Understanding Mediated and Mediating Action

The Craft of Research: Learning to Ask Better Questions

2019-01-22T15:22:00.000-05:00

By University of Chicago Press

Book Review: The Craft of Research

What distinguishes research from the mere accumulation of information? The question appears straightforward, yet it touches upon one of the fundamental challenges of intellectual work. We may gather facts, consult sources, organise material, and produce an extensive account of a subject without necessarily advancing our understanding of it. The difficulty lies not simply in finding information but in recognising what needs to be understood, why it matters, and how our inquiry might contribute to that understanding.

Wayne C. Booth, Gregory G. Colomb, and Joseph M. Williams address this challenge in The Craft of Research, a book that has remained a valuable guide for students and researchers across disciplines. Its appeal lies partly in its accessibility, but its more enduring contribution is the way it connects the practical tasks of research with the intellectual responsibilities that accompany them.

One of the book's most useful propositions is that research should move beyond identifying a topic to formulating a question and establishing its significance. The authors offer a simple framework. What am I studying? What do I want to find out about it? Why should the answer matter to my readers?

The simplicity of this formulation should not obscure its importance.

A topic gives us a field of interest, but it does not, by itself, provide a direction for inquiry. A question begins to establish that direction by identifying something we do not yet understand. The question of significance takes the inquiry further, requiring us to explain why the answer deserves attention. What might it help us understand that we could not adequately explain before?

This movement from topic to question and significance is among the most valuable lessons the book offers. It asks researchers to reconsider the relationship between what interests them and what they hope their work will contribute. An intellectually engaging subject does not automatically produce a meaningful research project. The researcher must identify a problem worth investigating and demonstrate how the investigation might advance understanding.

Consider, for instance, the study of Partition in Indian cinema. The subject is vast, encompassing historical events, individual experiences, national narratives, gendered representations, and competing memories of displacement. A research project becomes more focused when it asks how selected films represent the relationship between displacement and national belonging. It becomes more consequential when it explains what those representations might reveal about the construction of collective memory or the exclusions embedded in national histories.

The subject has not changed, but the nature of the inquiry has. The researcher has moved from an extensive field of interest towards a question that can guide interpretation and a contribution that can be examined through evidence.

This is where The Craft of Research becomes particularly useful. Its emphasis on questions, evidence, arguments, and readers reminds us that these elements cannot be treated as separate components of scholarly work. The question determines, in part, what evidence we seek. The evidence places limits on the claims we can reasonably make. The argument must establish how those claims respond to the original problem, while the intended readership helps us determine what requires explanation and why.

Research, in this understanding, is not simply about assembling material and presenting the results. It involves making judgements, establishing relationships, testing interpretations, and accepting the responsibility of supporting one's claims.

The book's attention to readers is especially significant. Researchers can become so absorbed in the material they have collected that they lose sight of the question that brought them to it. A wealth of information may produce an extensive account without necessarily yielding a clear argument. Asking what readers stand to gain from an investigation helps restore a sense of direction. It requires the researcher to explain not only what has been discovered but also what the discovery makes possible in terms of further understanding.

There is, however, a qualification worth keeping in mind. The framework is best understood as a set of intellectual resources rather than a formula that every research project must follow in precisely the same way. In historical, interpretive, ethnographic, and other forms of qualitative inquiry, questions may change as the researcher encounters new evidence or recognises limitations in the assumptions with which the investigation began. Archives may be incomplete, testimonies may conflict, and the categories through which evidence is interpreted may themselves require critical examination.

These difficulties are particularly important when research concerns histories of colonialism, social inequality, cultural representation, or the production of knowledge itself. In such instances, the researcher may need to examine not only the available evidence but also the historical circumstances in which that evidence was produced, preserved, classified, or excluded. The question is no longer simply what the sources tell us, but also what their silences and limitations permit us to claim.

This does not diminish the value of the approach developed in The Craft of Research. Rather, it reminds us that the craft requires judgement as well as method. A framework can help organise inquiry, but it cannot substitute for the intellectual work of determining what a particular problem demands.

Perhaps this is the book's most enduring lesson. Good research begins with curiosity, but curiosity alone is insufficient. It must develop into a question, encounter evidence, take the form of an argument, and establish why the resulting understanding matters. The researcher must remain attentive to the difference between information and explanation, between a plausible interpretation and a substantiated claim, and between describing a subject and contributing to the ways in which it is understood.

The Craft of Research is valuable because it brings these responsibilities into focus without making research appear inaccessible to those beginning their intellectual journeys. It offers practical guidance, but its larger invitation is to approach research as a disciplined form of inquiry—one that requires clarity of purpose, openness to evidence, and a willingness to justify one's conclusions.

Ultimately, the quality of research depends not only on how much we know about a subject but also on the questions we learn to ask of it. And perhaps the more difficult question, one that every researcher must eventually confront, is this: having investigated a subject and arrived at an answer, what have we helped others understand that they could not adequately understand before?

Learning to See: The Rule of Thirds and the Art of Photographic Composition

2016-08-04T15:39:00.001-04:00

Photography is often understood as the art of capturing what lies before the camera. Yet making a photograph involves considerably more than recording a scene. It requires us to decide what deserves attention, what should remain outside the frame, how the elements within the image relate to one another, and what kind of experience we wish to create for the viewer. The camera records the visible world, but the photograph reflects a particular way of seeing it.

This distinction between looking and seeing is fundamental to visual communication. We encounter countless objects, faces, landscapes, and events in the course of our daily lives, but only some hold our attention long enough to acquire significance. Our knowledge, memories, interests, and cultural experiences influence what we notice and how we interpret it. Photography offers an opportunity to examine these acts of selection more deliberately.

An effective photograph, therefore, requires both a subject and a reason for attending to it. Technical competence matters, but it cannot substitute for an awareness of what makes a particular scene worth photographing. Before asking how to compose an image, the photographer must consider what has drawn their attention to the scene in the first place.

As Henry David Thoreau observed, "The question is not what you look at, but what you see." The distinction is especially pertinent to photography, where the capacity to recognise a significant relationship between objects, light, space, and movement often matters more than the mere ability to record what is visible.

The act of seeing is neither entirely passive nor independent of experience. What attracts one photographer may leave another indifferent. Even when two photographers encounter the same scene, their images may differ because they notice different details, choose different viewpoints, and attach different significance to what they see. The resulting photographs are not simply records of a common reality; they are visual interpretations shaped by attention and choice.

Composition begins with this act of recognition. It is the process through which the photographer organises the elements within the frame to establish emphasis, create relationships, and guide the viewer's attention. Among the best-known compositional principles is the Rule of Thirds. Its usefulness, however, lies not in its ability to guarantee an attractive photograph but in the questions it encourages us to ask about placement, balance, and visual emphasis.

Composition as a Visual Language

Design principles provide a framework for understanding how the elements of an image work together. Lines, shapes, colours, textures, tonal contrasts, and spatial relationships are not merely features of a photograph. They contribute to the way it communicates.

The relationship between visual composition and language is instructive. Words acquire meaning through their arrangement, emphasis, and relationship with other words. Similarly, the elements within an image acquire significance through their position, proportion, contrast, and interaction. The comparison should not be taken too literally, since images communicate in ways that do not necessarily follow the structures of verbal language. Nevertheless, it helps explain why the arrangement of visual elements matters as much as their individual presence.

When children learn to draw or paint, they begin to discover this visual language. As their awareness develops, they learn to make increasingly deliberate choices about form, colour, proportion, and space. They may eventually communicate moods, ideas, and emotions through visual arrangements that resemble poetry in their economy and suggestiveness.

Design principles do not restrict creativity. They provide a vocabulary through which creative choices become more conscious. Just as an understanding of literary form can expand a writer's possibilities, an understanding of composition can help a photographer move beyond instinctive arrangements towards more considered visual expression.

Two qualities are particularly useful in evaluating the effectiveness of a photograph: strength and clarity.

Strength concerns the image's capacity to attract attention. It may arise from a striking subject, an unusual perspective, a strong contrast of light and shadow, or a compelling relationship between elements. An image that fails to establish a point of interest may leave the viewer uncertain about where to begin looking.

Strength often depends on emphasis, or what is commonly called the centre of interest. A photograph may contain a dominant subject supported by secondary elements, or it may distribute attention more evenly across the frame. The latter approach can be equally effective when the intention is to create a more democratic visual field in which several elements contribute to the image without any single one becoming overwhelmingly dominant.

Clarity concerns how effectively the composition enables the viewer to recognise and explore the image's significant features. It depends partly on the relationships among the elements and the visual pathways through which the eye moves across the frame.

Strength and clarity frequently reinforce each other, although they need not always coincide. A visually forceful photograph may deliberately withhold information, while an understated image may reveal its significance gradually. The appropriate relationship depends on the photographer's intention.

Visual harmony contributes to compositional coherence, but harmony does not require uniformity. Contrast, irregularity, and opposition can introduce tension and complexity. The juxtaposition of a vast, open desert sky with dense monsoon clouds, for instance, can create a powerful visual relationship between openness and impending turbulence.

Unity is similarly important. The elements within a photograph should establish relationships that allow the composition to be understood as a whole. Yet unity without variation can become monotonous. Contrast, differences in scale, and changes in colour or texture provide points of interest that prevent coherence from becoming dull uniformity.

Simplicity can be equally powerful. A single, carefully placed object against an expansive background may evoke more contemplation than a crowded composition. But simplicity should not be confused with minimalism for its own sake. Its purpose is to establish meaningful relationships and remove distractions that weaken the intended visual effect.

Composition, then, is more than the arrangement of objects. It establishes relationships through which an image acquires expressive possibilities.

Understanding the Rule of Thirds

The Rule of Thirds offers a practical starting point for organising these relationships. Imagine dividing the frame into three equal sections horizontally and three vertically. The resulting grid creates four intersections, commonly used as reference points for positioning a principal subject or other important elements.

Rather than automatically placing the subject at the centre, the photographer can position it along one of the grid lines or near an intersection. This arrangement may introduce space, suggest movement, establish a relationship with the surroundings, or create a more dynamic distribution of visual weight.

The principle belongs to a longer history of attempts to understand proportion and balance in visual art. Artists and architects have explored mathematical relationships as a means of organising space, and the Golden Mean has become particularly influential in discussions of proportion. The Rule of Thirds offers a more readily applied compositional grid, dividing the frame into three sections along each axis.

The two approaches should not be treated as identical. Their divisions differ, even though both can help photographers consider the placement of significant elements and the distribution of space.

The Rule of Thirds is practical partly because its grid can be imagined easily while looking through a viewfinder. Many cameras also provide an on-screen grid to assist with composition. The intersections are sometimes called power points because placing an important element near one of them can establish a strong visual emphasis.

Imagine photographing a rose against a relatively uncluttered background. Placing the flower near an intersection can give it prominence while allowing the surrounding space to contribute to the image. The viewer first notices the flower and can then explore its relationship with the background, the direction of its stem, and the distribution of colour.

The same principle applies to landscape photography. A photographer may position the horizon along the lower horizontal line when the sky is the principal subject, allowing clouds, changing light, or atmospheric conditions to dominate the frame. If the foreground contains more compelling features, the horizon may be placed higher to give those features greater prominence.

The grid helps the photographer make these decisions consciously. It draws attention to the relationship between the principal subject and the space it occupies.

The Rule of Thirds should not, however, be confused with a universal formula for beauty. A photograph does not become stronger simply because its principal subject happens to coincide with one of the grid's intersections. Its usefulness depends on the subject, the surrounding elements, and the intended effect.

The rule is most valuable when it helps the photographer recognise possibilities that might otherwise remain unnoticed.

Balance, Visual Weight, and the Movement of the Eye

A photograph's composition depends partly on how visual weight is distributed across the frame. Visual weight is not the same as physical size. A small, brightly coloured object may attract more attention than a larger, less distinctive one. Dark areas, strong contrasts, isolated forms, and recognisable subjects can also carry considerable visual weight.

Balance emerges from the relationships among these elements.

Symmetrical balance

Symmetrical balance occurs when corresponding parts of a composition are similar or mirrored. It can produce a sense of order, stability, and formality. Reflections in water, architectural façades, and the radial structure of a flower can all provide opportunities for symmetrical arrangements.

Yet symmetry does not always produce tranquillity. Depending on the subject, it may also convey rigidity, estrangement, or unease. The emotional effect of a composition cannot be separated entirely from what is being represented.

A butterfly, for example, possesses a naturally symmetrical structure, but the associations it evokes may include movement, freedom, and transformation. Its subject matter and cultural associations can complicate the formal effects of its symmetry.

Asymmetrical balance

Asymmetrical balance achieves equilibrium without mirroring the two sides of the frame. A large tree on one side of a landscape might be balanced by a distant building, a cluster of smaller trees, or an area of contrasting light on the other. The elements differ in size and form, but their visual relationships hold the composition together.

This form of balance can introduce variety and tension while preserving coherence. It is especially useful when the photographer wishes to create a composition that feels dynamic rather than formally ordered.

Radial balance

Radial balance organises elements around a central point. Flowers, circular architectural forms, and patterns of radiating lines offer familiar examples. Such arrangements can create a powerful sense of concentration, drawing the eye towards a centre from which the composition unfolds.

The sunflower is a useful example. Its structure creates a natural radial arrangement, but its significance may extend beyond its formal properties. A sunflower can be an ordinary agricultural plant, an object of aesthetic interest, or a subject associated with the paintings of Vincent van Gogh. The viewer's response may therefore depend on both the organisation of the image and the cultural associations brought to it.

These forms of balance are useful ways of thinking about a photograph, not fixed categories into which every image must fit. A compelling composition may depend on equilibrium, but it may also deliberately disturb that equilibrium.

Dominance and visual emphasis

A photograph usually has a principal subject, although that subject need not always be a single object. It may be a relationship between objects, a contrast between light and darkness, or an interaction between a person and their surroundings.

The principle of dominance establishes which element is likely to command attention. Light, colour, focus, scale, and isolation can all contribute to this effect.

Consider Georges de La Tour's The Magdalen with the Smoking Flame. The candle illuminates Mary Magdalen while much of the surrounding scene remains in darkness. The distribution of light directs attention towards the figure and her contemplative presence. The composition derives its force not simply from the central subject but from the relationship between illumination and darkness.

The example illustrates a broader principle. The photographer or artist does not merely select a subject; they establish the conditions under which the subject becomes visible and meaningful.

Eye movement and visual pathways

The movement of the viewer's eye is equally important. Lines, shapes, repetitions, contrasts, and areas of light can establish visual pathways through the frame. A road may lead towards a distant building; a line of trees may direct attention towards the horizon; a change in colour may connect otherwise separated elements.

Leading lines are particularly effective when they establish a meaningful relationship between the foreground and the principal subject. They may also divide the frame, create patterns, or suggest depth. Through linear perspective, receding parallel lines appear to converge, helping to produce the illusion of distance in a two-dimensional image.

But a line does not become useful merely because it directs the eye. If it leads away from the subject or towards an irrelevant detail, it may weaken rather than strengthen the composition. Its effectiveness depends on where it leads and how that destination contributes to the image.

Shapes are similarly important. They provide the basic visual forms through which objects are recognised. Lighting and tonal variation can make these shapes appear three-dimensional, while strong shadows may cause separate forms to merge. Placing a shape against a contrasting background can make it more prominent, and a silhouette can emphasise its outline while suppressing details such as texture.

Patterns create unity through repetition. Repeated lines, shapes, or colours can establish rhythm and direct attention across a photograph. Yet repetition can also become monotonous or compete with the principal subject. Its effectiveness depends on whether the pattern supports the composition or becomes its dominant feature.

Texture introduces another dimension to visual experience. The appearance of a rough surface, soft fabric, weathered wood, or smooth metal can suggest qualities associated with touch. Texture may become the principal subject of a photograph, or it may reinforce the character of another object. Lighting and camera position can significantly affect how clearly these qualities are rendered.

Colour and tone also shape the viewer's experience. Contrasts between light and dark can establish depth, mood, and emphasis. Darker tonal arrangements may evoke mystery or melancholy, while lighter ones can suggest openness or delicacy. Strong colour contrasts can draw the eye towards particular elements, although the effect depends on the relationships among colours rather than on brightness alone.

The photographer must therefore consider two related questions. What is the viewer likely to notice first, and where might the viewer look next?

These questions are especially important in images containing several subjects. A photograph may initially draw attention to one element before revealing another, producing a visual sequence that changes the viewer's understanding of the scene. Such an image need not communicate everything at once. Its composition can encourage discovery.

Simplicity and the Art of Exclusion

Simplicity is one of the most useful principles in photographic composition, but it is often misunderstood. A simple photograph is not necessarily an image containing very few objects. It is one in which the relationship between the included elements is sufficiently clear for the image to communicate effectively.

Achieving simplicity often requires the photographer to exclude rather than accumulate.

A crowded street may contain an overwhelming number of possible subjects. Moving closer, changing the angle, or waiting for a particular gesture may allow the photographer to isolate one moment that conveys something about the larger environment. Instead of attempting to represent everything, the photographer selects an element that makes the scene meaningful.

The choice of viewpoint is therefore crucial. Moving a short distance to the left or right can change the relationship between the subject and the background. A low viewpoint may place a figure against the sky, while a higher one may reveal patterns on the ground. The camera position determines not only what enters the frame but also how the elements within it relate to one another.

Foreground and background deserve particular attention. An otherwise compelling subject may lose prominence when intersecting lines, bright objects, or unrelated forms compete for attention. Conversely, an apparently ordinary subject may become striking when placed against a contrasting or uncluttered background.

The photographer should examine the entire frame before pressing the shutter. An object at the edge may introduce an unintended distraction. A line behind the subject may appear to emerge from its head or body. A foreground object may obstruct the viewer's visual entry into the scene.

Such problems are not necessarily resolved by removing objects physically. Often, a change in viewpoint or framing is sufficient to establish a clearer relationship between the elements.

Depth of field provides another means of controlling emphasis. A shallow depth of field can separate a subject from its surroundings by rendering the background out of focus. This is often useful in portraiture, wildlife photography, and close-up work. Yet selective focus is not always the best solution. A landscape may depend on the relationship between foreground, middle distance, and background, in which case detail throughout the frame may contribute to the image's meaning.

Simplicity is therefore not the indiscriminate removal of complexity. It is the considered organisation of the frame so that its elements contribute to a coherent visual statement.

A photograph can contain many objects and still be compelling. It can also contain a single object and remain visually uninteresting. Simplicity is a matter of relationships rather than mere quantity.

Consider Steve McCurry's iconic portrait known as Afghan Girl. The close framing concentrates attention on the subject's face and striking eyes, while the background offers relatively little competition. The photograph's impact arises from this concentration of attention, but its meaning cannot be reduced to compositional simplicity alone. The subject's expression, the circumstances of the portrait, and the photograph's subsequent circulation all contribute to the way viewers encounter it.

The example reminds us that composition and meaning are related without being identical. A well-organised image can direct attention, but the significance of what we see also depends on the subject and the contexts through which the image is interpreted.

When used intentionally, simplicity becomes one of the most effective tools in a photographer's visual language. It allows the image to communicate directly without requiring the viewer to negotiate unnecessary distractions.

Perspective, Focus, and the Structure of the Frame

Composition also depends on technical decisions that determine how the scene appears within the photograph. Format, lens selection, focus, and perspective can all affect the relationship between the subject and its surroundings.

The choice between a horizontal and a vertical frame, for example, influences the spatial relationships that can be established. A horizontal composition may accommodate an expansive landscape or a relationship between several figures, while a vertical composition may emphasise height, posture, or a subject's relationship with the space above and below it. Neither format is inherently superior; its suitability depends on what the photographer wants to emphasise.

Perspective is particularly important. Our perception of distance depends partly on the relative size of objects and the apparent convergence of lines. In photography, the relationship between camera position and subject distance plays a central role in determining these effects.

