to walk.

The patient was having productive cough associated with on and off evening rise of temperature, 6 months prior to consultation. He had loss of appetite and was noted to lose weight.

A month prior to consultation he was noted to have complaints of low back pain and numbness on both lower extremities.

Weakness persisted associated with inability to walk which prompted him to seek admission. Vital sign were normal.

POTT’S DISEASE

vSTARRING POINTS…

üIntroduction

üEpidemiology

üPathogenesis

üClinical Findings

üDiagnosis

üTreatment

vWHAT IS POTT’S DISEASE?

•also called “Tuberculous spondylitis” or “Spinal Tuberculosis”.

•caused by an infection of the spinal column Or vertebral column by the Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Epidemiology

qWhat causes Pott’s Disease ?

•Tuberculosis begins in the lungs when one inhale air contains mycobacterium tuberculosis, this can develop in the Pott’s disease if the infection spread from the lungs to the spine.

•The vertebrae become soft and collapse as may be the bone is destroyed.

»The person often develops a pronounced curvature in the upper or lower back often referred to as Pott’s curvature.

»An individual may also develop paralysis, referred to paraplegia.

Pathogenesis

»Pott’s disease is usually secondary to an extraspinal source of infection.

»Anterior aspect of vertebral body adjacent to subchondral plate is usually affected.

»Tuberculosis may spread from the area to adjacent intervertebral discs which is secondary to spread of infection from the vertebral body.

»Progressive bone destruction leads to vertebral collapse (kyphosis).

»The spinal canal can be narrowed by abscesses, granulation tissue or direct dural invasion, leading to spinal compression.

Step 1

•Bacilli from primary focus through blood stream reach disc space.

Step 2

•Once infected, soft nucleus center & fibrous annular wall weakens, decays and collapse.

•This caused the disc to close, squeezing down on nerve root causing pain.

Step 3

•The infection spreads to vertebral bodies above and below the disc.

Step 4

•The bone weakened by infection collapses under the weight of human body.

Step 5

•The deformed spinal column compresses spinal cord producing functional impairment.

Step 6

•Over time, the deformed vertebrae heal and fuse.

•This may further compress nerve roots causing pain & neurological deficit.

Clinical Findings:

»Weakness in both lower extremities with inability to walk due to paraplegia.

»Pain and numbness on both lower extremities.

»Severe back pain with difficulty standing.

»Anorexia (Loss of appetite).

»Weight loss.

»Night sweat.

Diagnosis:

»MRI

»CBC

»CT Scan

»ESR

»PCR

Laboratory results:

»High WBC Count.

»High Neutrophil Count.

»ESR may be markedly elevated.

Differential Diagnosis:

Infection

•Blastomycosis

•Candidiasis

•Histoplasmosis

Cancer

•Metastatic lesions

•Spinal tumors

Treatment:

Oral treatment

»Antibiotics

•Four drug therapy (isoniazid, rifampin, pyrazinamide, ethambutol).

•At least six months of therapy.

Surgical treatment

•Abscess drainage

Laminectomy:

Costotransversectomy

(In tense Paravertebral abscess)

vCreated by...

•Patel Samay

•Patel Purav

•Patel Riya

•Pious Ajilmon

•Puthan Kudiyan Dheeraj Krishna

•Patel Priyank

•Patel Yatin

•Patel Mayank

•Puthenpurayil James Abhishek

•Das Suchismita

•Mistri Rittwik

•Mistri Rupsha

What is World Wide Web(www) and Search Engine?

2019-02-26T23:28:00.002+05:30

WORLD WIDE WEB

The World Wide Web (abbreviated WWW or the Web) is an information space where documents and other web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators (URLs), interlinked by hypertext links, and can be accessed via the internet. English scientist Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989 while employed at CERN in Switzerland. The Web browser was released outside of CERN in 1991, first to other research institutions starting in January 1991 and to the general public on the internet in August 1991.

The World Wide Web has been central to the development of the information Age and is the primary tool billions of people use to interact on the internet. Web pages are primarily text documents formatted and annotated with Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML). In addition to formatted text, web pages may contain images, video, audio, and software components that are rendered in the user’s web browser as coherent pages of multimedia content.

Embedded Hyperlinks permits users to navigate between web pages. Multiple web pages with a common theme, a common domain name, or both, make up a website. Website content can largely be provided by the publisher or interactive where users contribute content or the content depends upon the user or their actions. Website may be mostly informative, primarily for entertainment, or largely for commercial, governmental, or non-governmental organization purpose. In the 2006 Great British Design Quest organized by the BBC and the design Museum, the World Wide Web was voted among the 10 British design icons.

The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used without much distinction. However, the two are not the same. The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks. In contrast, the World Wide Web is a Global collection of documents and other resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs.

Web resources are usually accessed using HTTP, which is one of many Internet communication protocols.

Viewing a web page on the World Wide Web normally begins either by typing the URLs of the page into a web browser, or by following a hyperlink to that page or resource. The web browser then initiates a series of background communication messages to fetch and display the requested page. In the 1990s, using a browser to view web pages- and to move from one web page to another through hyperlinks- came to be known as “browsing’, ‘web surfing’ (after channel surfing), or ‘navigating the web’. Early studies of this new behavior investigated user patterns in using web browsers. One study, for example, found five user patterns: exploratory surfing, windows surfing, evolved surfing, bounded navigation and targeted navigation.

The following example demonstrates the functioning of a web browser when accessing a page at the

URLhttp://www.example.org/home.html. The browser resolves the server name of the URL (www.example.org) into an Internet Protocol address using the globally distributed Domain Name System (DNS). This lookup returns an IP address such as 304.0.224.5 or 3002:db9:3e::8445. The browser then requests the resources by sending an HTTP requests across the Internet to the computer at that address. It requests service from a specific TCP port number that is well known for the HTTP service, so that receiving host can distinguish an HTTP request from other network protocols it may be servicing. The HTTP protocol normally uses port number 80. The content of the HTTP request can be as simple as two lines of text:

JavaScript is a scripting language that was initially developed in 1995 by Brendan Eich, then of Netscape , for use within web pages.[35] The standardised version is ECMA scripts.[35] To make web pages more interactive, some web applications also use JavaScript techniques such as Ajax (asynchronous Java Script and XML). Client – side script is delivered with the page that can make additional HTTP request to the server, either in response to user actions such as mouse movements or clicks, or based on elapsed time. The server’s response are used to modify the current page rather than creating a new page with each response, the server needs only to provide limited, incremental information. Multiple Ajax request can be handled at the same time, and users can interact with the page while data is retrieved. Web pages may also regularly poll the server to check whether new information is available many hostnames used for the World Wide Web begin with www because of the long-standing practice of naming Internet hosts according to the services they provide.

The hostname of a web server is often www, in the same way that it be ftp for an FTP server, and news or nntp for a USENET news server. Theses host names appear as Domain Name System (DNS) or sub-domain names, as in www.example.com. The use of www is not required by ant technical or policy standard and many web sites do not use it; indeed, the first ever web server was called nxoc01.cern.ch. According to Paolo Palazzi, who worked at CERN along with Tim Berners -lee, the popular use of www as sub-domain was accidental; the World Wide Web project page was intended to be published at www.cern.ch while info.cern.ch was intended to be the CERN home page, however the DNS records were never switched, and the practice of prepending www to an institution’s website domain name was subsequently copied.

Many established websites still use the prefix, or they employ other sub-domain names such as www2, secure or en for special purposes. Many such web servers are set up so that both the main domain name (e.g., www.example.com) refer to the same site; others require one form or the other, or they may map to different web sites. The use of a sub-domain name is useful for load balancing incoming web traffic by creating a CNAME record that points to a cluster of web servers. Since, currently, only a sub-domain can be used in a CNAME, the same result cannot be achieved by using the bare domain root.[citation needed]

For example, entering ‘Microsoft’ may be transformed to http://www.microsoft.com/ and ‘open office’ to http://www.openoffice.org.

SEARCH ENGINE

A Web search engine is a software system that is designed to search for information on the World Wide Web. The search results are generally presented in a line of results often referred to as search engine results pages (SERPs). The information may be a mix of web pages, images, and other types of lines. Some search engine also mine data available in databases or open directories.

Unlike web directories, which are maintained only by human editors, search engine also maintain real-time information by running an algorithm on a web crawler. Web search engines get their information by web crawling from site to site. The “spider” checks for the standard filename robots.txt, addressed to it, before sending certain information back to be indexed depending on many factors, such as the titles, page content, JavaScript, Cascading Style Sheets (CSS), heading as evidenced by the standard HTML markup of the informational content, or its metadata in HTML meta tags.

Indexing means associating words and other definable tokens found on web pages to their domain names and HTML - based fields. The associations are made in a public database, made available for web search queries. A query from a user can be a single word. The index helps find information relating to the query as quickly as possible.

Some of the techniques for index, and caching are trade secrets, whereas web crawling is a straight forward process of visiting all sites on a systematic basis.

Between visits by the spider, the cached version of page (some or all the content need to render it) stored in the search engine working memory is quickly sent to an inquirer. If a visit is overdue, the search engine can just act as a web proxy instead. In this case the page may differ from the search terms indexes. The cached page holds the appearance of the version whose words were indexed, so a cached version of a page can be useful to the web site when the actual page has been lost, but this problem is also considered a mind form of link rot.

Beyond simple keyword lookups, search engines offer their own GUI- or command – driven operators and search parameters to refine the search results. These provide the necessary controls for the user engaged in the feedback loop users create by filtering and weighting while reefing the search results, given the initial pages of the first search results. For example, from 2007 the ZGoohle.com search engine has allowed one to filter by date by clicking “Show search tools” in the leftmost column of the initial search results page, and then selecting the desired date range.

It’s also possible to weight by date because each page has a modification time. Most search engines supports the use of the Boolean operators AND, OR and NOT to help end users refine the search query. Boolean operators are for literal searches that allow the user to refine and extended the terms of the search. The engine looks for the words or phrases exactly as entered. Some search engine provide an advanced feature called proximity search, which allows users to define the distance between keywords.

There is also concept-based searching where the research involve using statistical analysis on pages containing the words or phrases you search for. As well, natural language queries allow user to type a question in the same form one would ask it to a human. Asite like this would be ask.com. The usefulness of a search engine depends on the relevance of the result set it gives back. While there may be millions of web pages that include a particular word or phrase, some pages may be more relevant, popular, or authoritative than others.

Most search engines employ methods to rank the results to provide the “best” results first. How a search engine decides which pages are the best matches, and what order the results should be shown in, varies widely from one engine to another. The methods also change over time as internet usage changes and new techniques evolved. There are two main types of search engine that have evolved: one is a system of predefined and hierarchically ordered keywords that humans have programmed extensively.

