Digi Vets

Medicine Quiz 30

2025-12-26T19:45:00.004+05:30

Veterinary Medicine Quiz 30

Quiz Instructions

This quiz consists of 20 multiple-choice questions.
You will be awarded 5 marks for each correct answer.

Question 1: Following are the causes of failure of the treatment of helminth infection in animlas

Migrating larvae are inaccessible
Failure to adequately protect young animals
Use of insufficient dose or incorrect anthelmintic
All of the above

Question 2: Clinically following symptoms will be observed in a sheep suffering from acute fascioliasis

Anaemia, weakness, pain on palpation of abdomen, loss of appetite
Weight loss, submandibular oedema, anaemia
Loss of weight, diarrhea, anaemia
All of the above

Question 3: Following snails act as an intermediate host in amphistomiasis in cattle

Lymnaeid snails
Planorbid snails
a and b
None

Question 4: Following worm of horse is responsible for colic symptoms

Habronema muscae
Tichostrongylus axe
Strongylus vulgaris
All

Question 5: Tape worm infestation can be treated with the following drug

Fenbendazole @ 5 mg/kg b.wt.
Albendazole @ 5 mg/kg b.wt.
Praziquantal @ 5 mg/kg b.wt.
All of the above

Question 6: Visceral larva migrans is caused by the migration of larvae of

Toxocara canis
Dictyocaulus viviparous
Onchocera gibroni
None

Question 7: Toxoplasmosis is a contagious disease of

Cattle, pigs, sheep and goats
Sheep and goats
Only cats
All the species including human being

Question 8: Anaplasma marginale is observed in

Erythrocytes
Leucocytes
Muscle cells
None

Question 9: Hypoalbuminia observed in fascioliosis is due to

Reduced albumin levels due to renal loss
Reduced albumin synthesis due to liver damage
Deficiency of proteins in diet
None of the above

Question 10: Following helminth can be prevented by prophylactic vaccination

Fasciola hepatica
Paramphistomum
Dictyocaulus viviparous
None

Question 11: Berenil is the drug of choice for

Babesiosis
Anaplasmosis
Theileriosis
None

Question 12: Pimply gut is caused by

Oesophagostomum
Bunostomum
Haemonchus
None

Question 13: The cystic intermediate stage of Echinococcus granulosus is found in

Sheep
Goat
Cattle
All

Question 14: The eggs of the Demodex canis are

Round
Spindle shaped
Oval shaped
Variable in shape

Question 15: Tape worms of dogs found in

Stomach
Small intestine
Large intestine
None

Question 16: Gid in goat is caused by

Coenurus cerebralis
Cysticercus pisiformis
Coenurus serialis
None

Question 17: Anthelmintic resistance is seen in

Haemonchus spp
Ascaris spp
Amphistomes
Tape worm

Question 18: Etiology of Verminous bronchitis is

Dictyocaulus spp
Bunostomum spp
Trichuris spp
Stephanurus spp

Question 19: Intermediate host for fasciola hepatica is

Planorbid snails
Lymnaeid snails
a and b
None

Question 20: Hydatid cyst is larval stage of

T.multiceps
T.hydatidigena
E.granulosus
T.saginata

Medicine Quiz 29

2025-12-24T19:45:00.003+05:30

Veterinary Medicine Quiz 29

Quiz Instructions

This quiz consists of 20 multiple-choice questions.
You will be awarded 5 marks for each correct answer.

Question 1: Rabies inclusion bodies

Bollinger bodies
LCL bodies
Negribodies
Koch blue bodies

Question 2: Biological vector of bluetongue virus

Mosquitoes
Ticks
Fles
Culicoides

Question 3: Epitheliotropic virus is

Rabies
FMD
Pox
Smedi virus

Question 4: Single intradermal test is performed to diagnose

Question 5: Tarry coloured blood

Canine parvoviral infection
Anthrax
Clostridial infection
RP

Question 6: Hog cholera is disease of the following animal

Dog
Bovine
Swine
Sheep & goat

Question 7: Raised button ulcers in colonic mucosa of swine is the pathogenic lesion in

Theileriosis
Hog cholera
Swine fever
All of the above

Question 8: Abortion causing zoonotic diseases

Brucellosis
Leptospirosis
a & b
None

Question 9: Suitable age for primary vaccination against rabies is

3 weeks
3 months
4 months
5 months

Question 10: Pruritus is symptom of following disease

Scrapie
Pseudorabies
Mange
All of the above

Question 11: The proportion of diseased animals that die

Mortality
Incidence
Case fatality
Morbidity

Question 12: The study of disease in a small group of individuals with respect to factors that influence its occurrence in larger segment of population

Micro epidemiology
Environmental epidemiology
Survey epidemiology
Comparative epidemiology

Question 13: The amount of organism required to initiate infection indicates

Virulence
Pathogenesity
Susceptibility
Infectivity

Question 14: The period between infection and maximum infectiousness is

Generation time
Prepatent period
Threshold level
Eclipse

Question 15: Dogs that are affected with rabies are examples of

Convalescent carriers
Incubatory carriers
Latent carriers
None

Question 16: The disease that occurs with a predictable regularity with minor fluctuations in its frequency, then such occurrence is called

Sporadic
Endemic
Pandemic
Epidemic

Question 17: The distribution of cases of a disease based on times of its occurrences is called

Demography
Spatial distribution
Temporal distribution
Mapping

Question 18: Transmission of an infection by doctor during surgical or medical practice is called

Vertical transmission
Iatorogenic transmission
Transtadial transmission
Aerial transmission

Question 19: Study of animals and plants in relation to habit and habitats is called

Ecology
Biome
Epornitics
Zoonosis

Question 20: Measures to make regional extinction of( an infectious agent is called

Control
Eradication
Tertiary prevention
Niche filling

Managing Cold Stress in Cats: An Expert Guide to Winterizing Your Feline Friend

2025-12-22T16:50:00.003+05:30

Managing Cold Stress in Cats: An Expert Guide to Winterizing Your Feline Friend

As the temperatures plummet, many of us assume our cats are fine—after all, they have built-in fur coats and often prefer to stay curled up indoors. But even strictly indoor cats are susceptible to dangers when the external environment changes, and our outdoor wanderers face significant risks.

As your Expert Friend, I want to walk you through the real dangers of cold stress and equip you with practical, vet-backed strategies to ensure your cat stays warm, safe, and healthy throughout the winter months.

The Medical Context: What Happens When Cats Get Too Cold?

When a cat's core body temperature drops below the normal range (100.5°F to 102.5°F), they enter a state of hypothermia (a dangerously low body temperature). While cats are excellent at thermoregulation (maintaining internal heat balance), prolonged exposure to low ambient temperatures (surrounding air temperature) can overwhelm their system.

Unlike dogs who often show distress quickly, cats are masters of hiding discomfort. This is why recognizing the subtle signs of cold stress is so vital, particularly for senior cats, kittens, and cats with chronic conditions like hyperthyroidism or kidney disease, whose internal regulatory mechanisms may be compromised.

Recognizing the Red Flags (Clinical Signs)

If you have a cat that ventures outside or spends time in a cold garage, watch closely for these signs, which progress from mild to severe hypothermia:

Shivering: Often one of the first visible signs, though sometimes shivering stops as hypothermia becomes severe.
Lethargy and Weakness: Slow, uncoordinated movement; reluctance to stand or play.
Piloerection: The hair standing on end to trap warmth (a physiological attempt to insulate).
Decreased Mental Acuity: Confusion, poor responsiveness, or dilated pupils.
Pale or Blue Gums: Indicates poor circulation and lack of oxygen. This requires immediate veterinary intervention.

Practical Home Management and Prevention

Indoor Safety and Environmental Control

Even if your cat never touches snow, drafts near windows and inadequate bedding can lead to discomfort and stress.

Insulated Bedding: Provide orthopedic or thick, cozy beds positioned away from drafty windows or cold tile floors. Self-warming pads (which use the cat’s own body heat) or low-wattage heated pads are excellent tools, especially for geriatric cats.
Accessible Resources: Ensure food and water bowls are easily accessible and not located in the coldest parts of the house (like a mudroom or unfinished basement).
Caloric Adjustments: Cats burn more energy trying to stay warm. If your cat spends any time outside, talk to your veterinarian about a potential slight increase in daily caloric intake to support this heightened metabolic need.

