TECHNICAL AND INFORMATIONAL BLOG

Shannon and Weaver's Model of Transmission

2012-04-22T22:58:00.000+10:00

Shannon and Weaver's model is one which is, in John Fiske's words, 'widely accepted as one of the main seeds out of which Communication Studies has grown' (Fiske 1982: 6). Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver were not social scientists but engineers working for Bell Telephone Labs in the United States. Their goal was to ensure the maximum efficiency of telephone cables and radio waves. They developed a model of communication which was intended to assist in developing a mathematical theory of communication. Shannon and Weaver's work proved valuable for communication engineers in dealing with such issues as the capacity of various communication channels in 'bits per second'. It contributed to computer science. It led to very useful work on redundancy in language. And in making 'information' 'measurable' it gave birth to the mathematical study of 'information theory'. However, these directions are not our concern here. The problem is that some commentators have claimed that Shannon and Weaver's model has a much wider application to human communication than a purely technical one.

C & W's original model consisted of five elements:

An information source, which produces a message.
A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
A destination, where the message arrives.

A sixth element, noise is a dysfunctional factor: any interference with the message travelling along the channel (such as 'static' on the telephone or radio) which may lead to the signal received being different from that sent.
Example 1: For the telephone the channel is a wire, the signal is an electrical current in it, and the transmitter and receiver are the telephone handsets. Noise would include crackling from the wire.
Example 2: In conversation, my mouth is the transmitter, the signal is the sound waves, and your ear is the receiver. Noise would include any distraction you might experience as I speak.
Shannon and Weaver's transmission model is the best-known example of the 'informational' approach to communication. Although no serious communication theorist would still accept it, it has also been the most influential model of communication which has yet been developed, and it reflects a commonsense (if misleading) understanding of what communication is. Lasswell's verbal version of this model: 'Who says what in which channel to whom with what effect ?' was reflected in subsequent research in human communication which was closely allied to behaviouristic approaches.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Lossless and Lossy Image Compression

2012-04-15T12:48:00.002+10:00

Lossless and lossy compression are terms that describe whether or not, in the compressionof a file, all original data can be recovered when the file is uncompressed. With lossless compression, every single bit of data that was originally in the file remains after the file is uncompressed. All of the information is completely restored. This is generally the technique of choice for text or spreadsheet files, where losing words or financial data could pose a problem. The Graphics Interchange File (GIF) is an image format used on the Web that provides lossless compression.

On the other hand, lossy compression reduces a file by permanently eliminating certain information, especially redundant information. When the file is uncompressed, only a part of the original information is still there (although the user may not notice it). Lossy compression is generally used for video and sound, where a certain amount of information loss will not be detected by most users. The JPEG image file, commonly used for photographs and other complex still images on the Web, is an image that has lossy compression. Using JPEG compression, the creator can decide how much loss to introduce and make a trade-off between file size and image quality.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

In information technology, "lossy" compression is a data encoding method that compresses data by discarding (losing) some of it. The procedure aims to minimize the amount of data that needs to be held, handled, and/or transmitted by a computer. The different versions of the photo of the dog at the right demonstrate how much data can be dispensed with, and how the images become progressively coarser as the data that made up the original one is discarded (lost). Typically, a substantial amount of data can be discarded before the result is sufficiently degraded to be noticed by the user.

Lossy compression is most commonly used to compress multimedia data (audio, video, and still images), especially in applications such as streaming mediaand internet telephony. By contrast, lossless compression is required for text and data files, such as bank records and text articles. In many cases it is advantageous to make a master lossless file that can then be used to produce compressed files for different purposes; for example, a multi-megabyte file can be used at full size to produce a full-page advertisement in a glossy magazine, and a 10 kilobyte lossy copy can be made for a small image on a web page.

Lossy and lossless compression

It is possible to compress many types of digital data in a way that reduces the size of a computer file needed to store it, or the bandwidth needed to stream it, with no loss of the full information contained in the original file. A picture, for example, is converted to a digital file by considering it to be an array of dots and specifying the color and brightness of each dot. If the picture contains an area of the same color, it can be compressed without loss by saying "200 red dots" instead of "red dot, red dot, ...(197 more times)..., red dot."

The original contains a certain amount of information; there is a lower limit to the size of file that can carry all the information. As an intuitive example, most people know that a compressed ZIP file is smaller than the original file, but repeatedly compressing the file will not reduce the size to nothing and will in fact usually increase the size.

In many cases, files or data streams contain more information than is needed for a particular purpose. For example, a picture may have more detail than the eye can distinguish when reproduced at the largest size intended; likewise, an audio file does not need a lot of fine detail during a very loud passage. Developing lossy compression techniques as closely matched to human perception as possible is a complex task. Sometimes the ideal is a file that provides exactly the same perception as the original, with as much digital information as possible removed; other times, perceptible loss of quality is considered a valid trade-off for the reduced data

Index and Alpha Transparency

2012-04-15T12:46:00.002+10:00

Index Transparency

Index transparency is the simpler. A GIF file has two parts: a color table and the image pixel data. The color table is a list of the colors used in that image (an 8-bit GIF can have up to 2^8 = 256 colors in the color table, but a 4-bit GIF can have only 2^4 = 16 colors), and each color is assigned a number. The image pixel data are for the image itself, and each pixel is assigned a number that points to its color in the color table. For example, if color #10 in the color table is red (#FF0000), then any pixel in the image with the number 10 will be displayed as red. The colors in the color table will vary from GIF file to GIF file based on the image itself; color #10 will not always be red. The color table is the set of up to 256 colors necessary to render that image.

When we add index transparency, every color in the color table is given a transparency designation in addition to its color data (i.e., RGB values):

zero (o = False in Boolean algebra) means do not display this color, or
one (1 = True in Boolean Algebra) means display this color.

There are no intermediate opacities; the color is either displayed or it is not. The end result is that a pixel with an index transparency color will not be displayed and whatever is in the background behind that pixel will show through. For example, if color #10 is red (#FF0000) and is designated as transparent (index transparency = 0), then any pixel that is color #10 will not be displayed and the background will show through.

There can be multiple transparent colors in index transparency, because every color in the color table has a designation of either opaque (1) or transparent (0). Most graphics programs assume that the canvas color (often white, but it could be any color) is the default transparent color, but you can specify any color (or any number of colors) as transparent or not.

This type of transparency is very common in GIF and PNG8 files and is easy to identify, because there is no fading, there are no partially transparent pixels, and the edges are often described as “hard” or “pixelated.”

Alpha Transparency

Alpha transparency is more complex. Every color in a graphic has an alpha channel value to indicate how transparent it is (i.e., the degree of opacity.) When you see references to the RGBA color space, the color is defined by the (R)ed, (G)reen, and (B)lue channels, and the (A)lpha value defines the opacity for that color where:

zero (0) = completely transparent (there is 0% rendering of that pixel’s color – all of the background “shows through”), and
one (1) = completely opaque (there is 100% rendering of that pixel’s color – none of the background “shows through.”)

Alpha transparency is a way to support gradations of opacity on a continuum. Values between zero (0) and one (1) allow some of the background to “show through” and “mix” with that color. Values closer to zero (0) show more background, and values closer to one (1) show less background. A range of opacity makes it possible to create graphics that fade away or have smoother edges.

PNG32, PNG24, and Alpha Transparency

In Adobe Fireworks, alpha transparency is most often used with the PNG32 format. In a PNG32 file, there are four bytes (8 bits per byte) for each color: (R)ed, (G)reen, (B)lue, and (A)lpha, which adds up to 32 bits per color (24 bits for color and 8 bits for opacity via the alpha channel.) This means that alpha transparency in a PNG32 file is one (1) byte (8 bits) and can have a value from 0 (0%) to 255 (100%). Each step in the opacity continuum for 8-bit alpha transparency equals a 0.392% change in opacity; this is small enough that our eyes see a relatively smooth change along that opacity continuum.

Note that Adobe Photoshop uses the name PNG24 for the same 32-bit file type, because it only counts the three RGB color channels, but a Photoshop PNG24does support alpha transparency (and really should be called a PNG32, because each color has four bytes, or 32 bits, of color and opacity data.) The PNG24 format in Fireworks includes only the three RGB color channels and does not support anytransparency.

PNG8, GIF, and Alpha Transparency

You may also have seen references to alpha transparency support in PNG8 files exported from Adobe Fireworks. For many years this has been a way to display alpha transparent images more cleanly in Internet Explorer 6, because Internet Explorer 6 does not support PNG32 with alpha transparency, but it treats a PNG8 file with alpha transparency like a GIF with index transparency. The result is not as smooth and aesthetically pleasing as true alpha transparency, but it also avoids the “grey box of doom” that Internet Explorer 6 would normally display for the PNG32 with alpha transparency file. Luckily, Internet Explorer is no longer a dominant browser, but there are enough people still using it that this PNG8 technique is still useful.

So, how does PNG8 support alpha transparency? It adds a four (4) bit alpha channel to the color table for the PNG8 file. This increases the file size slightly, and there are only 16 levels in the opacity continuum (2^4 = 16 levels, where 2^8 = 256 levels for PNG32 alpha transparency), so a gradual fade is more likely to look pixelated or exhibit banding.

If you look in the Optimize panel in Adobe Fireworks, you will notice that the GIF file format has three choices for transparency: None, Index, and Alpha. However, GIF files do not support alpha transparency, so the Index and Alpha options work exactly the same way. (I suppose that alpha transparency should not even be offered as an option for the GIF format, since GIF only supports index transparency.)

Creating Images with Alpha Transparency

The most obvious examples of alpha transparency are glows and shadows: they seem to fade as they get farther from the object, and when placed over a background pattern or image you can see that more and more background “shows through” as the glow or shadow gets lighter.

You can also create an opacity continuum with alpha transparency by:

Creating a gradient fill and setting the opacity at one end to 100% and to 0% at the other, and you can even create bands of transparency by inserting multiple opacity points along the gradient:

Applying a grayscale vector mask to an image:

Using a grayscale mask works by calculating the opacity of an image pixel based on the amount of white in the mask pixel:

If the mask pixel has 0% white (i.e., it is black, #000000), then 0% of the image pixel is shown (i.e., the image becomes completely transparent),
If the mask pixel has 100% white (i.e., it is white, #FFFFFF), then 100% of the image pixel is shown (i.e., the image is completely opaque),
The shades of grey between black and white produce graduated opacity, and the image appears to fade from transparent to opaque along a gradual continuum.

Filter: Convert to Alpha

Finally, Adobe Fireworks provides the ability to take any image or object and calculate the alpha transparency based on the luminosity of each color by adding a filter (Filters > Other > Convert to Alpha.) The lighter the original color, the more transparent it becomes. The darker the original color, the less transparent it becomes. The end result is a grayscale image where lighter grays are more transparent than darker grays. This is useful if you want to create a mask to help isolate or extract a portion of an image or superimpose one image over another and have the two images appear to blend.

Photographs, JPEGs, and Transparency

Most images with transparency are graphics like logos and icons. There is a reason we rarely see transparency with photographs: the consolidation of colors in the color table for GIF and PNG8 files reduces the number of colors from many to a few.

When you have a photograph, there is a wide range of colors – usually far more than the 256 limit imposed by an 8-bit image format – so when you constrain the color palette of an image to 256 or fewer colors, the graphics program must calculate which colors are near one another and then assign them all to the same color value. For example, anything that is “near white” will be assigned to “white”, and when white is a transparent color, anything “near white” in the original image will also become transparent. This is simply the way that any 8-bit image format works – 8 bits only allow for 256 colors, so all “near colors” are combined into a single color value. All of the “near reds” become red, all “near blues” become blue, etc. This makes it possible to represent the image relatively accurately with far fewer colors.

This is also why 8-bit formats (GIF, PNG8) are not good for photographs: there are simply too many colors in most photographs to be accurately rendered with 256 or fewer colors. The JPEG format allows for many more colors, but it does not support transparency, and it is a lossy format (i.e., it uses compression algorithms that compress the image data, therefore some original image data are lost.)

Source: http://www.idux.com/2011/02/27/what-are-index-and-alpha-transparency/

Vector Vs Raster Images

2012-04-15T12:44:00.001+10:00

Raster Images versus Vector Images

All electronic art images are divided into one of two core types, raster images (also know as 'bitmaps') and vector images. In a nutshell raster images are composed of connected dots and vectors are images composed of connected lines.By Jay Busselle, Director of Business Development, Digital Art Solutions

These two formats are quite different from one another, yet they contrast and complement one another when used appropriately for the desired final output method.

Raster images are created through the process of scanning source artwork or "painting" with a photo editing or paint program such as Corel PhotoPAINT or Adobe PhotoShop. Vector images are created through the process of drawing with vector illustration programs such as CorelDRAW or Adobe Illustrator. The word "vector" is a synonym for line. Vector images can also be created through the process of conversion from a raster image by using a raster to vector conversion program such as CorelTRACE or EuroVECTOR. You'll need to have a fundamental understanding of raster images versus vector images to work successfully in any graphics package.
Raster Images
A raster image is a collection of dots called pixels. Each pixel is a tiny colored square. When an image is scanned, the image is converted to a collection of pixels called a raster image. Scanned graphics and web graphics (JPEG and GIF files) are the most common forms of raster images.