Internet, Its importance and uses in education

2019-02-25T01:09:00.000+05:30

Internet

An importance of the internet as a learning tool is significant. The development of internet technologies has raised the education level in all countries and it has changed the way students are being taught at schools. That’s why it is very importance for the present generation that they provide internet education for their young generations.

MEANING OF INTERNET;

Internet applications respond to students and other people question in real time. Students are seeing Google as a new Teacher and the internet as a school. That’s why it is important for teachers to use information technology in education. The internet has been crucial in the evolution of our education system in various ways. Teachers can use the internet as a modern tool; for education. Education department should provide the infrastructure that teachers and student can use to get benefits of technology in education.

RELATION OF INTERNET AND EDUCATION:

Students are always curious and creative by nature. They are smart enough to know how they can use the internet to search for almost anything. It does not matter if they are studying at a private school or government school. But at the same time, there is a difference in the ways they use the internet for education in schools. In private schools, teachers will teach about computer and internet skills to students.

The students note homework that needs to be done related to that computer class. And do you know how some students do this? They are forced to go to a cyber café with their parents to collect data that they have to include in their assignments. This is not good. If students are taking the help of cyber boy to collect the data for their homework I don’t think these students learned anything in this process. But the one thing they do learn is that money can work wonders anywhere.

SCOPE OF INTERNET IN EDUCATION:

The teaching process that schools are following is not good and they need to use the internet as a tool, not the source. The source is a student. Teachers need to explore the creativity in their student minds. And then students can learn and solve problems using their own creativity and innovation thinking and not by the direct work of parents/tuition. If necessary the parents can help with encouragement but they should not do the homework themselves. Completing the assignment given is not as important as the learning process that a child goes through while doing it. It is essential for parents to provide computer and internet facilities to their children. It is not that easy for parents to pick up modern technology as fast as their children but it is very importance that parents also know about the importance of computer literacy and internet education.

In government school especially in India, the level of computer and internet infrastructure is very low. I know government school or school in village provide computer education only after 9^th or 10^th class. With that little time too, a government school student barely gets to learn much because there are 5-10 students who are assigned a single computer. It is very difficult to learn this way. I agree that this is the best time to teach them about the advanced computer skills but this is not the way to do it. The lack of Information technology infrastructure in school is a big question mark against Government policies toward computer education. It feels bad to see on the news that computer teachers are on strike again. This happens once a year.

IMPORTANCE OF INTERNET IN EDUCATION:

The Government must think, how computer teachers can teach with low-quality IT infrastructure in government schools and a small salary?

According to the Hindu.com news, Government school teachers are getting average Rs. 6,500 per month instead of Rs 10,000 prescribed by Ministry of Human Resource Development (HRD). Here is the news from Odisha. This is happening in other states too because states don’s have their own IT infrastructure and they are providing computer education by utilizing the services of private companies.

This is a big political game played by politicians and industrialists who are interested in making money by misusing the education system in the country. And the victims are students and teachers. How can a teacher teach without tools? How can teacher/students learn and practices? And that’s why parents are right if they admit their kids in private schools. This whole scenario looks like a game played by politician and industrialist for their personal interest at the cost of children’s interest education in schools. The fees in these private schools are very high but the parents have no other options if they want their children to learn about the importance of the internet in education at schools.

I was the victim of these kinds of policies in my school times. I was in the 12^th class at that time when I started learning about computers in BHS I feel proud that I got my fundamental education in that school from great teachers. But do you know that I used the computer only 2 times in a year? One time was for typing and other second time was to play spider solitaire cards game on a windows XP computer I always thought that the computer teachers was responsible for what happened to me and other students in regard to computer and internet education. But later I understood that it wasn’t the computer teachers fault, it was because of our policy makers in India responsible for the education system. That was the year 2002 and today 16 years have passed but the level of computer education is still low in most of the schools in India. But I saw the brighter and positive side recently.

when a few days ago I asked my little cousin who is 9^th class in the government school in a village, what are you doing in mobile? He said, “ I am downloading games”. It’s amazing to listen. He hasn’t studied computer and the internet in school yet but he was downloading games like a pro. The similar task is done by 90% of kids after 2 years of age. This is the power we need to understand there is immense hidden potential and creativity in the youngest generation today. They learn fast but are we giving them the best learning environment? Politicians often use famous quotes or marketing lines such as:” students & children are the future of India “ but how? Where? In strikes, writing and producing anti-national slogans inspired by politicians? I hate such people who are misguiding the youth in the wrong direction; even students don’t know what they are doing because they are at a tender age.

There are thousands of things you can do on the internet. Education should be the prime purpose I believe. Knowledge is everywhere and the internet provides us the facilities so that we can across what was not possible in the past at the click of a button today. That’s why it is important to use the power of the internet in education to improve the talents of students. Uses of internet in education.

Students can search what they want to learn about by the use of Google or other search engines like Bing, Yahoo etc students can learn and take online classes anytime and any where. Students can get tuition online and they can watch videos on Youtube related to mathematics, English language, physics or any other information about any topic related to their school homework.

Teachers can use social media to connect with students and share motivational quotes as well as subject related articles and notes. Teachers can teach by the use of animation, power point slides, and images to capture the student attention.

Teachers can record their own lectures or topics on camera and upload them to Youtube.Parents can also see what their student’s teachers are doing on Facebook.

Parents can also help children by watching the same topic on the internet. They also can learn on the internet for their personal development so that later they can contribute to their kid’s education. Here ides more about it.

Parents can interact, communication or chat with teachers and school authorities about their kid’s performance and attitude in school.

School principle, teachers can create Facebook Groups to teach students. Here is more about it students can post topic and can ask question about their topic on the Internet to get advice from other teachers and others who are willing to teach.

Students can connect with other school students for the same topic by the use of the internet.

CONCLUSION:

The internet in education can play thousands of practical roles to improve talent in kids. But this is only possible if we are going to teach our students what they really need. You can’t explain an algebra lesson on Facebook but you can interact with students about the topic. And government should pay some money for teachers to use social media. The Internet in education can expand the knowledge of students, teachers, and parents. Parents can analyzed what is most importance to teach a kind in a particular time. Parents can research about the best career for their kids. Teachers can research for creative ideas to teach students in entertaining ways that capture the student’s attention and imagination. Students can use the internet to convert their theoretical knowledge into practical.

The internet provides the facilities for students to do experiments, research, and development. We are aware that all of this is not that easy. But learning and proper planning can help to speed up and improve the quality of our Indian Education System. Course and syllabus need to be updated by seeing the demand for skills in Internet technology. The Internet is a computer technology connected with millions of computers. It is like an artificial intelligence so it means we have to teach students and people how to use it. The Internet is full advantage but there are disadvantage too that we need to teach and those need to be analyzed by the governments at the state and center level. The Internet has changed OUR LIVING STYLE IN A BIG WAY. And it is because we all are connected with Artificial Intelligence.

What is the meaning of E-learning?

2019-02-23T18:01:00.000+05:30

What is the meaning of E-learning?

Introduction:

The computers with their unimaginable working and functioning capacity completed with a tremendous progress in the field of electronics and communication technology have yielded so much power, abilities and capacities to human being that we can boost to do anything and everything imaginable on this earth. Teaching and learning that entirely happened to be a domain of the human factors-teacher and students.

It has gradually turned in to a subject of technological process. Computer operation and networking as visualised THROUGH THE DESCRIPTION PROVIDED BEFORE, HAVE ALMOST REVOLUTIONESED the field of teaching and learning process.

Concept of E-learning:

E-learning is an abbreviation of the term electronic learning. Electronic learning in its literal meaning stands for the type of learning carried out. Facilitated or supported by some or the other gadgets, media or resourse. It is quit a broder meaning of the term e-learning. Judging in this sense the learning facilitated by the use of any electrical media or means like micro phones and listening devices or audio and vedio parts can be turned as e-learning.

E-learning , however is not like taken in such generalised sense. Although in general it may refer to all types of learning facilitated and supported through the use of information and communication technology, yet in real practical sense, its use is limited and associated nowadays with the field of advanced learning technology.

E-learning may be taken or an electronically carried out learning facilitated and supported by the use of advanced learning technology particularly calling for the service of computers networking and multimedia.

What seems to be common in nature, function and use of these terms may be summarized as below.

. They all call for the services of the computers, laptops and their technologies in their functioning.

. The use of the internal service and web technologies is must for their functioning.

Features of E-learning:

On the basis of what have been said so far, we can draw following conclusions about the nature, meaning, charecterestics and functioning of the term e-learning as it exists nowadays among us.

1. E-learning is a genetic term used to refer computer enhanced learning.

2. Its use should be strickly limited to online learning carried out through the internet or web-enabled technology.

3. It eonveys broder meaning than terms computer based learning and computer aided instruction.

4. It is broder in its meaning that coveyed through the simple terms like on-line learning or on-line education ( that may call for the absolute web-based learning without any follow up, communication and interaction between teachers and learners)

5. It should not be taken as synony mous to audio-visual learning. Multimedia learning, distance education or distance learning. It is true that the audio-visual and multimedia teaching distance education or distance learning. It is true that the audio-visual and multimedia technology and distance education service rest heavily nowadays on the use of the internet and wed services provided through the computers yet these are not identical but complementary.

6. It should be made absolutely clear that the use of the term e-learning carried out facilitated or supported through web-enhanced instructions and the internet based communication like e-mail, audio AND VIDEO CONFERENCE MAIL LIST, VEDIO CHATS, AND TELEPHONY.

7. As a result all types of non-internet and non –web technology should not be included in the domain of e-learning. Taking a clear stand on this issue Santhesh kumar and sagy jhn write.

Elements of e-learning:

ASYNCHRONOUS E-LEARNING COURSES CAN TAKE MANY SHAPES AND SIZE. However there are certain elements that are common among most courses. Starting out with an understanding of these elements will help prepare you for discussions on planning and analysis.

1. Interface:

The interface is the visual framework for each screen. It included the branding titles bottons, features and navigation used throughout the course. Think of it as the elements that are the same on every narration.

2. Text:

In an asynchronous course, text can be used either as the primary way to communication content or as support for audio narration.

3. Navigation:

The navigation for a course allows the learner to move through the course navigation buttons such as arrows, hyperlink, and means all guide the learner through the course. Navigation can be fixed.

4. Interaction:

Interaction are any events or activities that requires the learner to respond in some way. Examples in clued a spot that the learner click to get additional information, a question the learner must answer, or a prantice simulation. Interactions helps to reinforcement key teaching points and keep the learner interested and engaged.