Outdoor Cats and Shelter Requirements

While the AVMA recommends keeping all cats indoors, if you manage a colony or have a pet who insists on brief outdoor trips, shelter is non-negotiable.

Proper Shelters: Shelters must be raised off the cold ground, waterproof, and large enough for the cat to turn around, but small enough to trap body heat. Hay or straw (not blankets, which hold moisture and freeze) provides excellent insulation.
De-Icing Chemicals: After outdoor trips, always check paw pads for ice balls or residue from road salts and de-icers. These chemicals are highly irritating and potentially toxic if ingested when the cat grooms itself.

⚠️ Critical Winter Hazard Alert: Antifreeze

Antifreeze containing ethylene glycol is extremely palatable (sweet tasting) but highly lethal, even in very small amounts. Ensure all vehicle leaks are immediately repaired, and stored chemicals are sealed and placed well out of reach. If you suspect your cat has been exposed, this is a life-threatening emergency—call a veterinary hospital or the ASPCA Poison Control Center immediately.

When to Intervene: First Aid for Cold Stress

If you find your cat exhibiting moderate signs of cold stress (shivering, lethargy), prompt, safe rewarming is essential.

Action Steps for Mild Hypothermia:

Bring Inside: Immediately move the cat to a warm, quiet room.
Warm, Not Hot: Wrap the cat gently in blankets that have been warmed in a dryer or use water bottles wrapped in towels and placed against the cat’s sides and abdomen. Avoid direct contact with heating pads or extremely hot water, as this can cause thermal burns or superficial vasodilation, which actually worsens the core temperature drop.
Monitor: Watch for improvement in demeanor and coordination. If the cat is alert, offer a small amount of warm (not hot) chicken broth or water.

If the cat is unconscious, unresponsive, or has blue gums, assume severe hypothermia. Do not attempt to rewarm aggressively at home; this is a medical crisis requiring emergency veterinary care. Focus on getting the cat stable, wrapped, and transported immediately.

Expert Takeaways for Cat Winter Safety

Cold stress (hypothermia) is a serious, often underestimated, risk, even for indoor cats due to drafts.
Provide insulated, raised bedding and ensure sleeping areas are away from cold exterior walls.
Never let outdoor cats or community cats sleep in engine bays. Bang loudly on the hood before starting your car.
If rewarming a mildly cold cat, use gentle external heat; avoid direct contact with heating elements.
Any suspected exposure to antifreeze (ethylene glycol) requires an immediate trip to the emergency vet.

Managing Cold Stress in Dogs: Your Expert Winter Safety Guide

2025-12-22T16:38:00.001+05:30

Managing Cold Stress in Dogs: Your Expert Winter Safety Guide

Winter is a wonderland for many pups, full of exciting snow drifts and crisp air. But as pet parents, we need to remember that our dogs, despite their fur coats, are susceptible to the intense effects of cold weather. Cold stress isn't just about shivering; it involves serious medical risks like hypothermia and frostbite. Let's talk about how to keep your dog's internal thermostat safe this season.

Understanding the Medical Context of Cold Exposure

When temperatures drop, a dog's body instinctively tries to conserve heat. However, prolonged exposure can overwhelm these natural defenses, leading to potentially life-threatening conditions.

Hypothermia: The Core Danger

Hypothermia is defined as a dangerously low core body temperature (below 99°F, or 37.2°C, in dogs). If left untreated, it affects cardiac function and neurological stability. Veterinarians categorize it in stages:

Mild Hypothermia (90°F–99°F): Marked by intense shivering, lethargy, and cold extremities.
Severe Hypothermia (Below 82°F): Shivering stops, the pet may collapse, heart rate slows dramatically (bradycardia), and responsiveness decreases. This is a severe veterinary emergency.

Frostbite: Localized Tissue Damage

Frostbite occurs when the body restricts blood flow (a process called vasoconstriction) to the extremities—paws, ears, tail, and scrotum—to keep the core warm. This leads to a lack of oxygen (ischemia) and freezing of tissue cells. Dogs may not show signs immediately, but affected areas can appear pale or bluish and feel cold or brittle. Later, they turn red, swollen, and black as the tissue dies.

Practical Home Management and Prevention Tactics

Prevention is the most important tool. Adjusting routines and using proper gear can significantly reduce cold stress risks.

Gear and Time Limits

The Coat Requirement: For short-haired breeds (like Greyhounds or Boxers) or small breeds, a waterproof sweater or coat is non-negotiable when temperatures drop below 40°F (4.4°C).
Booties and Paw Protection: Paw pads lose heat quickly and are susceptible to cracking and frostbite. If your dog resists booties, use a protective wax or balm (like Musher’s Secret) to create a barrier against cold and irritants.
Set a Timer: Know your breed's tolerance. For most small or thin-coated dogs, limit walks to 10–15 minutes when the wind chill is severe. Large, double-coated dogs (like Huskies) can handle longer periods, but constant supervision is key.

Nutrition and Hydration Adjustments

Dogs burn extra calories trying to maintain their body temperature in the cold. If your dog spends a significant amount of time outdoors, consult your veterinarian about temporarily increasing their caloric intake.

Avoid Ice: Do not allow your dog to drink from frozen puddles or chew ice, as this rapidly lowers their internal temperature.
Use Warm Water: Ensure outdoor bowls are heated, or refill with warm, fresh water frequently to encourage adequate fluid intake.

🚨 Cold Weather Toxin Alert: Antifreeze and Salt 🚨

Road salts (sodium chloride or calcium chloride) can cause painful irritation to paw pads. Always rinse or wipe paws thoroughly after outdoor exposure to prevent painful chemical burns and poisoning if your dog licks their paws.

Antifreeze (Ethylene Glycol) is extremely toxic, even in small amounts, and often leaks onto driveways. It tastes sweet. If you suspect your dog has licked antifreeze, seek emergency veterinary care immediately. Time is critical for successful treatment.

What to Do If You Suspect Hypothermia

If your dog is shivering violently, seems weak, or is unusually clumsy, they may be experiencing cold stress.

Immediate First Steps:

Move Indoors Immediately: Get the dog into a warm, dry environment.
Passive Warming: Dry the dog thoroughly if they are wet. Wrap them in pre-warmed blankets or towels.
Active Warming (Use Caution): Apply warm (not hot!) water bottles wrapped in towels to the chest, abdomen, and armpits. Do NOT use heating pads or blow dryers directly on the skin, as hypothermic skin can easily burn due to lack of sensation and circulation.
Emergency Contact: If the dog is lethargic, unresponsive, or stops shivering, this signals severe hypothermia. Call your emergency veterinary clinic immediately while continuing warming measures.

Expert Takeaways for Winter Safety

Watch the Clock: Limit outdoor time based on the wind chill factor, especially for small or geriatric pets.
Gear Up: Use protective barriers (coats, booties, or paw wax) to guard against direct cold and chemical irritants.
Know the Signs: Excessive shivering, lethargy, clumsiness, and pale extremities are major warning signs of cold stress or hypothermia.
Rinse Paws: Always wash or wipe paws after walking on salted pavements to prevent chemical burns and accidental poisoning.

Your Dog's Kidneys: The Silent Workers You Need to Protect

2025-12-18T21:11:07.856+05:30

As a devoted pet parent, you probably spend a lot of time thinking about food, toys, and walks. But have you ever paused to appreciate your dog’s kidneys? These tiny organs are the unsung heroes of their internal health—they are the ultimate filtering system. Unfortunately, kidney issues often sneak up quietly, and when symptoms finally show up, the disease is often advanced.

Let's talk like "Expert Friends" and break down exactly what kidney health means for your dog, what symptoms you absolutely can’t ignore, and how preventative care is truly the best medicine.

The Medical Lowdown: Why Kidneys Are Crucial

Kidneys perform several vital roles, but their primary job is to act like a sophisticated water treatment plant. They manage water balance, regulate essential electrolytes (like sodium and potassium), and produce hormones crucial for red blood cell production.

The Filtering Unit: Meet the Nephrons

Inside the kidneys are millions of microscopic filters called nephrons. When a dog develops kidney disease (often referred to as Chronic Kidney Disease or CKD), these nephrons are progressively damaged and destroyed. The scary part? Dogs usually don't show clinical signs until about 75% of their nephrons are gone because the remaining units work overtime to compensate.