Web graphics, including JPEG and GIF files, are always low-resolution raster images. For this reason, web graphics are always a poor choice for imprinting and editing. Production-ready clip art is an essential tool for creating high quality imprints.

Resolution
The resolution of a raster image or scanned image is expressed in terms of the dots per inch or dpi. A printer or scanner's resolution is also measured in dots per inch. Typical desktop laser printers print at 300 - 600 dpi. Image setters are capable of printing over 2,500 dpi. Printers with higher dpi ratings are capable of producing smoother and cleaner output. The output quality of a printing device is dependent upon the resolution (dpi) of a bitmap or scan. A 300 dpi raster image will output at the same quality on a 300 dpi laser printer as on a 2,500 dpi image setter.
Take a 300 dpi bitmap and increase the size in a graphics program, and presto - you have created a bad case of the "jaggies". The only thing that happened is that the tiny pixel squares got bigger and created jaggy edges on your image. Decrease the size of your image and the squares get smaller. The image retains its original edge definition without producing "jaggies". In other words, raster images do not scale up very well. The quality of an imprint produced from a raster image is dependant upon the resolution (dpi) of the raster image, the capabilities of the printing technology and whether or not the image has been scaled up.
Color
With any scanned color image, a large number of colors will be required to render a raster image reproduction of the original source artwork accurately. If scanned at 24-bin color depth (16 million colors), most human eyes could not tell the difference between the original image and the scanned raster image. Now if you scan the same image using the palette of 256 colors, it would be impossible to accurately reproduce the original colors because you have a smaller color palette to choose from. To get around this, scanners use a process called dithering to approximate colors that don't occur in the current color palette.

Dithering produces a distinct dotted pattern that approximates the original color in the image. Dithering will deteriorate the quality of the scanned raster image. Now take all this complexity of colors and try to change colors, and you can see the biggest disadvantage of editing and manipulating raster images. In order to change colors in a raster image you must be able to isolate a specific color or range of colors and tell your software to change the color. This can be quite a challenge for even experienced Corel PhotoPAINT or Adobe PhotoShop users.
File Size
In order to accurately reproduce a raster image file, your graphics software must keep track of a large amount of information, including the exact location and color of each pixel in the collection of pixels. This results in huge file sizes for raster graphics. Higher resolutions (dpi) and greater color depths, produce bigger file sizes. A typical 2" by 3" 150 dpi black and white raster image logo will be less than 70k (.07 megabytes) in file size. The same file saved as a 300 dpi 24-bit (millions of colors) raster image logo might be 100 times larger (over 7 megabytes). When creating and scanning raster images, file size becomes a real issue, as big files tend to make your computer processor and hard drive work overtime. Transferring big files (over 1 megabyte) over the Internet requires a high speed Internet connection on both ends for timely uploads and downloads.
File Formats
Common raster image formats include BMP (Windows Bitmap), PCX (Paintbrush), TIFF (Tag Interleave Format), JPEG (Joint Photographics Expert Group), GIF (Graphics Interchange Format) , PNG (Portable Network Graphic), PSD (Adobe PhotoShop) and CPT (Corel PhotoPAINT).

Vector Images
A vector image is a collection of connected lines and curves that produce objects. When creating a vector image in a vector illustration program, node or drawing points are inserted and lines and curves connect notes together. This is the same principle as "connect the dots". Each node, line and curve is defined in the drawing by the graphics software by a mathematical description. Every aspect of a vector object is defined by math included node position, node location, line length and on down the line. Text objects are created by connecting nodes, lines and curves. Every letter in a font starts out as a vector object. Vector images are object-oriented while raster images are pixel oriented. A vector object will have a "wireframe" underneath the colors in the object. In a vector object, colors are like clothes over the top of a skeleton. CorelDRAW and Illustrator create text and objects using vectors that can be easily manipulated.
Resolution
Vector images are defined by math, not pixels. They can be scaled up or down without any loss of quality. When an illustration (drawing) program sizes a vector image up or down, it simply multiplies the mathematical description of the object by a scaling factor. For example a 1" square object would need to be multiplied by a factor of 2 in order to double in size. The math is simply recalculated to produce an object twice the size of the original. Because vector images scale up or down without the loss of image quality, they can be output at any resolution that a printer is capable of producing. Unlike raster images, quality is not limited by dots per inch or scanning resolution. This is a big reason that vector graphics are so popular for clip art.
Color
Since vector images are composed of objects not pixels, you can change the color of individual objects without worrying about individual pixels. Coloring vector objects is similar to coloring with crayons in a coloring book. A drawing program will enable a user to click inside an object and define its color. A drawing program will also enable a user to define the color and width of lines. Coloring vector images is much easier than coloring bitmaps.
File Size
Vector images do not need to keep track of each individual pixel in an image, only mathematical descriptions. For this reason vector files are very small in file size. Vector files are composed of long mathematical descriptions dictating every aspect of the graphic. A 2-inch by 4-inch vector based logo will be the same files size as a 2-foot by 4-foot logo. The file size is the same because the only difference in file is one number defining the size of the file. A raster image file would need to keep track of a whole bunch of additional pixels as the file increases in size. Most vector-based logos are going to be under 100k (.10 megabytes). For this reason, vector files are ideally suited for transfer over the Internet.
File Formats
Common vector formats include EPS (Encapsulated PostScript), WMF (Windows Metafile), AI (Adobe Illustrator), CDR (CorelDraw), DXF (AutoCAD), SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics) and PLT (Hewlett Packard Graphics Language Plot File)

Source: http://www.signindustry.com/computers/articles/2004-11-30-DASvector_v_raster.php3

Software Engineering Development Laws

2012-04-14T00:45:00.000+10:00

The Law	Who Said It	What it Says
Amdahl’s Law	Gene Amdahl	The speedup gained from running a program on a parallel computer is greatly limited by the fraction of that program that can’t be parallelized.
Augustine’s Second Law of Socioscience	Norman Augustine	For every scientific (or engineering) action, there is an equal and opposite social reaction.
Brooks’ Law	Fred Brooks	Adding manpower to a late software project makes it later.
Clarke’s First Law	Arthur C. Clarke	When a distinguished but elderly scientist states that something is possible he is almost certainly right. When he states that something is impossible, he is very probably wrong.
Clarke’s Second Law	Arthur C. Clarke	The only way of discovering the limits of the possible is to venture a little way past them into the impossible.
Clarke’s Third Law	Arthur C. Clarke	Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic.
Conway’s Law	Melvin Conway	Any piece of software reflects the organizational structure that produced it.
Cope’s Rule	Edward Drinker Cope	There is a general tendency toward size increase in evolution.
Dilbert Principle	Scott Adams	The most ineffective workers are systematically moved to the place where they can do the least damage: management.
Ellison’s Law of Cryptography and Usability	Carl Ellison	The userbase for strong cryptography declines by half with every additional keystroke or mouseclick required to make it work.
Ellison’s Law of Data	Larry Ellison	Once the business data have been centralized and integrated, the value of the database is greater than the sum of the preexisting parts.
The Law of False Alerts	George Spafford	As the rate of erroneous alerts increases, operator reliance, or belief, in subsequent warnings decreases.
Fisher’s Fundamental Theorem	R. A. Fisher	The more highly adapted an organism becomes, the less adaptable it is to any new change.
Fitts’ Law	Paul Fitts	The time to acquire a target is a function of the distance to and the size of the target.
Flon’s Axiom	Lawrence Flon	There does not now, nor will there ever, exist a programming language in which it is the least bit hard to write bad programs.
Gilder’s Law	George Gilder	Bandwidth grows at least three times faster than computer power.
Godwin’s Law	Mike Godwin	As an online discussion grows longer, the probability of a comparison involving Nazis or Hitler approaches one.
Grosch’s Law	Herb Grosch	The cost of computing systems increases as the square root of the computational power of the systems.
Hartree’s Law	Douglas Hartree	Whatever the state of a project, the time a project-leader will estimate for completion is constant.
Heisenbug Uncertainty Principle	Jim Gray	Most production software bugs are soft: they go away when you look at them.
Hick’s Law	William Edmund Hick	The time to make a decision is a function of the possible choices he or she has.
Hoare’s Law of Large Programs	C. A. R. Hoare	Inside every large problem is a small problem struggling to get out.
Hofstadter’s Law	Douglas Hofstadter	A task always takes longer than you expect, even when you take into account Hofstadter’s Law.
Jakob’s Law of the Internet User Experience	Jakob Nielsen	Users spend most of their time on other sites. This means that users prefer your site to work the same way as all the other sites they already know.
Joy’s Law	Bill Joy	smart(employees) = log(employees), or “No matter who you are, most of the smartest people work for someone else.”
Kerckhoffs’ Principle	Auguste Kerckhoffs	In cryptography, a system should be secure even if everything about the system, except for a small piece of information — the key — is public knowledge.
Linus’ Law	Eric S. Raymond, who named it after Linus Torvalds	Given enough eyeballs, all bugs are shallow.
Lister’s Law	Timothy Lister	People under time pressure don’t think faster.
Metcalfe’s Law	Robert Metcalfe	In network theory, the value of a system grows as approximately the square of the number of users of the system.
Moore’s Law	Gordon Moore	The number of transistors on an integrated circuit will double in about 18 months.
Murphy’s Law	Captain Edward A. Murphy	If there are two or more ways to do something, and one of those ways can result in a catastrophe, then someone will do it.
Nathan’s First Law	Nathan Myhrvold	Software is a gas; it expands to fill its container.
Ninety-ninety Law	Tom Cargill	The first 90% of the code accounts for the first 90% of the development time. The remaining 10% of the code accounts for the other 90% of the development time.
Occam’s Razor	William of Occam	The explanation requiring the fewest assumptions is most likely to be correct.
Osborn’s Law	Don Osborn	Variables won’t; constants aren’t.
Postel’s Law (the second clause of the Robustness Principle)	Jon Postel	Be conservative in what you send, liberal in what you accept.
Pareto Principle (a.k.a. “The 80-20 Rule”)	Suggested byJoseph Juran, named afterVilifredo Pareto	For many phenomena, 80% of consequences stem from 20% of the causes.
Parkinson’s Law	C. Northcote Parkinson	Work expands so as to fill the time available for its completion.
Pesticide Paradox	Bruce Beizer	Every method you use to prevent or find bugs leaves a residue of subtler bugs against which those methods are ineffectual.
The Peter Principle	Laurence J. Peter	In a hierarchy, every employee tends to rise to his level of incompetence.
Reed’s Law	David P. Reed	The utility of large networks, particularly social networks, scales exponentially with the size of the network.
Rock’s Law	Arthur Rock	The cost of a semiconductor chip fabrication plant doubles every four years.
Sixty-sixty Rule	Robert Glass	Sixty percent of software’s dollar is spent on maintenance, and sixty percent of that maintenance is enhancement.
Spector’s Law	Lincoln Spector	The time it takes your favorite application to complete a given task doubles with each new revision.
Spafford’s Adoption Rule	George Spafford	For just about any technology, be it an operating system, application or network, when a sufficient level of adoption is reached, that technology then becomes a threat vector.
Sturgeon’s Revelation	Theodore Sturgeon	Ninety percent of everything is crud.
Tesler’s Law of Conservation as Complexity	Larry Tesler	You cannot reduce the complexity of a given task beyond a certain point. Once you’ve reached that point, you can only shift the burden around.
Weibull’s Power Law	Waloddi Weibull	The logarithm of failure rates increases linearly with the logarithm of age.
Wirth’s Law	Niklaus Wirth	Software gets slower faster than hardware gets faster.
Zawinski’s Law	Jamie Zawinski	Every program attempts to expand until it can read mail. Those programs which cannot so expand are replaced by ones which can. Source:

http://www.globalnerdy.com/2007/07/18/laws-of-software-development/

Professional Communication Skills

2012-04-14T00:37:00.001+10:00

In normal day-to-day communication, language (verbal and non-verbal) tends to be casual and informal. There's no need for ceremony, everyone's more or less familiar with one another. In work environments, however, professional communication skills are needed in order to provide formality and credibility to not just the company, but also to the employer and all the staff members.

Professional communication skills benefit business. Every organization works towards creating efficiency, maximizing resources and empowering personnel. All these goals require "sanitized" neutral communication; communication not subject to misinterpretation. After all, unmet business goals translate to loss income.

While internal communication can be informal, external communication should always be professional. External communication may come in the way of company statements to customers or individual dealings with private clients or suppliers. Oftentimes, the company has regulation regarding the content and form of these communications and compliance is strongly observed.

The level of professional communication required by an individual depends on the position and the type of responsibility the individual has in the company. Front liners often interact with customers or suppliers whose needs and expectations are different from employees getting their appraisals from a management officer. The higher you are in the chain of command, the more sophisticated your professional communication skills should be. Regardless of position, however, some basic rules apply. Courtesy, clarity and active listening should be practiced at all times.

Management level employees should be concerned with team development, motivation and feedback. It's essential that the company as a whole see their effort as contributing to a single purpose. Good teams mean more ideas and solutions to various problems.

A lack of communication skills on the part of the manager, on the other hand, runs the risk of having inefficient employees and tolerating animosity amongst them. Management serves to oversee employees to make sure the work process is orderly, and people become self-starters and independent thinkers. Strong professional communication skills also mean motivating staff to perform at their optimum. This translates to positive acts to inspire individuals, such as praises for a job well done, and giving constructive advice whenever necessary.