Changing the focal length of a lens while keeping the camera position fixed changes the framing and image scale but does not, by itself, change perspective. Moving the camera closer to or farther from the subject changes the spatial relationships recorded from that viewpoint. Combining changes in camera position and focal length can therefore produce markedly different representations of the same scene.

A photograph made with a short focal-length lens from close to the subject may exaggerate the apparent difference between foreground and background objects. A photograph made from a more distant viewpoint may compress those relationships. These effects influence the viewer's sense of depth and the relative prominence of the elements within the frame.

Focus provides another means of directing attention. When the principal subject is sharp and the surrounding elements are out of focus, the difference can establish a clear point of emphasis. But keeping everything in sharp focus can also be effective when the photograph depends on the relationship among several elements.

The relevant question is not whether a particular technical choice is inherently better but whether it serves the composition.

Technique becomes expressive when it is guided by an understanding of the image's visual priorities.

When the Rule of Thirds Should Be Broken

The Rule of Thirds encourages photographers to look beyond habitual central placement, but there are many circumstances in which a centrally positioned subject can produce an effective image.

Symmetrical compositions are an obvious example. A building reflected in still water, a corridor receding towards a central vanishing point, or a face photographed directly may derive its force from central placement. Moving the subject away from the centre could weaken the relationship that gives the image its coherence.

Central placement can also work when the subject is visually dominant and the surrounding space offers little competition. A flower isolated against a blurred background, for instance, may command attention wherever it is positioned.

The same applies to strong horizontal lines. A horizon placed at the centre of the frame may be effective when the upper and lower portions of the composition balance or reflect each other. In such circumstances, the relationship between the two halves matters more than the conventional preference for an off-centre horizon.

Landscape photography provides other opportunities to experiment with visual weight.

A mountain range may occupy much of the upper frame, but its apparent weight depends partly on what supports it visually. A foreground of rocks, vegetation, or land can establish a sense of stability and provide a base for the mountains. Without such a base, the composition may appear to leave the mountains suspended above the surface beneath them.

The photographer can adjust the amount of foreground included and the position of the horizon to change this relationship. Placing a visually weighty element along or near a horizontal grid line can help establish emphasis, but the precise placement must be judged in relation to the other elements.

Similar decisions can be made along the vertical axis. A principal subject may be placed near either vertical grid line, with another element providing a counterweight on the opposite side. Moving the subject closer to the edge reduces the space available around it and can change the relationship between the subject and the frame.

These choices become especially significant when the photograph implies movement.

A cyclist moving through a scene is often given more space in front of the bicycle than behind it. The open space allows the viewer to anticipate the direction of travel. If the cyclist is positioned too close to the edge towards which they are moving, the composition may create a sense of restriction or impending departure.

This effect can be described as a form of negative tension. The viewer senses that the subject may move beyond the frame, leaving the implied action unresolved.

Yet such tension is not necessarily a compositional failure. A subject pressed against the edge can convey urgency, confinement, or uncertainty. Similarly, a person looking out of the frame may encourage the viewer to wonder what lies beyond it.

The direction of movement can also influence the way a photograph is experienced. Viewers accustomed to reading from left to right may bring that directional habit to the interpretation of an image. Movement in the opposite direction can therefore produce a different impression, depending on the subject, the composition, and the viewer's experience.

These effects should not be treated as universal laws of perception. They are possibilities that photographers can explore when considering how movement and direction contribute to a photograph's expressive character.

The important distinction is between an accidental compositional weakness and a deliberate departure from convention. A rule can be broken meaningfully when the photographer understands what the rule normally achieves and has a reason to seek a different effect.

The Rule of Thirds is best understood, therefore, as a guide to visual decision-making rather than a prescription. It helps us recognise certain compositional possibilities, but it cannot determine which possibility is appropriate in every situation.

From Rules to Visual Judgement

Photography requires a combination of technical knowledge, observation, and judgement. Understanding exposure, focus, perspective, lens selection, and depth of field expands the photographer's practical possibilities. Yet technical competence becomes expressive only when it serves a compositional purpose.

Ultimately, however, the most important decision may precede all technical considerations. What is it about the scene that deserves to be photographed? Is it the contrast between a solitary figure and an expansive landscape, the play of light across an ordinary object, the tension between movement and stillness, or an expression that would otherwise pass unnoticed?

Unless the photographer recognises what makes the scene significant to them, compositional choices risk becoming mechanical. A grid may help position the subject, but it cannot tell us why the subject matters. A leading line may direct the eye, but it cannot establish the meaning of the destination. Technical control can refine a photograph, but it cannot replace the act of seeing.

This is why learning photographic composition involves more than memorising rules. It requires an increasingly attentive relationship with the world and a willingness to examine one's own visual habits. The photographer learns to notice relationships, anticipate possibilities, recognise distractions, and understand how the frame transforms what lies before the camera.

The viewer, too, participates in this process of meaning-making. An image may guide the eye, but it cannot entirely determine what the viewer will notice or feel. Cultural experience, personal memory, and prior knowledge influence the interpretation of what is seen. The photographer can organise the conditions of viewing, but the image's meaning emerges through an encounter between the photograph and its audience.

This is particularly important when photography moves beyond the representation of objects and landscapes into the realms of human experience, cultural memory, and social life. What is included in the frame, what is excluded, and how a subject is presented can shape the viewer's understanding of the world. Visual composition is not separate from meaning; it helps establish the conditions through which meaning becomes available.

The Rule of Thirds remains a useful companion in this process. It provides a practical means of thinking about placement, balance, and emphasis. But its greatest value may lie in encouraging photographers to make conscious choices rather than accept the first arrangement that presents itself.

To learn composition is, in this sense, to learn how to look again. It is to recognise that seeing is not simply the passive reception of what is present but an active engagement with the world, shaped by attention, experience, and imagination.

A photograph begins when something catches our eye. It becomes an expressive image when we discover how to make another person see why it caught our attention.

Acknowledgement

This essay was inspired by Jim Altengarten's discussion of photographic composition in Creativity and the Rule of Thirds. The reflections and explanations presented here have been developed independently, drawing on my own engagement with visual communication and photographic practice. I acknowledge Altengarten's contribution as an important point of departure for my exploration of the subject.

Student Perception and Credibility of Student’s Opinion

2012-12-02T09:15:00.001-05:00

It is difficult to completely separate a student’s positive perception of an institution from their desire to gain admission into it—assuming, of course, that no other major factors (such as financial constraints, geographic limitations, or academic qualifications) are significantly affecting the decision. In most cases, perception serves as both a cause and a consequence of a student's engagement with a higher education institution.

In my opinion, student perceptions are primarily shaped through social interactions and informal feedback channels, including conversations with alumni, peers, currently enrolled students, and even reference groups such as parents, siblings, and community elders. These opinions are not usually formed on mere hearsay or superficial parameters. Contrary to common belief, today’s students are more performance-conscious and tend to base their evaluations on meaningful criteria.

Students often assess institutions using a diverse range of benchmarks such as the quality of educational practices, institutional environment and culture, faculty competence, industry reputation, job market outcomes, and affordability. Many even undertake informal or formal research before committing to a particular institution. This could include browsing reviews, interacting on educational forums, attending campus tours, or consulting university rankings.

In addition to academics, non-academic aspects such as opportunities for personal growth, confidence building, and engagement in co- and extracurricular activities also factor into their decision-making process. Interestingly, while the economic reality of a student’s family still plays a role, especially in societies with strong familial ties, a noticeable trend is emerging where students contribute to or fully fund their own education through part-time work or scholarships. This shift may indicate an evolving balance of influence between students and their families in higher education decisions.

Admittedly, some students are drawn to certain institutions due to their perceived prestige or "snob value." However, to maintain that elite status, these institutions must consistently uphold both intrinsic qualities—such as academic rigor and inclusivity—and extrinsic appeal, often reinforced through affiliation with elite or influential circles. In fact, many prestigious universities actively seek to enroll high-achieving students from lower economic backgrounds to sustain their credibility and reputation as meritocratic institutions.

Supporting this idea is the influential study by Umbach and Wawrzynski (2005), which concludes that students report higher levels of engagement and learning at institutions where faculty employ active and collaborative teaching methods, challenge students intellectually, encourage higher-order thinking, and foster meaningful interactions. As they state, students thrive in environments that prioritize “enriching educational experiences” and authentic faculty-student engagement (p. 153).

This brings us to the important question of credibility: How reliable is student opinion as a basis for evaluating institutional quality? While some critics argue that student feedback can be subjective or influenced by personal biases, evidence suggests otherwise. In fact, student opinion can serve as a legitimate metric for assessing teaching effectiveness and institutional climate.

A fascinating example is provided by Livermore, Scafe, and Wiechowski (2010), who examined student perceptions of faculty credibility based on email address format. Their findings reveal that faculty members who used nickname-based email addresses were perceived as less credible by students. As they note, “a faculty member’s selection of an email address does influence the student’s perception of faculty credibility… and may have a negative impact on the faculty member as well as the college” (p. 27). This insight, while seemingly minor, underscores the broader impact of perception on institutional trust.

Furthermore, research shows that perceived faculty credibility significantly affects student learning and satisfaction. Russ, Simonds, and Hunt (2002) explore how factors such as faculty identity and communication influence student engagement, while Glascock and Ruggiero (2006) highlight how variables like ethnicity and gender affect perceptions of instructor authority in diverse classrooms. These studies demonstrate that credibility, once compromised, can reduce perceived learning outcomes—thereby diminishing overall student satisfaction.

In today’s competitive educational landscape, where institutions face mounting challenges such as declining enrollment, increased competition, and economic uncertainty, student satisfaction is not merely a marketing objective—it is central to institutional sustainability. A perceived lack of learning or poor engagement can drive students away, impacting not just reputation, but revenue.

Finally, as private investment in the education sector grows, often driven by profit-based models, the importance of student perception becomes even more pronounced. Just like any successful business that adapts to meet customer expectations, educational institutions must also evolve, rebrand, and reorient themselves. In this context, the student is no longer just a learner but also a client—and their opinion, shaped through lived experience, deserves to be taken seriously.

Bibliography

Glascock, Jack and Thomas E Ruggiero. "The Relationship of Ethnicity and Sex to Professor Credibility at a Culturally Diverse University." Communication Education 55.2 (2006): 197-207.

Livermore, Jeffrey A, Marla G Scafe and Linda S Wie. "Student Perceptions Of Faculty Credibility Based On Email Addresses." American Journal of Business Education (AJBE) 3.4 (2010): 27-32.

Russ, Travis L, Cheri J Simonds and Stephen K Hunt. "Coming out in the classroom... An occupational hazard? The influence of sexual orientation on teacher credibility and perceived student learning." Communication Education 51.3 (2002): 311-324.

Umbach, Paul D and Matthew R Wawrzynski. "Faculty Do Matter: The Role of College Faculty in Student Learning and Engagement." Research in Higher Education, Vol. 46, No. 2, March 2005 46.2 (2005): 153-184.

Understanding Television Programing: An Introduction

2012-11-13T14:14:00.000-05:00

Television Programing

A television program is a part of programming in television broadcasting. The program may be a one-off broadcast (this is also called a special) or part of a periodically returning television series. Conventionally, television programming is classified as following:

Serials: A television series that is intended to air a large number of episodes. When the number is rather small say around 5 to 7 then a term ‘miniseries’ is often used.
Episode: A single instance of a programme is called an episode, "show" or "program".
Television Movie: A television movie is a movie that is initially aired on television. It is not meant to be released directly in theatres or direct-to-video, although many successful television movies are later released on video. Produced for and originally distributed by a television network. Earlier they were meant to fit a 90-minute time slot (including commercials); it later expanded to two hours, and was usually broadcast as a weekly anthology series (for example, the ABC Movie of the Week) called a mini series.

Example The most-watched TV movie of all time was ABC's ‘The Day After’, which aired on November 20, 1983, to an estimated audience of 100 million people. The film depicted America after a nuclear war with the Soviet Union.

TV miniseries is an extended film, having a small number of episodes and a set plot and timeline. Miniseries usually range from about 3 to 10 hours in total length. In Dubai, MBC 4 used to air miniseries like Doctor Zivago every Thursday for one hour comprising about 2 -3 episodes. In the U K, the term miniseries is used in reference to imported programs, and such short-run series are usually called "serials".

Advertisements play a role in most television programming, such that each hour of programming contains approximately 15 minutes of commercials. This again is dictated by the popularity of the program that is decided by ratings. A significant drop in the ratings could mean death to a series. Nielsen Ratings was developed by Nielsen Media Research it helps determine the audience size and composition of television programming. These ratings are undertaken in two ways; one is by attaching a set meter to TVs in homes. These devices gather the viewing habits and transmit the information to broadcasting house or Rating organisation through a home unit to a telephone line. The other method is surveys various viewers are asked to keep a written record of the program they watch during the day.

Program Content

The content of television programs may be factual, like documentaries, news, and reality television, or fictional as in comedy and drama. It may be topical like news and some made-for-television movies or historical as in the case of such documentaries or fictional series. It may be mostly instructional as in the case of educational programming, or entertaining as is the case in situation comedy, reality TV, and variety shows, or for income as advertisements.

While television series appearing on TV networks are usually commissioned by the networks themselves, their producers earn greater revenue when the program is sold into syndication. The Oprah Winfrey Show is a syndication it is aired on Mbc4, Star plus etc.

With the rise of the DVD home video format, box sets containing entire seasons or the complete run of a program have become a significant revenue source as well. For example after every season of the popular serial ‘Friends’, the DVD of the season completed is released.

Programming

Getting TV programming shown to the public can happen in many different ways. After production the program is marketed and delivered to whatever markets are available to it.

This typically happens on two levels:

1. Original Run or First Run - a producer creates a program of one or multiple episodes and shows it on a station or network which has either paid for the production itself or to which a license has been granted by the producers to do the same.

2. Syndication - this goes beyond the original run .It is not the secondary runs the other channels pay a fee for the serial. It includes international usage which may or may not be managed by the originating producer. In many cases other companies, TV stations or individuals are engaged to do the syndication work, to sell the product into the markets they are allowed to sell into by contract from the copyright holders, the producers. Example - MBC 4 shows CBS ‘Up to the Minute.’

Genres

Scripted entertainment

The scripts are prepared, dialogues are written etc

Dramatic television series (including drama, police procedural, serial drama, science-fiction, or soap operas), (24, the medium, Monk) or Television comedy (The 70’s show), Animated television series, Miniseries and TV Movies, Award shows (the Oscars).

Semi- scripted entertainment

These are partially scripted they follow a plan then changes as the show progresses .Talk shows( Dr Phil), The Tyra Banks Show), Game shows The Bournvita Quiz Contest).

Unscripted entertainment

Reality television (Big Brother), News programs (CBS ‘Up to the minute’), Documentary (Wildlife on National Geographic), Television news magazine, dealing with current affairs are some of the examples.

The shots in every scene is carefully planned and arranged to bring in a feeling of reality if a scene looks real the audience will accept it. The illusion of reality is created through Mise-en-scene both in TV and cinema.

Mise-en-scène: [mizɑ̃sɛn]) is an expression used in the theatre and film worlds to describe the design aspects of a production. It has been called film criticism's "grand undefined term," but that is not because of a lack of definitions. Rather, it's because the term has so many different meanings that there is little consensus about its definition.

Stemming from the theatre, the French term mise en scène literally means "putting on stage." When applied to the cinema, mise en scène refers to everything that appears before the camera and its arrangement – sets, props, actors, costumes, and lighting.[1] Mise en scène also includes the positioning and movement of actors on the set, which is called blocking. These are all the areas overseen by the director, and thus, in French film credits, the director's title is literally “mise en scène. “

This narrow definition of mise en scène is not shared by all critics. For some, it refers to all elements of visual style – that is, both elements on the set and aspects of the camera. For others, such as U.S. film critic Andrew Sarris, it takes on mystical meanings related to the emotional tone of a film. Semiotics is a part of Mise-en-scene, the latter happens to be an umbrella term.

The theory and study of signs and symbols, especially as elements of language or other systems of communication, and comprising semantics, syntactic, and pragmatics, is called semiotics. It studied in terms of codes.

· Social codes like Appearances of the actors and the set (refer to the dress and gestures of the characters that signify specific meanings for the show). These codes help signify the characteristics of the characters, allowing an audience to understand the characters.

· Technical codes will be Opening credits, Camera angles, Closing credits, editing.

· And last but not the least, Representation codes, which include dialogue, audience laughter, and Stereotypical signs. For example, in the sitcom Frasier, the way Frasier’s apartment is designed, the colours used or the artefacts on the showcase all reflect his rich taste for the good things in life.

Television programs are read by decoding the dominant signs portrayed through such each scene. This process may seem unconscious to an audience because the dominant signs portrayed through each scene have become instilled as common-sense within society. Mise-en-scene is about cinematic space - what occurs in a defined area of space, bordered by the frame screen and determined by what the camera has been made to record.

The elements of Mise-en-scène: examples.

Décor

Décor comprises of the objects contained in and the setting of a scene. It is used to enhance character emotion or the set the dominant mood of a film. For example, in first shot taken from 2001: A Space Odyssey (Stanley Kubrick, 1969) the futuristic furniture and reduced colour scheme stress the sterility and impersonality of the space station environment. In the picture beside it the digital nature of the HAL computer is represented by the repeating patterns and strong geometrical design of the set.

Rear Projection

The foreground part of the scene it shot separately background often shot earlier, on location these are merged together. Rear projection provides an economical way to set films in exotic or dangerous locations without having to transport expensive stars or endure demanding conditions. In some films, the relationship between scenes shot on location and scenes shot using rear projection becomes a signifying pattern.

Example: Rear projection is featured extensively in Douglas Sirk's lush melodrama Written On The Wind (1956). Specifically, almost every car ride is shot in this way, due to the restrains of shooting in the studio. By speeding up the rate of the projected images in the background, or quickly changing its angle, rear projection allows for an impression of speed that involves no real danger.

Lighting

One of the best ways to enhance the impact of ones video images is through the creative use of lighting. This is, perhaps, the most important element in maximizing the image quality one is capable of producing with any camera or video format. Good lighting can make a Standard Definition camcorder shine, while poor lighting can make the most expensive professional High Definition video camera look inferior. In more subtle ways, lighting can have a tremendous impact on how the viewer perceives your video. Through creative lighting we can establish a mood or the time of day, enhance the illusion of three dimensionality, reveal or obscure visual information, and create an artificial reality.

Good lighting is not just the province of the people in Hollywood. One do not need a big budget and lots of expensive lighting equipment to do creative lighting. There are lots of inexpensive tools and simple tricks that you can use to enhance your lighting. But first, let's talk about some of the basic principles of lighting for video.

Mood lighting refers to the use of light to illuminate an object or background in a purposely to evoke a certain mood or emotion. It is very subtle. Evil characters are usually illuminated from beneath the chin giving them a certain eerie and demonic appearance.

Basic Elements of Lighting

Like stated earlier, good lighting are not just the province of Hollywood professionals. Let’s talk about some of the basic principles of lighting for video.

One of the more important realizations in learning about lighting is that lighting is not necessarily the art of adding light to a scene. Instead, as Tom Le Tourneau so aptly put it in his book, Lighting Techniques For Video Production, lighting is "the art of Casting Shadows". For some of you, that may be a radical statement. I myself spent years trying to eliminate ugly shadows in my scenes, typically by adding more and more lights. I had forgotten what had been taught to me… ‘to paint with light and shadow’

But, stop and think about it. In movies and TV shows, frequently it’s the depth and placement of shadows that make the lighting so dynamic and evocative. Shadows, from subtle to dark, help give a scene 3 dimensionality and help establish the mood of the scene. Shadows can also establish the time of day, hide or accentuate features of the set or actors, and suggest set elements, such as windows, which don't really exist. So, an important element toward creating better lighting is to start to look at lights as not only sources of illumination, but also as shadow generators.