Acute vs. Chronic Kidney Issues

Acute Kidney Injury (AKI): This is sudden and severe damage, often caused by toxins (like antifreeze or certain human medications), severe infections, or a sudden lack of blood flow. AKI is an emergency and can sometimes be reversible if caught quickly.
Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD): This is a slow, irreversible deterioration over months or years, common in older dogs. While it cannot be cured, it can often be managed effectively to maintain a good quality of life.

Telltale Signs: When to Call the Vet IMMEDIATELY

The most common clinical sign of kidney trouble relates to how your dog handles water. We call this PUPD:

PUPD: Polyuria and Polydipsia

Simply put, this means Polyuria (excessive urination) and Polydipsia (excessive thirst). Since damaged kidneys can't properly concentrate urine, your dog pees out too much essential water. To compensate, they drink constantly. You might notice:

Accidents indoors (even if house-trained).
Needing the water bowl refilled far more often.
Urine that looks very clear and dilute, not yellow.

Other Red Flags (Symptoms of Azotemia)

When the filtering fails, waste products (like urea and creatinine) build up in the blood—a condition called Azotemia. This toxic buildup can cause:

Loss of Appetite & Weight Loss
Nausea and Vomiting
Bad breath (often described as smelling like ammonia) due to excess urea.

SAFETY ALERT:

If your dog suddenly stops eating or is vomiting repeatedly, or if you suspect they ingested a toxin (like grapes, raisins, or lilies), treat it as a veterinary emergency. Time is literally tissue when it comes to acute kidney injury.

Proactive Care: Monitoring and Management

The key to managing CKD is catching it early—long before the 75% damage mark. This is where routine diagnostics become indispensable.

The Early Warning System: The SDMA Test

For years, vets relied on tests like BUN (Blood Urea Nitrogen) and Creatinine, but these only increase significantly after extensive damage has occurred. Today, modern veterinary medicine uses the SDMA (Symmetric Dimethylarginine) test. This is a game-changer because SDMA levels begin to rise when only about 40% of kidney function is lost, giving us a vital head start!

Expert Tip: Ask your vet to include an SDMA test in your dog’s annual bloodwork, especially once they turn seven years old.

Hydration and Diet Management at Home

If your dog is diagnosed with CKD, management focuses on reducing the workload on the remaining nephrons.

Key Takeaways for Kidney Protection

Boost Hydration: Add warm water, bone broth (unsalted!), or specialty veterinary water flavor enhancers to their kibble. Wet food is always preferred over dry food for kidney patients.
The Right Diet: Specialized prescription kidney diets (available only through your vet) are formulated with controlled levels of protein (high quality, but reduced) and phosphorus. Phosphorus restriction is essential for slowing CKD progression.
Hazard Proofing: Keep all human medications (especially NSAIDs like Ibuprofen), household cleaners, and known toxins (chocolate, grapes/raisins, heavy salts) locked away or out of the house entirely.

Final Expert Reminder

Kidney disease can feel daunting, but remember this: the early stages are often painless and manageable. Your regular preventative care visits are not just about vaccines; they are about catching silent diseases like CKD early enough to make a real difference.

Never hesitate to discuss changes in thirst, urination, or appetite with your veterinarian. Being proactive and utilizing modern tools like the SDMA test means you can give those hard-working little kidneys the support they need for many more happy, healthy years.

Biohacking Your Pet: Expert Strategies for a Longer, Healthier Life

2025-12-18T17:06:00.003+05:30

Biohacking Your Pet: Expert Strategies for a Longer, Healthier Life

Let’s be real: we all wish our furry best friends could live forever. While we can’t stop time, modern veterinary science offers incredible ways to optimize your pet's biology. This isn't just about adding years to their life; it’s about maximizing their health span—the period they are truly happy, active, and free from chronic pain.

Think of "bio-hacking" as proactively engineering better health, guided by science, not just hoping for the best.

Why Bio-Hacking Matters: The Science of Aging

Aging is more than just getting grey whiskers; it's a process of cellular breakdown and inflammation. One key player we focus on is cellular senescence.

Expert Translation: Cellular senescence basically means "zombie cells." These are damaged, older cells that refuse to die but also stop performing their function. Instead, they hang around in the body, releasing inflammatory chemicals that speed up conditions like arthritis, kidney disease, and cognitive decline. Bio-hacking aims to manage this inflammation!

Pillar 1: Optimizing Energy & Metabolism

The most powerful, vet-approved hack available is controlling what and how much your pet eats.

1. The Power of "Just Right" Calorie Restriction

The Hack: Feeding 10-25% fewer calories than what leads to weight gain. This is *not* starvation, but mindful restriction.
The Mechanism: Multiple long-term studies (especially in dogs) show that slightly calorie-restricted pets live significantly longer (up to 2 years) and have better joint health later in life. This restriction activates survival pathways that repair mitochondrial function (the tiny energy factories in your pet's cells).
Action Step: Talk to your veterinarian to establish your pet’s ideal body weight and the precise calorie count needed to maintain it. Ditch the free-feeding.

2. Gut Health Focus (The Microbiome)

The gut-brain axis is crucial. A healthy gut microbiome (the trillions of bacteria living inside) reduces systemic inflammation.

Action Step: Look for food rich in prebiotics (fiber that feeds good bacteria) and discuss a high-quality, veterinary-recommended probiotic with your doctor, especially if your pet has chronic digestive issues.

Pillar 2: Cognitive Bio-Hacks (Brain Health)

Just like humans, pets need mental exercise to ward off Cognitive Dysfunction Syndrome (CDS), or dog/cat dementia.

1. Environmental Enrichment

The Hack: Challenging the brain daily. This stimulates neurogenesis (the creation of new neurons).
Action Step: Use puzzle toys, rotate walking routes, teach new tricks (even old dogs can learn!), and practice "find it" games using scent work.

2. Neuroprotective Supplements

Certain compounds help protect the aging brain from oxidative stress:

Omega-3 Fatty Acids (DHA/EPA): These are powerful anti-inflammatories essential for brain cell structure. Ensure you use a high-quality, purity-tested source formulated for pets.
S-Adenosylmethionine (SAMe) or Medium-Chain Triglycerides (MCTs): These are often recommended by vets to support cognitive function in aging dogs and cats.

KEY TAKEAWAYS: Longevity Checklist

Calorie Control: Feed to ideal body weight, not maximum appetite.
Move Every Day: Maintain lean muscle mass.
Brain Games: Five minutes of mental challenge is as good as a walk.
Proactive Screening: Annual bloodwork and diagnostics catch issues early.

Pillar 3: Proactive Veterinary Wellness

The most effective bio-hack is consistency. Early detection turns potential crises into manageable conditions.

1. The Importance of Baseline Data

The Hack: Getting bloodwork and urine tests yearly (or every six months for seniors) even when your pet looks fine.
The Mechanism: Kidney disease, liver issues, and thyroid problems often progress silently. By establishing a "baseline" when your pet is healthy, your vet can spot subtle shifts that indicate trouble months or years before symptoms appear.
Action Step: Don't wait until age 10 for senior panels. Start monitoring blood pressure and running baseline kidney function screens around age 7 (earlier for large breeds).

2. Targeted Mobility Support

Mobility dictates quality of life. If they can’t move, they can’t engage with the world.

Action Step: Maintain a healthy body condition score (BCS). Consider adding proven joint support supplements like glucosamine/chondroitin or prescription anti-inflammatories (if recommended) before stiffness becomes debilitating.

SAFETY ALERT: Before Starting Supplements

While supplements can be powerful bio-hacks, they are not regulated like medications. Always consult your veterinarian before starting any new supplement (especially SAMe or high-dose Omegas). Supplements can interact with existing medications or be contraindicated if your pet has underlying health issues, like liver or kidney disease. Trust your vet—they are your co-pilot in pet longevity.

Gynecology Quiz 30

2025-11-30T15:18:00.001+05:30

Veterinary Gynecology Quiz 30

Quiz Instructions

This quiz consists of 20 multiple-choice questions.
You will be awarded 5 marks for each correct answer.