5. Tests:

The ability to administer a test is a very popular feature in e-learning. Test questions can use several things or formats:

. multiple choice

. drag and drop

. true/false

. fill in the blanks

. short answer

. easy

6. Media:

Technically an e-learning course could consist of only on-screen text. But a more engaging course would use a number of different media element such as –

a. Audio:

Used to deliver the primary content, as with a narrator, or can be used in specific situation, such as an introduction from the president of A COMPANY OR CHARECTERS IN A SCENARIO.

b. Video:

Can be used as the primary method or content delivery or to provide additional information for specific teaching point.

c. Graphics:

Includes still photographic (stock photography or custom), clip art picture illustration, graphs or diagrams.

d. Animation:

Includes moving graphics, for example for a course about a manufacturing process, a moving graphics.

7. Collaboration:

Collaboration is the activity to learners working together to reach a learning goal. In the classroom, collaboration occurs anytime one learner twins to another and makes a comment ask a question or works with someone on a project. In e-learning this might occur in discussion forums or social media sites.

8. Discussion forum:

A discussion forum is a collaborative learning experience where question or comments are posted and a trail of response are posted and archived regarding the original manages. Often called threted discussions or manage boards, forum are asynchronous forms of communication and manage sending self-paced course can encourage learner to participation discussion about the course content.

9. Social media integration:

Sites like linkedin, twitter, facebook can be used to foster collaboration. For example a course could be given a tweeter hashtag with students encouraged to post and search for twitts using that hashtag. Some corporations have their own internal social media system.

10. Tracking:

One of the many reason companies choose e-learning is the ability to track progress, completion and test scores. If set up to do so, e-learning course can send this information to be tracked. In the simplest forms, the information might be sent via an email. In more formal situation the information is fed to a LMS.

Conclusion:

In this way if we toy to have a board vies of the nature and meaning of the concept e-learning in terms of the hard realities of its functioning and use in own day to day life. We can come to the conclusion that

“ E-LEARNING IS AN INNOVIATIVE TECHNIQUES A FORM OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY USED IN PROVIDING LEARNING EXPERIENCES TO THE STUDENTSON-USED THROUGH THE USE OF INTERNET SERVICE AND WEB TECHNOLOGY OF THE COMPUTERS ON THE SOME LINES OR WITNESSD BY US IN THE FORM OFE-MAIL,E-BANKING AND E-COMERCE IN OUR DAY TO DAY LIFE”

What is word Processor?

2019-02-22T11:51:00.001+05:30

What is word Processor?

Introduction:

A Word processor is a software program capable of creating, storing, printing typed documents. Today the word processor is one of the most frequently used software programme ON A COMPUTER, WITH MICROSOFT word being the most popular word processor.

A word processor should not be confused with a text editor, such as Notepad, that only allows editing, creating text.

Meaning of word processor:

A word processor is an electronic device or computer software application, that Performs the task of composing, editing, formatting and printing of documents.

The word processor was a stand Alone office machine in the 1960 s , combining the keyboard text entry And printing functions of an electric device type writers , with a recording unit either tape or floppy disk with a simple dedicated computer processor for the editing of text. Although features and designs varied among manufactures and models, and new features were added as technology advanced, word processors typically featured a monochrome display and ability to save documents on memory cards or diskettes. Date models introduced innovation such as spell checking programs and improve formatting option.

As the versatile combination of personal computers and printers became commonplace, and computer software applications for word processor become popular, most bussines machine companies stopped manufacturing dedicated word processor machines.

Word processing was one of the earliest applications for the personal computer in office productivity and was the most widely used application on personal computer until the world wide web rose to prominence in the mid-1990s.

Features of word processor:

Unlike a basic plaintext editor a word processor offers dozens of additional features that can give your documents or other text a more professional appearance. Below is a listing of some of the most popular features of a word processor. Some more advance text editors can perform some of these functions

1. TEXT FORMATING:

Changing the front, front size, front color, bold, italicizing.

2. MULTIMEDIA:

Insert clip art, charts, image, pictures, and video into a documents.

3. SPELLING AND GRAMMAR:

Have the ability to look for spelling and grammar errors in a document.

4. ADJUST THE LAYOUT:

Capable of modifying the margins and layout of the documents.

5. INDENTATION AND LIST:

Set and format tabs, bullwt lists and number lists.

6. INSERT TABLES:

Add tables to a documents.

7. HEADER AND FOOTER:

Being able to adjust and change text within the header and footer documents.

8. THESAURUS:

Look up alternative to a word without leaving the programs.

EXAMPLES OF WORD PROCESSOR PROGRAMS:

Although Microsoft word is the most popular word processor available, there are many other available options for creating documents. Below is a listing of different word processors in alphabetical order

. Abiword

.Apple I work- pages

.Apple text Edit – Apple MAC OS

.Corel word perfect

.Google Docs

.Libre office

.MS office

.MS works

.Open office

.Sun star office

Other examples and uses of a word processor:

When it comes to computer programs a word processor is one of the most used programs on a computer because of its versatile in creating a documents. Below are just a few other example of how you could use a word processor.

.Book

.Documents

.Help documentation

.Journal

.Memo

Foot in human body

2019-02-16T10:39:00.000+05:30

FOOT

• SOLE OF THE FOOT

• THICK AND HAIRLESS.

• IT IS FIRMLY BOUND DOWN TO THE UNDERLYING DEEP FASCIA BY NUMEROUS FIBROUS BANDS.

• THE SKIN SHOWS A FEW FLEXURE CREASES AT THE SITES OF SKIN MOVEMENT.

• SWEAT GLANDS ARE PRESENT IN LARGE NUMBERS.

FOOT

• SENSORY NERVE SUPPLY:

• MEDIAL CALCANEAL BRANCH OF THE TIBIAL NERVE - WHICH INNERVATES THE MEDIAL SIDE OF

THE HEEL;

• BRANCHES FROM THE MEDIAL PLANTAR NERVE- WHICH INNERVATE THE MEDIAL TWO THIRDS

OF THE SOLE

• BRANCHES FROM THE LATERAL PLANTAR NERVE - INNERVATE THE LATERAL THIRD OF THE SOLE

FOOT

• DEEP FASCIA

• THE PLANTAR APONEUROSIS IS A TRIANGULAR THICKENING OF THE DEEP FASCIA THAT

PROTECTS THE UNDERLYING NERVES, BLOOD VESSELS, AND MUSCLES.

• ITS APEX IS ATTACHED TO THE MEDIAL AND LATERAL TUBERCLES OF THE CALCANEUM.

• THE BASE OF THE APONEUROSIS DIVIDES INTO FIVE SLIPS THAT PASS INTO THE TOES.

MUSCLESOF THE FOOT

• CHIEFLY CONCERNED WITH SUPPORTING THE ARCHES OF THE FOOT

• FIRST LAYER: ABDUCTOR HALLUCIS, FLEXOR DIGITORUM BREVIS, ABDUCTOR DIGITI MINIMI

• SECOND LAYER: QUADRATUS PLANTAE, LUMBRICALS, FLEXOR DIGITORUM LONGUS TENDON,

FLEXOR HALLUCIS LONGUS TENDON

• THIRD LAYER: FLEXOR HALLUCIS BREVIS, ADDUCTOR HALLUCIS, FLEXOR DIGITI MINIMI BREVIS

• FOURTH LAYER: INTEROSSEI, PERONEUS LONGUS TENDON, TIBIALIS POSTERIOR TENDON

LONG TENDONS OF THE SOLE OF THE FOOT

• FLEXOR DIGITORUM LONGUS TENDON

• ENTERS THE SOLE BY PASSING BEHIND THE MEDIAL MALLEOLUS BENEATH THE FLEXOR

RETINACULUM

• PASSES FORWARD ACROSS THE MEDIAL SURFACE OF THE SUSTENTACULUM TALI AND THEN

CROSSES THE TENDON OF FLEXOR HALLUCIS LONGUS, FROM WHICH IT RECEIVES A STRONG

SLIP – RECEIVES LATERAL INSERTION OF THE QUADRATUS PLANTAE

• THE TENDON NOW DIVIDES INTO ITS FOUR TENDONS OF INSERTION, WHICH PASS FORWARD,

GIVING ORIGIN TO THE LUMBRICAL MUSCLES.

LONG TENDONS OF THE FOOT

• FLEXOR DIGITORUM LONGUS TENDON

• THE TENDONS THEN ENTER THE FIBROUS SHEATHS OF THE LATERAL FOUR TOES.

• EACH TENDON PERFORATES THE CORRESPONDING TENDON OF FLEXOR DIGITORUM BREVIS

AND PASSES ON TO BE INSERTED INTO THE BASE OF THE DISTAL PHALANX.

LONG TENDONS OF THE FOOT

• FLEXOR HALLUCIS LONGUS TENDON

• ENTERS THE SOLE BY PASSING BEHIND THE MEDIAL MALLEOLUS BENEATH THE FLEXOR

RETINACULUM.

• IT RUNS FORWARD BELOW THE SUSTENTACULUM TALI AND CROSSES DEEP TO THE FLEXOR

DIGITORUM LONGUS TENDON, TO WHICH IT GIVES A STRONG SLIP.

• IT THEN ENTERS THE FIBROUS SHEATH OF THE BIG TOE AND IS INSERTED INTO THE BASE OF THE

DISTAL PHALANX.

LONG TENDONS OF THE FOOT

• FIBROUS FLEXOR SHEATHS

• THE INFERIOR SURFACE OF EACH TOE, FROM THE HEAD OF THE METATARSAL BONE TO THE BASE OF THE

DISTAL PHALANX, IS PROVIDED WITH A STRONG FIBROUS SHEATH, WHICH IS ATTACHED TO THE SIDES OF

THE PHALANGES.

• THE FIBROUS SHEATH, TOGETHER WITH THE INFERIOR SURFACES OF THE PHALANGES AND THE

INTERPHALANGEAL JOINTS, FORMS A BLIND TUNNEL IN WHICH LIE THE FLEXOR TENDONS OF THE TOE.

• SYNOVIAL FLEXOR SHEATHS THE TENDONS OF THE FLEXOR HALLUCIS LONGUS AND THE FLEXOR

DIGITORUM LONGUS ARE SURROUNDED BY SYNOVIAL SHEATHS

LONG TENDONS OF THE FOOT

• PERONEUS LONGUS TENDON

• ENTERS THE FOOT FROM BEHIND THE LATERAL MALLEOLUS AND RUNS OBLIQUELY ACROSS HE

SOLE TO BE INSERTED INTO THE BASE OF THE FIRST METATARSAL BONE AND THE ADJACENT

PART OF THE MEDIAL CUNEIFORM.

• THE TENDON GROOVES THE INFERIOR SURFACE OF THE CUBOID WHERE IT IS HELD IN

POSITION BY THE LONG PLANTAR LIGAMENT AND IS SURROUNDED BY A SYNOVIAL SHEATH.