Seeing Lighting

This also leads us to a valuable skill that is important to develop-the ability to SEE how light and shadows fall on objects and people around us, and in the scenes that we shoot. You have to make a concerted effort to look past everything else and concentrate on the subtleties of colour, shadow, and highlights which are created through lighting.

For example, in the black & white picture on the right, notice how the directional light falls on the girls face. Features near the source of light are strongly lit, with details accentuated by highlights, while the opposite side of the face is darker and less defined. Also observe how the shadows contour her cheeks and define her hair. The nose shadow gives the height and angle of the source.

In case of the black and white portrait on the left, try reading the source of diffused nature light source. The near half dome nature of lighting.

All around us are wonderful examples of how light defines our environment. You just have to LOOK.

Now that you're looking at the effect of natural light falling around you, we need to discover how we can recreate and enhance those effects in our videos.

Here notice how the light from a window falls on objects in a room. Objects near the window are strongly lit on the side facing the window, with details accentuated by highlights, while the opposite side of the objects are darker and less defined. Also observe how the wall opposite the window softly reflects light back into the room helping to illuminate the side of the subjects away from the window.

All around us are wonderful examples of how light defines our environment. You just have to LOOK.

Now that you're looking at the effect of natural light falling around you, we need to discover how we can recreate and enhance those effects in our videos.

Let's look at the four basic elements of lighting:

1. Direction,

2. Quality,

3. Lighting Ratio, and

4. Control.

Each of these elements contributes to the overall effect of our lighting and need to be considered when we design our lighting.

Let's look at the basic element: Direction

The direction of light is specifically related to the height and angle of the lighting source. Height refers to where the light source is placed above ground level. Is it above, below, or even with the subject? Angle refers to the slope of the light's beam. Together, height and angle determine where the highlights and shadows fall on your subject.

Placement of the light source directly above the heads of the subjects creates a different effect than placing the source at ground level and pointing up at the subjects.

Down Angle

In a still from ‘Men In Black ’ by Columbia/Tri Star Motion Picture Companies, one can see that placement of the light source above the subjects and angled straight down results in a glowing effect on the tops of heads and shoulders while the face and body are shadowed.

This lighting effect might suggest an interrogation room or spiritual encounter. In this example the subjects look subservient to the light source which represents an entity of higher power.

Up Angle

The second still which is also from ‘Men In Black ’ by Columbia/Tri Star Motion Picture Companies, one can see that light placed on the ground and aimed up at the subjects will produce a dramatically different effect.

Unusual shadows are created by placing the light low and in this case from behind. This lighting design creates a sinister or otherworldly effect. In this example, the subjects are made to look powerful and threatening.

These two examples are extremes; most non-theatrical projects don't involve sinister villains or powers from above. However, they point out how strong the relationship is between angle and height and how they affect the viewer's perception of a scene. At the least, you need to be careful not to imply something you don't intend by poor placement of your light source in relation to your subject. On the other hand, thoughtful placement of your lights can enhance and improve the look of your subject or scene.

Let's look at the second basic element: Quality

The quality of light relates to the hardness or softness of the light striking the subject.

Hard light is characterized by sharp beams of light with distinct edges between light and shadow. Hard light typically produces distinct dark shadows.

Here in the still from ‘Pirates of Penzance‘, provided by the Theatre Arts Department, California State University, Fresno, we see a good example is the spotlight which bathes stage performers in light while throwing a distinct circular pattern of light and shadow around the performers. This type of lighting is useful for creating drama and excitement and is often associated with night scenes.

Soft light, on the other hand, caresses the subject with the transition from light to shadow diffused. Soft light is used frequently in television shows and commercials because it is very complimentary to the subject and can help to diminish harsh shadows.

Effects of a soft light may clearly see in a still from a film, ‘Nebraska’ Nebraska Cinematographed by Chuck Barbee. However, the effect of using soft light is further accentuated by use of blue tones.

Let's look at the third basic element: Lighting Ratio

Lighting ratio refers to the difference in brightness from the lightest area of a subject to the darkest. This brightness difference is described by a numerical ratio that defines how many times brighter the brightest area is compared to the darkest area. For example, a 2:1 lighting ratio means that the brightest area of lighting on the subject is twice as bright as the darkest.

Here is an example of different Lighting Ratios: Depending on the sensitivity of the camera, video can accommodate up to about an 8:1 lighting ratio before the shadow areas loose all detail. The more commonly used lighting ratios for video are 2:1, 3:1, and 4:1

Moving on, let’s look at the fourth basic elements of lighting: Control.

Control refers to the methods we use to shape and colour the light emitted from our light sources. Part of the beam of a light could be blocked in order to create a shadow in a specific area of the subject. The film noir movies of the 40's made frequent use of shadow placement to heighten the drama.

In case of the still from ‘The Sweet Hereafter’, cinematographed by Paul Sarossy, the light through the window is significantly blocked so that a distinct shadow falls across the subject's face, with only part of the subject's face lit by sunlight.

Another method of controlling light is to place translucent material in front of the light which alters the light's beam or colour. Rock concerts achieve their colour lighting effects with this method.

THREE-POINT LIGHTING

In lighting, as in most creative endeavours, there are basic design guidelines. Mastering these guidelines provides a firm foundation for the development of ones lighting skills and provides a starting point for more creative and daring lighting designs. One of the basic guidelines for designing a workable lighting design is called 3-point lighting. This is a standard lighting scheme for most classical narrative cinema. In order to model an actor's face with a sense of depth, light from three directions are used as demonstrated in this figure.

In other words, the 3-point lighting design uses three light sources to illuminate the subject, provide shape and 3 dimensionality, and separate the subject from the background. These three light sources are the Key light, Fill light, and Back light.

• The KEY light is the dominant light source striking the subject. It is also called a principal modelling light.

• The Fill light, placed the opposite side, ensures that the shadows cast by the Key light are filled up… hence the name. And,

• The BACK light is placed behind the subject. It provides separation to the subject from its background.

The KEY, FILL and BACK lights represent the 3-points of a basic lighting design.

Three Point lighting

One of the basic guidelines for designing a lighting design is called the 3-point lighting. The 3-point lighting design uses three light sources to illuminate the subject, provide shape and 3 dimensionality, and separate the subject from the background. These three light sources are the Key light, Fill light, and Back light.

The KEY light is the dominant light source striking the subject. Typically, the key light is at least twice as bright as the fill light. In the basic 3-point design, the KEY light is placed 45 degrees to the side of the subject and at a 45 degree angle above the subject.

The Fill light is placed on the opposite side of the subject from the key light and at approximately the same height.

The Fill light, though placed on the opposite side of the subject from the key light, is placed approximately at 23 degrees as opposed to 45 degrees. Usually, the fill light is at least half as bright as the key light.

The BACK light is placed behind the subject, again at about a 45 degree angle above and behind the subject. The brightness of the back light can range in intensity from the level of the fill light to that of the key light, depending on the reflectivity of your subject. For example, a person with blond or gray hair needs far less back light than someone with brown or black hair.

MEASURING LIGHTING

To determine the amount of light coming from each of the light sources namely the Key, fill and backlight Light Meter has to be used. Light meters are hand-held devices which measure light. There are two basic types of light meters, Incident and Reflectant.

Incident light meters measure the amount of light striking the subject. Measurements are taken at the subject's location with the meter pointing at the light source to be measured.

Reflected light meters measure the amount of light reflected by the subject. Measurements with this meter are taken from the camera's location with the meter pointed at the subject. (The automatic meter which adjusts the iris camcorders is a reflectant light meter.)

NOTES for Distribution:

Use a meter reading as a guideline rather than a dictate for correct exposure. This makes it important that you understand how your particular meter works so you can consistently get good results no matter what the lighting. The place to begin this understanding is the instruction manual that came with your meter or camera. The instructions should familiarize you with the meter's specific features, its flexibility, and its limitations. Most camera and exposure meter instructions provide the basic techniques of light measurement and mention some of the situations that may "fool" the meter. If you can't find the instructions, write to the manufacture for them.

USING REFLECTED-LIGHT METERS

Once you have set the proper film speed on your camera or meter, you are ready to make the exposure-meter reading. With a reflected-light meter (in camera or handheld), point the camera or meter at the subject. The meter will measure the average brightness of the light reflected from the various parts of the scene. With an in-camera meter, a needle or diode display in the viewfinder or an LCD display on top of the camera will tell you when you have achieved the proper combination of lens and shutter-speed settings. If the camera is fully manual. You must set both the aperture and shutter speed. Automatic cameras may set both shutter speed and aperture; or they may set just one of the controls, leaving you to set the other.

If you're using a handheld meter, read the information on your meter and set the camera controls accordingly. An overall exposure reading taken from the camera position will give good results for and average scene with an even distribution of light and dark areas. For many subjects, then, exposure-meter operation is mostly mechanical; all you do is point the meter (or camera) at the scene and set the aperture and shutter speed as indicated. But your meter does not know if you need a fast shutter speed to stop action or a small aperture to extend depth of field. You will have to select the appropriate aperture and shutter combination for the effect you want. There will be other situations where either the lighting conditions or the reflective properties of the subject will require you to make additional judgements about the exposure information the meter provides, and you may have to adjust the camera controls accordingly.

A reflected-light meter reading is influenced by both how much light there is in the scene and how reflective the subject is. The meter will indicate less exposure for a subject that reflects little light, even if the two subjects are in the same scene and in the same light. Because reflected-light meters are designed to make all subjects appear average in brightness, the brightness equivalent to medium gray, they suggest camera settings that will overexpose (make too light) very dark subjects and underexpose (make too dark) very light subjects.

Although reflected-light meters are influenced more by the largest areas of the scene, the results will be acceptable even when the main subject fills the picture but it's still of average reflectance (neither very light nor very dark). However, what happens if a relatively small subject is set against a large dark or light background? The meter will indicate a setting accurate for the large area, not for the smaller, but important, main subject. Therefore, when the area from which you take a reflected-light reading is very light or very dark, and you want to expose it properly, you should modify the meter's exposure recommendation as follows:

• For light subjects, increase exposure by 1/2 to 1 stop from the meter reading.

• For dark subjects, decrease exposure by 1/2 to 1 stop from the meter reading.

Selective Meter Readings

To determine the correct exposure for high contrast scenes with large areas that are much darker or much lighter than the principle subject, take a selective meter reading of only the subject itself. How do you do this? Move the meter or camera close to the subject. Exclude unimportant dark or light areas that will give misleading readings. In making close-up readings, also be careful not to measure your own shadow or the meter's shadow.

Selective meter readings are useful for dark subjects against a bright background like snow or light sand, or for subjects in shade against a bright sunlit background. There is also the reverse of this: The subject is in bright sun and the background is in deep shade. In all these situations, your camera has no way of knowing which part of the scene is the most important and requires the most accurate exposure, so you must move in close so the meter will read only the key subject area. For example, if you want to photograph a skier posed on a snowy slope on a bright, sunny day, taking an average reading of the overall scene will result in underexposure. The very bright snow will overly influence the meter and the reading will be too high. The solution is to take a close-up reading from the skier's face (or a piece of medium-toned clothing) and then step back the desired distance to shoot the picture. Some cameras with built-in meters have an exposure-hold button or switch to lock the exposure setting when you do this. This technique is useful anytime the surroundings are much brighter or darker than your subjects.

Landscapes and other scenes with large areas of open sky can also fool the meter. The sky is usually much brighter than other parts of the scene, so an unadjusted meter reading will indicate too little exposure for the darker parts of the picture. One way to adjust for this bias without having to move in close is to tilt your lens or meter down to exclude the sky while taking your meter reading. The sky will probably end up slightly overexposed, but the alternative would be to find a different shooting position excluding most or all of the sky. There are also graduated neutral density floaters that work well in such situations. A neutral density filter absorbs all colours of visible light evenly, and you can position a graduated filter so that the darker portion is at the top of the image where it will darken the sky without affecting the ground below. Incidentally, some built-in meters are bottom-weighted to automatically compensate for situations like this, so check your manual.

Bright backlighting with the subject in silhouette can also present a challenge. With the light shining directly into the lens or meter, aiming the meter into the light can cause too high a reading. If you don't want to underexpose the subject, take a close-up reading, being especially careful to shade the lens or meter so that no extraneous light influences the reading.

Substitute Readings

What if you can't walk up to your subject to take a meter reading? For instance, suppose that you're trying to photograph a deer in sunlight at the edge of a wood. If the background is dark, a meter reading of the overall scene will give you an incorrect exposure for the deer. Obviously, if you try to take a close-up reading of the deer, you're going to lose your subject before you ever get the picture. One answer is to make a substitute reading off the palm of your hand, providing that your hand is illuminated by the same light as your subject, and then use a lens opening 1 stop larger than the meter indicates. For example, if the reading off your hand is f/16, open up one stop to f/11 to get the correct exposure. The exposure increase is necessary because the meter overreacts to the brightness of your palm which is about twice as bright as an average subject. When you take the reading, be sure that the lighting on your palm is the same as on the subject. Don't shade your palm.

Another subject from which you can take more accurate and more consistent meter readings is a KODAK Gray Card, sold by photo dealers. These sturdy cards are manufactured specifically for photographic use. They are neutral gray on one side and white on the other. The gray side reflects 18% of the light falling on it (similar to that of an average scene), and the white side reflects 90%. You can use a gray card for both black-and-white and colour balance. Complete instructions are included in the package with the cards.

Handling High Contrast

How do you determine the correct exposure for a high-contrast scene, one that has both large light and dark areas? If the highlights of shadow areas are more important, take a close-up reading of the important area to set the exposure. With colour slide film, keep in mind that you will get more acceptable results if you bias the exposure for the highlights, losing the detail in the shadows. In a slide, the lack of detail in the shadows is not as distracting as overexposed highlights that project as washed-out colour and bright spots on the screen. If you are working with black-and-white film, you can adjust the development for better reproduction of the scene contrast, particularly in highlights.

But what if the very light and very dark areas are the same size and they are equally important to the scene? One solution is to take selective meter readings from each of the areas and use an f-number that is midway between the two indicated readings. For instance, if your meter indicates an exposure of 1/125 second at f/22 for brightest area and 1/125 second at f/2.8 for the darkest area--a range of six stops--set your camera 1/125 second f/8. This is a compromise solution, but sometimes it is your only choice short of coming back another day or changing your viewpoint, and the composition of the picture, to eliminate the contrast problem.

USING SPOT METERS

Perhaps the best solution when you need a selective meter reading is offered by the spot meter. Handheld averaging meters generally cover about 30º; while handheld spot meters typically read a 1º angle. The angle of spot meters built into the camera is usually wider, about 3 to 12º. The biggest advantage of a spot meter is that is allows you to measure the brightness of small areas in a scene form the camera position without walking in to make a close-up reading. Since a spot meter measures only the specific area you point it at, the reading is not influenced by large light or dark surroundings. This makes a spot meter especially useful when the principal subject is a relatively small part of the overall scene and the background is either much lighter or darker than the subject. Spot meters are also helpful for determining the scene brightness range.

A spot meter can take more time to use since it usually requires more than one reading of the scene. This is particularly true when the scene includes many different bright or dark areas. To determine the best exposure in such a situation, use the same technique described previously for high-contrast subjects: Select the exposure halfway between the reading for the lightest important area in the scene and that for the darkest important area in the scene. Bear in mind, though, all films have inherent limits on the range of contrast they can accurately record. Remember too, you can sometimes create more dramatic pictures by intentionally exposing for one small area, such as a bright spot of sunlight on a mountain peak, and letting the dark areas fall into black shadow without detail. Spot meters are ideal for such creative applications.

USING INCIDENT-LIGHT METERS

To use an incident-light meter, hold it at or near the subject and aim the meter's light-sensitive cell back toward the camera. The meter reads the amount of light illuminating the subject, not light reflected from the subject, so the meter ignores the subject and background characteristics. As with a reflected reading, an incident reading provides exposure information for rendering average subjects correctly, making incident readings most accurate when the subject is not extremely bright or dark.

When taking an incident-light reading, be sure you measure the light illuminating the side of the subject you want to photograph, and be careful that your shadow isn't falling on the meter. If the meter isn't actually at the subject, you can get a workable reading by holding the meter in the same kind of light the subject is in. Because the meter is aimed toward the camera and away from the background light, an incident reading is helpful with backlit subjects. This is also the case when the main subject is small and surrounded by a dominant background that is either much lighter or darker.

The exposure determined by an incident-light meter should be the same as reading a gray card with a reflected-light meter. Fortunately, many scenes have average reflectance with an even mix of light and dark areas, so the exposure indicated is good for many picture-taking situations. However, if the main subject is very light or very dark, and you want to record detail in this area, you must modify the meter's exposure recommendations as follows:

• For light subjects, decrease exposure by 1/2 to 1 stop from the meter reading.

• For dark subjects, increase exposure by 1/2 to 1 stop from the meter reading.

You will notice that these adjustments are just the opposite from those required for a reflected-light meter. An incident meter does not work well when photographing light sources because it cannot meter light directly. In such situations you will be better off using a reflected-light meter or an exposure table.

If the scene is unevenly illuminated and you want the best overall exposure, make incident-light readings in the brightest and darkest areas that are important to your picture. Aim the meter in the direction of the camera position for each reading. Set the exposure by splitting the difference between the two extremes.

Actual measuring

Foot Candle meters are the most commonly used meter for video. These meters display the amount of light striking them on a scale calibrated in foot candles, from 0 to 500 and are not dependent on any other factors.

In order to get an accurate reading the meter needs to be placed immediately in front of the subject facing the light source to be measured. The easiest way to take the key, fill, and back light measurements is to do them one at a time, with the other two lights turned off. Starting with just the key light on, place the meter in front of the area of the subject struck by the key light. Aim the meter at the key light and note the number of foot candles. For example, if it reads 100 foot candles. Then next, turn on just the fill light and take another reading facing the fill light. If our intended lighting ratio is 2:1, then the fill light should read about 50 foot candles.

Now, turn on just the back light and take its reading. The back light should be somewhere between 50 and 150 foot candles, depending on the effect desired.

The final step is to re-measure the key, fill, and back light positions with all the lights on. This is important since where the illumination from the lights overlaps the intensity increases. Adjust the intensity of the lights as needed to maintain the desired lighting ratio.

Now that we know what three point lighting is and how to measure light intensity, let us acquaint ourselves with a concept of:

HIGH-KEY LIGHTING

A Technique used in filming or videotaping for television, it refers to the lighting of a scene to eliminate shadow areas. High-key lighting is usually associated with news, interview, or panel programs, which are basically not of a dramatic nature, thus the lighting director's attempt to give a bright, lively appearance to the scene.

In other words, a lighting scheme in which the fill light is raised to almost the same level as the key light. This produces images that are very bright and that feature few shadows on the subjects, thus low contrast. This was originally done partly for technological reasons, since early film and television did not deal well with high contrast ratios, but now is used to create an upbeat mood. It is often used in sitcoms and comedies. This bright image is characteristic of entertainment genres such as musicals and comedies such as ‘Everybody loves Raymond’.

• High Key images are considered happy and will show your subject as a tooth-paste poster.

• When looking at a High Key picture, you will probably notice two things right away. That is other than the happy-happy-joy-joy mood of the picture:

• The first thing is that the picture is bright. Yes - to create a high key image you need to set your exposure levels to high values. You will want to watch out, though not to over expose.

• The other noticeable feature of High Key images is the lack of contrast. In addition for the tone being bright, you will notice that it is almost even across the scene. This is achieved by carefully setting the lighting of the picture.

• Another feature, which needs closer attention to notice, is the lack of shadows in the picture. The shadows cast by the model (or subject) are suppressed by lighting in the scene.

Both High Key images and Low Key images make an intensive use of contrast, but in a very different way. When approaching a shoot of a dramatic portrait, the decision of making it a High Key, Low Key or "just" a regular image has great impact about the mood that this picture will convey. While High Key images are considered happy and will show your subject as a tooth-paste poster; Low Key portraits are dramatic and convey allot of atmosphere and tension. Let's explore those two dramatic lighting alternatives.