Question 1: The precursor of Progesterone hormone is

Cholesterol
Arachidonic acid
Tyrosine
Tryptophan

Question 2: The Precursor of Prostaglandin F2α is

Cholesterol
Tyrosine
Arachidonic acid
Steroid

Question 3: The precursor of Oestrogen hormone is

Cholesterol
Arachdonic acid
Tyrosine
Proteins

Question 4: The precursor of Melatonin is (

Cholesterol
Arachidonic acid
Tryptophan
Vitamin A

Question 5: Synthesis and secretion of Melatonin is greater

During darkness
During bright sunlight
During slow sunlight
During High temperature

Question 6: Ovulation occurs in cow during

Proesterus
Estrus
Metestrus
Diestrus

Question 7: Ovulation occurs in She-buffalo during

Proestrus
Estrus
Metestrus
Diestrus

Question 8: Ovulation occurs in bitch during

Proestrus
Estrus
Metestrus
Diestrus

Question 9: Ovulation occurs in cow

12-16 hours after estrus
20-22 hours after estrus
12-16 hours before estrus
20-22 hours before estrus

Question 10: Ovulation occurs in She-buffalo

18-24 hours after estrus
18-24 hours before estrus
30-40 hours after estrus
30-40 hours before estrus

Question 11: In which period of estrous cycle the vaginal bleeding is seen in bitch

Proestrus
Estrus
Diestrus
Metestrus

Question 12: In which period of estrous cycle the vaginal bleeding is seen in cow

Proestrus
Metesturs
Estrus
Diestrus

Question 13: The attraction of males by female bitch during estrus due to

Pheromone & Methylhydroxybenzoate
FSH & LH release
Estrogen & Progesterone release
PGF2α & PGI2 release

Question 14: Ovulation in bitches occurs about

40-50 hours after LH surge
20-30 hours after LH surge
20-30 hours before LH surge
80-100 hours after LH surge

Question 15: Cornificaton of Vaginal Epithelium is increased due to

Rise in the Oestrogen hormone
Rise in Progesterone hormone
Rise in FSH
Rise in Prolactin hormone

Question 16: Dominant cell types during estrus period in bitch

Neutrophils cells
Erythrocytes cells
Basal Cells
Keretinised Cells

Question 17: Ideal breeding time in bitch

Twice between 0 and 4 day of estrus
Twice between 0 and 4 day of early Proestrus
Twice between 0 and 4 day of Diestrus
Twice between 0 and 4 day of Late proestrus

Question 18: The nucleus of superficial cells in bitch during estrus is

Small pyknotic
Large nucleus
Absent Nucleus
Two nucleus

Question 19: The gestation length in bitch is

56-68 days
40-52 days
60-72 days
50-62 days

Question 20: Graafian follicle is discovered by

Fallopius
Regnier deGraaf
Fallopius and Coiter
Van Leeuwen hock

Microbiology Quiz 30

2025-11-16T10:48:00.007+05:30

Microbiology Quiz 30

Quiz Instructions

This quiz consists of 20 multiple-choice questions.
You will be awarded 5 marks for each correct answer.

Question 1: In anthrax by which reaction Bacillus organism detected in blood smear:

Mac Fadyean’s reaction
Ascoli’s precipitation test
Zeil Neelsen staining
None of above

Question 2: Intranuclear inclusion bodies are seen in:

pox diseases
adeno virus infection
herpes virus infection
lyssa virus infection

Question 3: Negri bodies are seen in Rabies which are:

intracytoplasmic
intranuclear
both
may be intranuclear or intracytoplasmic

Question 4: Enlargement of Bursa of fabricius in poultry is seen in:

Question 5: Flaviviridae family has the genus:

Flavi virus
Pesti virus
Hepacivirus
All of these

Question 6: Which bacteria requires the X and V factor for growth in the medium:

Haemophilus
Moraxella
Mycoplasma
Both a and c

Question 7: In all the capsulated bacteria capsule is made up of polysaccharide except in which bacteria it is made up of polypeptide:

Klebsiella pneumoniae
Streptococci
E. coli
Bacillus anthracis

Question 8: Bacteria surrounded by flagella all over the surface is known as:

Amphitrichous
Lopotrichous
Peritrichous
Atrichous

Question 9: Fried egg appearance of colonies are produced by:

Mycoplasma
Salmonella
Moraxella
None

Question 10: Aerobic spore forming bacteria are:

Clostridium tetani
Bacillus anthracis
Both
None

Question 11: Gram negative anaerobes ar

Fusobacterium
Clostridium
Both
None

Question 12: Lamsiekte, in cattle is caused by:

Clostridium botulinum type A
Clostridium botulinum type C
Clostridium botulinum type B
Clostridium botulinum type D

Question 13: Limberneck, in chickens is caused by:

Clostridium botulinum type D
Clostridium botulinum type B
Clostridium botulinum type C
Clostridium botulinum type A

Question 14: Catalase test positive for:

Streptococci
Both
Staphylococci
None

Question 15: IMVIC pattern found in E coli:

a. + - +-
b. + + - -
c. - - + +
d. + - - +

Question 16: Mcfydean reaction is used to diagnose anthrax being:

capsule
spore
flagella
all

Question 17: Hotis test is specific for:

Streptococcus agalactiae
Streptococcus uberis
Streptococcus dysgalactiae
None

Question 18: IBRT virus belongs to which family:

Poxviridae
Togaviridae
Herpesviridae
None

Question 19: The genome of Parvoviridae and Circoviridae is:

ds DNA
ds RNA
ss DNA
ss RNA

Question 20: Most enveloped viruses released by:

cell lysis
endocytosis
budding
all

Brucellosis: The Abortion Storm

2025-11-09T12:43:00.003+05:30

🔎 Brucellosis: The Intracellular Stealth Agent

Brucellosis is a globally significant, complex bacterial disease of humans and animals, known primarily for causing chronic infections and reproductive failure.

Illustrative representation of Brucella, the facultative intracellular pathogen.

I. Etiology and Nomenclature: Identifying the Pathogen

A. Historical Discovery and Naming

Malta Fever: The genus Brucella and the disease "brucellosis" are named after Sir David Bruce, a British army surgeon who isolated Brucella melitensis in 1887 from the spleen of patients dying from "Mediterranean fever" or "Malta fever".
Bang's Disease: In 1897, Frederick Bang isolated Brucella abortus from aborted bovine fetuses and fetal membranes, leading to the infection in cattle becoming known as "Bang's disease" or "Bang's abortion disease".
B. suis Identification: The third key organism, Brucella suis, was identified in 1914 by Traum in aborted pig fetuses.

B. Taxa and Classification

The genus Brucella has expanded, now including 10 species with validly published names.

Genomic Interpretation: Due to the high degree of homology at the genomic level, some experts propose that the genus contains only one species (B. melitensis), with the classical species acting merely as strains.
Practical Usage: Despite genomic analysis, the classical species nomenclature is retained for practical purposes, based on preferred host species.
Biovars: Classical species (B. melitensis, B. abortus, B. suis) are further divided into biovars (e.g., B. abortus has eight recognized biovars: 1–7, 9) based on subtle characteristics like CO₂ dependence, dye inhibition, and agglutination with monospecific antisera.

II. Morphology, Structure, and Physiology: The Agent's Armor

A. Form and Staining

Brucella are small, Gram-negative, coccobacillary organisms (rod-like), ranging from 0.4–3.0 µm in length and 0.4–0.8 µm in width.

They are non-motile and do not form capsules or spores.
MZN-Positive Feature: Although not truly acid-fast, Brucella are MZN-positive (Modified Ziehl-Neelsen), meaning they resist decolorization by weak acids. In tissues or body fluids, they typically appear as clusters of red coccobacilli.

B. Cellular Structure and Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPs)

Cell Wall: The structure is typical for Gram-negative bacteria, supported by a thin peptidoglycan layer (3–5 nm). Outer membrane protein A (OmpA) helps stabilize the outer membrane by being covalently bound to the peptidoglycan layer.
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS): The LPS of Brucella differs from Gram-negative enteric bacteria, notably having a low phosphate content. The LPS is crucial as it protects the bacteria from complement-mediated lysis, cationic peptides, and oxygen metabolites.
Immune Evasion: The cell envelope, LPS, and other components display a reduced PAMP for recognition by innate immunity. This altered PAMP fails to induce a robust innate immune response, contributing to the pathogen’s in vivo stealth.