On all levels, it's important to maintain a certain amount of distance in the tone of communication to make sure that emotions don't get involved that might distract from and compromise the business.

Limit the amount of self-disclosure. It's often inappropriate to disclose feeling or thoughts against co-workers, superiors, or the business to other employees or third persons. With that in mind, there's no excuse for gossiping, especially in the workplace. There's a difference between polite small talk and over-disclosure. This covers face-to-face conversations, phone calls and emails.

As stated earlier, the best way to interact with others is with courtesy, clarity and active listening. Courtesy is the best way to deal with other people. Keeping in mind respect for others often means self-regulating how you portray yourself to others. Clarity in language is essential. Mean what you say and make sure to provide the needed information. Lastly, it is important to listen to others with an open mind. It's necessary to lessen barriers to communication in order to maximize the contribution of others and make people feel relevant and involved. Build on these basic professional communication skills and you're on the road to a productive and harmonious work environment.

Tackling PC Problems

2012-04-14T00:31:00.000+10:00

Source: http://www.wcc2002.org/tackling-everyday-computing-issues.html

Everyday Computing Issues

The advancements in technology over the past few years have been mind-boggling. With every new development, there is something new to learn. This could be in the form of software or maybe just getting a handle on the latest gadget. Even with the latest operating system and most up-to-date software, there are occasional issues to overcome.

The Basics of Troubleshooting

This is the technique of getting to the root of a particular problem. Some commonly encountered computing issues include:
• Computer not visible on the network: The fix can vary depending on the operating system. Ensure that the computer is fully booted up and that the appropriate drives are shared. Searching for advice online based on the OS usually helps.
• PC suddenly slowing down: This could be due to picking up unwanted software such as viruses or spyware online. This should be easily detected once your anti-virus protection is up-to-date unless it is a new virus. The slowing down of a computer can also be caused by fragmented data on your hard drive. The system tools can be used to defragment the drive and to boost performance.
• A constantly rebooting PC: There are many reasons why a PC constantly reboots itself automatically. It could be due to a faulty power supply inside the computer. Unless you have experience in this area, get a technician to check it for you. Ensure that the cooling fan is kept clean, as accumulated dust can cause it to malfunction. This will cause rebooting as the computer will shut down to prevent overheating. Some computer viruses are also notorious for doing this.
There are various forums online that offer assistance to novices who encounter computer problems. Even simple issues should not be ignored, as they can lead to bigger ones. The more you use computers the more adept you will be at detecting and understanding problems.

About Technology

2012-04-13T19:18:00.000+10:00

Source: http://atschool.eduweb.co.uk/trinity/watistec.html

Throughout the twentieth century the uses of the term have increased to the point where it now encompasses a number of “classes” of technology:
1. Technology as Objects:
Tools, machines, instruments, weapons, appliances - the physical devices of technical performance
2. Technology as Knowledge:
The know-how behind technological innovation
3. Technology as Activities:
What people do - their skills, methods, procedures, routines
4. Technology as a Process:
Begins with a need and ends with a solution
5. Technology as a Sociotechnical System:
The manufacture and use of objects involving people and other objects in combination

The Nature of Technology

Technology has a number of distinct characteristics:
1. It is Related to Science?
Although there is certainly a relationship between science and technology, there is, except in certain high technology industries, very little technology that could be classified as applied science. Technology is marked by different purposes, different processes a different relationship to established knowledge and a particular relationship to specific contexts of activity. Change in the material environment is the explicit purpose of technology, and not, as is the case with science, the understanding of nature; accordingly its solutions are not right or wrong, verifiable or falsifiable, but more or less effective from different points of view.
2. It Involves Design
At the centre of technology lies design. That “design is the very core of engineering” is affirmed by the requirement that all degree engineering courses should embody it. Thedesign process in technology is a sequential process which begins with the perception of a need, continues with the formulation of a specification, the generation of ideas and a final solution, and ends with an evaluation of the solution.
3. It Involves Making
The motivating factor behind all technological activity is the desire to fulfil a need. For this reason all designs should be made or realised - whether that be through prototype, batch- or mass- production or some form of three-dimensional or computer model - if the need is to be truly fulfilled, the design is to be legitimately evaluated, and the design activity is to have been purposeful and worthwhile.
4. It is Multi-Dimensional
Not only may design and production involve co-operation between different specialisms (between, for example, designer, production engineer and materials scientist), but may involve “technologists” in performing a multitude of functions, such as working with others, operating within budgets, persuading decision makers, communicating to clients and working to deadlines.
5. It Is Concerned With Values
Technology is informed by values at every point. Value decisions may be called for not only in relation to the specific design criteria (i.e. aesthetic, ergonomic and economic judgements, suitability for purpose and ease of manufacture) but also in relation to the rightness or wrongness of a particular solution in ethical terms.

6. It is Socially Shaped/Shaping
Technological enterprises are determined not by advances in knowledge nor simply by the identification of needs, but by social interests. Of the potential new technologies available at any one time only a few are developed and become widely implemented. In this way technology is shaped by society, by consumer choice. yet it could also be argued that technology shapes society - the technology of the motor car, for example, has shaped our environment and our whole way of life.

Ten tips for Digital Photography by Derrick

2012-04-10T14:18:00.000+10:00

You've heard this before: Digital cameras do all the work. You just push the button and great pictures magically appear. The better the camera, the better the photos. Isn't that right? Heck no!

The truth is that you can make great photos with a simple consumer point-and-shoot camera, or take lousy shots with the most expensive Nikon. It's not the camera that makes beautiful images; it's the photographer. With a little knowledge and a willingness to make an adjustment here and there, you can squeeze big time photos out of the smallest digicam.

To help you down the road to great image making, here are ten tips that will enable you shoot like a pro (without maxing out your credit card on all that expensive equipment).

1. Warm Up Those Tones

Have you ever noticed that your shots sometimes have a cool, clammy feel to them? If so, you're not alone. The default white balance setting for digital cameras is auto, which is fine for most snapshots, but tends to be a bit on the "cool" side.

When shooting outdoor portraits and sunny landscapes, try changing your white balance setting from auto to cloudy. That's right, cloudy. Why? This adjustment is like putting a mild warming filter on your camera. It increases the reds and yellows resulting in richer, warmer pictures.

Figure 1a is shot outdoors in a mountain environment with the white balance set to auto. Figure 1b shows warmer tones thanks to using the "cloudy" setting and a pair of Costa Del Mar sunglasses over the front lens. (Canon PowerShot S200, Program mode)	Figure 1a.
	Figure 1b.

If you don't believe me, then do a test. Take a few outdoor shots with the white balance on auto, then take the same picture again with the setting on cloudy. Upload the images to your computer and look at them side by side. My guess is that you'll like the warmer image better.

2: Sunglasses Polarizer

If you really want to add some punch to your images, then get your hands on a polarizing filter. A polarizer is the one filter every photographer should have handy for landscapes and general outdoor shooting. By reducing glare and unwanted reflections, polarized shots have richer, more saturated colors, especially in the sky.

What's that you say? Your digital camera can't accommodate filters. Don't despair. I've been using this trick for years with my point-and-shoot cameras. If you have a pair of quality sunglasses, then simply take them off and use them as your polarizing filter. Place the glasses as close to the camera lens as possible, then check their position in the LCD viewfinder to make sure you don't have the rims in the shot.

If your camera doesn't accept filters, then you can still achieve the effects of a polarizer by placing your sunglasses over the lens. Figure 2a is shot normally without any filtration. Figure 2b is shot during the same session, but with sunglasses placed over the lens. Notice the enhanced colors and deeper sky tones. (Canon PowerShot S200, Program mode)	Figure 2a.
	Figure 2b.

For the best effect, position yourself so the sun is over either your right or left shoulder. The polarizing effect is strongest when the light source is at a 90-degree angle from the subject.

3. Outdoor Portraits That Shine

One of the great hidden features on digital cameras is the fill flash or flash onmode. By taking control of the flash so it goes on when you want it to, not when the camera deems it appropriate, you've just taken an important step toward capturing great outdoor portraits.

In flash on mode, the camera exposes for the background first, then adds just enough flash to illuminate your portrait subject. The result is a professional looking picture where everything in the composition looks good. Wedding photographers have been using this technique for years.

Figure 3. By placing the subjects in the open shade beneath a tree and turning on the fill flash, both the boys and the background are properly exposed. (Canon PowerShot G2, 1/250th at f-4, flash on)

After you get the hang of using the flash outdoors, try a couple variations on this theme by positioning the subject so the sun illuminates the hair from the side or the back, often referred to as rim lighting. Another good technique is to put the model in the shade under a tree, then use the flash to illuminate the subject. This keeps the model comfortable and cool with no squinty eyes from the harsh sun, and this often results in a more relaxed looking portrait.

Remember, though, that most built-in camera flashes only have a range of 10 feet (or even less!), so make sure you don't stand too far away when using fill flash outdoors.

4. Macro Mode Madness

Remember as a kid discovering the whole new world beneath your feet while playing on the grass? When you got very close to the ground, you could see an entire community of creatures that you never knew existed.

These days, you might not want to lie on your belly in the backyard, but if you activate the close up mode on your digital camera and begin to explore your world in finer detail, you'll be rewarded with fresh new images unlike anything you've ever shot before.

Even the simplest object takes on new fascination in macro mode. And the best part is that it's so easy to do with digital cameras.

Figure 4. Nature looks much different, and sometimes more compelling, at close range. (Canon PowerShot G2, Programmed exposure, spot meter, Close Up mode, flash off)

Just look for the close up or macro mode icon, which is usually a flower symbol, turn it on, and get as close to an object as your camera will allow. Once you've found something to your liking, hold the shutter button down halfway to allow the camera to focus. When the confirmation light gives you the go ahead, press the shutter down the rest of the way to record the image.

Keep in mind that you have very shallow depth of field when using the close upmode, so focus on the part of the subject that's most important to you, and let the rest of the image go soft.

5. Horizon Line Mayhem

For some mysterious reason, most human beings have a hard time holding the camera level when using the LCD monitors on their digicams. The result can be cockeyed sunsets, lopsided landscapes, and tilted towers.

Part of the problem is that your camera's optics introduce distortion when rendering broad panoramas on tiny, two-inch screens. Those trees may be standing straight when you look at them with the naked eye, but they seem to be bowing inward on your camera's monitor. No wonder photographers become disoriented when lining up their shots.

Figure 5. How do you square up an image in the LCD viewfinder so it appears "level" when you view it later on the computer? Look for nature's horizontal lines and use them as guides. Sometimes you can use the line where the sky meets the ocean, other times you can use a strip of land as your level. In this case I used the shoreline of a mountain lake to help me align this composition. (Canon PowerShot G2, Aperture Priority exposure set to f-8, polarizer filter)

What can you do? Well, there's no silver bullet to solve all of your horizon line problems, but you can make improvements by keeping a few things in mind.

First of all, be aware that it's important to capture your images as level as possible. If you're having difficulty framing the scene to your liking, then take your best shot at a straight picture, reposition the camera slightly, take another picture, and then maybe one more with another adjustment. Chances are very good that one of the images will "feel right" when you review them on the computer. Simply discard the others once you find the perfectly aligned image.

If you practice level framing of your shots, over time the process will become more natural, and your percentage of level horizon lines will increase dramatically.

6: Massive Media Card

When you're figuring out the budget for your next digital camera, make sure you factor in the purchase of an additional memory card. Why? Because the cards included with your new high-tech wonder toy are about as satisfying as an airline bag of peanuts when you're dying of hunger.

If you have a 3 megapixel camera, get at least a 256MB card, 512MBs for 4 megapixel models, and 1GB for for 6 megapixels and up.

That way you'll never miss another shot because your memory card is full.

7: High Rez All the Way

One of the most important reasons for packing a massive memory card is to enable you to shoot at your camera's highest resolution. If you paid a premium price for a 6 megapixel digicam, then get your money's worth and shoot at 6 megapixels. And while you're at it, shoot at your camera's highest quality compression setting too.

Why not squeeze more images on your memory card by shooting a lower resolution and low quality compression settings? Because you never know when you're going to capture the next great image of the 21st century. And if you take a beautiful picture at the low 640 x 480 resolution, that means you can only make a print about the size of a credit card, not exactly the right dimensions for hanging in the museum.

8: Tolerable Tripod

I once overheard someone say, "He must be areal photographer because he's using a tripod." Well, whether or not you use a tripod has nothing to do with you being a true photographer. For certain types of shots though, these three-legged supports can be very useful.

The problem is tripods are a pain in the butt to carry around. They are bulky, unwieldily, and sometimes downright frustrating. Does the phrase "necessary evil" come to mind?

For digital shooters there's good news: theUltraPod II by Pedco. This compact, versatile, ingenious device fits in your back pocket and enables you to steady your camera in a variety of situations. You can open the legs and set it on any reasonable flat surface such as a tabletop or a boulder in the middle of nowhere. But you can also employ its Velcro strap and attach your camera to an available pole or tree limb.

Figure 6. The UltraPod II is lightweight and affordable (less than $20 typically).

You might not need a tripod that often, but when you do, nothing else will work. Save yourself the pain and money of a big heavy lug of a pod, and check out the svelte UltraPod. Yes, then you too can be a real photographer.

9: Self Timer Fun

Now that you have your UltraPod in hand, you can explore another under-used feature found on almost every digital camera: the self timer. This function delays the firing of the shutter (after the button has been pushed) for up to 10 seconds, fixing one of the age old problems in photography: the missing photographer.