LOW-KEY LIGHTING

In filming or videotaping for television, the lighting of a scene so that there is a great deal of contrast between dark and light areas, making artistic use of deep shadows. Low-key lighting is used effectively in dramatic presentations to create variety and establish mood, particularly in mysteries or thrillers.

In other words, the Low Key design uses very little fill light, creating strong contrasts between the brightest and darkest parts of an image and often creating strong shadows that obscure parts of the principal subjects. Low key light shows the contours of an object by throwing areas into light or shadow while the fill light provides partial illumination in the shadow areas to prevent a distracting contrast between bright and dark. For dramatic effects, one may wish the contrast to be high — to emphasize the brightness of the sun in a desert scene, to make a face look rugged; the lighting scheme is often associated with "hard-boiled" or suspense genres such as film noir. Here are some examples from Touch of Evil (Orson Welles, 1958.)

Costume

The clothes that characters wear, signify character, or advertise particular fashions, or to make clear distinctions between characters. In this example from Life on Earth (La Vie sur Terre, 1998) long loose clothes, big hats are used to further stress the cultural and psychological implications of a nomadic existence, the difference between the coldness of France and the colourful poverty of Mauritania.

Acting

There is enormous historical and cultural variation in performance styles. Acting by British actors is very subtle as compared to Hindi serials early styles were melodramatic, and then came the naturalistic style.

Typage

Typage refers to the selection of actors on the basis that their facial or bodily features readily convey the truth of the character the actor plays. The filmmakers thought that the life-experience of a non-actor guaranteed the authenticity of their performance when they attempted a dramatic role similar to their real social role.

A stereotype in communicating the essential qualities of a character. It is still visible nowadays but the selection is made from professional actors. In this scene, In Pudovkin's Storm Over Asia (Potomok Chingis-Khana, USSR, 1928), professional and non-professional actors are used alike. The cast was selected not on terms of their skills or reputation, but on their physical resemblance to the following types:

Example

1. The pompous and greedy general

2. The hero of the Mongol people

3. The general's wife with royal ambitions

Space

It includes depth, proximity, size and proportions of the places and objects in a scene can be manipulated through camera placement and lenses, lighting, decor, effectively determining mood or relationships between elements

Deep space

A film utilizes deep space when significant elements of an image are positioned both near to and distant from the camera. For deep space these objects do not have to be in focus, a defining characteristic of deep focus.

This particular scene is taken from the Iranian film ‘The Colour of Paradise’ (Rang-e Khoda, 1999). It was used to integrate the characters into their natural surroundings, to map out the actual distances involved between one location and another in order to emphasize just exactly how hard it is for a particular character (especially children) to move from one place to another.

For example, as per the composition of the still from ‘The Colour of Paradise’, Mohammad's father (the character on the horse) looks in apprehension at the school where his blind son is visiting. In the far background, Mohammad is playing with his sister and other "normal" children, but his father does not believe Mohammad should try to mingle with them since he could never be their equal, due to his disability. On the other hand, Mohammad enjoys the company of his new friends in the countryside much more than the School for the Blind in Tehran. The distance between the two points of view, as well as the impossibility of communication between Mohammad and his father is reflected in the deep use of Mise-en-scène.

At this point it will be appropriate to explain how this deep space may be achieved. The trick lies in Deep Focus. Deep focus is a photographic and cinematographic technique incorporating a large depth-of-field. Depth-of-field is the front-to-back range of focus in an image — that is, how much of it appears sharp and clear. Consequently, in deep focus the foreground, middle-ground and background are all in focus. This can be achieved through knowledgeable application of the hyper focal distance of the camera lens being used.

The opposite of deep focus is shallow focus, in which only one plane of the image is in focus.

In the cinema, Orson Welles and his cinematographer Gregg Toland were the two individuals most responsible for popularizing deep focus. Their film Citizen Kane (1941) is a veritable textbook of possible uses of the technique.

Frontality refers to the staging of elements, often actors, so that they face the camera. Frontal staging is usually avoided by editing because it would seem as if the actors were aware of the camera, it would break the illusion. Some films have the characters speak to the camera, in what is called a direct address. This is done in the remake of the Movie ‘Alfie’, where the character, Alfie, converses with the audiences. He refers to them the directly.

For example,

In the still from ‘The Stendhal Syndrome’ (La Sindrome di Stendhal, Italy, 1996) Dario Argento exploits the iconicity of frontal staging in multiple ways.

• First, the characters are situated on a parallel plane with the famous profile portraits of The Duke of Urbino and his wife by Piero Della Francesca.

• Then, they are flattened; the space between them and the paintings is made shallow by the use of telephoto lens, while keeping all planes in focus.

• Frontality is used to equate the characters with the paintings: both are fictional creations, the product of an artist's work.

• As a pun, the Japanese tourist taking a picture of the viewers.

The shallow space

It is the opposite of deep space; the image is shown with very little depth. The objects can appear plastered on. The figures in the image occupy the same or closely positioned planes. While the resulting image loses realistic appeal, its flatness enhances its pictorial qualities. Striking graphic patters can be obtained.

In the stills from ‘My Neighbour Totoro’ (Tonari No Totoro, Japan, 1988) the entire background is filled with a lamp-eyed, grinning cat bus. The Shallow space creates ambiguity: is the cat brimming with joy at the sisters' encounter, or is he about to eat them?

Shallow space can be staged, or it can also be achieved optically, with the use of a telephoto lens. This is particularly useful for creating claustrophobic images, since it makes the characters look like they are being crushed against the background.

A Matte shot is a shot in which two photographic images (usually background and foreground) are combined into a single image using an optical printer. Matte shots can be used to add elements to a realistic scene or to create fantasy spaces. In the example from Vertigo (1958), director Alfred Hitchcock adds the white belfry, a model, on to the shot of the roof; in the second image, the sky in the background is clearly a painting, with the purpose of making us believe the scene takes place on a bell tower's top floor, rather than on the studio's ground.

Matte shooting is one of the most common techniques used in studio filmmaking, it's cheaper to shoot a picture of the Eiffel tower than to travel to Paris or because it would be impossible or too dangerous to try to shot in the real space. Special effects and computer generated images have taken over the function of matte shots nowadays.

Off screen Space

Space that exists in the fictional world but that is not visible in the frame. Off-screen space becomes significant when the viewer's attention is called to an event or presence world that is not visible in the frame. Off-screen space is commonly used in suspense in horror and thriller films, such as The Stendhal Syndrome.

The Three Production Phases

The production process refers to the stages required to complete a media product (film, video, television and audio recording), it starts right from the idea to the final copy. The production process is commonly broken down into preproduction, production, and postproduction.

This chart belongs to a small production unit; however there are lots of other people involved. This depends on the scale of production and the nature of the program to be produced.

Pre-production

Pre-production refers to the tasks undertaken before production begins. It is the most important phase of entire production because it affects the execution stage directly. It is the foundation of the whole production process. It is in the preproduction that all the basic ideas and approaches have to mature into a final blue print for the production, as well as the post-production stage.

Program idea:

In order for the program to be successful, throughout each production phase knowledge of the needs, interests, and general background of the target audience is very important because the program should have value and leave a lasting effect on the viewer, the content must affect the audience emotionally for them to remember it, similar productions from the past are referred too, to avoid making new mistakes. The differences in time, locations, and audiences are taken into consideration. The research about the subject has to be done in depth.

Capturing and Holding Viewer Attention: Viewers have thousands of channels to choose from. The content of the program must appeal to the viewers to make them want too tune in and watch episodes of it time and time again. They should want to make a choice and select it from numerous programs offered by various channels.

First, Get Their Attention!

The success of a TV show will depend s on the TRP ratings besides attracting new viewers it is essential to sustain the general viewer ship, if nothing interesting is communicated the audiences will go elsewhere for entertainment.

Hit the Target

Production must begin with a clear understanding of the needs and interests of the target audience. After this is done it is important to schedule the program as per the audiences. On TV movies meant for 18 plus viewers are shown after 11 o’clock. Cartoons on channel 33 were shown from two – four o’ clock

Because that is the time children would return from school.

Using Audience-Engaging Techniques

It is a well know fact that audiences react emotionally to program content. Surprisingly even a logical, educational presentation would garner an emotional response. The audiences must be emotionally engaged at all times. They must be given new insights and be exposed to new points of view. The content that reinforces their existing attitudes is readily accepted, they tend to react against ideas that run contrary to their beliefs. The viewers should never be alienated.

For example, an East Coast TV station did an exposé on a local police chief. An undercover reporter put a camera in a lunch box and filmed the police chief clearly taking a bribe. When the segment was broadcast, there was negative reaction against the TV station because the police chief was popular with many influential people in the community. The people refused to believe what they saw because thy disagreed to it.

A script is a form of literature written by a playwright or a scriptwriter, almost always consisting of dialogue between the characters in drama, intended for theatrical, cinematic, or television performance rather than ‘reading’. The term is often used in contrast to "musical," which refers to a script with a lot of music and singing.

Drafting the script

The idea is formulated into a script. This is the first or the draft version of the script. Numerous versions will subsequently follow. Throughout, the rewriting process, a number of story conferences or script conferences typically take place. During these sessions,

• Audience appeal,

• Pace,

• Rhythm, and

• Problems with special interest groups will be looked into.

If it's an institutional production, production's goals will be reviewed and the most effective ways to present ideas will be investigated. If the director is on board at this time he or she should be part of these conferences.

Preliminary planning

The discussion of production interpretation takes place. The initial set designs are made sketches and rough plans are made. Make-up, Cast, Locations, Lighting and other technicalities are discussed. The overall value of the production to a sponsor or underwriter is determined. Since, finance and returns are important issues, thorough investigation of audience profile takes place. Generally, the larger the audience the more marketable a production will be to an underwriter or advertiser. Many Broadcasters have cancelled more than one TV series not because it had a small audience, but because it had targeted the wrong audience.

It is at this stage that the potential value of a production to an advertiser or underwriter with the projected cost of producing and presenting the production is balanced. It is ensured that the costs do not exceed the benefits. In commercial television, the ROI is generally in the form of increased sales and profits. It can include the expected moral, political, spiritual, or public relations benefit derived from the program.

A TV Budget Summery Sheet

Since, detailed projection has to be undertaken, it is but natural to develop a detailed budget at this stage. The accounting shall be later done as per this budget. The expense heads are prepared and resources allocated. Some amount of buffer is maintained to deal with uncertainties. Generally, the margin of 10 -15 percent is allocated for this purpose. Care should be taken not to Under-budget one’s product under pressure as this will result in generation of insufficient funds effecting successful completion of the project. On the other hand, inappropriate extra padding leads to over-budgeting, which in turn evokes the threat of never going into product as the project appears to be expensive.

A typical budget summary sheet for a television product will start with:

• Name of the program

• Name of the Production House / company

• Number of episodes

• Number of built in commercial breaks

You may clearly see the heading under which a typical summary sheet may exhibit its expenses.

The Previous Funding or the Provisional funding is the extra amount to be kept in to meet uncertainties.

Development refers to the money to be spent on development of the idea e.g. rough drafts and scriptwriting

Production: expenses that will be undertaken in production. Further,

Post Production: cost is also reflected.

Development /script

Concept of rights – Authors etc., the copyright. First and foremost their permission has to be sought. Money has to be paid as fees for the idea to be used.

Research- the expenses incurred to research the political climate and other such factors this is done at every stage.

Sundry expense refer to small necessities like fuses

The other expenses are common sense.

The budget expenses can be broadly categorised into two:

1. above-the-line, and

2. Below-the-line.

Above-the-Line refers to the expenses generally relating to the performing and producing, creative elements: talent, script, music, and others. While, Below-the-line elements refer to two broad areas:

1. The physical elements such as sets, props, make-up, wardrobe, graphics, transportation, production equipment, studio facilities, and editing

2. The technical personnel such as stage manager, engineering personnel, video recording operators, audio operators, and general labour.

Renting vs. Buying Equipment

Equipment rental is also included. Except for studio equipment that's used every day, it's often more economical to rent equipment rather than buy it.

When buying equipment one pays for overheads as well, insurance has to be maintained on it , storage of the equipment becomes very important it has to be given for servicing plus technical know how of the equipment becomes essential . Capital blocking is involved that means money returns are only obtained when it is used; depreciation on the equipment cannot be ignored. In short purchasing equipment may prove to be a liability.

• First, production equipment especially cameras and recorders are likely to become outdated quickly. Even though the camera might still be reliable after five years or more, compared to the newer models it will be outdated. It may even be difficult to find spare parts.

• In countries like U.S. renting provides an income tax advantage. When equipment is purchased, it must be depreciated (written off on income tax) over a number of years.

• When you rent equipment, you increase the opportunities to obtain equipment that will meet the specific needs of your production.

• Purchasing equipment can generate pressure to use it even though, at times, other makes and models might be better suited to your needs

Determining costs:

Approaches to Attributing Costs

Once the cost of a production is worked out, it needs to be justified, either in terms of cost-effectiveness or expected results. If the production is suppose to last for a year there will be certain days when not a single inch of footage is exposed. Further, depreciation will have to be accounted for all the props and property. There are three bases on which to measure cost effectiveness:

1. Cost per Minute: Cost per minute is relatively easy to determine; simply divide the final production cost by the duration of the finished product. For example, if a 30-minute production costs $ 120,000 (US), the cost per minute is $ 4,000 (US).

2. Cost per Viewer: Cost per viewer is also relatively simple to figure out; divide the total production cost by the actual or anticipated size of audience.

In the field of advertising, CPM (or cost-per-thousand) is a common measure. If 100,000 people see a show that costs $ 5,000 (US) to produce, the CPM is $ 50 (US). On a cost-per-viewer basis, this comes out to be only five cents per person.

1. Cost per Measured Results: If after airing one 60-second commercial 300,000 boxes of chocolate are sold at a resulting profit of $ 100,000 (US). If a million dollars was spent in producing and airing the commercial, question that would arise whether it was good investment. But, advertisers air most advertisements more than once. If the cost of TV time is $ 10,000 and we sell 300,000 packages of chocolates after each airing, we will soon show a profit.

Return on Investment

It’s very difficult to determine the effectiveness of programming on altering human behaviour and attitudes. It is difficult to quantify the return on investment of public service announcements designed to get viewers to stop smoking, before and after surveys are conducted to measure changes in public awareness, it can be almost impossible to measure the impact of other factors.

Final script - Finally, a script version emerges. Even this version, will probably not be final. In many instances, scene revisions continue right up to the time the scenes are shot. A storyboard is developed; a storyboard consists of drawings of key scenes with corresponding notes on elements such as dialogue, sound effects, and music.

A screenplay or script is a written plan, authored by a screenwriter, for a film or television program. Screenplays can be original works or adaptations from existing works such as novels. A screenplay differs from a script in that it is more specifically targeted at the visual, narrative arts, such as film and television, whereas a script can involve a blueprint of "what happens" in a comic, an advertisement, a theatrical play and other "blueprinted" creations.

The major components of a screenplay are action and dialogue, with the "action" being "what we see happening" and "dialogue" being "what we hear" (i.e., what the characters utter). The characters, when first introduced in the screenplay, may also be described visually. Screenplays differ from traditional literature conventions in ways described below; however, screenplays may not involve emotion-related descriptions and other aspects of the story that are, in fact, visual within the end-product.

• Screenplays in print are highly formal, conforming to font and margin specifications designed to cause one page of screenplay to correspond to approximately one minute of action on screen;

• thus screen directions and descriptions of location are designed to occupy less vertical space than dialogue,

• And various technical directions, such as settings and camera indication are set apart from the text with capital letters and/or indentation.

• Professional screenplays are always printed in 12-point Courier, or another fixed-width font that appears like typewriter type.

Developed during the pre-production stage and used throughout the production and post-production stages, a storyboard is a series of diagrams that are used to depict the composition of a video or film segment. Each diagram consists of: a sketch of the image; a brief description of the visual; notes for the camera operator; the details of the desired audio that will accompany the visual; and an estimate of how long the segment will be. The storyboard cards are then placed in order to provide the foundation for capturing the proper footage and for making the correct editing decisions. Here is an example of what a storyboard card might look like.

In short, Storyboards are graphic organizers such as a series of illustrations or images displayed in sequence for the purpose of pre-visualizing a motion graphic or interactive media sequence, including website interactivity.

The storyboarding process, in the form it is known today, was developed at the Walt Disney studio during the early 1930s, after several years of similar processes being in use at Walt Disney and other animation studios.

To better understand the usefulness of the storyboard, here is additional information on basic camera shots, examples of transitions, and explanations of different graphic insert methods.

Basic Camera Shots

As part of your Shot Description, you might want to use the following terms (or abbreviations): extreme close-up (ECU), close-up (CU), medium shot (MS), long shot (LS), and extreme long shot (ELS). Below are some examples of each of these. Keep in mind that people do have different scales that they follow in defining these camera shots. It is up to the director of your production to ensure that the camera operators are capturing the proper footage.

What is Shot Description?

This will contain a description of what the director will be instructing the camera operator to capture on tape. This will help to explain details that cannot be shown by a single sketch. You might decide to use some of the terms used to identify the basic camera shots, such as, extreme close up, medium shot, or long shot in conjunction with your descriptions. If these camera shot terms are new to you, go to the Basic Shot Selection section to see examples.

Extreme Close-up (ECU or XCU): a shot composition that shows the fine details of a subject. An extreme close-up shot is relative to what is considered a close-up shot.

Close-up (CU): a shot composition that captures only a small portion of a subject. A close-up shot is relative to what is considered a medium shot and an extreme close-up shot.

Medium shot (MS): a shot composition that shows about half of the complete subject. A medium shot is relative to what is considered a close-up shot and a long shot.

Long shot (LS): a shot composition that captures most (if not all) of the subject. A long shot is relative to what is considered a medium shot and an extreme long shot.

You might also describe specific camera movement techniques in your shot description. A couple of examples might be a pan or a zoom. Sometimes you might want the camera operator to pan across a scene, or zoom in on a subject. There are many other techniques, and the idea is to clearly state what kind of shot you are going for. Be careful in your shot selections because different combinations can convey different messages to the viewers.

Transitions

When you edit your segments together, how you switch from one segment to the next is called a transition. You do not need special editing equipment to incorporate transitions between your shots. You can create many of your own transitions using well planned techniques using the features of the video camera.

As part of your storyboard, you may want to plan for specific transitions into or out of a segment. Here is a list of some of the transitions that you can consider for your video production.

Simple Cut: This will be your most common transition since all it requires during editing is to stop or start the scene where it is convenient. This is effective for quickly changing settings or perspectives.

Black: Editing in a second or two of "black" can help to provide a distinct break between scenes. When you watch television, you may notice that many times when a program goes to commercial, there is a moment of black just before a commercial starts. This helps the audience to know that the commercial is not part of the program.

Fade-in/Fade-Out: Many video cameras have a fade button. Using this feature helps to show the audience that the scene has changed or will change. The fade usually starts or ends with black.

Refocus/Defocus: If your camera doesn't have a fade feature, you could use a technique where you start or end a scene out of focus. You may notice that many times when television programs display text information on the screen, they usually produce it over a defocused scene. Of course, to do this, you must learn how to manually focus your video camera first.

Follow a moving object: To transition into a scene, you can try to record footage where you follow an object or person (that is not the main focus of the scene) moving across until you stop the camera and stay focused on your intended subject. From there you can record any scripted dialog. This helps to avoid having everything jump out at your audience as you transition between scenes.

Be careful in what you select as your transitions in and transitions out, particularly as you go from one "out" to an "in." If the transition out on one shot is a "medium shot, cut" you typically don't want to follow with a similar "cut, medium shot" on the transition in of the next shot. If you have the same type of shots following each other, you need to further examine the details of the segments to make sure that this similarity won't confuse the audience.