C. Growth and Phenotypes 🎯

Atmosphere: They are aerobic and capnophilic. Growth is enhanced in an atmosphere of CO₂, and certain species (B. ovis and some B. abortus biotypes) specifically require 5–10% CO₂ for primary isolation.
Culture Speed: They are slow-growing. Colonies typically become visible in 3 to 5 days on solid media, but samples should be incubated for at least 7–10 days before being declared negative.
Colony Appearance (Virulence Link):
- Smooth Forms: B. abortus, B. melitensis, and B. suis typically produce smooth colonies, a characteristic associated with the expression of the immunodominant LPS O side chain.
- Rough Forms: B. ovis and B. canis always occur in rough forms, which do not express the LPS O side chain. Rough forms are generally considered less virulent.

III. Epidemiology and Host Specificity: The Global Threat

A. Occurrence and Reservoirs

Brucellosis is a worldwide zoonosis, posing a persistent threat globally.

Reservoirs: Infected animals serve as reservoirs, and the infection often persists indefinitely. The organism is shed in large numbers through infected uterine discharge, aborted fetuses, placentas, and milk.
Environmental Survival: Brucella is susceptible to heat, sunlight, and standard disinfectants, but freezing permits almost indefinite survival. In temperate climates, infectivity may persist on grass for 100 days in winter.

B. Species-Host Relationships

Species	Preferred Host(s)	Zoonotic Potential	Transmission Note
B. melitensis	Sheep and Goats	Highest (Causes Malta fever)	Ingestion (goat milk common source)
B. abortus	Cattle	Significant	Ingestion (milk, aborted material). Coitus is rare.
B. suis	Swine	Significant (Biovars 1, 3, 4)	Typically venereal (coitus). Also ingestion/urine excretion.
B. canis	Dogs	Uncommon/Mild	Coitus or exposure to uterine discharges/fetuses.
B. ovis	Sheep (Rams)	None	Direct contact or passive venereal infection.

IV. Pathogenesis and Immunology: The Stealth Strategy 🕵️

A. Infection Pathway and Localization

Entry: Most infections are acquired by ingestion through the digestive or respiratory tract. The organisms enter and travel through the intestinal epithelial cells overlying Peyer's patches via endocytosis.
Initial Spread: The bacteria initially localize and proliferate within reticulo-endothelial cells in regional lymph nodes.
Bacteraemia: Following lymph node hemorrhage 2 to 3 weeks post-exposure, bacteria enter the bloodstream (bacteraemia), which disseminates the pathogen throughout the body.
Tissue Tropism: Brucella organisms have a particular affinity for male and female reproductive organs, placenta, foetus, and mammary glands.

B. Intracellular Survival Mechanisms

Erythritol Affinity: The striking proliferation of Brucella in the placenta, particularly in the chorio-allantoic trophoblasts, is due to the presence of erythritol, a sugar that acts as a growth factor. The subsequent proliferation causes placentitis and abortion.

Macrophage Hijack: Brucella are facultative intracellular pathogens. When phagocytized, they survive and multiply by interfering with intracellular trafficking, preventing the fusion of the phagosome with lysosomes.

The Brucellosome: The organism is contained in a specialized compartment, the Brucella-containing vacuole (BCV), which is directed to the rough endoplasmic reticulum, a site highly permissive for intracellular replication.

Type IV Secretion System (T4SS): Expression of the T4SS is crucial for the intracellular survival of Brucella and is required for the bacteria to reach their replicative niche.

C. Immunity and Latency

Protective Immunity: Immunity against brucellosis is principally mediated by cellular immune responses (CMI), requiring T-cells and interferon gamma (IFN-γ). Antibodies play only a minor role in protection.
Chronic Nature: Infections are typically chronic or persistent. The inability to ensure total clearance leads to chronic infection, often lifelong.
Latency: The organism may reside in a dormant, non-replicative state in phagocytic cells, explaining why recrudescence is possible. Infection acquired in young animals may remain latent until the initiation of puberty.

V. Clinical Manifestations and Pathology

The disease is characterized by chronic inflammation (often granulomatous) and reproductive failure.

A. Bovine Brucellosis (B. abortus)

Clinical Sign: The main clinical sign is abortion between the seventh and eighth months of gestation. Subsequent pregnancies are usually carried to term.
Lesions: In the placenta, the lesions are characterized by necrotizing placentitis with necrosis, hyperemia, and thickening between cotyledons.
Males and Joints: Bulls may suffer orchitis, epididymitis, and seminal vesiculitis. Localization in joints causes synovitis (hygroma).

B. Porcine Brucellosis (B. suis)

Reproduction: Infected sows abort between the second and third months of gestation. Orchitis occurs in infected boars.
Granulomas: B. suis infection usually produces lesions in the uterus, but granulomas are the rule in all tissues. Affected organs, including bone, liver, and testicles, grossly show tiny white to yellowish nodules.
Skeletal Localization: Localization in the skeleton, resulting in arthritis and osteomyelitis (e.g., lumbar vertebral epiphysis), is much more common than in other species, potentially causing posterior paralysis.

C. Ovine and Caprine Brucellosis (B. melitensis and B. ovis)

B. melitensis: Widely prevalent in India. Characterized by late abortion and, sometimes, orchitis in male goats.
B. ovis: Causes epididymitis in rams, typically involving the tail of the epididymis. The lesions are a chronic pyogranulomatous inflammation caused by the escape of spermatozoa from damaged tubules.

D. Canine and Equine Brucellosis

B. canis: In bitches, abortion occurs usually after 50 days of gestation. It is associated with osteomyelitis in dogs.
Horses (B. abortus): Infection is associated with purulent lesions involving the ligamentum nuchae, known as "poll-evil" (occipital attachment) and "fistulous withers" (thoracic attachment).

VI. Diagnosis: Finding the Hidden Foe 🔍

Precise diagnosis is often difficult due to the pathogen’s intracellular niche and the variability of serological responses.

A. Sample Collection and Biosafety ⚠️

Caution: Brucella organisms are among the most dangerous bacteria with which to work in terms of the risk of producing laboratory-acquired infections.
Handling: Live cultures of zoonotic Brucella spp. should be handled under Biosafety level 3 conditions. Biosafety level 2 is recommended for processing routine clinical specimens.
Optimal Samples: Lung/gastric contents of aborted fetuses, placenta, milk, vaginal swabs, and lymph nodes. Blood is generally a poor sample for most species due to short-duration bacteraemia.

B. Isolation and Molecular Tools

Culture (Gold Standard): Isolation and characterization of the organism is the most reliable method. Culture results are usually positive between the 7th and 21st day.
PCR: PCR-based assays are available and often more sensitive than culture for detecting Brucella DNA in fluids like milk and semen. The Bruce-ladder PCR is a multiplex assay that helps identify and differentiate several Brucella species, including vaccine strains, in a single step.

C. Serological Detection

Serologic tests, relying on antibodies against the LPS O side chain, are widely used for screening.

Standard Tests: Serum Agglutination Test (SAT), Complement Fixation Test (CFT), and the Rose Bengal plate test (RBT).
Field-Adaptable Test: The Fluorescence Polarization Assay (FPA) is highly superior for screening because it is robust, rapid, field-adaptable, and without subjective results, and can be used on serum, milk, or whole blood.
Cross-Reactions: A major problem is false-positive reactions caused by cross-reactivity with other Gram-negative bacteria, most notably Yersinia enterocolitica O:9.

VII. Zoonotic Importance: The Human Disease

B. melitensis is the most invasive and pathogenic for humans of the classical species.

Acquisition

Most human cases are occupational. Crucially, infection can occur after ingestion of raw milk or raw milk products. Handling the carcass of an infected animal may represent severe exposure.

Human Illness

Brucellosis in humans is known as undulant fever (recurrent fever). The disease has protean manifestations, including headache, malaise, muscle, and joint pain.

Critical Note

Abortion is NOT a feature of human infection.

Complications

Osteoarticular disease is the most common complication. Endocarditis, especially from B. melitensis, is the principal cause of human mortality.