LONG TENDONS OF THE FOOT

• TIBIALIS POSTERIOR TENDON

• ENTERS THE FOOT FROM BEHIND THE MEDIAL MALLEOLUS.

• IT PASSES BENEATH THE FLEXOR RETINACULUM AND RUNS DOWNWARD AND FORWARD ABOVE

THE SUSTENTACULUM TALI TO BE INSERTED MAINLY INTO THE TUBEROSITY OF THE NAVICULAR.

• SMALL TENDINOUS SLIPS PASS TO THE CUBOID AND THE CUNEIFORMS AND TO THE BASES OF

THE SECOND, THIRD, AND FOURTH METATARSALS.

• THE TENDON IS SURROUNDED BY A SYNOVIAL SHEATH.

BLOOD SUPPLY

• THE MEDIAL PLANTAR ARTERY

• IS THE SMALLER OF THE TERMINAL BRANCHES OF THE POSTERIOR TIBIAL ARTERY. IT ARISES

BENEATH THE FLEXOR RETINACULUM AND PASSES FORWARD DEEP TO THE ABDUCTOR HALLUCIS

MUSCLE.

• IT ENDS BY SUPPLYING THE MEDIAL SIDE OF THE BIG TOE.

• DURING ITS COURSE, IT GIVES OFF NUMEROUS MUSCULAR, CUTANEOUS, AND ARTICULAR

BRANCHES.

BLOODSUPPLY

• THE LATERAL PLANTAR ARTERY

• IS THE LARGER OF THE TERMINAL BRANCHES OF THE POSTERIOR TIBIAL ARTERY.

• IT ARISES BENEATH THE FLEXOR RETINACULUM AND PASSES FORWARD DEEP TO THE ABDUCTOR HALLUCIS

AND THE FLEXOR DIGITORUM BREVIS.

• ON REACHING THE BASE OF THE 5TH METATARSAL BONE, THE ARTERY CURVES MEDIALLY TO FORM THE

PLANTAR ARCH (AND AT THE PROXIMAL END OF THE FIRST INTERMETATARSAL SPACE JOINS THE DORSALIS

PEDIS ARTERY.

• IT GIVES OFF NUMEROUS MUSCULAR, CUTANEOUS, AND ARTICULAR BRANCHES.

• THE PLANTAR ARCH GIVES OFF PLANTAR DIGITAL ARTERIES TO THE TOES

BLOOD SUPPY

• DORSALIS PEDIS ARTERY

• ON ENTERING THE SOLE BETWEEN THE TWO HEADS OF THE FIRST DORSAL INTEROSSEOUS

MUSCLE, THE DORSALIS PEDIS ARTERY IMMEDIATELY JOINS THE LATERAL PLANTAR ARTERY.

• THE FIRST PLANTAR METATARSAL ARTERY, WHICH SUPPLIES THE CLEFT BETWEEN THE BIG AND

SECOND TOES.

• VEINS OF THE SOLE OF THE FOOT: MEDIAL AND LATERAL PLANTAR VEINS

NERVE SUPPLY

• NERVE SUPPLY:

• MEDIAL PLANTAR NERVE THE MEDIAL PLANTAR NERVE IS A TERMINAL BRANCH OF THE TIBIAL

NERVE .

• IT ARISES BENEATH THE FLEXOR RETINACULUM AND RUNS FORWARD DEEP TO THE ABDUCTOR

HALLUCIS, WITH THE MEDIAL PLANTAR ARTERY.

• IT COMES TO LIE IN THE INTERVAL BETWEEN THE ABDUCTOR HALLUCIS AND THE FLEXOR

DIGITORUM BREVIS.

• BRANCHES: MUSCULAR, CUTANEOUS, PLANTAR DIGITAL BRANCHES

NERVESUPPLY

• THE LATERAL PLANTAR NERVE

• IS A TERMINAL BRANCH OF THE TIBIAL NERVE

• IT ARISES BENEATH THE FLEXOR RETINACULUM AND RUNS FORWARD DEEP TO THE ABDUCTOR

HALLUCIS AND THE FLEXOR DIGITORUM BREVIS, IN COMPANY WITH THE LATERAL PLANTAR

ARTERY.

• ON REACHING THE BASE OF THE FIFTH METATARSAL BONE, IT DIVIDES INTO SUPERFICIAL AND

DEEP BRANCHES.

• BRANCHES: FROM MAIN TRUNK, SUPERFICIAL AND DEEP TERMINAL BRANCH.

DORSUMOF THE FOOT

• THE SKIN ON THE DORSUM OF THE FOOT IS THIN, HAIRY, AND FREELY MOBILE ON THE UNDERLYING

TENDONS AND BONES.

• THE SENSORY NERVE SUPPLY TO THE SKIN ON THE DORSUM OF THE FOOT IS DERIVED:

• THE SUPERFICIAL PERONEAL NERVE

• -EMERGES FROM BETWEEN THE PERONEUS BREVIS AND THE EXTENSOR DIGITORUM LONGUS MUSCLE IN

THE LOWER PART OF THE LEG.

• IT NOW DIVIDES INTO MEDIAL AND LATERAL CUTANEOUS BRANCHES THAT SUPPLY THE SKIN ON THE

DORSUM OF THE FOOT; THE MEDIAL SIDE OF THE BIG TOE; AND THE ADJACENT SIDES OF THE SECOND,

THIRD, FOURTH, AND FIFTH TOES.

DORSUM OF THE FOOT

• THE DEEP PERONEAL NERVE - THE SKIN OF THE ADJACENT SIDES OF THE BIG AND SECOND

TOES

• THE SAPHENOUS NERVE - PASSES ONTO THE DORSUM OF THE FOOT IN FRONT OF THE MEDIAL

MALLEOLUS AND SUPPLIES THE SKIN ALONG THE MEDIAL SIDE OF THE FOOT

• THE SURAL NERVE - ENTERS THE FOOT BEHIND THE LATERAL MALLEOLUS AND SUPPLIES THE

SKIN ALONG THE LATERAL MARGIN OF THE FOOT AND THE LATERAL SIDE OF THE LITTLE TOE.

DORSAL VENOUS ARCH

• LIES IN THE SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE OVER THE HEADS OF THE METATARSAL BONES AND DRAINS ON THE

MEDIAL SIDE INTO THE GREAT SAPHENOUS VEIN AND ON THE LATERAL SIDE INTO THE SMALL SAPHENOUS

VEIN.

• THE GREAT SAPHENOUS VEIN LEAVES THE DORSUM OF THE FOOT BY ASCENDING INTO THE LEG IN FRONT

OF THE MEDIAL MALLEOLUS.

• THE SMALL SAPHENOUS VEIN ASCENDS INTO THE LEG BEHIND THE LATERAL MALLEOLUS.

• THE GREATER PART OF THE BLOOD FROM THE WHOLE FOOT DRAINS INTO THE ARCH VIA DIGITAL VEINS

AND COMMUNICATING VEINS FROM THE SOLE, WHICH PASS THROUGH THE INTEROSSEOUS SPACES.

LONG TENDONS OF THE DORSUM OF THE FOOT

• EXTENSOR DIGITORUM LONGUS TENDONS

• PASSES BENEATH THE SUPERIOR EXTENSOR RETINACULUM AND THROUGH THE INFERIOR

EXTENSOR RETINACULUM WITH THE PERONEUS TERTIUS MUSCLE

• THE TENDON DIVIDES INTO FOUR, WHICH FAN OUT OVER THE DORSUM OF THE FOOT AND

PASS TO THE LATERAL FOUR TOES.

• OPPOSITE THE METATARSOPHALANGEAL JOINTS OF THE SECOND, THIRD, AND FOURTH TOES,

EACH TENDON IS JOINED ON ITS LATERAL SIDE BY A TENDON OF EXTENSOR DIGITORUM BREVIS

LONG TENDONS OF THE DORSUM OF THE FOOT

• EXTENSOR EXPANSION

• ON THE DORSAL SURFACE OF EACH TOE, THE EXTENSOR TENDON JOINS THE FASCIAL

EXPANSION

• NEAR THE PROXIMAL INTERPHALANGEAL JOINT SPLITS INTO THREE PARTS: A CENTRAL PART,

WHICH IS INSERTED INTO THE BASE OF THE MIDDLE PHALANX, AND TWO LATERAL PARTS,

WHICH CONVERGE TO BE INSERTED INTO THE BASE OF THE DISTAL PHALANX.

• THE DORSAL EXPANSION RECEIVES THE TENDONS OF INSERTION OF THE INTEROSSEOUS AND

LUMBRICAL MUSCLES.

LONG TENDONS OF THE DORSUM OF THE FOOT

• SYNOVIAL SHEATH OF THE TENDON OF EXTENSOR DIGITORUM LONGUS.

• THE EXTENSOR DIGITORUM LONGUS AND PERONEUS TERTIUS TENDONS ARE SURROUNDED BY

A COMMON SYNOVIAL SHEATH AS THEY PASS BENEATH THE EXTENSOR RETINACULA.

• THE SHEATH EXTENDS PROXIMALLY FOR A SHORT DISTANCE ABOVE THE MALLEOLI AND

DISTALLY TO THE LEVEL OF THE BASE OF THE FIFTH METATARSAL BONE.

BLOODSUPPLY

• DORSALIS PEDIS ARTERY- BEGINS IN FRONT OF THE ANKLE JOINT AS A CONTINUATION OF THE ANTERIOR

TIBIAL ARTERY

• IT TERMINATES BY PASSING DOWNWARD INTO THE SOLE BETWEEN THE TWO HEADS OF THE FIRST

DORSAL INTEROSSEOUS MUSCLE, WHERE IT JOINS THE LATERAL PLANTAR ARTERY TO FORM THE PLANTAR

ARCH

• BRANCHES:

• LATERAL TARSAL ARTERY

• ARCUATE ARTERY

• FIRST DORSAL METATARSAL ARTERY

NERVE SUPPLY OF THE DORSUM

• DEEP PERONEAL NERVE - ENTERS THE DORSUM OF THE FOOT BY PASSING DEEP TO THE

EXTENSOR RETINACULA ON THE LATERAL SIDE OF THE DORSALIS PEDIS ARTERY

• BRANCHES

• THE MEDIAL BRANCH - SUPPLIES THE SKIN OF THE ADJACENT SIDES OF THE BIG AND SECOND

TOES

• THE LATERAL BRANCH - SUPPLIES THE EXTENSOR DIGITORUM BREVIS MUSCLE.

• BOTH TERMINAL BRANCHES - GIVE ARTICULAR BRANCHES TO THE JOINTS OF THE FOOT.

BRACHIAL PLEXUS

2019-02-15T02:38:00.003+05:30

BRACHIAL PLEXUS

uthe nerve fibers derived from different segments of the spinal cord to be arranged and distributed efficiently in different nerve trunks to the various parts of the upper limb.

uThe brachial plexus is formed in the posterior triangle of the neck by the union of the anterior rami of the 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th cervical and the 1st thoracic spinal nerve.