There are many more ways that you can transition, and the above examples are just a few to help get you started.

Graphics Insert

Sometimes it helps to show important points with a graphical visual aid. With matching examples and verbal descriptions, you can be sure that your audience will know that you just made an important statement because you backed it up with a graphical image. For example, if you want students to remember key points, you can present a graphic that has the points numbered and sequenced.

On the other hand, you can take advantage of certain graphics to help add information so that you do not necessarily have to have someone verbalizing all the details.

Editor Created Titles: The linear editing system does have the capability to add titles to a video segment. This is an easy way to produce title screens on colored backgrounds, or to add captions to enhance certain images. You might want to add a caption that shows the name of the person that the viewer is seeing. Keep in mind, however, that the built-in title functions are nothing like word processors and you may find your options rather limiting.

Self Created Graphics: If you don't like the appearance of the characters from the editing system's title feature, you might consider creating your own graphics. You could hand draw titles or graphics, or create them on a computer and print them in colour or on colour paper. These could then be shot with the video camera. You won't be able to superimpose any of these graphics with another video image, but it does provide you with more flexibility.

Computer Generated Graphics (recorded to tape): To take the computer generated graphics one step further, you could utilize the video output function of certain computers to record your graphics directly to videotape. With certain computer hardware and software solutions you can record complex animation or stylish scrolling credits. You could also use presentation software such as Microsoft PowerPoint to present important points in graphic format. Once you have segments recorded on tape, you can then use that part as your raw footage that is then edited onto your master tape.

Technical Planning

A tentative schedule is drawn up this is dictated by the broadcast or distribution deadlines, Selection of Key Production Personnel takes place

Above-the-line production personnel are selected. In addition to the producer and writer, above-the-line personnel include the production manager, director and, in general, key creative team members. Below-the-line personnel, generally assigned later, include the technical staff. Staging designs are planned in detail, Locations are decided arrangements are made for graphics special effects, the required paperwork begins

Locations are decided if shooting is not done in the studio, key locations are decided on a location scout or location manager can be hired to find and coordinate the use of the locations suggested by the script. In certain cities they encourage TV and film production and maintain film commissions that supply photos and videotapes of interesting shooting locations in their area. They'll also provide information on usage fees and the names of people to contact. Changes may be made in the on-location settings. For instance, rooms may have to be repainted or redecorated and visible signs changed. Construction of the scene properties and graphics begins inserts of audio visuals are kept ready

Rehearsal script

All the props costumes and models are obtained, the lack of equipment is realised, necessary clearance is obtained, junior talents and shot timings are taken into consideration as well. Once the Talent, Wardrobe and Sets are decided, negotiations will take place and contracts will be signed. The rehearsal script implies one of the many stages of final script which is still undergoing changes before being settled as final.

Pre studio Rehearsals

Wardrobe selection is done. These are suggested by the script, coordinated with the look of the sets and locations, and ultimately approved by the director. After a set designer is hired, he or she will review the script, possibly do some research, and then discuss initial ideas with the director, sketches of the sets can be made for final approval before actual set construction starts the sketches may be given to a computer artist.

Rehearsals are scheduled, from initial table readings to the final dress rehearsal. Even though personnel may not have finished the sets at this point, the actors can start reading through the script with the director to establish pace, emphasis, and basic blocking (the positioning of sets, furniture, cameras, and actors).

Once the sets are finished, the final blocking and dress rehearsals can get underway. Decisions on the remaining staff and production needs are made. At this point key technical personnel, equipment, and facilities are arranged. This includes the rental of both equipment and production facilities.

And so are transportation, catering and on-location accommodations

Unions, which may or may not be involved, often set minimum standards for transportation, as well as the quality of meals and accommodations. Union contracts also cover job descriptions and specific crew responsibilities and working hours, including graduated pay increases for overtime hours, a dry un is done that is rehearsals without lights followed by a staggered and a dress rehearsal that is a completed rehearsal

it's not possible just to go to the location of choice Except for spot news and short documentary segments, access permits, licenses, security bonds, and insurance policies must be arranged Many semi-public interior locations, such as shopping malls, require filming permits. Depending on the nature of the production, liability insurance and security bonds may be necessary, because accidents happen and can be directly and indirectly attributed to the production.

Arrange to shoot or acquire videotape and film inserts, still photos, and graphics. To reduce production costs, existing stock footage in film and tape libraries around the country are checked. This is generally background footage, such as general exterior scenes of an area, to be edited into the production. Decisions on music at this point, including working out copyright clearances and royalties for music and visual inserts are made.

Camera Script – as per the script the show format is finalised breakdown sheets are prepared camera cards cue cards and prompters are made ready. The cameras script contains the shots to be taken the stage set ups the script starts from left to right, the camera card is prepared it contains the information regarding which camera takes the shots and when the size and angles of the shots.

If suitable footage is not available or does not meet the needs of the production, one may need to hire a second unit to produce needed segments.

Second unit work is production done away from the main location by a separate production crew. It generally does not involve the principal, on-camera talent.

Pre Studio Rehearsals

Are in fact rehearsals done before arriving at the studio. This takes place through table reading to rehearsal scripts till final script is evolved. It is during this time that other very important work is undertaken. During this stage of Pre-production:

1. Wardrobe selection is done. In fact, the wardrobe is suggested by the script itself. However, the costume designer may have his or her own interpretation.

2. Wardrobe is also coordinated with the look of the sets and locations, and ultimately approved by the director.

3. After a set designer is hired, he or she will review the script, possibly do some research, and then discuss initial ideas with the director.

4. Set Designer prepares sketches of the sets for final approval before actual set construction starts. The sketches may be given to a computer artist.

5. Rehearsals are scheduled, from initial table readings to the final dress rehearsal. Even though personnel may not have finished the sets at this point, the actors can start reading through the script with the director to establish pace, emphasis, and basic blocking (the positioning of sets, furniture, cameras, and actors).

6. Once the sets are finished, the final blocking and dress rehearsals can get underway.

7. Decisions on the remaining staff and production needs are made.

8. At this point key technical personnel, equipment, and facilities are arranged. This includes the rental of both equipment and production facilities.

9. And so are transportation, catering and on-location accommodations. Unions, which may or may not be involved, often set minimum standards for transportation, as well as the quality of meals and accommodations. Union contracts also cover job descriptions and specific crew responsibilities and working hours, including graduated pay increases for overtime hours,

10. A dry run is done that is rehearsals without lights followed by

11. A staggered and

12. A dress rehearsal that is a completed rehearsal

During this stage of Pre-production various other aspects of production are addressed:

• It’s not possible just to go to the location of choice. Except for spot news and short documentary segments, access permits, licenses, security bonds, and insurance policies must be arranged

• Many semi-public interior locations, such as shopping malls, require filming permits.

• Depending on the nature of the production, liability insurance and security bonds may be necessary, because accidents happen and can be directly and indirectly attributed to the production.

• Arrange to shoot or acquire videotape and film inserts, still photos, and graphics.

• To reduce production costs, existing stock footage in film and tape libraries around the country are checked. This is generally background footage, such as general exterior scenes of an area, to be edited into the production.

• Decisions on music at this point, including working out copyright clearances and royalties for music and visual inserts are made.

Camera Script: In a single-camera shoot, the director can easily direct the video-grapher for each shot or sequence of shots. However, in multiple-camera shoots, the director should prepare a camera script, which s/he issues to each camera operator.

The camera script outlines for each camera operator the exact size of shot and precise camera moves the director expects throughout the scene. In live, as-live, or multi-camera studio productions, in which the director has largely worked out when s/he will cut from one camera to another, a single camera script detailing each operator's moves will work well. On a shoot where all cameras are expected to record the entire scene, each operator should have his/her individual camera script.

The directions can be very simple: maintain a medium close-up on Rico throughout the scene. Or they can involve complex shot combinations and camera moves, with each movement cued by dialogue, movement or lighting changes, and marked by the director on the camera script.

The camera script will result from final shot breakdown sheets and will lead to tele-prompters cards. In simple words, the camera script contains the shots to be taken.

Prepare studio: Refers to undertaking all activities from cleaning to rigging of lights, sound equipment to testing equipment for the shoot. It includes Camera blocking adjustments regarding the camera equipment, lightening, audio, makeup, sets, Run through. The floor is sanitised the systems are made hot.

Camera blocking: The process of notating the changing position of the camera, lens size, and focus during a particular scene. It is made adjusting style lighting and video tape. Once the rigging is done things are put in the right place the characters entry and exit on the set is checked it is called blocking.

Run through: helps the production team to check for problems not only that exist but that may occur. The phrase means that check list is executed and loose ends tied. In short Run Through refers to quick rehearsal.

Final rehearsal- the talent dresses in the appropriate wardrobe, and all production elements are in place. This is the final opportunity for production personnel to solve whatever production problems remain.

The Crew

People involved in this stage include the director, the producer, the scriptwriter, the researcher, the set designer, the make-up artist, and the costume designer.

Producer: a television producer helps to coordinate, the financial, legal, administrative, technological and artistic aspects of a production.

* Associate producer: Performs limited ‘producing’ functions under the authority of a producer; often in charge of the day-to-day running of a production. Usually, he or she is the producer's head assistant, although the task can differ. They are frequently a connection between everyone making shooting possible (the production team) and the people involved after filming to finalize the production, and get it publicized (the post-production team).

* Assistant Producer (AP): An Assistant Producer often doubles as an experienced Researcher, and takes direct charge of the creative content and action within a programme.

* Co-ordinating Producer: Coordinates the work of two or more producers working separately on one or more productions.

* Co-Producer: Typically performs producing functions in tandem with one or more other co-producers They work as a team, rather than separately on different aspects of the production.

* Executive Producer: Supervises one or more producers in all aspects of their work; sometimes the initiator of the production; usually the ultimate authority on the creative and business aspects of the production, the executive producer would arrange for the project's financial backing and attempt to maintain a well budgeted production. Far too often, the executive producer's role is given falsely to a power player in the equation - sometimes an actor, an actor's agent, or someone else who aided in the production of the project.

* Line Producer: Supervises the physical aspects of the production including personnel, technology, budget, and scheduling. The line producer oversees the project's budget. This involves operating costs such as salaries, production costs, and everyday equipment rental costs. The line producer works with the production manager on costs and expenditure.

* Segment Producer: Produces one or more components of a multi-part production.

* Supervising Producer: Supervises one or more producers in some or all aspects of their work; usually works under the authority of an executive producer.

The Crew…

People involved in this stage include the director, the producer, the scriptwriter, the researcher, the set designer, the make-up artist, and the costume designer.

Director: A television director is usually responsible for directing the actors and other filmed aspects of a television production. His role differs from that of a film director because the major creative controls are likely to be under the purview of a producer. In general, the actors and other regular artists on a show will be familiar enough with their roles that the director's input will be confined to technical issues. The director is responsible for all creative aspects of a movie. The director would most likely assist with hiring the cast.

He helps decide on the locations, creates a plan of shooting, and sets a mental layout of shot by shot in his minds eye. During shooting, the director supervises the overall project, manages shots, and keeps the assignment on budget, and schedule. Although the director holds much power, he is second in command after the producer, who ultimately hired him. Some directors are also the producers of their program, and, with the approval of the funding studio, have a much tighter grip on what makes the final cut than directors usually have.

Researcher: Researchers research the project ahead of shooting schedule to increase truth, factual content, creative content, original ideas, background information, and sometimes performs minor research pertaining to flight details, location conditions, accommodation details, etc. It is their task to inform the director, producer, and writer of all ideas, and knowledge related to what task is being undertaken, or what a scene / event / prop / or backdrop needs to be included to make the show factual and ultimately more believable.

Writer: The writer creates and moulds an original story, or adapts other written, told, or acted stories for production of a television show. Their finished work is called a script. A script may also have been a contribution of many other co-writers. Writers can also come under the category of screenwriters. Screenwriters, or script writers, are authors who write the screenplays from which productions are made just as a writer does. Many of them also work as "script doctors," attempting to change scripts to suit directors or studios.

Make-up Artist: A professional make up artist is usually a beautician, and applies make-up to anyone appearing on screen. They concentrate on the area above the chest, the face, the top of the head, the fingers, hands, arms, and elbows. They manipulate an actor's ‘on-screen appearance’ whether it makes them look more youthful, larger, older, or in some cases monstrous.

Production Designer: The production designer is the person with the responsibility of the visual appearance of a production. They design, plan, organize, and arrange set design, equipment availability, as well as the on-screen appearance that a production will have. The set designer is responsible for collaborating with the theatre director to create an environment for the production and then communicating the details of this environment to the technical director, scenic artist and props master.

Scenic Designers: are responsible for creating scale models of the scenery as well as scale drawings. The set designer also takes instructions from the art director to create the appearance of the stage, and design its technical assembly. The art director, who can also be the production designer, plans and oversees the formation of settings for a project. They are fully aware and conscious of art and design styles, including architecture and interior design. They also work with the cinematographer to accomplish the precise appearance for the project.

Costume designer: The costume designer makes all the clothing and costumes worn by all the actors on screen, as well as designing, planning, and organizing the construction of the garments down to the fabric, colours, and sizes. They greatly contribute to the appearance of the film, and set a particular mood, time, and feeling. They alter the overall appearance of a project with their designs and constructions, including impacting on the style of the project, and how the audience interpret the shows characters.

The crew (all of them are below the line)

People mentioned here are generally brought in for the principal photography stage. They are involved in this stage of production include the cinematographer, production manager, the technical director, the boom operator, the gaffer, the dolly grip, and the key grip.

Floor Manager

The Floor Manager is the Director's representative on the studio floor, and is responsible for giving instruction and direction to crew, cast and guests. It is closest to the role of an Assistant Director, as the job frequently entails giving orders to keep a production moving to schedule. The Floor Manager is always in direct contact with the Director via talkback in the gallery.

Assistant Floor Manager

An Assistant Floor Manager is responsible for setting a stage and prompting contributors on the studio floor and ensuring that everyone knows their place in the script, freeing the Floor Manager for other duties. They often oversee a team of Runners. Increasingly, Assistant Floor Managers are being asked to assist with the design and preparation of props, as well as setting and resetting the action on the studio floor.

Camera operator

As the head member of the camera crew, the camera operator uses the camera as coached by the director. They are accountable for maintaining the required action is correctly filmed in the frame, and needs to react instinctively as the proceedings take place. He does not physically move the cameras but just operates it .guarantees that the visual appearance of the project follows to the director’s initial foresight. However, the cinematographer would usually not manoeuvre the camera on the set, as this is usually the exclusive role of a camera operator.

Production manager

The production manager performs deals concerned with business about the crew, and organizes the technical needs of the production. This would involve many things ranging from gaining the correct equipment with the exact technical requirements; to arranging accommodation for the cast and crew. The production manager reports their expenses and needs to the line producer. He reports to both the producer and the director but what ever the producer says is always considered first

Technical director

In a production control room (PCR), the technical director has overall responsibility for the operations. The technical director is responsible for the proper working of all the equipment in the PCR. They also match the quality and the output of all the cameras on the studio floor through the camera control units. It is their responsibility to supervise all the other crew members working in the PCR. The technical director also coordinates the working of the whole crew and looks into any technical problem which arises before, during or after the shooting of a project.

Cinematographer

the cinematographer records that image on film, translating the director's ideas and creating the atmosphere and the look of the film. the cinematographer often spends hours there after shooting, checking the negative. WORKE WITH A camera team (often consisting of a director of photography, cameraman, and assistant cameraman) shares the responsibilities. AND LABORATORY TECNICIAN - exact framing, sometimes for screens of more than one type.

-They also must decide upon the use of masking, the choice of lens, the camera angle, and the control of camera movement. They must either keep the focus sharp or put all or part of the picture out of focus if this effect is required. THEY control slow motion or accelerated motion. Many effects require the actors to perform against a background of previously prepared film. The cinematographer must be in command of all these processes.

Lighting director

Lighting Directors make extensive preparations before recording days, including script reading and taking part in discussions about the style required. Planning meetings or reconnaissance are usually held, involving the Director and heads of department including the Production Designer, Costume Designer, Make up Designer, Sound Supervisor and Camera Supervisor. They discuss in detail the logistics of the production, and resolve any conflicts. Lighting is influenced by a wide range of factors, including the script, the director's requirements, set design, location, camera shots, costumes, sound, and the available equipment. Following the planning meeting, Lighting Directors may prepare a lighting plan (or plot) which provides information about the position, type and colour of all the lights to be used. They work closely with the Gaffer, who organises any required extra equipment and power supplies. Lighting Directors oversee the set-up and operation of the lights, by instructing a team of Sparks on the studio floor, and the Lighting Console Operator who controls studio lighting effects, using equipment in the gallery (technical area). During recordings or live transmissions, any final adjustments are made as and when required.

Boom operator

The boom operator is an assistant of the sound engineer or "sound mixer". The main responsibility of the boom operator is microphone placement, sometimes using a "fish pole" with a microphone attached to the end and sometimes, when the situation permits, using a "boom" (most often a "fisher boom") which is a special piece of equipment that the operator stands on and that allows precise control of the microphone at a much greater distance away from the actors. They will also place wireless microphones on actors when it is necessary. The boom operator is part of the sound crew, who manages to keep the microphone boom, near to the action, but away from the camera frame, so that it never appears onscreen, but allows the microphone to pursue the actors as they move. They work closely with the production sound mixer, or sound recordist, to record all sound while filming including background noises, dialogue, sound effects, and silence. he is responsible for what effect to use when.

Someone else holds the boom ensures that the shadows don’t show in the shot

Gaffer

The gaffer is the head electrician at the production set, and is in charge of lighting the stage in accordance with the direction of the cinematographer. In television the term chief lighting director is often used instead of gaffer, and sometimes the technical director will light the studio set. The gaffer reports to the Director of Photography (DoP), Lighting Director (LD) or Lighting Designer, and will usually have an assistant called a Best Boy and a crew of rigging electricians.

Dolly grip

In cinematography, the dolly grip is the individual who places and moves the dolly track were it is required, and then pushes and pulls the dolly along that track while filming. A dolly grip must work closely with the camera crew to perfect these complex movements during rehearsals. For moving shots, dolly grips may also push the wheeled platform holding the microphone and boom operator. The dolly is a cart that the tripod and camera (and occasionally the camera crew) rest on. It makes the camera able to move without bumps and visual interruptions from start to finish while the camera is filming. It is commonly used to follow beside an actor to give the audience the sense of walking with the actor, or as the actor.

Key grip

The key grip is the head grip on the production set. It is a grips task to create shadow effects with lights and occasionally move camera cranes, dollies and platforms while receiving direction from the cinematographer. Grips can also be the people that do the laborious work on sets. These types of grips push, pull, roll, and lift various pieces of equipment under the watchful eye of the television director, producer, or art director.

Runner

Runners are the most junior members of a television crew. They are responsible for fetching and carrying work of a production. Their role is usually to support anyone who needs help in a variety of ways, until such time as they have learned enough to assume more responsibilities.

Best boy

He works in the elec. Dept places the plugs in the sockets.

Spot boy

He is at everyone's beck and call e.g. tea

Production: Production refers to that part of the process in which footage is recorded.

• The production phase is also known as principal photography.

• The goal of principal photography is to record all required shots, Pick-up shots may be required when a mistake is noticed, a script change is made, or even if a performance is deemed to be unsatisfactory.

• Productions can be broadcast either live or recorded. With the exception of news shows, sports remotes, and some special-event broadcasts, productions are typically recorded for later broadcast or distribution.

• Recording the show or program segment provides an opportunity to fix problems by either making changes during the editing phase or stopping the recording and redoing the segment.

The videotaping mode is determined to undertake production. There are three approaches to video-tape any type of production:

1. SINGLE CAMERA (Film Style): Here a single camera is used to record all the footage from every angle imaginable. Scenes and Sequences have to be done over and over again to allow the camera operator to reposition the camera to capture the different angles. The best takes were then assembled during editing and made to look as if they were shot with multiple cameras. Productions that are shot single-camera, film-style are rehearsed and recorded one scene at a time.