VIII. Control and Eradication: The Difficult Road

A. Treatment and Management

Animal Treatment: Treatment of preferred hosts is considered unsuccessful because of the intracellular sequestration of organisms in tissues like lymph nodes and reproductive organs, which prevents drugs from penetrating the cell membrane barrier.
Human Treatment: Treatment involves a prolonged course of antibiotic therapy. Physicians should be aware that the vaccine strain RB51 is resistant to rifampin, one of the antimicrobials of choice for human brucellosis.

B. Eradication Strategies

The most cost-efficient mechanism for controlling human brucellosis is to control the disease in animal reservoirs.

Depopulation: Slaughter of all cattle in an infected herd (depopulation) is the strategy of choice for eradication. For swine, whole-herd depopulation may be the only viable option to eradicate B. suis.

Vaccination: Vaccination is a critical tool that primarily prevents clinical effects (abortions), which reduces- transmission, but is less effective at preventing infection itself.

Cattle Vaccines: Live attenuated strains like Strain 19 (S19) and the rough mutant RB51 (a DIVA vaccine) are used.
Small Ruminant Vaccine: B. melitensis Rev. 1 vaccine is effective against B. melitensis and B. ovis, but can cause abortion in pregnant animals. It is also pathogenic to humans.

Biosecurity: Control involves minimizing movement of infected animals and disinfection of equipment. Pasteurized milk is safe for consumption.

Metaphor for Control: Trying to eradicate Brucellosis with antibiotics is like trying to capture a fugitive who is hiding securely inside the police station (the macrophage). Since the antibiotics can't breach the cell's internal defenses to ensure total clearance, the fugitive remains safe and capable of escaping later (relapse or persistent shedding), necessitating the drastic action of completely shutting down the entire facility (depopulation).

Test Your Knowledge! 🧠

Think you've mastered the key concepts of Brucellosis? Put your learning to the test! This quick quiz is the perfect way to revise and reinforce what you've just read. See how well you've understood this intracellular stealth agent.

Attend Quiz Here

Brucellosis Quiz

2025-11-09T12:38:00.003+05:30

Gain Knowledge! 🧠

Think you haven;t gain the key concepts of Brucellosis? Get more knowledge! This quick article is the perfect way to add new concept and information in your mind. See how this tiny organism became huge global burden.

Read article here

Brucellosis Quiz

This Quiz is purely based on the Brucellosis Information. If you haven't read information related to brucellosis yet, then go to brucellosis disease info page to get more knowledge about brucellosis. Attend the quiz and check your learning.

Quiz Instructions

This quiz consists of 20 multiple-choice questions.
You will be awarded 5 marks for each correct answer.

Question 1: Which organism was isolated by Sir David Bruce in 1887 from patients with "Mediterranean fever" or "Malta fever"?

Brucella abortus
Brucella suis
B. melitensis
Brucella ovis

Question 2: What staining characteristic is unique to Brucella species, causing them to stain red as clusters in tissue smears when using the Modified Ziehl-Neelsen (MZN) method?

Gram-positive
Acid-fast
MZN-positive
Spore-forming

Question 3: The striking proliferation and localization of Brucella abortus in the bovine placenta, leading to abortion, is primarily attributed to the presence of which substance in the fetal tissues?

Glycogen
Casein
Erythritol
Glucose

Question 4: What is the main clinical sign of Brucellosis in cattle caused by B. abortus?

Early embryonic death (1st trimester)
Abortion between the seventh and eighth months of gestation
Severe, fatal septicemia in adults
Lumbar osteomyelitis and paralysis

Question 5: Which Brucella species infection is characterized by localization in the skeleton (arthritis and osteomyelitis) in its preferred host, causing clinical signs like lameness and posterior paralysis?

B. abortus
B. ovis
B. melitensis
B. suis

Question 6: What is the characteristic feature of human brucellosis (zoonosis)?

Severe septic metritis
Abortion during the last trimester
Extensive hemorrhagic diarrhea
Undulant (recurrent) fever

Question 7: The inability to successfully treat brucellosis in preferred animal hosts with antibiotics is primarily due to:

High antimicrobial resistance in the field
Intracellular sequestration in phagocytic and reproductive cells
Lack of commercially available drugs
The non-motile nature of the bacteria

Question 8: Which diagnostic procedure for Brucellosis carries the highest risk of laboratory-acquired infection and requires Biosafety Level 3 conditions for handling live cultures?

Serum Agglutination Test (SAT)
Competitive ELISA (C-ELISA)
Isolation and culture of the organism
Fluorescence Polarization Assay (FPA)

Question 9: Which organism is known to cause false-positive results in standard Brucella serological tests due to shared antigens (O side chain LPS)?

Chlamydia abortus
Actinobacillus seminis
Yersinia enterocolitica O:9
Listeria monocytogenes

Question 10: The primary clinical manifestation of Brucella ovis infection in sheep is:

Late abortion in ewes
Severe generalized mastitis
Systemic pyrexia (undulant fever)
Epididymitis in rams

Question 11: In national eradication schemes for bovine brucellosis, what is the strategy of choice for controlling the infection on infected premises?

Prolonged antibiotic treatment
Mass vaccination of all animals
Depopulation (test and slaughter)
Use of only the RB51 vaccine

Question 12: Brucella species are classified as capnophilic. This means their growth is typically enhanced or required by the presence of:

Serum or blood
5–10% CO2
High oxygen tension
Erythritol in the media

Question 13: Match the Brucella species with its typically preferred host: (a) B. abortus, (b) B. suis, (c) B. canis, (d) B. melitensis. Host Options: (i) Pigs, (ii) Dogs, (iii) Cattle, (iv) Sheep/Goats

(a-i), (b-iii), (c-iv), (d-ii)
(a-iii), (b-i), (c-ii), (d-iv)
(a-ii), (b-iii), (c-i), (d-iv)
(a-iv), (b-i), (c-iii), (d-ii)

Question 14: Match the historical Brucellosis name with the associated event/organism: (a) Malta Fever, (b) Bang’s Disease, (c) Undulant Fever, (d) Traum's Identification. Associated Options: (i) Isolation of B. abortus in 1897, (ii) Caused by B. melitensis in humans, (iii) Discovery of B. suis in pig fetuses, (iv) Recurrent fever pattern in human brucellosis.

(a-ii), (b-i), (c-iv), (d-iii)
(a-i), (b-ii), (c-iii), (d-iv)
(a-iv), (b-iii), (c-ii), (d-i)
(a-iii), (b-iv), (c-i), (d-ii)

Question 15: Match the Brucella species characteristic with its structural/phenotypic feature: (a) Primary cause of human mortality, (b) Always rough colony phenotype, (c) Most common complication in human infection, (d) Not considered a zoonosis. Feature Options: (i) B. ovis, (ii) Osteoarticular disease, (iii) B. melitensis, (iv) B. canis and B. ovis.

(a-iii), (b-iv), (c-ii), (d-i)
(a-ii), (b-i), (c-iv), (d-iii)
(a-i), (b-iii), (c-ii), (d-iv)
(a-iv), (b-ii), (c-iii), (d-i)

Question 16: Assertion (A): The eradication of Brucella infection often necessitates the use of live attenuated vaccines, such as S19 or Rev. 1, rather than killed bacterins. Reason (R): Immunity against brucellosis is predominantly mediated by cellular immune responses, which live vaccines are more effective at stimulating.

Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
Both A and R are true, but R is NOT the correct explanation of A.
A is true, but R is false.
A is false, but R is true.

Question 17: Assertion (A): Ingestion of raw milk contaminated with B. melitensis is a major public health concern, especially leading to severe cases of undulant fever in humans. Reason (R): Abortion is a prominent clinical feature in pregnant women infected with Brucella melitensis.

Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
Both A and R are true, but R is NOT the correct explanation of A.
A is true, but R is false.
A is false, but R is true.

Question 18: Assertion (A): The Serologic Agglutination Test (SAT) is universally sufficient to confirm a Brucella infection status in cattle herds. Reason (R): Serological tests for Brucella often produce false-positive results due to cross-reactivity with the LPS O side chain of organisms like Yersinia enterocolitica O:9.

Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
Both A and R are true, but R is NOT the correct explanation of A.
A is true, but R is false.
A is false, but R is true.