Hey, just because you've been donned as the creative historian in your clan, that doesn't mean that your shining face should be absent from every frame of the family's pictorial accounting. You could hand your trusty digicam over to strangers while you jump in the shot, but then you take the chance of them dropping, or even worse, running off with your camera.

Instead, attach your UltraPod, line up the shot, activate the self timer, and get in the picture. This is usually a good time to turn on the flash to ensure even exposure of everyone in the composition (but remember that 10 foot flash range limit!). Also, make sure the focusing sensor is aimed at a person in the group and not the distant background, or you'll get very sharp trees and fuzzy family members.

Self timers are good for other situations, too. Are you interested in making long exposures of cars driving over the Golden Gate Bridge at dusk? Once again, secure your camera on a tripod, then trip the shutter using the self timer. By doing so, you prevent accidental jarring of the camera as you initiate the exposure.

10. Slow Motion Water

I come from a family where it's darn hard to impress them with my artsy pictures. One of the few exceptions happened recently when my sister commented that a series of water shots I had shown her looked like paintings. That was close enough to a compliment for me.

What she was responding to was one of my favorite types of photographs: slow motion water. These images are created by finding a nice composition with running water, then forcing the camera's shutter to stay open for a second or two, creating a soft, flowing effect of the water while all the other elements in the scene stay nice and sharp.

You can create a painterly effect with moving water by mounting your camera on a tripod and slowing the shutter to an exposure of 1 second or longer. (Canon PowerShot G2, Aperture priority set to f-8, shutter speed 1 second, polarizer filter, UltraPod II tripod)	Figure 7a.
	Figure 7b.

You'll need a tripod to steady the camera during the long exposure, and you probably should use the self timer to trip the shutter. If you camera has an aperture priority setting, use it and set the aperture to f-8, f-11, or f-16 if possible. This will give you greater depth of field and cause the shutter to slow down.

Ideally, you'll want an exposure of one second or longer to create the flowing effect of the water. That means you probably will want to look for streams and waterfalls that are in the shade instead of the bright sunlight.

Another trick is to use your sunglasses over the lens to darken the scene and create even a longer exposure. Plus you get the added bonus of eliminating distracting reflections from your composition.

Final Thoughts

Most digital cameras, even the consumer point-and-shoot models, have a tremendous amount of functionality built into them. By applying a little ingenuity and creativity, you can take shots that will make viewers ask, "So what kind of camera do you have?"

You can tell them the answer, but inside, you'll know it's not the camera responsible for those great pictures. It's the photographer.

History of Internet

2012-04-10T14:13:00.001+10:00

Source: Wikipedia

The history of the Internet began with the development of computers in the 1950s. This began with point-to-point communication between mainframe computers and terminals, expanded to point-to-point connections between computers and then early research into packet switching. Packet switched networks such as ARPANET, Mark I at NPL in the UK, CYCLADES, Merit Network, Tymnet, andTelenet, were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s using a variety of protocols. The ARPANET in particular led to the development of protocols for internetworking, where multiple separate networks could be joined together into a network of networks.

1974 ABC interview with Arthur C. Clarkein which he describes a future of ubiquitous networked personal computers.

In 1982 the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) was standardized and the concept of a world-wide network of fully interconnected TCP/IP networks called the Internet was introduced. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation (NSF) developed the Computer Science Network (CSNET) and again in 1986 when NSFNET provided access to supercomputer sites in the United States from research and education organizations. Commercial internet service providers (ISPs) began to emerge in the late 1980s and 1990s. The ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990. The Internet was commercialized in 1995 when NSFNET was decommissioned, removing the last restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic.

Since the mid-1990s the Internet has had a drastic impact on culture and commerce, including the rise of near-instant communication by electronic mail,instant messaging, Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) "phone calls", two-way interactive video calls, and the World Wide Web with its discussion forums,blogs, social networking, and online shopping sites. The research and education community continues to develop and use advanced networks such as NSF'svery high speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS), Internet2, and National LambdaRail. Increasing amounts of data are transmitted at higher and higher speeds over fiber optic networks operating at 1-Gbit/s, 10-Gbit/s, or more. The Internet continues to grow, driven by ever greater amounts of online information and knowledge, commerce, entertainment and social networking.

It is estimated that in 1993 the Internet carried only 1% of the information flowing through two-way telecommunication. By 2000 this figure had grown to 51%, and by 2007 more than 97% of all telecommunicated information was carried over the Internet.^[1]

Internet history timeline

Early research and development:

1961 First packet-switching papers
1966 Merit Network founded
1966 ARPANET planning starts
1969 ARPANET carries its first packets
1970 Mark I network at NPL (UK)
1970 Network Information Center(NIC)
1971 Merit Network's packet-switched network operational
1971 Tymnet packet-switched network
1972 Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) established
1973 CYCLADES network demonstrated
1974 Telenet packet-switched network
1976 X.25 protocol approved
1979 Internet Activities Board (IAB)
1980 USENET news using UUCP
1980 Ethernet standard introduced
1981 BITNET established

Merging the networks and creating the Internet:

1981 Computer Science Network(CSNET)
1982 TCP/IP protocol suite formalized
1982 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol(SMTP)
1983 Domain Name System (DNS)
1983 MILNET split off from ARPANET
1985 First .COM domain name registered
1986 NSFNET with 56 kbit/s links
1986 Internet Engineering Task Force(IETF)
1987 UUNET founded
1988 NSFNET upgraded to 1.5 Mbit/s (T1)
1988 OSI Reference Model released
1988 Morris worm
1989 Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
1989 PSINet founded, allows commercial traffic
1989 Federal Internet Exchanges(FIXes)
1990 GOSIP (without TCP/IP)
1990 ARPANET decommissioned
1990 Advanced Network and Services (ANS)
1990 UUNET/Alternet allows commercial traffic
1990 Archie search engine
1991 Wide area information server(WAIS)
1991 Gopher
1991 Commercial Internet eXchange(CIX)
1991 ANS CO+RE allows commercial traffic
1991 World Wide Web (WWW)
1992 NSFNET upgraded to 45 Mbit/s (T3)
1992 Internet Society (ISOC) established
1993 Classless Inter-Domain Routing(CIDR)
1993 InterNIC established
1993 Mosaic web browser released
1994 Full text web search engines
1994 North American Network Operators' Group (NANOG) established

Commercialization, privatization, broader access leads to the modern Internet:

1995 New Internet architecture with commercial ISPs connected at NAPs
1995 NSFNET decommissioned
1995 GOSIP updated to allow TCP/IP
1995 very high-speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS)
1995 IPv6 proposed
1998 Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers(ICANN)
1999 IEEE 802.11b wireless networking
1999 Internet2/Abilene Network
1999 vBNS+ allows broader access
2000 Dot-com bubble bursts
2001 New top-level domain names activated
2001 Code Red I, Code Red II, andNimda worms
2003 National LambdaRail founded
2006 First meeting of the Internet Governance Forum
2010 First internationalized country code top-level domains registered
2012 ICANA begins accepting applications for new generic top-level domain names

Examples of popular Internet services:

1990 IMDb Internet movie database
1995 Amazon.com online retailer
1995 eBay online auction and shopping
1995 Craigslist classified advertisements
1996 Hotmail free web-based e-mail
1997 Babel Fish automatic translation
1998 Google Search
1998 Yahoo! Clubs (now Yahoo! Groups)
1998 PayPal Internet payment system
1999 Napster peer-to-peer file sharing
2001 BitTorrent peer-to-peer file sharing
2001 Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
2003 LinkedIn business networking
2003 Myspace social networking site
2003 Skype Internet voice calls
2003 iTunes Store
2004 Facebook social networking site
2004 Podcast media file series
2004 Flickr image hosting
2005 YouTube video sharing
2005 Google Earth virtual globe
2006 Twitter microblogging
2007 WikiLeaks anonymous news and information leaks
2007 Google Street View
2008 Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud(EC2)
2008 Dropbox cloud-based file hosting
2009 Bing search engine
2011 Google+ social networking

Further information: Timeline of popular Internet services

[hide]

Precursors

Three terminals and an ARPA

Main articles: RAND Corporation and ARPANET

A fundamental pioneer in the call for a global network, J. C. R. Licklider, articulated the ideas in his January 1960 paper, Man-Computer Symbiosis.

"A network of such [computers], connected to one another by wide-band communication lines [which provided] the functions of present-day libraries together with anticipated advances in information storage and retrieval and [other] symbiotic functions."

—J.C.R. Licklider, ^[2]

In August 1962, Licklider and Welden Clark published the paper "On-Line Man Computer Communication", one of the first descriptions of a networked future.

In October 1962, Licklider was hired by Jack Ruina as Director of the newly established Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) within DARPA, with a mandate to interconnect the United States Department of Defense's main computers at Cheyenne Mountain, the Pentagon, and SAC HQ. There he formed an informal group within DARPA to further computer research. He began by writing memos describing a distributed network to the IPTO staff, whom he called "Members and Affiliates of the Intergalactic Computer Network". As part of the information processing office's role, three network terminals had been installed: one for System Development Corporation in Santa Monica, one for Project Genie at the University of California, Berkeley and one for the Compatible Time-Sharing System project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Licklider's identified need for inter-networking would be made obvious by the apparent waste of resources this caused.

"For each of these three terminals, I had three different sets of user commands. So if I was talking online with someone at S.D.C. and I wanted to talk to someone I knew at Berkeley or M.I.T. about this, I had to get up from the S.D.C. terminal, go over and log into the other terminal and get in touch with them. [...] I said, it's obvious what to do (But I don't want to do it): If you have these three terminals, there ought to be one terminal that goes anywhere you want to go where you have interactive computing. That idea is the ARPAnet."

—Robert W. Taylor, co-writer with Licklider of "The Computer as a Communications Device", in an interview with The New York Times, ^[3]

Although he left the IPTO in 1964, five years before the ARPANET went live, it was his vision of universal networking that provided the impetus that led his successors such as Lawrence Roberts and Robert Taylor to further the ARPANET development. Licklider later returned to lead the IPTO in 1973 for two years.^[4]

Packet switching

Main article: Packet switching

At the tip of the problem lay the issue of connecting separate physical networks to form one logical network. During the 1960s, Paul Baran (RAND Corporation), produced a study of survivable networks for the US military. Information transmitted across Baran's network would be divided into what he called 'message-blocks'. Independently, Donald Davies (National Physical Laboratory, UK), proposed and developed a similar network based on what he called packet-switching, the term that would ultimately be adopted. Leonard Kleinrock (MIT) developed mathematical theory behind this technology. Packet-switching provides better bandwidth utilization and response times than the traditional circuit-switching technology used for telephony, particularly on resource-limited interconnection links.^[5]

Packet switching is a rapid store-and-forward networking design that divides messages up into arbitrary packets, with routing decisions made per-packet. Early networks used message switched systems that required rigid routing structures prone to single point of failure. This led Tommy Krash and Paul Baran's U.S. military funded research to focus on using message-blocks to include network redundancy,^[6] which in turn led to the widespread urban legend that the Internet was designed to resist nuclear attack.^[7]^[8]

Networks that led to the Internet

ARPANET

Main article: ARPANET

Len Kleinrock and the first Interface Message Processor.^[9]

Promoted to the head of the information processing office at DARPA, Robert Taylor intended to realize Licklider's ideas of an interconnected networking system. Bringing in Larry Roberts from MIT, he initiated a project to build such a network. The first ARPANET link was established between the University of California, Los Angeles and the Stanford Research Institute on 22:30 hours on October 29, 1969.

"We set up a telephone connection between us and the guys at SRI ...", Kleinrock ... said in an interview: "We typed the L and we asked on the phone,

"Do you see the L?"
"Yes, we see the L," came the response.
We typed the O, and we asked, "Do you see the O."
"Yes, we see the O."
Then we typed the G, and the system crashed ...
Yet a revolution had begun" ....^[10]

By December 5, 1969, a 4-node network was connected by adding the University of Utah and the University of California, Santa Barbara. Building on ideas developed in ALOHAnet, the ARPANET grew rapidly. By 1981, the number of hosts had grown to 213, with a new host being added approximately every twenty days.^[11]^[12]

ARPANET became the technical core of what would become the Internet, and a primary tool in developing the technologies used. ARPANET development was centered around the Request for Comments (RFC) process, still used today for proposing and distributing Internet Protocols and Systems. RFC 1, entitled "Host Software", was written by Steve Crocker from the University of California, Los Angeles, and published on April 7, 1969. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing.

International collaborations on ARPANET were sparse. For various political reasons, European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks. Notable exceptions were the Norwegian Seismic Array (NORSAR) in 1972, followed in 1973 by Sweden with satellite links to the Tanum Earth Station and Peter Kirstein's research group in the UK, initially at the Institute of Computer Science, London University and later at University College London.^[13]

NPL

In 1965, Donald Davies of the National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom) proposed a national data network based on packet-switching. The proposal was not taken up nationally, but by 1970 he had designed and built the Mark I packet-switched network to meet the needs of the multidisciplinary laboratory and prove the technology under operational conditions.^[14] By 1976 12 computers and 75 terminal devices were attached and more were added until the network was replaced in 1986.