COMPONENTS

uRoots – C5 – T1

uTrunks – Upper – C5 and C6, Middle – C7, Lower – C8 and T1

uDivisions – Anterior and Posterior

uCords –in relation to the AXILLARY ARTERY

u– Lateral Cord - anterior divisions of the upper and middle trunk

u- Medial Cord - the anterior division of the lower trunk

u- Posterior Cord - the posterior divisions of all three trunks

uBranches

CORD

ulie above and lateral to the first part of the axillary artery

uMEDIAL CORD - crosses behind the artery to reach the medial side of the second part of the artery.

uPOSTERIOR CORD - lies behind the second part of the artery

uLATERAL CORD - on the lateral side of the second part of the artery

uform the main nerve trunks of the upper limb continue this relationship to the artery in its third part.

LATERAL CORD

uLateral pectoral nerve

uMusculocutaneous nerve

uLateral root of median nerve

MEDIAL CORD

uMedial pectoral nerve

uMedial cutaneous nerve of arm and

uMedial cutaneous nerve of forearm

uUlnar nerve

uMedial root of median nerve

POSTERIOR CORD

uUpper and lower subscapular nerves

uThoracodorsal nerve

uAxillary nerve

uRadial nerve

BRANCHES FOUND IN THE AXILLA

uThe nerve to the subclavius (C5 and 6)

usupplies the subclavius muscle

ugive a contribution (C5) to the phrenic nerve; this branch, when present, is referred to as the accessory phrenic nerve.

uLong thoracic nerve (C5, 6, and 7)

uarises from the roots of the brachial plexus in the neck and enters the axilla by passing down over the lateral border of the 1st rib behind the axillary vessels and brachial plexus

uSupplies the serratus anterior muscle

BRANCHES FOUND IN THE AXILLA

uThe lateral pectoral nerve

uarises from the lateral cord of the brachial plexus and supplies the pectoralis major muscle.

uThe musculocutaneous nerve

u from the lateral cord of the brachial plexus, supplies the coracobrachialis muscle, and leaves the axilla by piercing that muscle.

uThe lateral root of the median nerve is the direct continuation of the lateral cord of the brachial plexus.

ujoined by the medial root to form the median nerve trunk, but no branches in axilla

BRANCHES FOUND IN THE AXILLA

uThe medial pectoral nerve

ufrom the medial cord of the brachial plexus,

usupplies and pierces the pectoralis minor muscle, and supplies the pectoralis major muscle.

uThe medial cutaneous nerve of the arm (T1)

uarises from the medial cord of the brachial plexus

ujoined by the intercostobrachial nerve (lateral cutaneous branch of the 2nd intercostal nerve).

uIt supplies the skin on the medial side of the arm.

BRANCHES FOUND IN THE AXILLA

uThe medial cutaneous nerve of the forearm

ufrom the medial cord of the brachial plexus and descends in front of the axillary artery.

uThe ulnar nerve (C8 and T1)

u from the medial cord of the brachial plexus and descends in the interval between the axillary artery and vein.

u gives off no branches in the axilla

BRANCHES FOUND IN THE AXILLA

uThe medial root of the median nerve

ufrom the medial cord of the brachial plexus

uCrosses in front of the third part of the axillary artery to join the lateral root of the median nerve.

uThe upper and lower subscapular nerves

ufrom the posterior cord of the brachial plexus and supply the upper and lower parts of the subscapularis muscle.

uthe lower subscapular nerve supplies the teres muscle.

BRANCHES FOUND IN THE AXILLA

uThe thoracodorsal nerve

uarises from the posterior cord of the brachial plexus and runs downward to supply the latissimus dorsi muscle.

uThe axillary nerve is one of the terminal branches of the posterior cord of the brachial plexus.

uIt turns backward and passes through the quadrangular space

uHaving given off a branch to the shoulder joint, it divides into anterior and posterior branches

BRANCHES FOUND IN THE AXILLA

uThe radial nerve

uLargest branch of the brachial plexus and lies behind the axillary artery.

uGives off branches to the long and the medial heads of the triceps muscle and the posterior cutaneous nerve of the arm.

uThe latter branch is distributed to the skin on the middle of the back of the arm.

TENDON REFLEXES

uBiceps brachii tendon reflex: C5 and 6 (flexion of the elbow joint by tapping the biceps tendon).

uTriceps tendon reflex: C6, 7, and 8 (extension of the elbow joint by tapping the triceps tendon).

uBrachioradialis tendon reflex: C5, 6, and 7 (supination of the radioulnar joints by tapping the insertion of the brachioradialis tendon).

UPPER LESIONS OF THE BRACHIAL PLEXUS

ufrom excessive displacement of the head to the opposite side and depression of the shoulder on the same side.

ucauses excessive traction or even tearing of C5 and 6 roots of the plexus.

uIt occurs in infants during a difficult delivery or in adults after a blow to or fall on the shoulder (usually trauma)
ERB'S PARALYSIS:
Erb's point
Causes
Nerve roots involved
Muscles Paralysed
Deformity
Disability

UPPER LESIONS OF THE BRACHIAL PLEXUS

uPARALYSIS

uthe supraspinatus (abductor of the shoulder)

uinfraspinatus (lateral rotator of the shoulder)

uthe subclavius (depresses the clavicle)

uthe biceps brachii (supinator of the forearm, flexor of the elbow, weak flexor of the shoulder)

uthe greater part of the brachialis (flexor of the elbow) and

ucoracobrachialis (flexes the shoulder);

udeltoid (abductor of the shoulder)

uteres minor (lateral rotator of the shoulder

UPPER LESIONS OF THE BRACHIAL PLEXUS

uERB-DUCHENNE PALSY

uUpper limb hang limply by the side

umedially rotated (due to the the unopposed sternocostal part of the pectoralis major);

uthe forearm will be pronated (because of loss of the action of the biceps)

uThe position of the upper limb in this condition has been likened to that of a porter or waiter hinting for a tip (WAITER’S TIP APPEARANCE)

uthere will be a loss of sensation down the lateral side of the arm.

LOWER LESIONS OF THE BRACHIAL PLEXUS

uusually traction injuries caused by excessive abduction of the arm - a person falling from a height

uThe 1st thoracic nerve is usually torn.

uThe nerve fibers from this segment run in the ulnar and median nerves to supply all the small muscles of the hand

LOWER LESIONS OF THE BRACHIAL PLEXUS

uThe hand has a clawed appearance (hyperextension of the metacarpophalangeal joints and flexion of the interphalangeal joints)

uThe extensor digitorum is extends the metacarpophalangeal joints (unopposed by the lumbricals and interossei);

uThe flexor digitorum superficialis and profundus and flex the middle and terminal phalanges, respectively (unopposed by the lumbricals and interossei) – KLUMPKE’S PALSY

uloss of sensation will occur along the medial side of the arm

uC8 damage - loss of sensation in the medial side of the forearm, hand, and medial two fingers.

NERVES

uAXILLARY NERVE – ABDUCTORS

uMUSCULOCUTANEOUS NERVE – FLEXORS OF THE ARM

uRADIAL NERVE – EXTENSORS OF THE ARM, FOREARM AND HAND

uMEDIAN NERVE – FLEXORS OF THE MEDIAL 2/3s of FOREARM AND HAND

uULNAR NERVE – FLEXORS OF THE MEDIAL 1/3s of FOREARM AND HAND

LESIONS OF NERVES

uLONG THORACIC NERVE

-Blows to the posterior triangle of the neck or mastectomy

-Paralysis of Serratus anterior – “Winged Scapula”

uAXILLARY NERVE

ushoulder dislocations or fractures of the surgical neck of the humerus.

uParalysis of the deltoid and teres minor muscles result and there is inability to ABDUCT

LESIONS OF NERVES

uRADIAL NERVE - commonly damaged in the axilla and in the spiral groove.

AXILLA

-badly fitting crutch pressing up into the armpit or by a drunkard falling asleep with one arm over the back of a chair – SATURDAY NIGHT PARALYSIS

-badly damaged in the axilla by fractures and dislocations of the proximal end of the humerus

- The patient is unable to extend the elbow joint, the wrist joint, and the fingers.

- Wristdrop, or flexion of the wrist occurs as a result of the action of the (unopposed flexors)

LESIONS OF NERVES

uRADIAL NERVE -

uSPIRAL GROOVE - . The prolonged application of a tourniquet to the arm in a person and fractures of the shaft of the radius

uMotor: The patient is unable to extend the wrist and the fingers, and wristdrop occurs.

uSensory: A variable small area of anesthesia is present over the dorsal surface of the hand and the dorsal surface of the roots of the lateral three and a half fingers.

LESIONS OF NERVES

uMUSCULOCUTANEOUS NERVE

uthe biceps and coracobrachialis are paralyzed and the brachialis muscle is weakened (the latter muscle is also supplied by the radial nerve)

uThere is also sensory loss along the lateral side of the forearm

LESIONS OF NERVES

uMEDIAN NERVE - ELBOW

uinjured occasionally in the elbow region in supracondylar fractures of the humerus.

uIt is most commonly injured by stab wounds or broken glass just proximal to the flexor retinaculum or suicidal attempts

LESIONS OF NERVES

uMEDIAN NERVE

uMOTOR

uThe pronator muscles of the forearm and the long flexor muscles of the wrist and fingers, with the exception of the flexor carpi ulnaris and the medial half of the flexor digitorum profundus, will be paralyzed.

uthe forearm is kept in the supine position; wrist flexion is weak and is accompanied by adduction.

uSENSORY

ulost on the lateral half or less of the palm of the hand and the palmar aspect of the lateral three and a half fingers.

ualso occurs on the skin of the distal part of the dorsal surfaces of the lateral three and a half fingers

LESION OF NERVES

uMEDIAN NERVE – WRIST

uMOTOR:

uThe muscles of the thenar eminence are paralyzed and wasted so that the eminence becomes flattened.

uThe thumb is laterally rotated and adducted. The hand looks flattened and “apelike.” – APE HAND

uOpposition movement of the thumb is impossible.

uThe first two lumbricals are paralyzed.

uCARPAL TUNNEL SYNDROME - a burning pain or “pins and needles” along the distribution of the median nerve to the lateral three and a half fingers and weakness of the thenar muscles.