Question 19: Assertion (A): Brucella organisms have a striking affinity for the reproductive organs, placenta, and fetal fluids in their natural hosts. Reason (R): The organism survives in these tissues because they contain erythritol, a sugar that promotes Brucella growth.

Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
Both A and R are true, but R is NOT the correct explanation of A.
A is true, but R is false.
A is false, but R is true.

Question 20: Assertion (A): Bulls infected with B. abortus are not considered to play a significant role in the natural transmission of the disease within cattle herds. Reason (R): The typical transmission route for B. abortus is primarily lateral via the ingestion of infective uterine discharge, aborted fetuses, or placenta, rather than venereal transmission.

Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
Both A and R are true, but R is NOT the correct explanation of A.
A is true, but R is false.
A is false, but R is true.

Pathology Quiz 31

2025-11-07T11:37:00.001+05:30

Pathology Quiz 31

Quiz Instructions

This quiz consists of 20 multiple-choice questions.
You will be awarded 5 marks for each correct answer.

Question 1: Complete failure of an organ or its part to form is known as

aplasia
ageneis
atrophy
hypoplasia

Question 2: An enlargement or increase in the size of tissue or organ due to increase in the number of constituent cells in response to stimuli is

hyperplasia
hypertrophy
atrophy
hypoplasia

Question 3: Hyperplasia and keratinisation of the skin epithelium occurs in the deficiency of

vitamin A
vitamin K
vitamin D
thiamine

Question 4: Increase in the size of the uterine musculature during pregnancy is a classical example of

physiologic hypertrophy
compensatory hypertrophy
adaptive hypertrophy
none of these

Question 5: Continuous inactivity of a part of the body particularly muscles, results in

pressure atrophy
disuse atrophy
exhaustion atrophy
physiologic atrophy

Question 6: Programmed death of cells in a living animal is known as

necrosis
apoptosis
gangrene
somatic death

Question 7: ----- is one of the outcomes of necrosis, in which there is invasion of necrotic area by saprophytic organisms leading to putrefaction

calcification
cell death
gangrene
apoptosis

Question 8: Dry gangrene is usually seen in

intestines
lungs
extremities
kidney

Question 9: The best example of gas gangrene is

black quarter
enterotoxaemia
tetanus
pulpy kidney disease

Question 10: The deposition of calcium salts in the local area of tissue which is degenerated, dying or dead

dystrophic calcification
pathological calcification
metastatic calcification
none

Question 11: Metastatic or general calcification is deposition of calcium salts in many tissues in several organs due to increase in

blood phosphorus level
blood calcium leve
blood magnesium level
none

Question 12: Calcium slats in the tissues can be confirmed by using special stains such as

Von Kossa
alizarine red S
a&b
none

Question 13: Formation of osseous or bone tissue in any non osseous area is called as

pathological ossification
bone formation
calcification
none

Question 14: Cardinal signs of inflammation are

rubor, calor
dalor, tumor
function lasia
all of the above

Question 15: Menkin first identified a polypeptide, which had the property of increasing the vascular permeability

histamine
kinins
complement system
prostaglandins

Question 16: Inflammatory exudates has the property of

protein above 3%
thick consistency
specific gravity above 1.02
all

Question 17: The inflammatory cells seen in the acute inflammation is

neutrophil
lymphocytes
plasma cells
macrophages

Question 18: The principal constituent of exudates is fibrin in

serous inflammation
fibrinous inflammation
haemorrhagic inflammation
none

Question 19: Diphtheritic type of inflammation is seen in

calf diphtheria
diphtheria
staphylococcosis
a&b

Question 20: Lymphocytes predominantly seen in the inflammatory exudates in condition like

viral infection
bacterial infection
parasitic infection
none

AGB Quiz 32

2025-11-06T15:00:00.006+05:30

Animal Genetics and Breeding Quiz 32

Quiz Instructions

This quiz consists of 20 multiple-choice questions.
You will be awarded 5 marks for each correct answer.

Question 1: Chromosome without centromere are called

Acrocentric
Telocentric
Acentric
Metacentric

Question 2: The following F2 phenotypic ratio is an indication of epistasis interaction

6:03:01
6:7
9:06:01
6:3:3:1

Question 3: Coat colour in rabbit is controlled by

Multiple alleles
Polygenes
Cytoplasmic inheritance

Question 4: Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium is tested using

ANOVA
MANOVA
t test
Chi Square test

Question 5: Proportionate genetic contribution of a phenotype to the next generation is called

Repeatability
Heritability
MPPA
Genetic Correlation

Question 6: Which of the following is not an assumption of H-W Principle?

The population is large
There is random mating
No selection, mutation or migration
No gene interaction

Question 7: Cross over percentage between two genes on a chromosome will never exceed

25 %
50 %
75 %
100 %

Question 8: The inbreeding coefficient of individual born to non inbred full sibs is

0.125
0.25
0.5
0.625

Question 9: The coefficient of relationship between non inbred full sibs is

0.125
0.25
0.5
0.625

Question 10: The base that that forms double bond with Cytocine is

Guanine
Adenine
Uracil
Thymine

Question 11: The bond present between two nucleotides in double helix is

Double/ Triple hydrogen bond
Phosphodiester bond
Single hydrogen bond
Phosphate bond

Question 12: Genetic drift term was coined by

William Bateson
Sewall Wright
Bridges
G.J.Mendel

Question 13: Reciprocal Selection was given by

Hull
Comstock and Coworkers
Hazel and Smith
Sneedecor and Cochran

Question 14: Gene mutations

Occur at the same rate at all loci
Are the sources of hereditary variations.
Are all recessive
Are of little importance in evolution of species

Question 15: Hair on ear pinna is an example of

Recessive epistasis
Co dominance
Holandric genes
Linkage

Question 16: Chromosome number in Drosophila melanogaster

Question 17: X chromosome in sheep is

Metacentric
Sub- metacentric
Acrocentric
Telocentric

Question 18: Cross between male horse and female donkey is

Mule
Hinny
Pien neu
Jinny

Question 19: Among following breeds, the breed on verge of extinction

Amrithmahal
Krishnavaly
Hallikar
Khillar

Question 20: CIB method I stands for

Dominant lethal on X chromosome
Dominant lethal on autosomes
Recessive lethal on X chromosome
Recessive lethal on autosomes

The Cattle Health Handbook

2025-05-12T10:41:00.003+05:30

The Cattle Health Handbook

Description

The Cattle Health Handbook PDF provides easy-to-execute solutions for a variety of common medical situations that can afflict your animals, including bacterial diseases, parasites, and nutritional deficiencies. From the keeper of a family milk cow to the rancher overseeing a large beef herd, anyone who works with cattle has a vested interest in maintaining the animals’ health. In most cases, the financial viability of a farm depends on the continued well-being of the farm animals. Large-animal veterinarians are in short supply and their bills can add up quickly, so it’s often up to the farmer to provide routine health care. The Cattle Health Handbook is the essential medical reference for farmers and ranchers confronting day-to-day bovine health issues. Heather Smith Thomas, an expert on livestock with decades of first-hand experience, covers every routine situation — and many not-so-common problems — likely to arise on a cattle ranch or dairy farm. Three broad sections cover common diseases, ailments specific to certain body systems, and other ailments and injuries. Beginning with detailed information on how to detect signs of illness, the book progresses through the various causes of cattle health problems, describing symptoms and discussing prevention and treatment. Readers will find reassuring advice on handling bacterial and viral diseases; digestive and respiratory problems; eye, skin, foot, and mouth irritations; injuries and wounds; and much more. Thomas also helps farmers recognize when a situation calls for veterinary assistance. Case histories, real characters, and humorous anecdotes give the text a warm voice of authority. Primary income source or country hobby, cattle are unique; the people who care for them want their animals to be healthy and comfortable. For the first-time dairy farmer or the experienced cattle rancher, this reliable volume is a must-have resource.