Merit Network

The Merit Network^[15] was formed in 1966 as the Michigan Educational Research Information Triad to explore computer networking between three of Michigan's public universities as a means to help the state's educational and economic development.^[16] With initial support from the State of Michigan and the National Science Foundation (NSF), the packet-switched network was first demonstrated in December 1971 when an interactive host to host connection was made between the IBM mainframe computer systems at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor and Wayne State University in Detroit.^[17] In October 1972 connections to the CDC mainframe at Michigan State University in East Lansing completed the triad. Over the next several years in addition to host to host interactive connections the network was enhanced to support terminal to host connections, host to host batch connections (remote job submission, remote printing, batch file transfer), interactive file transfer, gateways to the Tymnet and Telenet public data networks, X.25 host attachments, gateways to X.25 data networks, Ethernet attached hosts, and eventually TCP/IP and additional public universities in Michigan join the network.^[17]^[18] All of this set the stage for Merit's role in the NSFNET project starting in the mid-1980s.

CYCLADES

The CYCLADES packet switching network was a French research network designed and directed by Louis Pouzin. First demonstrated in 1973, it was developed to explore alternatives to the initial ARPANET design and to support network research generally. It was the first network to make the hosts responsible for the reliable delivery of data, rather than the network itself, using unreliable datagrams and associated end-to-end protocol mechanisms.^[19]^[20]

X.25 and public data networks

Main articles: X.25, Bulletin board system, and FidoNet

Based on ARPA's research, packet switching network standards were developed by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in the form of X.25 and related standards. While using packet switching, X.25 is built on the concept of virtual circuits emulating traditional telephone connections. In 1974, X.25 formed the basis for the SERCnet network between British academic and research sites, which later became JANET. The initial ITU Standard on X.25 was approved in March 1976.^[21]

The British Post Office, Western Union International and Tymnet collaborated to create the first international packet switched network, referred to as theInternational Packet Switched Service (IPSS), in 1978. This network grew from Europe and the US to cover Canada, Hong Kong and Australia by 1981. By the 1990s it provided a worldwide networking infrastructure.^[22]

Unlike ARPANET, X.25 was commonly available for business use. Telenet offered its Telemail electronic mail service, which was also targeted to enterprise use rather than the general email system of the ARPANET.

The first public dial-in networks used asynchronous TTY terminal protocols to reach a concentrator operated in the public network. Some networks, such asCompuServe, used X.25 to multiplex the terminal sessions into their packet-switched backbones, while others, such as Tymnet, used proprietary protocols. In 1979, CompuServe became the first service to offer electronic mail capabilities and technical support to personal computer users. The company broke new ground again in 1980 as the first to offer real-time chat with its CB Simulator. Other major dial-in networks were America Online (AOL) and Prodigy that also provided communications, content, and entertainment features. Many bulletin board system (BBS) networks also provided on-line access, such as FidoNetwhich was popular amongst hobbyist computer users, many of them hackers and amateur radio operators.^{[citation needed]}

UUCP and Usenet

Main articles: UUCP and Usenet

In 1979, two students at Duke University, Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis, came up with the idea of using simple Bourne shell scripts to transfer news and messages on a serial line UUCP connection with nearby University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Following public release of the software, the mesh of UUCP hosts forwarding on the Usenet news rapidly expanded. UUCPnet, as it would later be named, also created gateways and links between FidoNet and dial-up BBS hosts. UUCP networks spread quickly due to the lower costs involved, ability to use existing leased lines, X.25 links or even ARPANET connections, and the lack of strict use policies (commercial organizations who might provide bug fixes) compared to later networks like CSnet and Bitnet. All connects were local. By 1981 the number of UUCP hosts had grown to 550, nearly doubling to 940 in 1984. – Sublink Network, operating since 1987 and officially founded in Italy in 1989, based its interconnectivity upon UUCP to redistribute mail and news groups messages throughout its Italian nodes (about 100 at the time) owned both by private individuals and small companies. Sublink Network represented possibly one of the first examples of the internet technology becoming progress through popular diffusion.^[23]

Merging the networks and creating the Internet (1973–90)

TCP/IP

Map of the TCP/IP test network in February 1982

Main article: Internet Protocol Suite

With so many different network methods, something was needed to unify them. Robert E. Kahn of DARPA and ARPANET recruited Vinton Cerf of Stanford University to work with him on the problem. By 1973, they had worked out a fundamental reformulation, where the differences between network protocols were hidden by using a common internetwork protocol, and instead of the network being responsible for reliability, as in the ARPANET, the hosts became responsible. Cerf credits Hubert Zimmerman, Gerard LeLann and Louis Pouzin (designer of the CYCLADES network) with important work on this design.^[24]

The specification of the resulting protocol, RFC 675 – Specification of Internet Transmission Control Program, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal and Carl Sunshine, Network Working Group, December 1974, contains the first attested use of the term internet, as a shorthand for internetworking; later RFCs repeat this use, so the word started out as an adjective rather than the noun it is today.

A Stanford Research Institute packet radio van, site of the first three-wayinternetworked transmission.

With the role of the network reduced to the bare minimum, it became possible to join almost any networks together, no matter what their characteristics were, thereby solving Kahn's initial problem. DARPA agreed to fund development of prototype software, and after several years of work, the first demonstration of a gateway between the Packet Radio network in the SF Bay area and the ARPANET was conducted by the Stanford Research Institute. On November 22, 1977 a three network demonstration was conducted including the ARPANET, the Packet Radio Network and the Atlantic Packet Satellite network.^[25]^[26]

Stemming from the first specifications of TCP in 1974, TCP/IP emerged in mid-late 1978 in nearly final form. By 1981, the associated standards were published as RFCs 791, 792 and 793 and adopted for use. DARPA sponsored or encouraged the development of TCP/IP implementations for many operating systems and then scheduled a migration of all hosts on all of its packet networks to TCP/IP. On January 1, 1983, known as flag day, TCP/IP protocols became the only approved protocol on the ARPANET, replacing the earlier NCP protocol.^[27]

ARPANET to the federal wide area networks: MILNET, NSI, ESNet, CSNET, and NSFNET

Main articles: ARPANET and NSFNET

BBN Technologies TCP/IP internet map early 1986

After the ARPANET had been up and running for several years, ARPA looked for another agency to hand off the network to; ARPA's primary mission was funding cutting edge research and development, not running a communications utility. Eventually, in July 1975, the network had been turned over to the Defense Communications Agency, also part of the Department of Defense. In 1983, the U.S. military portion of the ARPANET was broken off as a separate network, the MILNET. MILNET subsequently became the unclassified but military-only NIPRNET, in parallel with the SECRET-level SIPRNET and JWICS for TOP SECRET and above. NIPRNET does have controlled security gateways to the public Internet.

The networks based on the ARPANET were government funded and therefore restricted to noncommercial uses such as research; unrelated commercial use was strictly forbidden. This initially restricted connections to military sites and universities. During the 1980s, the connections expanded to more educational institutions, and even to a growing number of companies such as Digital Equipment Corporationand Hewlett-Packard, which were participating in research projects or providing services to those who were.

Several other branches of the U.S. government, the National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA), the National Science Foundation(NSF), and the Department of Energy (DOE) became heavily involved in Internet research and started development of a successor to ARPANET. In the mid 1980s, all three of these branches developed the first Wide Area Networks based on TCP/IP. NASA developed the NASA Science Network, NSF developed CSNET and DOE evolved the Energy Sciences Network or ESNet.

T3 NSFNET Backbone, c. 1992

NASA developed the TCP/IP based NASA Science Network (NSN) in the mid 1980s, connecting space scientists to data and information stored anywhere in the world. In 1989, the DECnet-based Space Physics Analysis Network (SPAN) and the TCP/IP-based NASA Science Network (NSN) were brought together at NASA Ames Research Center creating the first multiprotocol wide area network called the NASA Science Internet, or NSI. NSI was established to provide a totally integrated communications infrastructure to the NASA scientific community for the advancement of earth, space and life sciences. As a high-speed, multiprotocol, international network, NSI provided connectivity to over 20,000 scientists across all seven continents.

In 1981 NSF supported the development of the Computer Science Network (CSNET). CSNET connected with ARPANET using TCP/IP, and ran TCP/IP over X.25, but it also supported departments without sophisticated network connections, using automated dial-up mail exchange. Its experience with CSNET lead NSF to use TCP/IP when it created NSFNET, a 56 kbit/s backbone established in 1986, that connected the NSF supported supercomputing centers and regional research and education networks in the United States.^[28] However, use of NSFNET was not limited to supercomputer users and the 56 kbit/s network quickly became overloaded. NSFNET was upgraded to 1.5 Mbit/s in 1988. The existence of NSFNET and the creation of Federal Internet Exchanges (FIXes) allowed the ARPANET to be decommissioned in 1990. NSFNET was expanded and upgraded to 45 Mbit/s in 1991, and was decommissioned in 1995 when it was replaced by backbones operated by several commercial Internet Service Providers.

Transition towards the Internet

The term "internet" was adopted in the first RFC published on the TCP protocol (RFC 675:^[29] Internet Transmission Control Program, December 1974) as an abbreviation of the term internetworkingand the two terms were used interchangeably. In general, an internet was any network using TCP/IP. It was around the time when ARPANET was interlinked with NSFNET in the late 1980s, that the term was used as the name of the network, Internet,^[30] being a large and global TCP/IP network.

As interest in widespread networking grew and new applications for it were developed, the Internet's technologies spread throughout the rest of the world. The network-agnostic approach in TCP/IP meant that it was easy to use any existing network infrastructure, such as the IPSS X.25 network, to carry Internet traffic. In 1984, University College London replaced its transatlantic satellite links with TCP/IP over IPSS.^[31]

Many sites unable to link directly to the Internet started to create simple gateways to allow transfer of e-mail, at that time the most important application. Sites which only had intermittent connections used UUCP or FidoNet and relied on the gateways between these networks and the Internet. Some gateway services went beyond simple email peering, such as allowing access to FTP sites via UUCP or e-mail.

Finally, the Internet's remaining centralized routing aspects were removed. The EGP routing protocol was replaced by a new protocol, the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). This turned the Internet into a meshed topology and moved away from the centric architecture which ARPANET had emphasized. In 1994, Classless Inter-Domain Routing was introduced to support better conservation of address space which allowed use of route aggregation to decrease the size of routing tables.^[32]

TCP/IP goes global (1989–2010)

CERN, the European Internet, the link to the Pacific and beyond

Between 1984 and 1988 CERN began installation and operation of TCP/IP to interconnect its major internal computer systems, workstations, PCs and an accelerator control system. CERN continued to operate a limited self-developed system CERNET internally and several incompatible (typically proprietary) network protocols externally. There was considerable resistance in Europe towards more widespread use of TCP/IP and the CERN TCP/IP intranets remained isolated from the Internet until 1989.

In 1988 Daniel Karrenberg, from Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica (CWI) in Amsterdam, visited Ben Segal, CERN's TCP/IP Coordinator, looking for advice about the transition of the European side of the UUCP Usenet network (much of which ran over X.25 links) over to TCP/IP. In 1987, Ben Segal had met with Len Bosack from the then still small company Cisco about purchasing some TCP/IP routers for CERN, and was able to give Karrenberg advice and forward him on to Cisco for the appropriate hardware. This expanded the European portion of the Internet across the existing UUCP networks, and in 1989 CERN opened its first external TCP/IP connections.^[33] This coincided with the creation of Réseaux IP Européens (RIPE), initially a group of IP network administrators who met regularly to carry out co-ordination work together. Later, in 1992, RIPE was formally registered as a cooperative in Amsterdam.

At the same time as the rise of internetworking in Europe, ad hoc networking to ARPA and in-between Australian universities formed, based on various technologies such as X.25 and UUCPNet. These were limited in their connection to the global networks, due to the cost of making individual international UUCP dial-up or X.25 connections. In 1989, Australian universities joined the push towards using IP protocols to unify their networking infrastructures. AARNet was formed in 1989 by the Australian Vice-Chancellors' Committee and provided a dedicated IP based network for Australia.

The Internet began to penetrate Asia in the late 1980s. Japan, which had built the UUCP-based network JUNET in 1984, connected to NSFNET in 1989. It hosted the annual meeting of the Internet Society, INET'92, in Kobe. Singapore developed TECHNET in 1990, and Thailand gained a global Internet connection between Chulalongkorn University and UUNET in 1992.^[34]

Global digital divide

Main articles: Global digital divide and Digital divide

While developed countries with technological infrastructures were joining the Internet, developing countries began to experience a digital divide separating them from the Internet. On an essentially continental basis, they are building organizations for Internet resource administration and sharing operational experience, as more and more transmission facilities go into place.

Africa

At the beginning of the 1990s, African countries relied upon X.25 IPSS and 2400 baud modem UUCP links for international and internetwork computer communications.

In August 1995, InfoMail Uganda, Ltd., a privately held firm in Kampala now known as InfoCom, and NSN Network Services of Avon, Colorado, sold in 1997 and now known as Clear Channel Satellite, established Africa's first native TCP/IP high-speed satellite Internet services. The data connection was originally carried by a C-Band RSCC Russian satellite which connected InfoMail's Kampala offices directly to NSN's MAE-West point of presence using a private network from NSN's leased ground station in New Jersey. InfoCom's first satellite connection was just 64 kbit/s, serving a Sun host computer and twelve US Robotics dial-up modems.