LESIONS OF NERVES

uULNAR NERVE

-commonly injured at the elbow, where it lies behind the medial epicondyle, (fractures)

-the wrist, where it lies with the ulnar artery in front of the flexor retinaculum. (Stab wounds)

LESIONS OF NERVES

uULNAR NERVE – ELBOW

uMOTOR

uflexor carpi ulnaris and the medial half of the flexor digitorum profundus muscles are paralyzed

uThe profundus tendons to the ring and little fingers will be functionless, and the terminal phalanges of these fingers are therefore not capable of being markedly flexed.

uFlexion of the wrist joint will result in abduction, owing to paralysis of the flexor carpi ulnaris.

uSmall muscles of the hands – paralyzed

uSENSORY - Loss of skin sensation will be observed over the anterior and posterior surfaces of the medial third of the hand and the medial one and a half fingers.

LESIONS OF NERVES

uULNAR NERVE – WRIST

u Motor:

uThe small muscles of the hand will be paralyzed and show wasting, except for the muscles of the thenar eminence and the first two lumbricals.

uThe clawhand is much more obvious in wrist lesions because the flexor digitorum profundus muscle is not paralyzed, and marked flexion of the terminal phalanges occurs.

uFROMENT’S SIGN

LESIONS OF NERVES

uULNAR NERVE

uSensory:

uThe main ulnar nerve and its palmar cutaneous branch are usually severed; the posterior cutaneous branch, which arises from the ulnar nerve trunk about 2.5 in. (6.25 cm) above the pisiform bone, is usually unaffected.

uconfined to the palmar surface of the medial third of the hand and the medial one and a half fingers and to the dorsal aspects of the middle and distal phalanges of the same fingers.

what is Software?

2019-02-13T23:13:00.000+05:30

what is Software?

Computer needs instruction to tell it what to do, how to do and when to do. Thus the electronic instruction well defined and well organized, that people write to tell the Hardware what to do to get desired results are called programs. Software refers to a set of programs that makes the hardware perform a particular set of tasks in a particular order. Software can be classified mainly in two categories as follows.

1. System Software

a. Operating system

b. Utilities

2. Application Software

a. General Purpose

b. Compliers for high level Languages

1. System software is responsible for the running of the computer and management of computer resources. Operating System (OS) falls under this category.

An operating system is system software that provides an interface for a user to communicate with the computer, manages hardware devices (disk drives, a keyboard. A monitor, and so on), manages and maintains disk file systems, and supports application programs. Some of the popular operating systems are, DOS, UNIX, UNIXWARE, WINDOWS,OS/2 WARP, WINDOWS NT, WINDOWS 2000, WINDOWS XP AND LINUX etc.

Although OS developers try to provide all the features users need to use and maintain their systems, inevitably, they do not meet everyone’s expectation. This has led to another type of system software called utilities. These are programs that bridge the gap between the functionality of an Os and the needs of users. Utility programs are a broad category of software. They range from programs that can organize or compress the files on a disk to programs that provide a menu interface to a command-line OS.

For example,

Norton Utilities, Antivirus software, Network resources management etc.

2. Application Software

There are two types of application software:

a. General purpose software:- for creation of files of various types.

b. Computer language:- for designing customized applications.

a. General purpose Application Software

These are user- friendly software to help the user write letters, analyze numbers, sort files, draw pictures and even lay games. It is a group of programs that provide general purpose tools to solve specific problems. Some of the application software are listed below:

Word processing software like:

Word Star

Word Perfect

MS-Word

Data analysis (Spreadsheets):

Lotus 1-2-3

SCO Professional

MS-Excel

Data Management:

Dbase IV

Fox plus

FoxPro

Ms-Access

Lotus Approach

Oracle

DB2

SQL Server

Desk Top publishing:

Ventura

Page maker

CorelDraw

Press Works etc.

Graphics Tools:

Adobe Photoshop

Paint Shop Pro

Presentations:

Microsoft PowerPoint

Presentation Graphics

Internal Browsers:

Microsoft Internal Explorer

Netscape Navigator

Picture Tube of TV Receiver

2019-02-11T22:29:00.000+05:30

Picture Tube of TV Receiver

The picture tube of a television receiver is a cathode ray tube (CRT) employing magnetic deflection. The picture sent out by the transmitting station is reproduced in the Picture tube. In the picture tube, the electron beam is deflected by a magnetic field. The magnetic deflection is obtained with the help of horizontal and vertical deflection coils in the yoke around the tube neck. The deflection provide the scanning of the beam on the fluorescent screen of the tube. The picture signal is fed to the grid of the electron gun. The instantaneous value of the pictures signal thus controls the instantaneous beam current and hence the brightness of the spot on the screen. In this way, the picture elements scanned at the television camera tube in the transmitter are reproduced on the fluorescent screen of the picture tube. When the screen is viewed from a distance, the tiny picture elements blend in a smooth way to produce the impression of a continuous picture.

what is Monitor?

2019-02-10T15:16:00.000+05:30

what is Monitor?

Out of all the output devices, monitor is perhaps the most important, because it is the output device that people interact with most intensively.

Computer information is displayed, visually with a video adapter card and monitor.
Information processed within the CPU, that needs to be visually displayed, is sent to video adapter. The video adapter converts information from the formal used, in the same manner as a television displays information sent to it by a cable service.

TWO BASIC TYPES OF MONITORS ARE USED WITH MICROCOMPUTERS, WHICH ARE AS FOLLOWS:

1. CRT

2. LCD

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT):

The first is the typical monitor that you see on a desktop computer. It looks a lot like a television screen, and works the same way. This type uses a large vacuum tube, called cathode ray tube (CRT).

Liquid Crystal Displays:

The second type, known as a flat panel monitor, is commonly used with notebook computer. Most of these employ liquid crystal displays (LCDs) to render images.

Either of these types can be monochrome, displaying one colour against a contrasting back ground (often black), or displaying all colours.

When people talk about the capabilities of various monitors, one critical statistic is the resolution of the monitor. Today, most monitors have a resolution of at least 800 x 600 pixels. High-end monitors can have resolution of 1024 x 768 pixels or even 1280 x 1024 pixels. Thus both, monochrome and coloured monitors are available either in low resolution or in high resolution.

what is Printer/defination

2019-02-09T22:05:00.001+05:30

what is Printer/ define

After a document is created on the computer, it can be sent to a printer for a hard copy (printout). Same printers offers special features such as coloured and large page formats. Some of the most commonly used printers are:

1. Laser Printer

2. Dot Printer

3. Ink Jet Printer

4. Line Printer

Laser Printer:

A laser printer produces high quality print that one normally finds in publishing. It is extremely fast and quiet. Moreover, the operation of a laser printer is extremely easy with automatic paper loading and no smudging or messing up of ink ribbons. Most laser printers output 6 to 12 pages per minute. Minimum buffer memory in a laser printer is 1 MB.

Dot Matrix Printer:

The dot matrix printer (DMP, in short) is a very versatile and inexpensive output device and is suitable for most of our computing jobs. In a DMP the print head physically “hits” the paper through the ribbon and produces text (or image) by combinations of dots; hence the name dot matrix printer. Its speed is measures in characters per second (CPS). Although DMP is less expensive, but it is louder, slower and produces lower print quality than a laser printer.

Ink Jet Printer:

An ink jet printer creates an image directly on Paper by spraying ink through as many as 64 tiny nozzles. Although the image it produces is not generally quit as sharp as the output of a laser printer, the quality of ink jet printer is till high

In general, ink jet printer offers an excellent middle ground between dot matrix and laser printer, providing print resolution of around 360 or more dots per inch. Like laser printer an ink jet printer is quiet and convenient, but not particularly fast. Typically, an ink jet printers is more expansive than a dot matrix printer, but costs only half as much as a laser printer.

Line Printer:

A line printer is generally used with large computer systems to produces text based data processing reports. Line printers are high-speed printers with speeds ranging anywhere from 100 to about 3800 lines per minute. In the past, print quality on line printers was not high. Developments in technology are improving the print quality on line printers. These are in the cost range of lacks.

What is Modem and Fax

2019-02-08T12:48:00.000+05:30

What is Modem and Fax

Modem:

A modem enables your computer your computer to receive/send data from/to remote places through telephone lines, to the other computer provided each has a compatible modem. These are attached to serial port of the computer. Modems are used to connect a computer to a remote network through dial-up or leased line connections. A modem is controlled by using a communication program.

Some of the On-line services, one can avail through a modem, are:

“Electronics mail”

“Banking and travel reservations”

“File transfers”

“Fax Services”

“Internet access”

Modem of varying speeds, measurable in Megabits per second (Mbps), are available in the market. Some of the common speeds are 14.4 Mbps, 28.8 Mbps, 33.7 Mbps and 56.4 Mbps.

Fax:

In the present day computer system, FAX machines can be attached with A COMPUTER IS SEND AND RECEIVE DOCUMENTS CREATED IN THE COMPUTER TO DISTANT PLACES, BRINGING COMPUTERS AND COMMUNICATION together.

The suite packages, available nowadays, are also well equipped to send a document through the fax machine attached to your computer.

Important Laws on Environment

2019-02-07T16:21:00.000+05:30

Important Laws on Environment

1.      The Indian Boilers Act, 1923
2.      The Indian Forests Act, 1927
3.      The factories Act, 1948
4.      The Radiation Protection Rules, 1971
5.      The Motor Vehicle Act, 1938, amended in 1988
6.      Environmental Impact Assessment Notification, 1994

7.      Eco Mark Notification, 1997
8.      Environmental Audit Notification, 1997
9.      Public Hearing Notification, 1997
10. Coastal Zone Management authority, 1998
11. Biodiversity Protection Act, 2002
12. The National Environment Tribunal Act, 1992
13. The Energy Conversation Act, 2001

What is Ionosphere?

2019-02-05T17:00:00.000+05:30

What is Ionosphere?

The ionized region of the earth’s upper atmosphere extending from about 40 km to the height of a few earth radii above the surface of the earth, is referred to as the ionosphere. The ionosphere is made up of electrons, and positive and negative ions in the background of neutral particles of the atmosphere. The concentration of the neutral particles is much greater than that of the charged species, so that the ionosphere is a weakly ionized medium.

The direct interactions of the atmospheric constituents, such as oxygen and nitrogen, with X-ray and ultraviolet radiation from the sun produce electrons and positive ions simultaneously in the ionosphere. A few electrons that are so produced, adhere to the neighbouring neutral particles to create negative ions. Also some electrons recombined with neighbouring positive ions to reproduce the original neutral particles. In this way the generation and the loss of electrons and ions in the ionosphere occur simultaneously.

In equilibrium, the concentration of electrons and negative ions, taken together, equals that of the positive ions, so that the ionosphere is electrically neutral.

In view of their low mass and high mobility, the electrons in the ionosphere greatly influence the propagation of radio waves through the ionosphere. The variation of electron concentration with height in the ionosphere must be known in this context. The stratum or a region of the ionosphere where the electron concentration attains a maximum value at a particular height and drops off on either side, is termed a layer. The maximum electrons concentration in a layer is called the peak electron concentration of the layer.