2. MULTI-CAMERA STYLE: This increases the editing time and decreases the shooting time, multiple cameras eliminate the need for multiple takes of the same scene. You simply position each camera at a different angle, and shoot the scene once. For example, if the scene included two characters at a bar talking then the one camera may be used to shoot close-ups and mid-shots of character 1, second camera may be used to shoot character 2 in close-ups and mid-shots. In fact the third camera may be brought in to shoot establishing shots and two-shots. 1hot can be an establishment shot to show the place the next ones could be close ups. However, most multi-camera approaches, when not used for LIVE or LIVE-on-Tape situations, are used when the action can not be repeated or it is economically unfeasible to re-stage the action using single camera approach.

3. MULTI-CAMERA STYLE (LIVE): Instead of each camera feeding to a separate videotape, all cameras are edited live through the use of a switcher or mixer feeding to a single VTR. This requires the least amount of editing. Productions shot live-on-tape will need to be completely rehearsed before recording starts. This includes early walk-through rehearsals, camera rehearsals, and one or more dress rehearsals.

Zoom and Prime Lenses

Zoom lenses came into common use in the early 1960s. Before then TV cameras had lenses of different focal lengths mounted on a turret on the front of the camera, (the turret is like the turret from a gun). Each lens had to be rotated into position and focused when the camera was not on the air. Today, most video cameras use zoom lenses. the effective focal length of a zoom lens can be continuously varied, taking it from a wide-angle to a telephoto perspective. This is accomplished through numerous glass elements in it that are, each precisely ground, polished and positioned, which can be repositioned to change the magnification of the lens. As the lens is zoomed, groups of these lens elements must move independently at precise speeds.

Prime lens - These lenses that have one (fixed) focal length. Prime lenses also come in more specialized forms -- super wide-angle, super telephoto, super-fast, etc.

Motorized Zoom Lenses

• Also, called servo-controlled lenses, it has an inbuilt motor with over 200 -500 elements.

• This enables operation to be in sync with slight pressure application.

• They provide a smooth zoom at varying speeds.

• Manually (non-motorised) controlled zoom lenses are often preferred for sports coverage because they can be adjusted much faster between shots).

• The zoom & focusing operations are though undertaken with a help of a motor, however they can also be manually operated, eliminating need of a power source.

Focal length will determine if you get the shot you want. That is how much will you see and with what effect.

See what a difference focal length can make in an image.

Angle of Horizontal Acceptance (Angle of View): The angle of view is simply the angle from which light rays can pass through the lens to form an image on the photo-sensitive material. The angle of view of a camera depends on the focal length of the photographic lens projecting the image.

Angle of view is usually measured one of three ways:

1. Horizontally (from the left to right edge of the frame)

2. Vertically (from the top to bottom of the frame)

3. Diagonally (from one corner of the frame to its opposite corner)

N.B.: Angle of Acceptance for any lens is directly associated with lens focal length. The longer the focal length (in millimetres) the narrower the angle of view (in degrees).

The diagram shows angles of view for different prime lenses. (it represents an 8mm lens in a VHS format)

• A telephoto lens has a narrow angle of view. the angles at the top of the drawing from about 5 to about 10 degrees would be considered in the telephoto range.

• The wide-angle range for this lens is represented (from about 45 to 90 degrees).

• The normal angle of view range lies in between telephoto and wide angle. that’s roughly 48.7degrees Ultra wide-angle lenses, also known as fisheye lenses, cover up to 180° (or even wider in special cases)

• Super Telephoto lenses generally cover between 8° through less than 1°

Zoom lenses are a special case wherein the focal length, and hence angle of view, of the lens can be altered mechanically without removing the lens from the camera.

• Longer lenses magnify the subject more, apparently compressing distance and (when focused on the foreground) blurring the background because of their shallower depth of field. Wider lenses tend to magnify distance between objects while allowing greater depth of field.

• Another result of using a wide angle lens is a greater apparent perspective distortion when the camera is not aligned perpendicularly to the subject: parallel lines converge at the same rate as with a normal lens, but converge more due to the wider total field. For example, buildings appear to be falling backwards much more severely when the camera is pointed upward from ground level than they would if photographed with a normal lens at the same distance from the subject, because more of the subject building is visible in the wide-angle shot.

• Because different lenses generally require a different camera–subject distance to preserve the size of a subject, changing the angle of view can indirectly distort perspective, changing the apparent relative size of the subject and foreground.

When the focal length of a lens is doubled, the size of an image on the target is also doubled. So the camera in the same position, a short focal lens creates a wide view and a long focal length creates an enlarged image in the camera.

A concern in using different focal length lenses at different distances is the relative amount of background area that will be included in the picture.

The angle of horizontal acceptance for a human eye is around 48.7 degrees. For a 35 mm film format, the 50 mm lens roughly has a similar angle of acceptance as a human eye. This is why a 50mm lens is considered to be a normal lens for 35 mm format.

• 16 mm format’s normal angle lens is of 25 mm focal length.

• 70 mm format’s normal angle lens is of 100 mm focal length.

• In 35 mm format, all lenses with a focal length shorter than 50mm are considered wide-angle

• In 35 mm format, all lenses with a focal length greater than 50mm are considered telephoto.

• These lenses can run the spectrum from ultra-wide-angle to super-telephoto depending on their focal lengths.

Telephoto lenses can be used to draw attention to a specific subject, where wide angle lenses can be used to show the vastness or expanse of a scene.

Lens Focal Length differences affect more than just the size of the image on the camera's target -- or in the case of a motion picture camera, the film's surface area. Also affected are:

• The apparent distance between objects in the scene

• The apparent speed of objects moving toward or away from the camera

• The relative size of objects at different distances

Manipulating Distance

A long focal length lens coupled with great camera-to-subject distance appears to reduce the distance between objects in front of the lens.

• Illustration, in the centre, illustrates differences in the camera-to-subject distance.

• The woman, fountain, and the rest elements of the scene are not changed. In other words, all of the objects and subject distances remain the same for both the pictures.

• But, the distance of fountain (in the background) from the subject (woman), in the picture on the right appears to be much closer to than in the picture on the left.

• It is important to note that only by manipulating of focal length and the subject to camera distance, we have achieved compression or exaggeration of space & distance.

N.B.: To compensate for this difference and keep the size of the woman about the same in each picture, the photographer used different focal length lens:

1. A wide-angle lens with a short focal length for the first photo, and

2. A telephoto with a long focal length for the second.

In the setting above, if we used the wide-angle lens while standing at the distance used for the telephoto picture on the right, the woman would obviously end up being rather small in the setting. But let's assume we enlarged the section of the image with the woman to make her equal in size to the image of telephoto lens (the photo on the right above).

The result (although probably grainy and blurry due to great enlargement) would have the same fountain-to-woman distance perspective as the photo on the right.

The type of lens that we decide to use when recording a visual can have an enormous impact on the way that objects appear in the final photograph, in relation to one another, even if those objects remain stationary.

The relationship between an object in the foreground and an object in the background is called perspective. Because, telephoto lenses can compress the distance between a foreground and background object, and have a very small field of view (narrow angle of acceptance), they can drastically alter our perspective in a photograph. Even when the objects in a scene do not move, a photographer can use a wide angle lens to show a background object as distant and small, or a telephoto lens to show a background object as near and towering. The lens used to take the picture can set the mood for the picture.

Changes in the Apparent Speed of Objects

Change in camera-to-subject distance and choice of lens focal length effects the apparent speed of subject / object moving toward or away from the camera, in addition to affecting the apparent spatial relationship.

• By physically moving the camera away from the subject and using a long focal length lens (or a zoom lens used at its maximum focal length), slows down the apparent speed of objects moving toward or away from the camera.

• E.G.: Filmmakers often use this technique to create an effect. For instance, in The Graduate, (Mike Nichols, 1967), Dustin Hoffman runs down a street toward a church. The camera with a very long focal length lens conveys what he's feeling: although he's running as fast as he can, it seems as if he's hardly moving. Both he and the audience fear he won't make it to the church on time, thus, increasing the dramatic tension in the story.

• Conversely, moving close to the subject matter with a wide-angle lens increases (exaggerates) the apparent speed of objects moving toward or away from the camera.

• You can easily visualize why. If you were standing on a distant hilltop watching someone run around a track or, perhaps, traffic on a distant roadway, they would seem to be hardly moving. It would be like watching with a long focal length lens. But stand right next to the track or roadway (using your visual wide-angle perspective), the person or traffic would seem to whiz by.

Perspective Changes: The use of a wide-angle lens combined with a limited camera-to-subject distance creates a type of perspective distortion.

• If a video-grapher uses a short focal length lens shooting a tall building from street level, the parallel lines along the sides of the building appear to converge toward the top. (Note the photo on the left.) At this comparatively close distance, the building appears to be leaning backward.

• Compare the above photo (using a wide-angle lens) with the photo (centre) taken from a much greater distance with a normal focal length lens.

• You get even more distortion using an extreme wide-angle lens when you get very close to subjects. (Note the photo on the right-top). The solution -- assuming this is not the effect you want -- is to move back and use the lens at a normal-to-telephoto setting.

• (Here's another example of perspective distortion.) Note the convergence of lines in the photo of the video switcher (right-below). A close camera distance coupled with a wide-angle lens setting makes the rows in the foreground look much farther apart than those in the background.

• Again, you can eliminate this type of distortion by moving the camera back and using a longer focal length lens.

Camera moves

Pan: It shows what's to the left or right of the screen

• reveals the setting

• sweep across subject wider than screen

• show relationship between two subjects.

• The camera moves horizontally (left or right). A tripod is used for a smooth effect. This is done to follow a subject or show the distance between two objects. Pan shots work great for panoramic views.

Tilt: It refers to moving the camera up or down without raising its position. It shows what's above or below the screen, to reveal parts of vertical subject, useful for showing tall objects, show relationship between parts of a subject, can add suspense or surprise.

Pedestal: Not tilting, but physically moving the height of the camera up or down, usually on a tripod. One has to pedestal the camera up or down according to the height you preferred.

Truck: When a camera physically moves to left or right around subject, to show another side of subject, add dimension, show physical relationship between objects or subjects.

Dolly: The Camera physically moves toward or away from subject. The camera is set on tracks or wheels and moved towards or back from a subject. It’s a train track contraption used for a dolly shot or a device attached to a tripod. It has large wheels, rolls smoothly, has a seat for a video-grapher, and works quite well as a dolly, but you can also use a rolling cart or even a skateboard. , to change focus of attention from broad view to detail of subject or vice versa. Provides sense of physically moving closer or farther from subject.

Zoom: View of subject changes from tight to wide or wide to tight using the zoom control on the lens. The camera does not move. This is done to change the focus of attention from broad view to detail of subject or vice versa, keep size of moving subject the same in frame, reveal surroundings of subject (zoom out). Provides sense of magnifying subject without getting physically closer (zoom in).

Zoom vs. Dolly: Another way to alter what the camera sees is to actually move (dolly) the camera toward or away from a subject. It is often assumed that the effect will be the same as zooming however the perspective only changes when the camera is moved because When you zoom you optically enlarge smaller and smaller parts of the picture to fill the screen. When you dolly a camera you physically move the entire camera toward or away from subject matter. The view of the central and surrounding subject matter would change it would be as if you were to walk toward or away from it.

Zoom Ratio: It is used to define the focal length range for a zoom lens. If the maximum range through which a particular lens can be zoomed is 10 mm to 100 mm, it's said to have a 10:1 (ten-to-one) zoom ratio (l0 times the minimum focal length of 10mm equals 100mm).

but with this designation one still don't know what the minimum and maximum focal lengths are. A10:1 zoom lens could have a 10 to 100mm, or a 100 to 1,000mm lens, and the difference would be quite dramatic.

To address this issue, we refer to the first zoom lens as a 10 X 10 (ten-by-ten) and the second as a 100 X 10. The first number represents the minimum focal length and the second number the multiplier. So a 12 X 20 zoom lens would have a minimum focal length of 12mm and a maximum focal length of 240mm.

A zoom lens with a 200:1 zoom ratio, the type often used for network sports have ratios of 70:1 and less. With a 70:1 zoom lens a camera covering a football game could zoom out and get a wide shot of the field, and then by zooming in, fill the screen with a football sitting in the middle of the field.

In photography, shutter speed is the length of time a shutter is open; the total exposure is proportional to this exposure time, or duration of light reaching the film or image sensor.

Factors that affect the total exposure of a visual frame include the scene luminance, the aperture size (f-number), and the exposure time (shutter speed); photographers can trade off shutter speed and aperture by using units of stops. A stop up and down on each will halve or double the amount of light regulated by each; exposures of equal exposure value can be easily calculated and selected. For any given total exposure, or exposure value, a fast shutter speed requires a larger aperture (smaller f-number). Similarly, a slow shutter speed, a longer length of time, can be compensated by a smaller aperture (larger f-number). In short, it is inversely proportional relationship.

Slow shutter speeds are often used in low light conditions, extending the time until the shutter closes, and increasing the amount of light gathered. This basic principle of photography, the exposure, is used in film and digital cameras, the image sensor effectively acting like film when exposed by the shutter.

Shutter speed is measured in seconds. A typical shutter speed for photographs taken in sunlight is 1/125th of a second. In addition to its effect on exposure, shutter speed changes the way movement appears in the picture. Very short shutter speeds are used to freeze fast-moving subjects, for example at sporting events. Very long shutter speeds are used to intentionally blur a moving subject for artistic effect.

Adjustment to the aperture controls the depth of field, the distance range over which objects are acceptably sharp; such adjustments generally need to be compensated by changes in the shutter speed.

In early days of photography, available shutter speeds were somewhat ad hoc. Following the adoption of a standardized way of representing aperture so that each major step exactly doubled or halved the amount of light entering the camera (f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, f/16, etc.), a standardized 2:1 scale was adopted for shutter speed so that opening one aperture stop and reducing the shutter speed by one step resulted in the identical exposure. The agreed standards for shutter speeds are:

1/1000 s

1/500 s

1/250 s

1/125 s

1/60 s

1/30 s

1/15 s

1/8 s

1/4 s

1/2 s

1 s

Each standard increment either doubles the amount of light (longer time) or halves the amount of light (shorter time). For example, if you move from 1 sec to 1/2 second, you have effectively halved the amount of light entering the shutter. This scale can be extended at either end in specialist cameras. Some older cameras use the 2:1 ratio at slightly different values, such as 1/100 s and 1/50 s, although mechanical shutter mechanisms were rarely precise enough for the difference to have any significance.

The term "speed" is used in reference to short exposure times as fast, and long exposure times as slow. Shutter speeds are often designated by the reciprocal time, for example 60 for 1/60 s.

Camera shutters often include one or two other settings for making very long exposures:

B (for bulb) — keep the shutter open as long as the shutter release is held

T (for time) — keep the shutter open until the shutter release is pressed again

The ability of the photographer / cinematographer / videographer to take images without noticeable blurring by camera movement is an important parameter in the choice of slowest possible shutter speed for a handheld camera. The rough guide used by most 35 mm photographers is that the slowest shutter speed that can be used easily without much blur due to camera shake is the shutter speed numerically closest to the lens focal length.

For example, for handheld use of a 35 mm camera with a 50 mm normal lens, the closest shutter speed is 1/60 s. This rule can be augmented with knowledge of the intended application for the photograph, an image intended for significant enlargement and close-up viewing would require faster shutter speeds to avoid obvious blur. Through practice and special techniques such as bracing the camera, arms, or body to minimize camera movement longer shutter speeds can be used without blur. If a shutter speed is too slow for hand holding, a camera support — usually a tripod — must be used. Image stabilization can often permit the use of shutter speeds 3-4 stops slower (exposures 8-16 times longer).

Shutter priority refers to a shooting mode used in semi-automatic cameras. It allows the photographer to choose a shutter speed setting and allow the camera to decide the correct aperture. This is sometimes referred to as Shutter Speed Priority Auto Exposure, or TV (time value) mode.

Creative Control Using Shutter Speed: The shutter speed can make the difference between good video and poor video; it can separate the amateurs from the professionals. Unlike the shutters used in still cameras, the shutter used in most video cameras is not mechanical. "shutter" speeds simply represent the time that the light-induced charge is allowed to electronically build in the chip before the cycle is repeated.

This results in a much brighter video, If there is a need to stop action, faster shutter speeds than normal can be selected. Most professional video cameras have a series of shutter speeds from of 1/60 second (normal), to 1/2,000th second. Many go beyond this to 1/5,000, 1/10,000th, and, as we've noted, even 1/12,000 second.

Increase in the shutter speed, reduces the exposure. To compensate, the iris of the lens must be opened up. The higher speeds (1/1,000th and above) make possible clear slow-motion playbacks and freeze-frame still images, such as the one we see here.

Shutter Speeds And F-Stop: there is a direct relationship between shutter speeds and f-stops. Each of the combinations in the table below represents the same exposure, the shutter speed is doubled the lens must be opened up one f-stop to provide the same net exposure. In other words the increased shutter speed cuts the exposure time in half, but opening the iris one f-stop lets twice as much light through the lens to compensate.

When shooting a scene may need an exposure of 1/100 at f/4 instead of f/11, then the shutter speed and f-stop relationships will shift accordingly, the light sensitivity of the camera should be kept in mind because that affects the shutter speed/f-stop scale.

Shutter Speed and Stroboscopic Effect: A stroboscopic effect (where you see a rapid sequence of discrete images associated with movement) can occur in video cameras with very high (above 1/250th second) and very low (below 1/60th second) shutter speeds.

Low Shutter Speed: Just like a time exposure in still photography, it's possible in some video cameras, as we've noted, to use exposure rates below the normal 1/60th second. This allows the effect of the light to build in the CCD beyond the normal scanning time.

High Shutter Speed: When shutter speed intervals shorter than 1/250th second are used, action tends to be cleanly frozen into crisp, sharp, still images. Without the slight blur that helps smooth out the transition between successive frames, we may notice a subtle stroboscopic effect when we view rapid action. Even so, the overall effect is to make images clearer, especially for slow-motion playbacks.

The Techniques of production

Lenses:

The Basics

The choice of camera lenses has a major effect on how subject matter will be seen by a viewer. It provides the cameraperson with creative power. The focal length of a lens affects the appearance of subject matter in several ways.

Lens Focal Length: Focal length is the distance from the optical centre of the lens to the focal plane (target) of the video camera when the lens is focused at infinity. (Any object in the far distance). Since the lens-to-target distance for most lenses increases when the lens is focused on anything closer than infinity. Focal length is generally measured in millimetres. With fixed focal length or prime lenses the focal length cannot be varied.

The Lens speed is the maximum amount of light that can pass through the lens on to the target (photo sensitive media). For example, owls can see better in low light conditions as compared to humans, thus we can say that the speed of their eye lens is faster than our eyes. Their lenses allow more light in to the retinal area.

Like the pupil of an eye which controls (automatically) amount of light despite varying light levels, the iris of the camera lens controls the amount of light passing through the lens. Under low light conditions, the pupils of our eyes dilates to allow in maximum light, in bright sunlight, the pupil constrict to avoid overloading the light-sensitive rods and cones in the back of the eye.

In the same way, the amount of light falling on the light-sensitive target of a TV camera must be controlled with the aid of an iris in the middle of the lens. Too much light will overexpose and wash out the picture; too little will cause the loss of detail in the darker areas.

The various specific numerical settings through which an iris can be adjusted (from a small to a large opening) are known as f-stops. The "f" stands for factor. An f-stop is the ratio between the lens opening and the lens focal length. More specifically, the f-stop equals the focal length divided by the size of the lens opening.

f-stop = focal length / lens opening

the smaller the f-stop number the more light the lens transmits.