In 1996 a USAID funded project, the Leland initiative, started work on developing full Internet connectivity for the continent. Guinea, Mozambique, Madagascar and Rwanda gained satellite earth stations in 1997, followed by Côte d'Ivoire and Benin in 1998.

Africa is building an Internet infrastructure. AfriNIC, headquartered in Mauritius, manages IP address allocation for the continent. As do the other Internet regions, there is an operational forum, the Internet Community of Operational Networking Specialists.^[35]

There are a wide range of programs both to provide high-performance transmission plant, and the western and southern coasts have undersea optical cable. High-speed cables join North Africa and the Horn of Africa to intercontinental cable systems. Undersea cable development is slower for East Africa; the original joint effort between New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) and the East Africa Submarine System (Eassy) has broken off and may become two efforts.^[36]

Asia and Oceania

The Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC), headquartered in Australia, manages IP address allocation for the continent. APNIC sponsors an operational forum, the Asia-Pacific Regional Internet Conference on Operational Technologies (APRICOT).^[37]

In 1991, the People's Republic of China saw its first TCP/IP college network, Tsinghua University's TUNET. The PRC went on to make its first global Internet connection in 1994, between the Beijing Electro-Spectrometer Collaboration and Stanford University's Linear Accelerator Center. However, China went on to implement its own digital divide by implementing a country-wide content filter.^[38]

Latin America

As with the other regions, the Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry (LACNIC) manages the IP address space and other resources for its area. LACNIC, headquartered in Uruguay, operates DNS root, reverse DNS, and other key services.

Opening the network to commerce

The interest in commercial use of the Internet became a hotly debated topic. Although commercial use was forbidden, the exact definition of commercial use could be unclear and subjective. UUCPNet and the X.25 IPSS had no such restrictions, which would eventually see the official barring of UUCPNet use of ARPANET and NSFNET connections. Some UUCP links still remained connecting to these networks however, as administrators cast a blind eye to their operation.

During the late 1980s, the first Internet service provider (ISP) companies were formed. Companies like PSINet, UUNET, Netcom, and Portal Software were formed to provide service to the regional research networks and provide alternate network access, UUCP-based email and Usenet News to the public. The first commercial dialup ISP in the United States was The World, opened in 1989.^[39]

In 1992, the U.S. Congress passed the Scientific and Advanced-Technology Act, 42 U.S.C. § 1862(g), which allowed NSF to support access by the research and education communities to computer networks which were not used exclusively for research and education purposes, thus permitting NSFNET to interconnect with commercial networks.^[40]^[41] This caused controversy within the research and education community, who were concerned commercial use of the network might lead to an Internet that was less responsive to their needs, and within the community of commercial network providers, who felt that government subsidies were giving an unfair advantage to some organizations.^[42]

By 1990, ARPANET had been overtaken and replaced by newer networking technologies and the project came to a close. New network service providers including PSINet, Alternet, CERFNet, ANS CO+RE, and many others were offering network access to commercial customers. NSFNET was no longer the de facto backbone and exchange point for Internet. The Commercial Internet eXchange (CIX), Metropolitan Area Exchanges (MAEs), and later Network Access Points (NAPs) were becoming the primary interconnections between many networks. The final restrictions on carrying commercial traffic ended on April 30, 1995 when the National Science Foundation ended its sponsorship of the NSFNET Backbone Service and the service ended.^[43]^[44] NSF provided initial support for the NAPs and interim support to help the regional research and education networks transition to commercial ISPs. NSF also sponsored the very high speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS) which continued to provide support for the supercomputing centers and research and education in the United States.^[45]

Futurology: Beyond Earth and TCP/IP (2010 and beyond)

The first live Internet link into low earth orbit was established on January 22, 2010 when astronaut T. J. Creamer posted the first unassisted update to his Twitter account from the International Space Station, marking the extension of the Internet into space. (Astronauts at the ISS had used email and Twitter before, but these messages had been relayed to the ground through a NASA data link before being posted by a human proxy.) This personal Web access, which NASA calls the Crew Support LAN, uses the space station's high-speed Ku band microwave link. To surf the Web, astronauts can use a station laptop computer to control a desktop computer on Earth, and they can talk to their families and friends on Earth using Voice over IP equipment.^[46]

Communication with spacecraft beyond earth orbit has traditionally been over point-to-point links through the Deep Space Network. Each such data link must be manually scheduled and configured. In the late 1990s NASA and Google began working on a new network protocol, Delay-tolerant networking (DTN) which automates this process, allows networking of spaceborn transmission nodes, and takes the fact into account that spacecraft can temporarily lose contact because they move behind the Moon or planets, or because space "weather" disrupts the connection. Under such conditions, DTN retransmits data packages instead of dropping them, as the standard TCP/IP internet protocol does. NASA conducted the first field test of what it calls the "deep space internet" in November 2008.^[47] This network technology is supposed to enable missions that involve multiple spacecraft where reliable inter-vessel communication might take precedence over vessel-to-earth downlinks.

Internet governance

Main article: Internet governance

As a globally distributed network of voluntarily interconnected autonomous networks, the Internet operates without a central governing body. It has no centralized governance for either technology or policies; each constituent network sets its own standards. Only the overreaching definitions of the two principal name spaces in the Internet, the Internet Protocol address space and the Domain Name System, are directed by a maintainer organization, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). Voluntary technical standards are developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).

NIC, InterNIC, IANA and ICANN

Main articles: InterNIC, Internet Assigned Numbers Authority, and ICANN

The first authority to coordinate the operation of the network was the Network Information Centre (NIC) at Stanford Research Institute (SRI) in Menlo Park, California. In 1972, management of these issues was given to the newly created Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). In addition to his role as the RFC Editor, Jon Postel worked as the manager of IANA until his death in 1998.

As the early ARPANET grew, hosts were referred to by names, and a HOSTS.TXT file would be distributed from SRI International to each host on the network. As the network grew, this became cumbersome. A technical solution came in the form of the Domain Name System, created by Paul Mockapetris. The Defense Data Network—Network Information Center (DDN-NIC) at SRI handled all registration services, including the top-level domains (TLDs) of .mil, .gov, .edu, .org, .net, .com and .us, root nameserver administration and Internet number assignments under a United States Department of Defense contract.^[48] In 1991, the Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) awarded the administration and maintenance of DDN-NIC (managed by SRI up until this point) to Government Systems, Inc., who subcontracted it to the small private-sector Network Solutions, Inc.^[49]^[50]

Since at this point in history most of the growth on the Internet was coming from non-military sources, it was decided that the Department of Defense would no longer fund registration services outside of the .mil TLD. In 1993 the U.S. National Science Foundation, after a competitive bidding process in 1992, created the InterNIC to manage the allocations of addresses and management of the address databases, and awarded the contract to three organizations. Registration Services would be provided by Network Solutions; Directory and Database Services would be provided by AT&T; and Information Services would be provided by General Atomics.^[51]

In 1998 both IANA and InterNIC were reorganized under the control of ICANN, a California non-profit corporation contracted by the United States Department of Commerce to manage a number of Internet-related tasks. The role of operating the DNS system was privatized and opened up to competition, while the central management of name allocations would be awarded on a contract tender basis.

Internet Engineering Task Force

Main article: Internet Engineering Task Force

The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is the largest and most visible of several loosely related ad-hoc groups that provide technical direction for the Internet, including the Internet Architecture Board (IAB), the Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG), and the Internet Research Task Force (IRTF).

The IETF is a loosely self-organized group of international volunteers who contribute to the engineering and evolution of Internet technologies. It is the principal body engaged in the development of new Internet standard specifications. Much of the IETF's work is done in Working Groups. It does not "run the Internet", despite what some people might mistakenly say. The IETF does make voluntary standards that are often adopted by Internet users, but it does not control, or even patrol, the Internet.^[52]^[53]

The IETF started in January 1986 as a quarterly meeting of U.S. government funded researchers. Non-government representatives were invited starting with the fourth IETF meeting in October 1986. The concept of Working Groups was introduced at the fifth IETF meeting in February 1987. The seventh IETF meeting in July 1987 was the first meeting with more than 100 attendees. In 1992, the Internet Society, a professional membership society, was formed and IETF began to operate under it as an independent international standards body. The first IETF meeting outside of the United States was held in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, in July 1993. Today the IETF meets three times a year and attendnce is often about 1,300 people, but has been as high as 2,000 upon occasion. Typically one in three IETF meetings are held in Europe or Asia. The number of non-US attendees is roughly 50%, even at meetings held in the United States.^[52]

The IETF is unusual in that it exists as a collection of happenings, but is not a corporation and has no board of directors, no members, and no dues. The closest thing there is to being an IETF member is being on the IETF or a Working Group mailing list. IETF volunteers come from all over the world and from many different parts of the Internet community. The IETF works closely with and under the supervision of the Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG)^[54] and the Internet Architecture Board (IAB).^[55] The Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) and the Internet Research Steering Group(IRSG), peer activities to the IETF and IESG under the general supervision of the IAB, focus on longer term research issues.^[56]^[52]

Request for Comments

Main article: Request for Comments

Request for Comments (RFCs) are the main documentation for the work of the IAB, IESG, IETF, and IRTF. RFC 1, "Host Software", was written by Steve Crocker at UCLA in April 1969, well before the IETF was created. Originally they were technical memos documenting aspects of ARPANET development and were edited by the late Jon Postel, the first RFC Editor.^[52]^[57]

RFCs cover a wide range of information from proposed standards, draft standards, full standards, best practices, experimental protocols, history, and other informational topics.^[58] RFCs can be written by individuals or informal groups of individuals, but many are the product of a more formal Working Group. Drafts are submitted to the IESG either by individuals or by the Working Group Chair. An RFC Editor, appointed by the IAB, separate from IANA, and working in conjunction with the IESG, receives drafts from the IESG and edits, formats, and publishes them. Once an RFC is published, it is never revised. If the standard it describes changes or its information becomes obsolete, the revised standard or updated information will be re-published as a new RFC that "obsoletes" the original.^[52]^[57]

The Internet Society

Main article: Internet Society

The Internet Society or ISOC is an international, nonprofit organization founded during 1992 to "to assure the open development, evolution and use of the Internet for the benefit of all people throughout the world". With offices near Washington, DC, USA, and in Geneva, Switzerland, ISOC has a membership base comprising more than 80 organizational and more than 50,000 individual members. Members also form "chapters" based on either common geographical location or special interests. There are currently more than 90 chapters around the world.^[59]

ISOC provides financial and organizational support to and promotes the work of the standards settings bodies for which it is the organizational home: the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), theInternet Architecture Board (IAB), the Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG), and the Internet Research Task Force (IRTF). ISOC also promotes understanding and appreciation of the Internet model of open, transparent processes and consensus-based decision making.^[60]

Globalization and Internet governance in the 21st century

Since the 1990s, the Internet's governance and organization has been of global importance to governments, commerce, civil society, and individuals. The organizations which held control of certain technical aspects of the Internet were the successors of the old ARPANET oversight and the current decision-makers in the day-to-day technical aspects of the network. While recognized as the administrators of certain aspects of the Internet, their roles and their decision making authority are limited and subject to increasing international scrutiny and increasingly objections. These objections have led to the ICANN removing themselves from relationships with first the University of Southern California in 2000,^[61] and finally in September 2009, gaining autonomy from the US government by the ending of its longstanding agreements, although some contractual obligations with the U.S. Department of Commerce continued.^[62]^[63]^[64]

The IETF, with financial and organizational support from the Internet Society, continues to serve as the Internet's ad-hoc standards body and issues Request for Comments.

In November 2005, the World Summit on the Information Society, held in Tunis, called for an Internet Governance Forum (IGF) to be convened by United Nations Secretary General. The IGF opened an ongoing, non-binding conversation among stakeholders representing governments, the private sector, civil society, and the technical and academic communities about the future of Internet governance. The first IGF meeting was held in October/November 2006 with follow on meetings annually thereafter.^[65] Since WSIS, the term "Internet governance" has been broadened beyond narrow technical concerns to include a wider range of Internet-related policy issues.^[66]^[67]

Use and culture

Main article: Sociology of the Internet

E-mail and Usenet

Main articles: e-mail, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, and Usenet

E-mail is often called the killer application of the Internet. However, it actually predates the Internet and was a crucial tool in creating it. Email started in 1965 as a way for multiple users of a time-sharing mainframe computer to communicate. Although the history is unclear, among the first systems to have such a facility were SDC's Q32 and MIT's CTSS.^[68]

The ARPANET computer network made a large contribution to the evolution of e-mail. There is one report^[69] indicating experimental inter-system e-mail transfers on it shortly after ARPANET's creation. In 1971 Ray Tomlinson created what was to become the standard Internet e-mail address format, using the @ sign to separate user names from host names.^[70]

A number of protocols were developed to deliver e-mail among groups of time-sharing computers over alternative transmission systems, such as UUCP and IBM's VNET e-mail system. E-mail could be passed this way between a number of networks, including ARPANET, BITNET and NSFNET, as well as to hosts connected directly to other sites via UUCP. See the history of SMTP protocol.

In addition, UUCP allowed the publication of text files that could be read by many others. The News software developed by Steve Daniel and Tom Truscott in 1979 was used to distribute news and bulletin board-like messages. This quickly grew into discussion groups, known as newsgroups, on a wide range of topics. On ARPANET and NSFNET similar discussion groups would form via mailing lists, discussing both technical issues and more culturally focused topics (such as science fiction, discussed on the sflovers mailing list).