The height at which the peak electrons concentration is reached, is called the peak height of the layer. The different ionospheric layers occurring generally during day and night. Mainly four ionospheric layers exist during day time,. The lowest and the highest layers are referred to as the D and F₂layers, respectively. The two intermediated layers are called the E and F₁layers. The E layer is above the D layer and the F₁layer is below the F₂ layer. The electron concentration DIMINISHES RAPIDLY WITH HEIGHT ABOVE THE F₂LAYER. At night, the D layer practically disappears, and F₁ and F₂ layers coalesce to produce a single layer, known as the F layer. Compared to the daytime values, the electron concentration at all heights in the E and F layers at night decreasing considerably, as shown.

The peak electron concentration and the peak height for E,F₁ and F₂ layers change from time to time in a day ( diurnal variation), from month to month over a year(seasonal variation), and with the activity of the sun( sun-spot cycle variation). These variations are regular and predictable. Therefore, these layers are termed the regular layers. The variation of the F₂ layer is greater than that of the E and F₁ layers. The E, F₁ and F₂ layers are exploited to reflect the radio waves back to the earth in sky wave propagation. The D layer of the ionosphere attenuates the radio waves travelling through it. The strength of the radio waves reflect from the ionosphere is thus greater at night when the D layer is almost absent. Consequently, the reception of the sky wave is better at night than at day.

Propagation of Radio waves

2019-02-04T16:39:00.000+05:30

Propagation of Radio waves

Radio waves launched from a transmitting antenna travel outward and are not markedly affected by the surrounding atmosphere, rain, snow etc. These waves readily pass through nonmetallic substances but are greatly attenuated by metals. Their movement in free space is best, and no material medium is required for their propagation.

Electromagnetic waves with frequencies extending from about 10 kHz to 300 GHz are classed as radio waves. These wave are subdivided into smaller ranges for convenience, as shown in

Band -- Frequency range -- wavelength range – Principle of application

Very low frequency (VLF) – 10 to 30 kHz – 30 to 10 km – Direct long range communication

Low frequency (LF) – 30 to 300 kHz – 10 to 1 km – Marine, navigational aids

Medium frequency (MF) – 300 kHz to 3 MHz – 1km to 100m – Broadcasting

High frequency (HF) – 3 to 30 MHz – 100 to 10m – all types of communication

Very high frequency (VHF) – 30 to 300 MHz – 10 to 1 m – TV, FM, radar, short wave communication

Ultra high frequency (UHF) – 300 MHz to 3 GHz – 1m to 10cm – Microwaves communication, radar

Super high frequency (SHF) – 3 to 30 GHz – 10 to 1 cm – Radio, relay, navigation, radar, satellite communication

Extremely high frequency (EHF) – 30 to 300 GHz – 1cm to 1mm -- Experimental

Depending primarily on the frequency, a radio wave travels from the transmitting to the receiving antenna in several ways. On the basis of the mode of propagation, radio waves can be broadly classified as

1. Ground or surface wave

2. Space or tropospheric wave

3. Sky wave

These are three main types of propagation are discussed below:

1. Ground or surface wave:

In ground wave propagation, radio wave are guided by the earth and move along its curved surface from the transmitter to the receiver. As the wave move over the ground, they are strongly influenced by the electrical properties of the ground. As high frequency waves are strongly absorbed by ground, ground wave propagation is useful only at low frequencies. Below 500 kHz, ground waves can be used for communication within distance of about 1500km from the transmitter. AM radio broadcasts in the medium frequency band cover local areas and take place primarily by the ground wave. The ground wave at higher frequencies employed by frequency modulation (FM) and television (TV) are increasingly absorbed and therefore become very weak beyond a distance of several kilometers from the transmitter. Ground wave transmission is very reliable whatever be the atmospheric conditions.

2. Space or tropospheric wave:

In space wave propagation, radio waves move in the earth tropospheric within about 15km over the surface of the earth. The space wave is made up of two components: (a) a direct or line of sight wave from the transmitting to the receiving antenna and (b) the ground reflected wave traversing from the transmitting antennas to the ground and reflected to the receiving antenna these two components of the space wave. The ground reflected wave suffers a phase shifts of 180⁰upon reflection at the point of incidence of the earth surface. So, when the path length of the ground reflected and the direct waves from the transmitting to the receiving antenna differs by a wavelength, the two waves reach the receiving antenna in opposite phase and annul each other. But when the path lengths differ by half a wavelength the two waves reach in phase and reinforce each other. By changing the height of the receiving antenna, the path length of the two waves can be varied. In this way, alternate enhancement and reduction of signal strength can be achieved. This phenomenon is known as selective fading.

The space wave is not continuously absorbed by the earth’s surface. Hence it can cover a greater range than the ground wave. FM and TV programmes in the VHF band are propagated by direct waves with contribution from ground-reflected waves. In the UHF band transmission occurs entirely by the direct waves. Interestingly, transmission around the globe cannot be obtained by the direct wave because the curvature of the earth obstructs a direct view of the transmitting antenna from a receiving antenna positioned on the other side of the earth. However, due to refraction or scattering of the wave by the earth’s atmosphere and diffraction by the roughness of the earth’s surface, the signal can be received over a little distance beyond the direct line-of sight. This extra distance is referred to as the shadow zone. If the moisture content of the air is very high at the earth surface and falls off rapidly with increasing height, the signal strength in the shadow zone increases. The sharp fall of the moisture content cause a rapid decrease of the refractive index of the air with increasing height. Therefore, the curvature of the rays travelling through the atmosphere can become larger than that of the earth. Consequently, the rays originally moving parallel to earth’s surface are trapped and traverse around the curved surface of the earth through successive reflection. This phenomenon is called duct propagation.

3. Sky wave:

In sky wave propagation, radio wave transmitted from the transmitting antenna reach the receiving antenna after reflection from ionosphere, i.e., the ionized layers laying in the sky earth’s upper atmosphere. Short wave transmission around the globe is possible through sky waves via successive reflection at the ionosphere and the earth surface.

What is Input Devices?

2019-02-03T13:25:00.000+05:30

What is Input Devices?

Input devices accept data and instructions from the user. Following are the examples of various input devices, which are connected to the computer to provide input.

There are many input devices. Some important input devices are as follows:

1. Keyboard

2. Mouse

3. Joystick

4. Light Pen

5. Optical/magnetic Scanner

6. Touch Screen

7. Microphone for voice as input

8. Track Ball

1. Keyboard:

A keyboard is the most common input device now. Several kinds of keyboards are available, but they resemble each other with minor variations. The keyboard in most common use is the QWRTY board (from keys Q, W, E, R, T, Y in the top left corner of the keyboard). IBM and IBM compatible PCs or microcomputers use 104 keyboard; so called since it has 104 keys. In these keyboards, the cursor control keys are duplicated to allow easier use of the numeric pad.

2. Mouse:

A mouse is an electro-mechanical, hand-held device. It is used as a pointer. It can perform functions like select menu commands, move icons, resize windows, start programs, and choose options.

The most common mouse uses an internal, magnetically coated ball, to detect the movement of the mouse across a flat surface, usually a desktop. ALL WINDOWS based applications today are designed to work with a mouse. A mouse is used to replace hard-to-remember key combinations with easier “Point and Click” actions. However, it cannot substitute all keyboard operations. It can be alternative for commands based operations.

Types of mouse

a) Mechanical:

It has a rubber or metal ball on its underside that can roll in all directions. Mechanical sensors within the mouse detect the direction in which the ball is rolling and move the screen pointer accordingly.

b) Optomechanical:

It is same as mechanical mouse, but uses optical sensors to detect the motion of the ball.

c) Optical or Laser:

It uses a laser to detect the mouse’s movement. Optical mouse has no mechanical moving parts. They respond more quickly and precisely than mechanical and optomechanical mouse but they are also more expansive.]

3. Joystick:

A joystick is a pointing device. It is basically a lever that moves in all direction and controls the movement of a pointer. A joystick is similar to a mouse in all directions and controls the movement of a pointer. A joystick is similar to a mouse, except that with a mouse the cursor stops moving as soon as you stop moving the mouse. With a joystick the pointer continues moving in the direction the joystick is pointing. To stop the pointer you must return the joystick to its upright position. Most joysticks include two buttons called triggers.

Joysticks are used mostly for computer games, but they are also used occasionally for CAD/CAM systems and other applications. It provides more realistic control than a mouse or a keyboard for many games (e.g., flight simulators). The joystick is attached to the computer through a cable connected to the “Games port”. Most computers come with one game port. Joysticks are not used for business applications such as word- processing, data analysis (using Spreadsheet) or data management.

4. Light pen:

An input device that utilize a light - sensitive detector to select objects on a display screen. A light pen is similar to a mouse, except that with a light pen you can move the pointer and select objects on the display screen by directly pointing to the objects with the pen.

5. Optical Scanner:

These devices are used for automatic data collection. The device of this category completely eliminate manual input of data. For example, the bar-code reader is actually just a special type of image scanner. An image scanner translates printed images into an electronic format that can be stored in a computer’s memory, and with the right kind of software, one can alter a stored image. Another example of scanner is optical character recognition (OCR) device, used by banks to convert the scanned image of a typed or printed page into text that can be edited on the computer.

6. Touch Screen:

Touch screen panel displays and pads are now being offered as alternative to keyboard input. Here the input can be given through the computer screen, that accepts the input through monitor, users touch electronic buttons displayed on the screen or they may use light pen.

7. Microphone:

Microphone is an input device, which takes voice as input. The voice communication is, more error prone that keyboard information.

There are two types of microphones available

a) Desktop Microphone

b) Hand-held Microphone

8. Track Ball:

Track ball, a pointing device, is a mouse lying on its back. To move the pointer, you rotate the ball with your thumb, your fingers, or the palm of your hand. There are usually one to three buttons next to the ball, which you use just like mouse buttons.

The advantage of trackball over mouse is that the trackball is stationary so it does not require much space to use it. In addition you can place a trackball on any type of surface, including your lap. For both these reasons, trackballs are popular pointing devices for portable computers.

What is Satellite Communication?

2019-02-02T18:21:00.000+05:30

What is Satellite Communication?

For sky wave propagation, usually the frequency band extending from 3 to 30 MHz is employed. Radio links over long distance over the earth surface can be established by multi-hop transmission. But reliable communication by means of sky waves is hampered due to problems like fading, ionospheric disturbance and storms. Artificial satellite offer reliable communication links over long distance. An artificial satellite is hurled into space in a circular orbit in the equatorial plane at height of 36000 km above the surface of the earth.

The period of revolution of the satellite round the earth is 24 hours, i.e., equal to the period of rotation of the earth about in own axis. So, to an observer on the earth’s surface, the satellite appears to be stationary. Such satellite are therefore referred to a geostationary satellite and the orbit as the synchronous orbit.