Opening the iris one f-stop (from f/22 to f/16, for example) represents a 100 percent increase in the light passing through the lens. Conversely, "stopping down" the lens one stop (from f/16 to f/22, for example) cuts the light by 50 percent.

Knowing this is important So the lens iris can be adjusted to compensate for a picture either too light or too dark. The other f-stops, such as f/1.2, f/3.5, and f/4.5 are mid-point settings between whole f-stops, and on some lenses they represent the maximum aperture (speed) of the lens.

Remember, as we increase or decrease the F stop setting corresponding change in depth of field takes place.

In optics, particularly as it relates to film and photography, the depth of field (DOF) is the portion of a scene that appears sharp in the image. Although a lens can precisely focus at only one distance, the decrease in sharpness is gradual on either side of the focused distance, so that within the DOF, the un-sharpness is imperceptible under normal viewing conditions.

For some images, such as landscapes, a large DOF may be appropriate, while for others, such as portraits, a small DOF may be more effective.

The DOF is determined by the subject distance, the lens focal length, and the lens f-number (relative aperture). Except at close-up distances, DOF is approximately determined by the subject magnification and the lens f-number. For a given f-number, increasing the magnification, either by moving closer to the subject or using a lens of greater focal length, decreases the DOF; decreasing magnification increases DOF. For a given subject magnification, increasing the f-number (decreasing the aperture diameter) increases the DOF; decreasing f-number decreases DOF.

When focus is set to the ‘hyper focal’ distance, the DOF extends from half the ‘hyper focal’ distance to infinity, and is the largest DOF possible for a given f-number.

The advent of digital technology in photography has provided additional means of controlling the extent of image sharpness; some methods allow DOF that would be impossible with traditional techniques, and some allow the DOF to be determined after the image is made.

Additional information for students:

Depth of focus DOF is a lens optics concept that measures the tolerance of placement of the image plane (the film plane in a camera) in relation to the lens. While the phrase depth of focus was historically used, and is sometimes still used, to mean depth of field, in modern times it is more often reserved for the image-side depth. Depth of field is a measurement of depth of acceptable sharpness in the object space, or subject space. Depth of focus, however, is a measurement of how much distance exists behind the lens wherein the film plane will remain sharply in focus. It can be viewed as the flip side of depth of field, occurring on the opposite side of the lens. Where depth of field often can be measured in macroscopic units such as meters and feet, depth of focus is typically measured in microscopic units such as fractions of a millimetre or thousandths of an inch. Since the measurement indicates the tolerance of the film's displacement within the camera, depth of focus is sometimes referred to as "lens-to-film tolerance."

The same factors that determine depth of field also determine depth of focus, but these factors can have different effects than they have in depth of field. Both depth of field and depth of focus increase with smaller apertures. For distant subjects (beyond macro range), depth of focus is relatively insensitive to focal length and subject distance, for a fixed f-number. In the macro region, depth of focus increases with longer focal length or closer subject distance, while depth of field decreases.

In small-format cameras, the smaller circle of confusion limit yields a proportionately smaller depth of focus. In motion picture cameras, different lens mount and camera gate combinations have exact flange focal depth measurements to which lenses are calibrated.

The choice to place gels or other filters behind the lens becomes a much more critical decision when dealing with smaller formats. Placement of items behind the lens will alter the optics pathway, shifting the focal plane. Therefore, often this insertion must be done in concert with stopping down the lens in order to compensate enough to make any shift negligible given a greater depth of focus. It is often advised in 35 mm motion picture filming not to use filters behind the lens if the lens is wider than 25 mm.

A rough formula often used to quickly calculate depth of focus is the product of the focal length times the f-stop divided by 1000; the formula makes most sense in the case of normal lens (as opposed to wide-angle or telephoto), where the focal length is a representation of the format size. The precise formula for depth of focus is two times the f-number times the circle of confusion times the quantity of one plus the magnification factor. However, the magnification factor depends on the focal length and format size and exact focus the lens is set to, which can be difficult to calculate. Therefore, the first formula is often used as a guideline, as it is much easier to calculate. It relies on the historical convention of circle of confusion limit equal to focal length divided by 1000, which is deprecated in modern photographic teachings, in favour of format size (for example, along the diagonal) divided by 1000 or 1500. See the article circle of confusion.

What is hyper focal distance?

In optics and photography, hyper focal distance is a distance beyond which all objects can be brought into an "acceptable" focus. There are two commonly used definitions of hyper focal distance, leading to values that differ only slightly:

1. The first definition: the hyper focal distance is the closest distance at which a lens can be focused while keeping objects at infinity acceptably sharp; that is, the focus distance with the maximum depth of field. When the lens is focused at this distance, all objects at distances from half of the hyper focal distance out to infinity will be acceptably sharp.

2. The second definition: the hyper focal distance is the distance beyond which all objects are acceptably sharp, for a lens focused at infinity.

The distinction between the two meanings is rarely made, since they are interchangeable and have almost identical values. The value computed according to the first definition exceeds that from the second by just one focal length.

What is hyper-focal focussing?

Hyper focal focusing is a technique which yields the maximum depth of field for a given combination of f stop and lens focal length.

What is hyper-focal distance?

It is a distance from your camera that you focus at to maximise the depth of field.

Why do I need it?

Old camera lenses with fixed focal length lenses had a scale for determining depth of field. Modern SLR cameras come equipped with zoom lenses and auto focusing. Because depth of field varies with focal length or more correctly image scale, manufacturers cannot put a simple scale on a zoom lens.

How do I find the hyper-focal distance?

It is a mathematical quantity that can be calculated from a formula. Failed maths? Relax. Tables for most common focal lengths and f-stops used on 35mm cameras are provided with this article.

How do I apply the hyper-focal distance?

Look up the table for your lens focal length and f-number used. Set your lens to focus at that distance. Everything from about half of that distance to infinity will be in focus. You must set the lens focus to the hyper focal distance setting manually.

In optics, a circle of confusion, (also known as disk of confusion, circle of indistinctness, blur circle, etc.), is an optical spot caused by a cone of light rays from a lens not coming to a perfect focus when imaging a point source.

The depth of field is the region where the size of the circle of confusion is less than the resolution of the human eye (or of the display medium). Circles with a diameter less than the circle of confusion will appear to be in focus.

Two important uses of this term and concept need to be distinguished:

1. To calculate a camera's depth of field (“DoF”), one needs to know how large a circle of confusion can be considered to be an acceptable focus. The maximum acceptable diameter of such a circle of confusion is known as the maximum permissible circle of confusion, the circle of confusion diameter limit, or the circle of confusion criterion, but is often incorrectly called simply the circle of confusion.

2. Recognizing that real lenses do not focus all rays perfectly under even the best of conditions, the circle of confusion of a lens is a characterization of its optical spot. The term circle of least confusion is often used for the smallest optical spot a lens can make, for example by picking a best focus position that makes a good compromise between the varying effective focal lengths of different lens zones due to spherical or other aberrations. Diffraction effects from wave optics and the finite aperture of a lens can be included in the circle of least confusion, or the term can be applied in pure ray (geometric) optics.

In idealized ray optics, where rays are assumed to converge to a point when perfectly focused, the shape of a mis-focused spot from a lens with a circular aperture is a hard-edged disk of light (that is, a hockey-puck shape when intensity is plotted as a function of x and y coordinates in the focal plane). A more general circle of confusion has soft edges due to diffraction and aberrations, and may be non-circular due to the aperture (diaphragm) shape. So the diameter concept needs to be carefully defined to be meaningful. The diameter of the smallest circle that can contain 90% of the optical energy is a typical suitable definition for the diameter of a circle of confusion; in the case of the ideal hockey-puck shape, it gives an answer about 5% less than the actual diameter.

In photography, the circle of confusion diameter limit (“CoC”) is sometimes defined as the largest blur circle that will still be perceived by the human eye as a point when viewed at a distance of 25 cm (and variations thereon).

With this definition, the CoC in the original image depends on three factors:

• Visual acuity. For most people, the closest comfortable viewing distance, termed the near distance for distinct vision (Ray 2002, 216), is approximately 25 cm. At this distance, a person with good vision can usually distinguish an image resolution of 5 line pairs per millimetre (lp/mm), equivalent to a CoC of 0.2 mm in the final image.

• Viewing conditions. If the final image is viewed at approximately 25 cm, a final-image CoC of 0.2 mm often is appropriate. A comfortable viewing distance is also one at which the angle of view is approximately 60° (Ray 2002, 216); at a distance of 25 cm, this corresponds to about 30 cm, approximately the diagonal of an 8″×10″ image. It often may be reasonable to assume that, for whole-image viewing, an image larger than 8″×10″ will be viewed at a distance greater than 25 cm, for which a larger CoC may be acceptable.

• Enlargement from the original image (the focal plane image on the film or image sensor) to the final image (print, usually). If an 8×10 original image is contact printed, there is no enlargement, and the CoC for the original image is the same as that in the final image. However, if the long dimension of a 35 mm image is enlarged to approximately 25 cm (10 inches), the enlargement is approximately 7×, and the CoC for the original image is 0.2 mm / 7, or 0.029 mm.

All three factors are accommodated with this formula:

1. CoC Diameter Limit (mm) = anticipated viewing distance (cm) / desired print resolution (lp/mm) for a 25 cm viewing distance / anticipated enlargement factor / 25. For example, to support a print resolution equivalent to 5 lp/mm for a 25 cm viewing distance when the anticipated viewing distance is 50 cm and the anticipated enlargement factor is 8: CoC Diameter Limit = 50 / 5 / 8 / 25 = 0.05 mm. Since the final image size is not usually known at the time of taking a photograph, it is common to assume a standard size such as 25 cm width, along with a conventional final-image CoC of 0.2 mm, which is 1/1250 of the image width. Conventions in terms of the diagonal measure are also commonly used. The DoF computed using these conventions will need to be adjusted if the original image is cropped before enlarging to the final image size, or if the size and viewing assumptions are altered.

2. Using the so-called “Zeiss formula” the circle of confusion is sometimes calculated as d/1730 where d is the diagonal measure of the original image (the camera format). For full-frame 35 mm format (24 mm × 36 mm, 43 mm diagonal) this comes out to be 0.024 mm. A more widely used CoC is d/1500, or 0.029 mm for full-frame 35 mm formats, which corresponds to resolving 5 lines per millimetre on a print of 30 cm diagonal. Values of 0.030 mm and 0.033 mm are also common for full-frame 35 mm formats. For practical purposes, d/1730, a final-image CoC of 0.2 mm, and d/1500 give very similar results.

3. Angular criteria for CoC have also been used. Kodak (1972) recommended 2 minutes of arc (the Snellen criterion of 30 cycles/degree for normal vision) for critical viewing, giving CoC ≈ f / 1720, where f is the lens focal length. For a 50 mm lens on full-frame 35 format, this gave CoC ≈ 0.0291 mm. Angular criteria evidently assumed that a final image would be viewed at “perspective-correct” distance (i.e., the angle of view would be the same as that of the original image): Viewing distance = focal length of taking lens × enlargement. However, images seldom are viewed at the “correct” distance; the viewer usually doesn't know the focal length of the taking lens, and the “correct” distance may be uncomfortably short or long. Consequently, angular criteria have generally given way to a CoC fixed to the camera format.

The common values for CoC may not be applicable if reproduction or viewing conditions differ significantly from those assumed in determining those values. If the photograph will be magnified to a larger size, or viewed at a closer distance, then a smaller CoC will be required. If the photo is printed or displayed using a device, such as a computer monitor, that introduces additional blur or resolution limitation, then a larger CoC may be appropriate since the detectability of blur will be limited by the reproduction medium rather than by human vision; for example, an 8″×10″ image displayed on a CRT may have greater depth of field than an 8″×10″ print of the same photo, due to the CRT display having lower resolution; the CRT image is less sharp overall, and therefore it takes a greater misfocus for a region to appear blurred.

Depth of field formulae derived from geometrical optics imply that any arbitrary DoF can be achieved by using a sufficiently small CoC. Because of diffraction, however, this isn't quite true. The CoC is decreased by increasing the lens f-number, and if the lens is stopped down sufficiently far, the reduction in defocus blur is offset by the increased blur from diffraction. See the Depth of field article for a more detailed discussion.

The larger the f-stop number (that is, the smaller the iris opening), the greater the depth of field. Therefore, the depth of field of a lens set at f/11 is greater than the same lens set at f/5.6, and depth of field at f/5.6 will be greater than at f/2.8. The depth of field extends approximately one-third of the way in front of the point of focus and two-thirds behind it.

Depth of field and focal length: (A wide angled lens has a shorter focal length and a telephoto lens has a longer focal length) The reason a wide-angle lens appears to have a greater depth of field than a telephoto lens is that details and sharpness problems in the image created by the wide-angle lens are compressed. On enlargement a section of image area from the wide-angle shot the depth of field is the same.

That is why wide-angle lenses are good at hiding a lack of sharpness, so they're a good choice when accurate focus is an issue. But by moving in closely to the subject, the sharpness advantage is lost

With a telephoto lens, focus must be much more precise. In fact, when zoomed in fully at maximum focal length, the area of acceptable sharpness may be less than a few inches (20mm or so), especially with a wide aperture (low f-stop number). As a creative tool it can be used to advantage because the eyes tend drawn to sharply focused areas.

In other words, Depth of Field is depth of field is the range of distance in front of the camera that's in sharp focus. If a camera is focused at a specific distance, only objects at that exact distance will be what we might consider sharp, and objects in front of and behind that point will be, to varying degrees, blurry. The areas in front of and behind the point of focus may be acceptably sharp meaning .The term sharp is subjective because the image doesn't abruptly become unacceptably blurry at a certain point in front of or behind the point of focus. The transition from sharp to out of focus is gradual. It may go unnoticed.

Several factors determine whether the objective misfocus becomes noticeable. Subject matter, movement, the distance of the subject from the camera, and the way in which the image is displayed all have an influence.

Depth of field can be anywhere from a fraction of an inch to virtually infinite. For instance, a close-up of a person's face may have shallow DOF (with someone just behind that person visible but out of focus common, for instance, in melodramas and horror films); a shot of rolling hills might have great DOF, with both the foreground and background in focus. A close-up still photograph might employ a very shallow DOF to isolate the subject from a distracting background.

Precise focus is possible at only one distance; at that distance, a point object will produce a point image. At any other distance, a point object is defocused, and will produce a blur spot. When this circular spot is sufficiently small, it is indistinguishable from a point, and appears to be in focus; it is rendered as “acceptably sharp”. The diameter of the circle increases with distance from the point of focus; the largest circle that is indistinguishable from a point is known as the acceptable circle of confusion, or informally, simply as the circle of confusion. The acceptable circle of confusion is influenced by visual acuity, viewing conditions, and the amount by which the image is enlarged. The increase of the circle diameter with defocus is gradual, so the limits of depth of field are not hard boundaries between sharp and unsharp.

Several other factors, such as subject matter, movement, and the distance of the subject from the camera, also influence when a given defocus becomes noticeable.

The area within the depth of field appears sharp while the areas in front of and beyond the depth of field appear blurry.

The image format size also will affect the depth of field. The larger the format size, the longer a lens will need to be to capture the same framing as a smaller format. In motion pictures, for example, a frame with a 12 degree horizontal field of view will require a 50 mm lens on 16 mm film, a 100 mm lens on 35 mm film, and a 250 mm lens on 65 mm film. Conversely, using the same focal length lens with each of these formats will yield a progressively wider image as the film format gets larger: a 50 mm lens has a horizontal field of view of 12 degrees on 16 mm film, 23.6 degrees on 35 mm film, and 55.6 degrees on 65 mm film. What this all means is that because the larger formats require longer lenses than the smaller ones, they will accordingly have a smaller depth of field. Therefore, compensations in exposure, framing, or subject distance need to be made in order to make one format look like it was filmed in another format.

Effect of f-number

For a given subject framing, the DOF is controlled by the lens f -number. Increasing the f-number (reducing the aperture diameter) increases the DOF; however, it also reduces the amount of light transmitted, and increases diffraction, placing a practical limit on the extent to which the aperture size may be reduced. Motion pictures make only limited use of this control; to produce a consistent image quality from shot to shot, cinematographers usually choose a single aperture setting for interiors and another for exteriors, and adjust exposure through the use of camera filters or light levels. Aperture settings are adjusted more frequently in still photography, where variations in depth of field are used to produce a variety of special effects.

Additional Notes for Students:

What is Diffraction?

Diffraction refers to various phenomena associated with the bending of waves when they interact with obstacles in their path. It occurs with any type of wave, including sound waves, water waves, and electromagnetic waves such as visible light, x-rays and radio waves. As physical objects have wave-like properties, diffraction also occurs with matter and can be studied according to the principles of quantum mechanics. While diffraction always occurs when propagating waves encounter obstacles in their paths, its effects are generally most pronounced for waves where the wavelength is on the order of the size of the diffracting objects. The complex patterns resulting from the intensity of a diffracted wave are a result of interference between different parts of a wave that traveled to the observer by different paths.

The hyper focal distance is the nearest focus distance at which the DOF extends to infinity; focusing the camera at the hyper focal distance results in the largest possible depth of field for a given f-number. Focusing beyond the hyper focal distance does not increase the far DOF (which already extends to infinity), but it does decrease the DOF in front of the subject, decreasing the total DOF. Some photographers refer to this as “wasting DOF”; this apparent wastage is referred to as The Object Field Method. In fact, there is a rationale to ‘The object field method’.

If the lens includes a DOF scale, the hyper focal distance can be set by aligning the infinity mark on the distance scale with the mark on the DOF scale corresponding to the f-number to which the lens is set. For example, with the 35 mm lens shown above set to f / 11, aligning the infinity mark with the ‘11’ to the left of the index mark on the DOF scale would set the focus to the hyper focal distance. Focusing on the hyper focal distance is a special case of zone focusing in which the far limit of DOF is at infinity.

The object field method: Traditional depth-of-field formulas and tables assume equal circles of confusion for near and far objects. Some authors, such as Merklinger (1992),[3] have suggested that distant objects often need to be much sharper to be clearly recognizable, whereas closer objects, being larger on the film, do not need to be so sharp. The loss of detail in distant objects may be particularly noticeable with extreme enlargements. Achieving this additional sharpness in distant objects usually requires focusing beyond the hyper focal distance, sometimes almost at infinity. For example, if photographing a cityscape with a traffic bollard in the foreground, this approach, termed the object field method by Merklinger, would recommend focusing very close to infinity, and stopping down to make the bollard sharp enough. With this approach, foreground objects cannot always be made perfectly sharp, but the loss of sharpness in near objects may be acceptable if recognisability of distant objects is paramount.

Moritz von Rohr also used an object field method, but unlike Merklinger, he used the conventional criterion of a maximum circle of confusion diameter in the image plane, leading to unequal front and rear depths of field.

Depth of field can be anywhere from a fraction of a millimetre to virtually infinite. In some cases, such as landscapes, it may be desirable to have the entire image in focus, and a large DOF is appropriate. In other cases, artistic considerations may dictate that only a part of the image be in focus, emphasizing the subject while de-emphasizing the background, perhaps giving only a suggestion of the environment (Langford 1973, 81). For example, a common technique in melodramas and horror films is a close-up of a person's face, with someone just behind that person visible but out of focus. A portrait or close-up still photograph might use a small DOF to isolate the subject from a distracting background. The use of limited DOF to emphasize one part of an image is known as selective focus or differential focus.

Although a small DOF implies that other parts of the image will be un-sharp, it does not, by itself, determine how un-sharp those parts will be. The amount of background (or foreground) blur depends on the distance from the plane of focus, so if a background is close to the subject, it may be difficult to blur sufficiently even with a small DOF. In practice, the lens f-number is usually adjusted until the background or foreground is acceptably blurred, often without direct concern for the DOF.