During the early years of the Internet, e-mail and similar mechanisms were also fundamental to allow people to access resources that were not available due to the absence of online connectivity. UUCP was often used to distribute files using the 'alt.binary' groups. Also, FTP e-mail gateways allowed people that lived outside the US and Europe to download files using ftp commands written inside e-email messages. The file was encoded, broken in pieces and sent by e-mail; the receiver had to reassemble and decode it later, and it was the only way for people living overseas to download items such as the earlier Linux versions using the slow dial-up connections available at the time. After the popularization of the Web and the HTTP protocol such tools were slowly abandoned.

From gopher to the WWW

Main articles: History of the World Wide Web and World Wide Web

As the Internet grew through the 1980s and early 1990s, many people realized the increasing need to be able to find and organize files and information. Projects such as Gopher, WAIS, and the FTP Archive list attempted to create ways to organize distributed data. Unfortunately, these projects fell short in being able to accommodate all the existing data types and in being able to grow without bottlenecks.^{[citation needed]}

One of the most promising user interface paradigms during this period was hypertext. The technology had been inspired by Vannevar Bush's "Memex"^[71] and developed through Ted Nelson's research on Project Xanadu and Douglas Engelbart's research on NLS.^[72] Many small self-contained hypertext systems had been created before, such as Apple Computer's HyperCard (1987). Gopher became the first commonly-used hypertext interface to the Internet. While Gopher menu items were examples of hypertext, they were not commonly perceived in that way.

This NeXT Computer was used by Sir Tim Berners-Lee at CERN and became the world's first Web server.

In 1989, while working at CERN, Tim Berners-Lee invented a network-based implementation of the hypertext concept. By releasing his invention to public use, he ensured the technology would become widespread.^[73] For his work in developing the World Wide Web, Berners-Lee received the Millennium technology prize in 2004.^[74] One early popular web browser, modeled after HyperCard, was ViolaWWW.

A potential turning point for the World Wide Web began with the introduction^[75] of the Mosaic web browser^[76] in 1993, a graphical browser developed by a team at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (NCSA-UIUC), led by Marc Andreessen. Funding for Mosaic came from the High-Performance Computing and Communications Initiative, a funding program initiated by the High Performance Computing and Communication Act of 1991 also known as the Gore Bill.^[77] Indeed, Mosaic's graphical interface soon became more popular than Gopher, which at the time was primarily text-based, and the WWW became the preferred interface for accessing the Internet. (Gore's reference to his role in "creating the Internet", however, was ridiculed in his presidential election campaign. See the full article Al Gore and information technology).

Mosaic was eventually superseded in 1994 by Andreessen's Netscape Navigator, which replaced Mosaic as the world's most popular browser. While it held this title for some time, eventually competition from Internet Explorer and a variety of other browsers almost completely displaced it. Another important event held on January 11, 1994, was The Superhighway Summit at UCLA's Royce Hall. This was the "first public conference bringing together all of the major industry, government and academic leaders in the field [and] also began the national dialogue about the Information Superhighway and its implications."^[78]

24 Hours in Cyberspace, "the largest one-day online event" (February 8, 1996) up to that date, took place on the then-active website, cyber24.com.^[79]^[80] It was headed by photographer Rick Smolan.^[81] A photographic exhibition was unveiled at the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of American History on January 23, 1997, featuring 70 photos from the project.^[82]

Search engines

Main article: Search engine (computing)

Even before the World Wide Web, there were search engines that attempted to organize the Internet. The first of these was the Archie search engine from McGill University in 1990, followed in 1991 byWAIS and Gopher. All three of those systems predated the invention of the World Wide Web but all continued to index the Web and the rest of the Internet for several years after the Web appeared. There are still Gopher servers as of 2006, although there are a great many more web servers.

As the Web grew, search engines and Web directories were created to track pages on the Web and allow people to find things. The first full-text Web search engine was WebCrawler in 1994. Before WebCrawler, only Web page titles were searched. Another early search engine, Lycos, was created in 1993 as a university project, and was the first to achieve commercial success. During the late 1990s, both Web directories and Web search engines were popular—Yahoo! (founded 1994) and Altavista (founded 1995) were the respective industry leaders. By August 2001, the directory model had begun to give way to search engines, tracking the rise of Google (founded 1998), which had developed new approaches to relevancy ranking. Directory features, while still commonly available, became after-thoughts to search engines.

Database size, which had been a significant marketing feature through the early 2000s, was similarly displaced by emphasis on relevancy ranking, the methods by which search engines attempt to sort the best results first. Relevancy ranking first became a major issue circa 1996, when it became apparent that it was impractical to review full lists of results. Consequently, algorithms for relevancy ranking have continuously improved. Google's PageRank method for ordering the results has received the most press, but all major search engines continually refine their ranking methodologies with a view toward improving the ordering of results. As of 2006, search engine rankings are more important than ever, so much so that an industry has developed ("search engine optimizers", or "SEO") to help web-developers improve their search ranking, and an entire body of case law has developed around matters that affect search engine rankings, such as use of trademarks in metatags. The sale of search rankings by some search engines has also created controversy among librarians and consumer advocates.^[83]

On June 3, 2009, Microsoft launched its new search engine, Bing.^[84] The following month Microsoft and Yahoo! announced a deal in which Bing would power Yahoo! Search.^[85]

File sharing

Main articles: File sharing , Peer-to-peer file sharing , and Timeline of file sharing

Resource or file sharing has been an important activity on computer networks from well before the Internet was established and was supported in a variety of ways including bulletin board systems(1978), Usenet (1980), Kermit (1981), and many others. The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) for use on the Internet was standardized in 1985 and is still in use today.^[86] A variety of tools were developed to aid the use of FTP by helping users discover files they might want to transfer, including the Wide Area Information Server (WAIS) in 1991, Gopher in 1991, Archie in 1991, Veronica in 1992, Jughead in 1993, Internet Relay Chat (IRC) in 1988, and eventually the World Wide Web (WWW) in 1991 with Web directories and Web search engines.

In 1999 Napster became the first peer-to-peer file sharing system.^[87] Napster used a central server for indexing and peer discovery, but the storage and transfer of files was decentralized. A variety of peer-to-peer file sharing programs and services with different levels of decentralization and anonymity followed, including: Gnutella, eDonkey2000, and Freenet in 2000, FastTrack, Kazaa, Limewire, andBitTorrent in 2001, and Poisoned in 2003.^[88]

All of these tools are general purpose and can be used to share a wide variety of content, but sharing of music files, software, and later movies and videos are major uses.^[89] And while some of this sharing is legal, large portions are not. Lawsuits and other legal actions caused Napster in 2001, eDonkey2000 in 2005, Kazza in 2006, and Limewire in 2010 to shutdown or refocus their efforts.^[90]^[91]The Pirate Bay, founded in Sweden in 2003, continues despite a trial and appeal in 2009 and 2010 that resulted in jail terms and large fines for several of its founders.^[92] File sharing remains contentious and controversial with charges of theft of intellectual property on the one hand and charges of censorship on the other.^[93]^[94]

Dot-com bubble

Main article: Dot-com bubble

Suddenly the low price of reaching millions worldwide, and the possibility of selling to or hearing from those people at the same moment when they were reached, promised to overturn established business dogma in advertising, mail-order sales, customer relationship management, and many more areas. The web was a new killer app—it could bring together unrelated buyers and sellers in seamless and low-cost ways. Entrepreneurs around the world developed new business models, and ran to their nearest venture capitalist. While some of the new entrepreneurs had experience in business and economics, the majority were simply people with ideas, and did not manage the capital influx prudently. Additionally, many dot-com business plans were predicated on the assumption that by using the Internet, they would bypass the distribution channels of existing businesses and therefore not have to compete with them; when the established businesses with strong existing brands developed their own Internet presence, these hopes were shattered, and the newcomers were left attempting to break into markets dominated by larger, more established businesses. Many did not have the ability to do so.

The dot-com bubble burst in March 2000, with the technology heavy NASDAQ Composite index peaking at 5,048.62 on March 10^[95] (5,132.52 intraday), more than double its value just a year before. By 2001, the bubble's deflation was running full speed. A majority of the dot-coms had ceased trading, after having burnt through their venture capital and IPO capital, often without ever making a profit. But despite this, the Internet continues to grow, driven by commerce, ever greater amounts of online information and knowledge and social networking.

Mobile phones and the Internet

Online population forecast

A study conducted by JupiterResearch anticipates that a 38 percent increase in the number of people with online access will mean that, by 2011, 22 percent of the Earth's population will surf the Internet regularly. The report says 1.1 billion people have regular Web access. For the study, JupiterResearch defined online users as people who regularly access the Internet from dedicated Internet-access devices, which exclude cellular telephones.^[97]

Historiography

Some concerns have been raised over the historiography of the Internet's development. Specifically that it is hard to find documentation of much of the Internet's development, for several reasons, including a lack of centralized documentation for much of the early developments that led to the Internet.

"The Arpanet period is somewhat well documented because the corporation in charge – BBN – left a physical record. Moving into the NSFNET era, it became an extraordinarily decentralized process. The record exists in people's basements, in closets. [...] So much of what happened was done verbally and on the basis of individual trust."

—Doug Gale (2007), ^[98]

Buying a Digital Camera

2012-04-10T14:10:00.000+10:00

I'm the kind of person that is extremely slow to adopt new technology. It took me forever to adopt email as a regular communication method, and I'm just now getting used to the idea of storing all my memos and notes on a PDA rather than in a paper planner. So it comes as no surprise that I've held off buying a digital camera until now -- and that's only because my film-based model finally gave out for good.
Well, if the truth be told, I've actually been thinking about buying a digital camera for a few months now. That's because I've seen the amazing shots that my friends have taken with their cameras, and I want to be able to get the same results. In addition, I'm a bit tired of having to deal with all my film rolls. It's tough to remember which ones are new, which ones have already been used, and what kind of pictures are on them. I've also lost quite a few film rolls while on vacation over the years. I figured I could eliminate these problems by buying a digital camera.

Towards that end, I'd been reading online guides and reviews from people who have experience with buying a digital camera. I've found these articles to be very helpful, as they alert me to the brands that are easy to use, that produce high-quality photos, that come packed with features, and are the best bargains. In fact, these resources made the task of buying a digital camera easier than I imagined it would be.
Since I had done all this research beforehand, I was ready to make my purchase as soon as I decided that buying a digital camera was the right move for me. I had read about people getting fantastic bargains from online stores, so those are the places I checked out first. I had also read store reviews as part of my research into buying a digital camera, so I knew which websites were trustworthy and which ones should be avoided. As a result, I was able to complete my purchase without a single problem.
Now that I've had my new toy for a few days, I really can't remember what was preventing me from buying a digital camera a long time ago! I've been having a lot of fun playing around with the settings, trying out different techniques, and cleaning up my pictures with photo editing software. If you ask me, this is the way photography was meant to be.
If you've been thinking about buying a digital camera, I recommend that you go ahead and do it sooner rather than later. You'll be amazed at how much easier it is to take pictures with this kind of equipment and how much better the pictures turn out.

Waterproof Digital Player

2012-04-10T14:09:00.001+10:00

If you are looking to spice up your swim training then you may want to consider getting a waterproof MP3 player. A waterproof MP3 player can make a normal, boring, swim exercise fly by as you listen to your tunes and swim away. While most waterproof MP3 players would not be classified as cheap MP3 players, generally speaking they are not that expensive. There are plenty of waterproof MP3 players out there, but if you are specifically looking for one for swim training then the SWIMP3 is the one for you. I have tried other waterproof MP3 players but this one is by far the best for training.
Why Choose The SWIMP3 Waterproof MP3 Player?
A variety of reasons come to mind of the choice for a SWIMP3 to be used for you swimming training. The first one is that the device does not utilize earphones. Indeed, it’s strange but yes this particular MP3 player does not need you to put anything in your ear. It works using the bone conduction of sound, being place on any bone of the skull it vibrates the fluid in the inner ear to generate the sounds. This means that the swimmers using the device get to enjoy the clarity of sound even under water.
Many will definitely wonder whether or not the bone conduction method used by this device is safe for them, and in fact it is safe indeed. Being a well established hearing mechanism in humans it allows us to actually leverage the aquatic environment to increas the accuracy of the sounds. The use of this particular technology has brought a new level of audio clarity to swimmers in any level and with great success.
The device is compact and weighs only two ounces. It has a 256 megabyte capacity and recharges by plugging into any USB port. The device can plug directly into any USB port without the need for additional cable or accessories. In addition to this it comes with a wall charger so you can simply plug it in and charge up anywhere you like.
You will notice that this MP3 device has many advantages and this makes it an excellent if not perfect choice for those looking for a waterproof MP3 player they can use when swim training. The cost is around $139, so it is affordable indeed to almost everyone and the features on offer other than being waterproof is simply hard to ignore. This MP3 player is all you really need to peacefully train away without any disturbance and loss of concentration.