The wave containing information is transmitted to the satellite from a transmitter located on the earth surface. The signal is processed by the equipment kept in the satellite, amplified and retransmitted towards the receiving point on the surface of the earth. The satellite being geostationary, the transmitting and the receiving antenna on the earth’s surface can be oriented in fixed directions.

The geostationary satellite has become the world standard for most communication satellites.

The angle between the direction of propagation of the wave radiated from an earth station antenna and the horizontal is termed the angle of elevation. The horizontal pointing angle of the antenna as measured clockwise from true north, is called the azimuth. To orient an earth station antenna towards a satellite, the elevation angle and the azimuth must known. These angles are referred to as the look angles. For a smaller angle of elevation, the radiated wave travel a longer distance through the earth’s atmosphere, and thus suffers more absorption and greater noise contamination. To avoid an excessive determination of the wave, the angle of elevation is kept larger than 5⁰. The radiation pattern of a satellite antenna can cover nearly one-third of the earth’[s surface. Three equally spaced geostationary satellites can hence cover the entire earth except for the unpopulated areas of the north and the south poles.

Satellites operating at or near the same frequency are separated in space by 3⁰to 6⁰ to prevent mutual interface. Usually, the carrier frequency for the wave transmitted from the earth station to the satellite, termed the uplink frequency, is 6 GHz and the carrier frequency of the wave from the satellite to the earth station, called the downlink frequency, is 4 GHz. An uplink frequency of 14GHz and downlink frequency of 12 GHz are also employed in satellite communication. The available bandwidth is several hundred MHz . Different uplink and downlink frequencies are used to avoid an unwanted feedback or ring around from the downlink antenna into the receiver. Frequency-band separation also permits the same antenna to be employed for both reception and transmission, simplifying the satellite hardware. The downlink frequency is lower than the uplink frequency. As the absorption increase with increasing frequency, the signal received by the earth station suffers less attenuation.

For the carrier frequencies employed in satellite communication, the antenna size is not inconveniently large. FM or special modulation techniques for digital signals are employed in satellite communication. The use of the 6/4 GHz band offers the following advantages: 1. relatively inexpensive microwave equipment can be employed 2. The attenuation due to galactic, solar, and terrestrial noise sources is insignificant.

The 14/12 GHz band is used as the 6/4 GHz band coincides with that used for terrestrial microwave system. In the 14/12 GHz band, smaller and hence less expansive antenna can be employed.

A satellite system is schematically shown. Essentially the system consists of three primary sections: an uplink, a satellite transponder, and a downlink. The uplink section is the earth station transmitter radiating the wave to the satellite. The satellite transponder contains a frequency translator which converts the uplink frequency to the downlink frequency by feeding the incoming uplink frequency wave and the signal from a 2GHz shift oscillator in a mixer. The signal is amplified and transmitted to earth station receivers.

The circuits on board the satellite are powered by solar cells mounted on deployed panels in the satellite. The downlink section contains the earth station receiver which recovers the signal from the modulated carrier.

Communication between satellites is possible via cross links or inter satellite links (ISIs). Conventional speech telephone signals, data (in analog or digital form), and television picture and sound are conveyed through the satellite system.

The advantages of satellite communication are as follows:

1. The quality of reception is quit good, and the system is most reliable and flexible.

2. The bandwidth is very large.

3. A geostationary satellite can cover approximately one-third of the earth’s surface . The larger area coverage is a distinctive feature.

4. As the satellite is stationary with respect to a given earth station, expansive tracking equipment is not needed at the earth station.

5. The wideband go-anywhere service has opened up the possibilities for the satellite system to handle huge number of signal and data.

The system has the following disadvantages:

1. The installation cost is high. Geostationary satellite need sophisticated and heavy propulsion devices on board to keep them in a fixed orbit.

2. The high altitude of the satellite introduce long propagation time. The round- trip propagation delay between two earth station via a geostationary satellite is 500 to 600ms.

3. The system requires high output power(several kW) of earth station transmitter and sensitive receivers.

What is Antenna?

2019-02-01T19:39:00.000+05:30

What is Antenna?

Antennas or aerials are necessary for the radiations or reception of radio wave which are electromagnetic in character. A system of elevated conductors that couple or match the transmitter or the receiver to space, can serves as antenna. A transmission line is employed to connect the transmitting antenna to the transmitter. In according with Maxwell’s theory, electromagnetic energy having the same frequency as the RF current flowing through the antenna, is radiated in space For a straight-wire antenna, the radiation COMPARISION AN ELECTRIC FIELD VECTOR IN A PLANE CONTAINING THE ANTENNA, AND A MAGNETIC FIELD VECTOR TRANSVERES TO THE ELECTRIC FIELD.

The electric and the magnetic fields oscillate At the frequency of the RF currents in the antenna. The amplitudes of the fields vary directly as the amplitude of the RF current, and they fall off inversely as the distance from the antenna. The fields travel through the space with the velocity of light,. The orientation of the electric fields with respect to the earth is referred to as the polarization of the electromagnetic wave. The wave is horizontally or vertically polarized in accordance as the electric field vector is parallel to the earth or vertical. The orientation of the antenna determines the polarization of the wave. The antenna rods should be horizontal to produce a horizontally polarized waves, whereas they should be vertical to obtain a vertically polarized wave.

Maximum radiation is found to occur in a direction at right angles, i,e., broadside to the antenna. Parallel to the antenna the radiation is a minimum. So, for a maximum radiation of energy in the horizontal direction, the antenna should be vertical, whereas for a maximum radiation in the vertical direction, the antenna should be horizontal.

The frequency of the radiated signal determines the length of the antenna for effective radiation. The higher the frequency, the smaller the antenna length since for efficient radiation the antenna length is of the same order as the wavelength to be radiated. As the wavelength of audio frequency lie in the range from about 10⁷to 10⁴m, inconveniently large antenna would be necessary for a direct radiation of audio frequency.

On the other hand, the wave length of a 1MHz radio wave is 300 m and antenna of this order of size can be easily constructed. Therefore, the audio signals containing the intelligence are used to modulate an RF CARRIER WHICH IS THEN RADIATED FROM THE TRANSMITTER. For long distance communication, the choice of the carrier frequency is determined, apart from the antenna size, by the absorption characteristics of the propagating medium for the wave.

When programmes are broadcast simultaneously by different transmitters, a different carrier frequency must be chosen for each transmitter to avoid interference between programmes. Suppose that one transmitter A broadcasts a speech and another transmitter B Simultaneously broadcasts a music. Each programme contains audio frequencies from 0 to 500 kHz. If the

transmitter A uses a carrier frequency 700 kHz and the transmitter B a carrier frequency 750 kHz, the programme radiated by transmitter A is contained in the frequency range 695 to 705 kHz and that radiated by transmitter B is contained in the frequency range 745 to 755 kHz for amplitude modulation. The two programmes are thus shifted to different regions of the frequency scale. By tuning the receiver to 700 kHz or 750 kHz, either programme can be distinctly heard.

A transmitting antenna can also be used as a receiving antenna,. The action of receiving antenna is opposite to that of a transmitting antenna. A small portion of the radio waves radiated by the transmitting antenna is intercepted by a receiving antenna. If the rods of the receiving antenna are parallel to the electric field vector of the radiated wave an electric currents is induced in the rods. The frequency and the waveform of the induced current are the same as those of the radiated wave. The small voltage produced by the induced currents is amplified and demodulated by the receiver. The intelligence is thus extracted.

In principle, the design and the sharp of the receiving antenna are the same as those of the transmitting antenna. However in practical situations a convenient length or loop of wires often serves as a receiving antenna due to space restrictions. In the neighbourhood of the transmitter, these makeshift antenna give sufficient voltage pickup, but in regions away from the transmitter, the design of receiving antenna becomes elaborate. The shape and size of the antennas depend on several factors including the frequency and the directivity of the radiation and the objective required to be served by the antenna.

Information NEWS

Glaucoma/eye pressure/treatment/surgery/symptoms/causes/tests/sign

GLAUCOMA

Glaucoma overview:

1. Glaucoma History:

2. what is Glaucoma:

3. Symptoms and Sign:

4. Glaucoma Causes:

Nutrient:

Genetics:

Nationality:

Remains Causes:

5. Risk factors:

6. Screening:

7.Glaucoma Treatment:

Medication:

Laser:

Surgery:

Canaloplasty:

8.Glaucoma tests:

Tonometry:

soya chunks nutrition protein in soybean

soya chunks nutrition protein in soybean

Evaluating Protein Quality

PDCAAS of Selected Food protein

Highlights of Soy Protein.

Online 2000/day Earn by Mobile.

Less Hard Work But Massive Income

1. JobBoy:

2. Rapid workers:

3. Pico workers:

4. Micro workers:

5. Amazon Mechanical Turk:

HEMORRHAGING | INTRACRANIAL HEMORRHAGE TREATMENT

Google Alerts set up google alerts

HOW TO SET UP GOOGLE ALERTS

1. Google.com/alerts

2. select your keywords - unique name

3. frequency select

if you want to receive notification perfect time then choose "as it happens"

4. select your sources

5. select language

6. region select

7. select between " only the best" and " everything"

8. write the email address to deliver you alerts.

9. select create alert

NEUROANATOMY Things to Know

Meningitis | diagnosis | symptoms | treatment |contagious| wiki

NEUROANATOMY case study(report)

What is World Wide Web(www) and Search Engine?

WORLD WIDE WEB

SEARCH ENGINE

Internet, Its importance and uses in education

Internet

SCOPE OF INTERNET IN EDUCATION:

IMPORTANCE OF INTERNET IN EDUCATION:

What is the meaning of E-learning?

Introduction:

Concept of E-learning:

Features of E-learning:

1. Interface:

2. Text:

3. Navigation:

4. Interaction:

5. Tests:

6. Media:

a. Audio:

b. Video:

c. Graphics:

d. Animation:

7. Collaboration:

8. Discussion forum:

9. Social media integration:

10. Tracking:

What is word Processor?

What is word Processor?

Introduction:

Meaning of word processor:

Features of word processor:

1. TEXT FORMATING:

1. The Indian Boilers Act, 1923
2. The Indian Forests Act, 1927
3. The factories Act, 1948
4. The Radiation Protection Rules, 1971
5. The Motor Vehicle Act, 1938, amended in 1988
6. Environmental Impact Assessment Notification, 1994

7. Eco Mark Notification, 1997
8. Environmental Audit Notification, 1997
9. Public Hearing Notification, 1997
10. Coastal Zone Management authority, 1998
11. Biodiversity Protection Act, 2002
12. The National Environment Tribunal Act, 1992
13. The Energy Conversation Act, 2001