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Small Animal Anesthesia and Pain Management, 3rd Edition: A Color Handbook

2025-05-12T10:38:00.002+05:30

Small Animal Anesthesia and Pain Management, 3rd Edition: A Color Handbook

Description

comprehensive coverage of the world of veterinary anesthesia and pain management. Opening with a detailed exploration of inhalant anesthetic equipment and its essential accessories, emphasizing the crucial role of preoperative blood work and its interpretations, coverage continues with a systematic introduction to clinical anesthetic practice, encompassing premedication drugs and dosages, intravenous induction options, and concluding in a discussion of modern inhalant anesthetics. These chapters shine a spotlight on a newly approved drug, showcasing the practical application of Zenalpha® (medetomidine and vatinoxan) for a range of sedative and anesthetic combinations in dogs and cats. Updated chapters also cover a wide range of scenarios and procedures, including: Injectable and sedative combinations. Monitoring anesthetic depth and antinociception, utilizing EEG (electroencephalography) and Parasympathetic Tone Analysis (PTA) devices. Comprehensive guidance on intervening in cases of abnormalities. Anesthetic considerations, management, and interventions. Commonly encountered ECG (electrocardiography) issues. Anesthesia for minimally invasive endoscopic procedures and regular endoscopy. Locoregional blocks, including both traditional and ultrasound-guided methods. Acupuncture, herbal medicine, and photobiomodulation therapy. This clinically focused text draws upon practical experience and clinical evidence from various sources. It provides drug dosages and anesthetic protocols in tabular form, complemented by over 400 illustrations that enhance comprehension and visual clarity. Small Animal Anesthesia and Pain Management has become a cornerstone in veterinary practice education and, with this third edition, it continues to provide invaluable practical information for small animal practitioners, veterinary technicians/nurses, as well as veterinary and veterinary nursing students

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Handbook of Applied Dog Behavior and Training

2025-05-11T10:30:00.003+05:30

Handbook of Applied Dog Behavior and Training

Description

experience went into the making of this one-of-a-kind reference. Veterinarians, animal scientists, dog owners, trainers, consultants, and counsellors will find this book a benchmark reference and handbook concerning positive, humane management and control of dogs. Reflecting the author’s extensive work with dogs, this book promises thorough explanations of topics, and proven behavioural strategies that have been designed, tested, and used by the author. More than 50 figures and tables illustrate this unique and significant contribution to dog behaviour, training, and learning.

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File Size:	12 MB
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Veterinary Andrology and Artificial Insemination by M S Saxena

2025-05-11T10:29:00.000+05:30

Veterinary Andrology and Artificial Insemination by M S Saxena

Description

Regulatory Mechanisms in insect Feeding is the ideal text for graduate courses in entomology and zoology with a special focus on insect behaviour. Physiology. Neurobiology. And control. It is also a valuable resource for ecologists interested in insect-plant and insect-animal interactions. For scientists concerned with the mechanism behind the physiology and behavior of feeding and for those working in crop protection and management.

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File Size:	5 MB
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Color Handbook of Skin Diseases of the Dog and Cat: A Problem-oriented Approach to Diagnosis and Management

2025-05-10T09:02:00.001+05:30

Color Handbook of Skin Diseases of the Dog and Cat: A Problem-oriented Approach to Diagnosis and Management

Description

Following the success and critical acclaim for the first edition, A Color Handbook of Skin Diseases of the Dog and Cat 2nd Edition PDF preserves the strengths of the book: Problem-oriented approach; the book is arranged in twelve chapters covering dermatoses classified by their principle presenting sign Concise systematically structured text; definition, aetiology and pathogenesis, clinical features, differential diagnoses, diagnostic tests, management Focus is on clinical practice and the need to explain the disease to the owner Superb and generously sized colour photographs and diagrams Clear user-friendly design – one condition per page or spread of pages Referenced throughout to give the clinician access to the literature Within the framework and in light of the exponential growth of information in small animal dermatology since first publication, the authors have revised the entire text for the new second edition, added 21 new sections and 131 new colour photos. The result is a handbook that is practical, extensive and up-to-date in its content, beautifully illustrated and designed. The new second edition is of value to veterinary practitioners and students, veterinary nurses, and technicians.

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File Size:	30 MB
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Vet Scorer book (1st edition )pdf

2025-05-10T08:58:00.006+05:30

Vet Scorer 1st Edition pdf

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Best book for preparing ICAR PG / JRF & SRF examination, concise content of veterinary science subjects

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File Size:	25 MB
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Animal Genetics and Breeding by S S Tomar PDF

2024-12-10T07:53:00.000+05:30

Animal Genetics and Breeding by S S Tomar PDF

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Very good book on Animal Genetics. It gives insight on various useful terms which are related to the Genes

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File Size:	82 MB
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Applied Veterinary Andrology and artificial insemination by Pradip Kumar pdf

2024-12-09T08:06:00.005+05:30

Applied Veterinary Andrology and artificial insemination by Pradip Kumar pdf

Description

Ample literature covering various aspects of Veterinary Andrology and frozen semen technology is available but need for a book incorporating practical aspects of the subject was always felt for the students of andrology and semen biology and scientists working in the area. This book is aimed to fill this void in literature by providing insight into various applied aspects of veterinary andrology, frozen semen technology and artificial insemination with the help of relevant illustrations based on author’s experience and research in the subject.

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File Size:	4.5 MB
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A Textbook on Veterinary Surgery and Radiology by S.K Nandi, Samar Halder and Mozammel Hoque PDF

2024-12-09T07:57:00.000+05:30

A Textbook on Veterinary Surgery and Radiology by S.K Nandi, Samar Halder and Mozammel Hoque PDF

Description

Author - Dr. Samit Kumar Nandi, Dr. Samar Halder & Dr. Mozammel Hoque Publisher - Kalyani Publishers Year of Study - BVSc and AH 4th Year Subject - Veterinary Surgery and Radiology No of Pages - 623 Book Medium - English

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File Size:	13.7 MB
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Small Animal Anesthesia and Pain Management A Color Handbook, 3rd Edition pdf

2024-12-09T07:51:00.005+05:30

Small Animal Anesthesia and Pain Management A Color Handbook, 3rd Edition pdf

Description

In this thoroughly updated and much expanded third edition, this book provides comprehensive coverage of the world of veterinary anesthesia and pain management. Opening with a detailed exploration of inhalant anesthetic equipment and its essential accessories, emphasizing the crucial role of preoperative blood work and its interpretations, coverage continues with a systematic introduction to clinical anesthetic practice, encompassing premedication drugs and dosages, intravenous induction options, and concluding in a discussion of modern inhalant anesthetics. These chapters shine a spotlight on a newly approved drug, showcasing the practical application of Zenalpha® (medetomidine and vatinoxan) for a range of sedative and anesthetic combinations in dogs and cats. Updated chapters also cover a wide range of scenarios and procedures, including: Injectable and sedative combinations. Monitoring anesthetic depth and antinociception, utilizing EEG (electroencephalography) and Parasympathetic Tone Analysis (PTA) devices. Comprehensive guidance on intervening in cases of abnormalities. Anesthetic considerations, management, and interventions. Commonly encountered ECG (electrocardiography) issues. Anesthesia for minimally invasive endoscopic procedures and regular endoscopy. Locoregional blocks, including both traditional and ultrasound-guided methods. Acupuncture, herbal medicine, and photobiomodulation therapy

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File Size:	372 MB
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Textbook of Clinical Veterinary Medicine by Amalendu Chakraborty

2024-12-08T10:41:00.002+05:30

A Textbook of Preventive Veterinary Medicine by Amalendu Chakrabarti

Description

Author - Amalendu Chakrabarti Publisher - Kalyani Publishers Year of Study - BVSc and AH 4th Year Subject - Veterinary Medicine No of Pages - 960 Book Medium - English Download MB - 31.3 MB

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File Size:	31.9 MB
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Textbook of Preventive Veterinary Medicine by amalendu Chakraborty pdf

2024-12-08T10:26:00.006+05:30

A Textbook of Preventive Veterinary Medicine by Amalendu Chakrabarti

Description

Author - Amalendu Chakrabarti Publisher - Kalyani Publishers Year of Study - BVSc and AH 4th Year Subject - Veterinary Medicine No of Pages - 960 Book Medium - English Download MB - 31.3 MB

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File Size:	31.9 MB
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Animal Science Refresher

2024-12-08T10:22:00.001+05:30

Animal Science Refresher

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Animal Science Refresher is collection of, questions and notes for animal science subjects. Notes and Questions for ICAR PG/ PHD / NET exam preparation for animal science groups

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File Size:	3 MB
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