Interesting Facts

2012-04-09T14:12:00.002+10:00

Interesting Article::::::::

Modern Microprocessors contain as many as 10 million transisters.
At the beggining of 1995 there were 24 million users on the Internet, of those 17 million were based in America. The Internet has doubled in size each year since it was invented in 1988.
The fastest computer in 1993, the CM-5, could perform 131 billion operations per second. With a pocket calculator this number of operations would take 41 000 years.
IBM employs 220 000 people.
Microsoft employs 16 140 people.
Computer performance increased by about a factor of a million between 1950 and 1990.
Another name for a Microsoft Windows tutorial is 'Crash Course'!
Bill Gates' house was designed using a Macintosh computer.
80% of all pictures on the internet are of naked women
By the year 2012 there will be approximately 17 billion devices connected to the Internet.
Domain names are being registered at a rate of more than one million names every month.
E-mail has been around longer than the World Wide Web.
For every 'normal' webpage, there are five porn pages.
In the 1980s, an IBM computer wasn't considered 100 percent compatible unless it could run Microsoft Flight SimulatorMySpace reports
over 110 million registered users. Were it a country, it would be the tenth largest, just behind Mexico.
One of every 8 married couples in the US last year met online.
The average 21 year old has spent 5,000 hours playing video games, has exchanged 250,000 e-mails, instant and text messages and has spent 10,000 hours on the mobile phone.

Interesting Computer Facts

2012-04-09T13:46:00.001+10:00

Source: http://www.funfactz.com/computer-facts/

1. TYPEWRITER is the longest word that can be made using the letters only on one row of the keyboard.
54

1K

370

2. Bill Gates' house was designed using a Macintosh computer.
16

668

196

3. While it took the radio 38 years, and the television a short 13 years, it took the World Wide Web only 4 years to reach 50 million users.
22

595

183

4. There are approximately 1,319,872,109 people on the Internet.
21

533

248

5. "Stewardesses" is the longest word that is typed with only the left hand.

All Computer Facts

7

160

47

1. Facebook pays at least $500 if you can find a way to hack the site.
3

117

36

2. HP, Google, Microsoft, and Apple have one thing in common – apart from the obvious that they are IT companies. They were all started in garages.
4

139

62

3. Alaska is the only state that can be typed on one row of keys on a QWERTY keyboard.
1

175

107

4. The domain name www.youtube.com was registered on February 14, 2005.
3

113

96

5. Hewlett Packard was started at a garage in Palo Alto in 1939.
1

133

68

6. If you opened up the case of the original Macintosh, you will find 47 signatures. One for each member of Apple's Macintosh divison as of 1982.
4

159

66

7. Computer programming is currently one of the fastest growing occupations.
3

360

92

8. On an average work day, a typist's fingers travel 12.6 miles.
11

309

262

9. The Dvorak keyboard is more efficient than QWERTY. 20 times faster, in fact.
30

957

236

10. TYPEWRITER is the longest word that can be made using the letters only on one row of the keyboard.
8

272

131

11. On eBay, there are an average of $680 worth of transactions each second.
21

533

248

12. "Stewardesses" is the longest word that is typed with only the left hand.
164

519

305

13. 80% of all pictures on the internet are of naked women
5

211

119

14. In the 1980s, an IBM computer wasn't considered 100 percent compatible unless it could run Microsoft Flight Simulator*.
9

238

126

15. The world's first computer, called the Z1, was invented by Konrad Zuse in 1936. His next invention, the Z2 was finished in 1939 and was the first fully functioning electro-mechanical computer.
25

261

100

16. The first computer mouse was invented by Doug Engelbart in around 1964 and was made of wood.
4

158

99

17. Domain names are being registered at a rate of more than one million names every month.
3

176

94

18. There are approximately 1.06 billion instant messaging accounts worldwide.
4

158

105

19. The first banner advertising was used in 1994.
12

225

87

20. E-mail has been around longer than the World Wide Web.
10

223

74

21. The average computer user blinks 7 times a minute, less than half the normal rate of 20.
9

231

91

22. One of every 8 married couples in the US last year met online.
12

207

94

23. The average 21 year old has spent 5,000 hours playing video games, has exchanged 250,000 e-mails, instant and text messages and has spent 10,000 hours on the mobile phone.
21

209

75

24. By the year 2012 there will be approximately 17 billion devices connected to the Internet.
7

150

90

25. MySpace reports over 110 million registered users. Were it a country, it would be the tenth largest, just behind Mexico.
16

668

196

26. While it took the radio 38 years, and the television a short 13 years, it took the World Wide Web only 4 years to reach 50 million users.
22

595

183

27. There are approximately 1,319,872,109 people on the Internet.
46

304

141

28. For every 'normal' webpage, there are five porn pages.
54

1K

370

29. Bill Gates' house was designed using a Macintosh computer.
6

171

109

30. The first domain name ever registered was Symbolics.com.
12

240

118

31. Another name for a Microsoft Windows tutorial is 'Crash Course'!

Common PC Problems and Solutions

2012-04-09T13:39:00.002+10:00

No sound from speakers: Please check the back of the computer. Some computers may have speaker connections on both the soundcard and modem. You will need to plug the single stereo speaker plug into the socket on the soundcard usually marked Audio Out (or in some cases Speaker)

Computer seems to start up as normal but nothing appears on screen: As obvious as this may sound it is probably a cable not attached correctly, or the monitor power button being turned off. Please unplug all the cables and replace them carefully.

Sometimes my system just crashes for no explicable reason: Welcome to Windows. More help with crashing.

Fuzzy image on monitor: Monitors are sensitive to electro magnetic interference. Ensure that your speakers are not too close to the monitor and that there is no other source of interference, especially from TVs, radios, microwaves, dishwashers and washing machines. Mobile phones are frequently the cause of this problem.

Modem error message says, "No Dial Tone": Do not attempt to change any COM port or other modem settings. This problem is ALWAYS external to the computer. Not all modem cables are the same. Always use the one supplied with your modem. The telephone cable from your wall socket should go into the modem socket marked Line In. Consider that the telephone socket is faulty. It could also be a faulty telephone extension line (just because it works on a phone doesn't necessarily mean it will work on a modem - and don't ask me why), or some other external factor. We repeat: Please do not change any of the modem settings. "No-Dial Tone" is always an external problem.

Modem cuts off frequently: Modems cannot handle the beep on BT's call waiting facility. If you have call waiting on your line you will need to disable it before using the modem.

Colour on screen is limited to 16 colours: The default setting for Windows is 16 colours. You can only get 256 or more colours if you have installed the video drivers correctly. Please see section on installation of video drivers in the hardware help page

CD keeps playing just the first few seconds of every song and then skips: If using the Windows 95 CD player go to Options on the tool bar and uncheck the setting Intro Play. If using some other CD player verify that your settings are for continuous play.

I can't get the pound sign to work; other keys come up with the wrong symbols: When installing Windows 95 the default country is installed as America and the default language is American English. To change the Language and Regional Setting you will need to go into Control Panel. Double click on Keyboard, then Language, choose the Add button, scroll down to English British, click on it and then click on Set as Default. Click on OK to confirm. (You may need your Windows 95 CD/Floppy at this stage). You can similarly change the Regional Settings from the Control Panel. You will have to re-start the computer for the changes to take effect.

Some programs (like games) don't work on my computer: Setting up games and some other multimedia programs to work on a Windows based computer is sometimes a stressful experience. Games programmers try to design games to work on a variety of different computers with different makes of sound and video cards and different settings for these cards. Unfortunately, they don't always get it right. Games that work perfectly well on a lower spec computer may not work at all on this new 'state of the art' machine you've just bought. Occasionally fiddling around with settings in the Control Panel will rectify the problem. (Often fiddling around with settings will cause your computer to crash). If you are running Windows 98/ME on your computer consider buying only games that have the 'designed for Windows 98/ME' logo. Note: 'Compatible with Windows ME' is not the same thing.
Try visiting the web site for the program you are using. There may be some FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions) or other general information that may be of help.

Computer completely dead - neither monitor nor base unit will come on: If you bought your computer from Best Price Computers Ltd it is more likely that you've had a power cut than a dead computer. Please check your electric socket, the plug and the fuse before calling us. Try using another cable. Very often cables used for kettles will fit your computer. Note that some computers have a power switch at the back of the unit as well as the front. If you do then that needs to be on before you try the switch at the front.

The screen comes on OK when booting but gets unreadable when in Windows: This could be possibly because you've installed the wrong video drivers and/or have set the resolution/colours/refresh rate too high for your monitor to handle. Fortunately you'll find that you can still start the computer up in safe mode to correct this problem. Hold your "Control" key down and power your PC up. Keep holding the key down till you see the menu offering you the option of starting up in Safe Mode. Once you've started up in safe mode you'll be able to make changes to your video settings and restart the machine for the changes to be recognised. See hardware help page for guide to setting up video drivers.

Error Messages on Start Up: Error messages like nwlink.vxd missing or damaged - press any key to continue may lead you through several messages before starting Windows. It is certainly an inconvenience to keep pressing 8 to 10 keys each time you want to start Windows. This is caused by the incorrect deletion of programs. When removing a program from a computer you need to use the Add/Remove Software in the Control Panel to actually un-install it rather than delete it. Just deleting a program is likely to give you these error messages. Solution: Just don't do it again. (The problem can be solved by editing the ini files and the registry but that as that is a risky proposition you may just want to put up with the inconvenience till you next format your hard disk and re-install Windows). Suggestion: Invest in a good uninstallation program like Cleansweep.

Computer keeps running scandisk on start-up: Windows runs scandisk on start-up when the computer hasn't been shut down properly. Please read your Windows manual for correct method of shutting Windows down before turning the power off. If the problem continues it is possible that your installation of Windows is damaged.

My computer says "press any key" to continue,but I don't have a key with that name: (OK, we didn't actually get that particular complaint :-) ).

RTFM problems: Probably the most common abbreviation used in technical support. It has come to be accepted in some places as Read The "Friendly" Manual. So, the manual is not always easy to understand, but it's there for your help. In fact, it's there to be your first port of call. :-)

I've reinstalled Windows and my sound/video/modem/printer is not working correctly: It is possible that you haven't correctly setup your device. Please click here for link to our hardware help page ........ or here for software help.

Windows 98 SE does not shutdown correctly or it restarts when it should shutdown. Go to Run and type in "MSCONFIG" without the quotes. Click on "advanced" and tick/untick the Enable Fast Shutdown. Restart the computer and see if it shuts down? Still doesn't? Try the BIOS and disable ACPI. Also disable power saving. No joy? Try Microsoft's shutdown utility.

Most Common Problems in PC

2012-04-09T13:38:00.002+10:00

If you have a PC, then you have most likely suffered from computer problems. Most people have accepted that there PC will eventually crash due to a virus or some massive error. However this is a myth. Your PC is built to last more than a decade. However you must keep well tuned for it to make its third birthday. Nevertheless, most people would rather buy a shiny new PC rather than spend an hour trying to fix computer problems on there 2 year lap top or desktop. After another two year after their purchase lack of maintenance will cause their new PC to lose its performance speed. Whats next you guess, $3000 Windows Vista Ready PC. This is known as the consumer vicious cycle.

Why have does your computer have problems?

Well, the biggest problem that your computer has is its owner. More than 80% of computer problems stem from neglecting to perform simple maintenance task such as cleaning your registry, emptying your cache files and updating software regularly. If these task a perform diligently. You would be reading this article from a five year old machine running on Windows 98 operating system. So, lets take a look at the top five computer problems and how to avoid them.

1. Computer has performance has slowed.

This is the number one complaint from most users. There are several reason why this has occurred. However, most can attributed to lack of maintenance. Fragmented data, corrupted registry, spyware, and load of unnecessary programs and services running can all eat away at your PC speed and performance. Manage your programs and cleaning your registry would easily award you a 30% gain in performance speed. Check out The 4 ways to speed up my computer

2. Lockup, freezes, and blue screens of death.

This is a another common computer problem. However, this particular issue is a bit more serious; therefore, it needs a few diagnostic steps. In most cases this problems are caused by spyware. To avoid this problem update your anti-spyware program daily. Having the most up to date signatures will help you avoid having a serious spyware problem. However, if you have concluded that your PC is spyware free. You should update your hardware drivers. The computer cannot communicate with various hardware components without an up to date driver. When it cannot find a driver, the CPU locks up. Also, increasing your virtual memory can also help to avoid freezes. Virtual Memory will allow to you get more use out your computer's RAM. Check the resource box for more info on the subject.

3. The computer spontaneously reboots or turn itself off.

This computer problem can be usually attributed to a hardware issue. Usually its the power supply is dying or in most cases a dirty or defective cooling fan. The computer trying to cool itself by automatically switching off. So, if you feel a bit of extra heat coming out the computer. Clean the fan and make sure it running properly. If your fan is functional, check your power supply. Also, you will be surprised how many people fail to make sure the cables are attached tightly. This be the cause of this particular computer problem.

4. Strange noises and vibrations.

This is almost totally a hardware issue. You computer is made up of thousands of parts. Its not unheard of that one of them can become unhinged. Overheating can cause expansion of wires and melt some sensitive. High pitch noises such as squealing or whining sounds can be cause electronic components. Whatever the reason, you conduct a small investigation. Remove the case and run the computer to discover the origin of the computer problem. If its not a simple matter such as a loose wire or fan issue, it may be time to call a computer tech.

5. Your home page, default search engine, or web browser has changed itself.

This is also known as "high-jacking". Spyware has been installed on your computer via social networking or from email link. This action has allowed spyware to install a java script into your web browser. The spyware then sends a message to your browser to change your user settings. For example change your home page to another web page.