Sometimes, however, it is desirable to have the entire subject sharp while ensuring that the background is sufficiently un-sharp. When the distance between subject and background is fixed, as is the case with many scenes, the DOF and the amount of background blur are not independent. Although it is not always possible to achieve both the desired subject sharpness and the desired background un-sharpness, several techniques can be used to increase the separation of subject and background.

For a given scene and subject magnification, the background blur increases with lens focal length. If it is not important that background objects be unrecognizable, background de-emphasis can be increased by using a lens of longer focal length and increasing the subject distance to maintain the same magnification. This technique requires that sufficient space in front of the subject be available; moreover, the perspective of the scene changes because of the different camera position, and this may or may not be acceptable.

The situation is not as simple if it is important that a background object, such as a sign, be unrecognizable. The magnification of background objects also increases with focal length, so with the technique just described, there is little change in the recognisability of background objects. However, a lens of longer focal length may still be of some help; because of the narrower angle of view, a slight change of camera position may suffice to eliminate the distracting object from the field of view.

Although tilt and swing are normally used to maximize the part of the image that is within the DOF, they also can be used, in combination with a small f-number, to give selective focus to a plane that isn't perpendicular to the lens axis. With this technique, it is possible to have objects at greatly different distances from the camera in sharp focus and yet have a very shallow DOF. The effect can be interesting because it differs from what most viewers are accustomed to seeing.

Follow Focus

Usually refers to a cameraperson or focus puller operating on a focusing gear to keep A moving subject in focus. A moving subject is likely to move away from focused point, though a good depth of field, may help but the cinematographer / focus puller needs to constantly change focus with changing position of the subject vis-à-vis camera lens. In other words, ‘Follow-focus’ is used to refocus the camera to accommodate subject movement.

However, technically speaking, A follow focus is a piece of equipment that attaches to the focus ring of a manual lens via a set of rods on the body of a film or video camera. It is ergonomic rather than strictly necessary; in other words it does not contribute to the basic functionality of a camera but instead allows the operator to be more efficient and precise. It is usually operated by a focus puller (often called the 1st assistant camera, or 1AC) but some camera operators prefer to pull their own focus (the act of changing focus is called "pulling" or "racking" focus).

A manual lens is usually a requisite for professional filmmaking. This is because auto-focus lens systems use lasers or infrared beams to measure the distance between the lens and the subject. This technique does not anticipate an actor stepping into the foreground of the frame, nor can it focus on anything which is not in the centre of the frame. The job of the focus puller then is to adjust the focus onto different subjects as well as change, or (follow) focus during movement of the camera onto the required subject, hence the term.

The mechanism works through a set of gears on the follow focus that are attached to teeth on the focus ring of the lens. These gears feed to a wheel which when turned by a focus puller who will spin the teeth and thus the ring on the lens. Practically, the device is not necessary as the operator can directly turn the ring on the lens. However, this would place the hand in an awkward position perpendicular to the camera rather than parallel, and turning beyond a certain distance (such as 360 degrees) would be impossible. Sometimes, such a "focus pull" would even be difficult with a follow focus, so an L-shaped metal rod can be attached in the provided square hole at the centre of the wheel. Thus, the hand merely has to spin the rod, which turns the wheel. The stationary white disk surrounding the wheel is used by the focus puller to jot down marks, and take care of the focus according to the marks he/she took during rehearsals. A focus puller often uses a tape to correctly measure the distance from the lens to the subject, allowing for accurate marking of the disk.

A follow focus is usually a compulsory piece of equipment for professional filmmaking, although those with low/no budgets or cameras not equipped with detachable manual lenses will have to do with auto-focus systems or turning a lens ring by hand. To make matters worse, most auto-focus lenses with a focus ring (such as those on most consumer and prosumer camcorders) are not "true" manual focus lenses, meaning that turning the ring does not directly adjust the elements inside the lens but rather actuates the electronics inside the camera which predict how the focus should go depending on how fast or far the ring was turned. These lenses make precise and repeatable focus pulls difficult, and use of a follow focus impractical. They are sometimes called "servo" focus lenses or "focus by wire" cameras.

Racking focus is the practice of shifting the attention of a viewer of a film or video by changing the focus of the lens from a subject in the foreground to a subject in the background, or vice versa. It dated back to the time when cameras did not have reflex lenses so the operator would have to rack focus the camera by looking through the viewfinder then sliding the camera over so that the shot would be in focus.

In the photo, in the first scene the woman (in focus) is sleeping. In the second shot when the phone rings, the focus shifts to the phone (on the right). As she picks up the phone and starts to talk, the focus shifts (racks) back again to bring her into focus.

focus shifts have to be rehearsed so that one can manually rotate the lens focus control from one predetermined point to another.

Sometimes video-graphers temporarily mark the points on the lens barrel with a grease pencil. After locking down the camera on a tripod, they can then shift from one focus point to another as needed.

Auto-focus Lenses

Auto-focus is quite helpful when moving objects have to be captured

Most auto-focus devices assume that the area in sharp focus is in the centre of the picture. The auto-focus area (the area the camera will automatically focus on) is in the green rectangle in this photo. The centre area is correctly focused, but the main subject is blurry. To deal with this problem the camera could be panned or tilted to bring the main subject into the auto-focus area, but the composition would be changed.

While shooting through such things as glass and wire fences, accurate focus cannot be determined

auto-focus devices especially under low light can keep readjusting or searching for focus as you shoot, which can be distracting.

For all these reasons, video-graphers typically turn off auto-focus and rely on their own focusing techniques. The only exception a difficult situation where there is no time to keep moving the subject matter into focus manually.

Deep focus is a photographic and cinematographic technique incorporating a large depth-of-field. Depth-of-field is the front-to-back range of focus in an image — that is, how much of it appears sharp and clear. Consequently, in deep focus the foreground, middle-ground and background are all in focus. This can be achieved through knowledgeable application of the hyper-focal distance of the camera lens being used.

The opposite of deep focus is shallow focus, in which only one plane of the image is in focus.

Shallow focus is a photographic and cinematographic technique incorporating a small depth of field. In shallow focus one plane of the image is in focus while the rest is out of focus. Shallow focus typically is used to emphasize one part of the image over another. Photographers sometimes refer to the area that is out of focus as ‘bokeh’ (see below for description).

The opposite of shallow focus is deep focus, in which the entire image is in focus. Deep focus photographic technique more closely approximates what is seen by the human eye.

Bokeh (from the Japanese boke ボケ, "blur") is a photographic term referring to the appearance of out-of-focus areas in an image produced by a camera lens. Different lens ‘bokeh’ produces different aesthetic qualities in out-of-focus backgrounds, which are often used to reduce distractions and emphasize the primary subject.

How to:

A shallow focus is achieved by using a big aperture in conjunction with a long lens or a close subject distance. Common lenses used in still photography to achieve a shallow focus are 50/1.4, 85/1.8, and 135/2.

Further, using a camera with a large sensor helps; in still photography, large format inherently has narrower focus than 35 mm, which is still narrower than compact digital cameras. If you can choose what format to use, go with the largest sensor available.

Shallow focus is often used in portraiture, to isolate the subject from the background.

Macro photography is close-up photography; the classical definition is that the image projected on the "film plane" (i.e., film or a digital sensor) is close to the same size as the subject. On 35 mm film (for example), the lens is typically optimized to focus sharply on a small area approaching the size of the film frame. Most 35mm format macro lenses achieve at least 1:2, that is to say, the image on the film is 1/2 the size of the object being photographed. Many 35mm macro lenses are 1:1, meaning the image on the film is the same size as the object being photographed. Another important distinction is that lenses designed for macro are usually at their sharpest at macro focus distances and are not quite as sharp at other focus distances.

In recent years, the term macro has been used in marketing material to mean being able to focus on a subject close enough so that when a regular 6×4 inch (15×10 cm) print is made, the image is life-size or larger. This requires a magnification ratio of only approximately 1:4, more easily attainable by lens makers.

Technical considerations:

Limited depth of field is an important consideration in macro photography. This makes it essential to focus critically on the most important part of the subject, as elements that are even a millimetre closer or farther from the focal plane might be noticeably blurry. Due to this, the use of a microscope stage is highly recommended for precise focus with large magnification such as photographing skin cells.

The problem of sufficiently and evenly lighting the subject can be difficult to overcome. Some cameras can focus on subjects so close that they touch the front piece of glass in the lens. It is impossible to place a light between the camera and a subject that close, making this extreme close-up photography impractical. A normal-focal-length macro lens (50 mm on a 35 mm camera) can focus so close that lighting remains difficult. To avoid this problem, many photographers use telephoto macro lenses, typically with focal lengths from about 100 to 200 mm. These are popular as they permit sufficient distance for lighting between the camera and the subject.

Ring flashes, with flash tubes arranged in a circle around the front of the lens, can be helpful in lighting at close distances. Ring lights have emerged, using white LEDs to provide a continuous light source for macro photography.

The Macro Lens Setting

Look at the picture of the coin .the needle is shot with a telephoto lens, the thread is only in focus. The macro setting that enables the lens to attain sharp focus on an object only a few a few inches, or even a few millimetres from the front of the lens, so the physical distance to the subject can be close, the minimum focusing distance it also short it offers no distortions as compared to the telephoto lens, nowadays the newer lenses are called continuous focus lenses. One can smoothly and continuously adjust these internal focus lenses from infinity to a few inches without manually shifting the lens into macro mode.

A tripod or camera mount is a must in using the macro setting. Not only is depth normally limited to just a few millimetres, but camera movement is greatly exaggerated.

The exact shot framed by the cinematographer can communicate many things to the viewing audience. The framing of a particular shot can communicate power or weakness.

Wide Shot It Shows the whole body or space, to establish scene setting of relations, allow plenty of room for action. In short we can safely say that wide shot establishes location or setting (thereby reveals geography) and introduces action.

Medium Wide Shot it shows most of body or space, it also establishes the geography, it allows room for movement and other subjects to enter frame. In other words, it establishes character and you can follow the character.

Medium Shot It shows subject from waist up. It enables a connection with subject while providing room for gestures. It is the most frequently used shot. It provides an intimate view of subject, focuses attention on salient characteristics. In other words, the medium shot provides new visual information in comparison to wide shots, show a closer view of action, and provide visual variety for editing purposes.

Bust Shot It shows subject from mid-chest. It is also referred to as head and shoulder shot. It basically provides closer view of the character, used as listening or reaction shot, provides standard framing for interviews, and provides visual variety in editing.

Medium Close Up It shows part of subject. It focuses attention to details.

Close Up it shows enlarged view of part of subject. To draws attention to details and adds emotion.

N.B.: for above chart see ‘Grammar Of Television’ from Berger found at http://euphrates.wpunj.edu/faculty/yildizm/SP/also see How Media Products Make Meaning: http://www.uiowa.edu/~centeach/resources/ideas/media.glossary.pdf

CAMERA SHOTS/CINEMATOGRAPHY

The exact shot framed by the cinematographer can communicate many things to the viewing audience. The framing of a particular shot can communicate power or weakness, for example.

Other considerations- One could also notice:

• high and low angle shots

• when the camera moves and why

• the distance between camera and actor or action.

"Often a low angle reinforces the sense that the subject is large or dominant or imposing or powerful, but not always."

With the camera low-shooting UP- it gives the audience the impression that someone is larger, towering, more important or powerful. "Often a low angle reinforces the sense that the subject is large or dominant or imposing or powerful, but not always.” ("Film, An Introduction" William H. Phillips, Part One, The Expressiveness of Film Techniques, pg.8 )

With the camera high-shooting DOWN- it gives the audience the impression that someone is smaller, less significant, helpless, or vulnerable. "...a high angle does not always make the subject (s) seem small, vulnerable, or weak, though in many contexts it does." ("Film, An Introduction" William H. Phillips, Part One, The Expressiveness of Film Techniques, pg. 8 )

Close Ups (primarily faces, signify intimacy) (Media Analysis Techniques (2nd Ed.) Arthur Asa Berger )

Medium Shots (most of body, personal relationship) (Media Analysis Techniques (2nd Ed.) Arthur Asa Berger )

Wide/Long/Establishing Shots (setting & characters; context, scope, public distance)

Follow Action The camera follows subject as they move. May involve panning, tilting, and zooming. This is done to keep the subject in frame and add energy and movement to scene.

Let in/out Here the camera is stationary and subject enters or leaves frame. This is done when the subject has to enter or leave scene, a transition between scenes or subjects. Let in can establish a setting and then bring attention to subject walking into setting. Let out can be used to end a scene.

Let in & Follow The subject enters camera frame and then camera follows moving subject in this way the subject assumes importance and this adds to the drama. It establish a scene and then follow action, change attention from one subject to another, pickup pace of scene and to show transition between subjects.

Shift Attention

- This uses a pan, tilt or combination to change the main subject of a shot from one element to another.

- To shift attention from one element in the frame to another, show physical relationship between subject elements, follow action by changing framing when main action changes between subject elements or show secondary activities happening while main action occurs.

- It is not used in situation where the depth of field is shallow, it is a subtle and creative tool, it is an excellent method to selectively shoe the audience what you want them to see.

Post-production occurs in the making of audio recordings, films/movies, photography and digital art, videos and television programs. It is the general term for all stages of production occurring after the actual recording and ending with the completed work.

Post-production is in fact many different processes grouped under one name. These typically include:

Video editing suite

Editing the picture / TV program

Editing the soundtrack.

Writing and recording the soundtrack music.

Adding visual special effects - mainly computer generated imagery (CGI) and digital copy from which release prints will be made (although this may be made obsolete by digital cinema technologies).

Transfer of film to Video or Data with a telecine and colour corrector.

Typically, the post-production phase of creating a film takes longer than the actual shooting of the film, and can take several months to complete. Other film production stages include (very broadly) - , script development (rewriting), financing, pre-production, the actual shooting and film distribution / marketing.

Editing is an art of storytelling practiced by connecting two or more shots together to form a sequence, and the subsequent connecting of sequences to form an entire movie / television program. Editing is the only art that is unique to cinema / television, and which separates film & Television making from all other art forms that preceded it (such as photography, theatre, dance, writing, and directing). However there are close parallels to the editing process in other art forms such as poetry or novel writing. It is often referred to as the "invisible art," since when it is well-practiced, the viewer becomes so engaged that he or she is not even aware of the work of the editor.

Because almost every motion picture, television show, and TV commercial is shot with one camera per take, every single shot is separated from every other single shot by time and space. On its most fundamental level, video editing is the art, technique, and practice of assembling these shots into a coherent whole. However, the job of an editor isn’t merely to mechanically put pieces of a film together, nor is it to just cut off the film or video slates, nor is it merely to edit dialogue scenes. A film editor works with the layers of images, the story, the music, the rhythm, the pace, shapes the actors' performances, "re-directing" and often re-writing the film or video during the editing process, honing the infinite possibilities of the juxtaposition of small snippets of clips into a creative, coherent, cohesive whole.

Editing, be it film or video, is an art that can be used in diverse ways. It can create sensually provocative montages. It can be a laboratory for experimental genre. It can bring out the emotional truth in an actor's performance. It can create a point of view on otherwise obtuse events. It can guide the telling and pace of a story. It can create the illusion of danger where there is none, surprise when we least expect it, and a vital subconscious emotional connection to the viewer.

Please note, if anybody is under illusion that this is only true for fiction genre and not applicable to documentary and other features including cutting for news format is wrong.

Television and film use certain common conventions often referred to as the 'grammar' of these audiovisual media. This list includes some of the most important conventions for conveying meaning through particular camera and editing techniques (as well as some of the specialised vocabulary of film production). Conventions aren't rules: expert practitioners break them for deliberate effect, which is one of the rare occasions that we become aware of what the convention is.

1. Cut. Sudden change of shot from one viewpoint or location to another. On television cuts occur on average about every 5 or 6 seconds. Cutting may:

• change the scene;

• compress time;

• vary the point of view; or

• build up an image or idea.

There is always a reason for a cut, and you should ask yourself what the reason is. Less abrupt transitions are achieved with the fade, dissolve, and wipe. In a cut, the first frame of a new shot directly follows the last frame of the previous one. Grammatically, a cut is like the space between two words: a division between units of meaning that signals no change at all.

In classic editing, a cut should be nearly invisible because the action on screen moves across the division between shots in an uninterrupted flow. This enhances the illusion that the viewer is watching a continuous process instead of a bunch of discrete images.

Creating this illusion is easy when the shots show different subjects, such as close-ups of two different actors, because the viewer expects the image to change completely from shot to shot. But when two shots cover successive views of the same subject you must spackle the seam with two crucial editing techniques: matching action and changing camera angle.

In matching action you set the edit points so that the incoming shot picks up precisely where the outgoing shot leaves off. There are three ways to do this: continue movement, cut between movements, and start or end off-screen, as you can see from Figure 1.

Cutting in the middle of an ongoing movement is the hardest method but it delivers the most convincing illusion. In the outgoing shot of Figure 1a, the cup descends part-way to its saucer. Then the incoming shot starts with the cup on-screen and continues on its path toward the table. With precision matching, the two arcs seem like different views of the same continuous action. You can match continuous action with consumer-level editing decks if you're willing to practice with the deck's accuracy.

An easier way is to make the cut during a pause in the action, as shown in Figure 1b. Here, the performer completes the whole set-down in medium shot and the close-up starts with the hand and the cup at rest. With no movement to match, the edit is easier.

Simpler yet is the old off screen ploy (Figure 1c). The incoming shot starts before the cup enters the frame, so the viewer cannot compare its end position with its start position. With this method, you don't have to match action at all.

The method works equally well if you reverse it so that the outgoing cup ends on-screen and the incoming cup starts off-screen. And when you have a really difficult edit, try both at once: finish the outgoing and start the incoming shots with empty screens.

Whichever method you use, matching action does only half the job of concealing the cut. To perfect the illusion you must also shift the camera position. By moving the point of view, you change the subject's background and deprive the viewer of reference points for matching action.

As we've often noted, you can change three aspects of camera setup: vertical angle (from bird's-eye down to worm's-eye), horizontal angle (from front through 3/4 and profile to rear) and image size (from long shot to close-up). Figure 2 shows why it's tough to conceal a cut without changing at least one of these aspects and preferably two.

Figure 2a shows no angle change between the two shots and the obvious jump cut that results. Figure 2b changes one aspect: image size. If you're a slick editor you can make this cut work, but it's easier if you can change a second aspect as well. In Figure 2c the edit changes vertical angle as well as image size for a smoother transition.

Should you change all three aspects of a camera position? Maybe, but not necessarily. It doesn't add to the illusion and it can actually call attention to the edit because the viewpoint change is so great. On the other hand, an extreme angle change can be effective in building suspense precisely because it produces an effect of uneasiness or even disorientation.

Editing cuts

Match Cut

Description: Combining two shots of differing angle and composition so that the action continues from one to the other in the same time and place.

This shows seamless progression of action, focus on detail of action, provide a different view enhancing three- dimensionality, and add energy and increase pacing.

The shot above could be followed by a close up of the hands

Jump Cut

Combining two shots that are similar so that the subject jumps from one part of the screen to another.

It attracts attention and speeds up time.

Cutaway

It shows the subject, close up detail or person observing action. Subject is not seen in shots edited before or after cutaway. This is done to cover jump cuts, provide reaction of others to main action, and focus attention on subject.

Editing Transitions & Effects

Fade from and to Black

The image gradually appears from a black screen. Fade to black: image gradually disappears to a black screen. the purpose is to begin and end a video, it could be a transition between segments or scenes, or signify major change in time or location.

Dip to Black

A quick fade to black and then back to video. To go to or from a commercial break, quick transition between segments or scenes, or transition between footage and full screen graphics.

Dissolve

A transition between shots where one image is gradually mixed with another until the second image is full screen. To enhance emotions, soften changes between shots, accentuate rhythm of pacing, enhance artistry of action, and smooth jump cuts.

Wipe

A transition between shots that uses movement across the screen. Traditional wipes include changing the image with a move from right or left, up or down, or diagonally. Effects wipes include spins, flips, and animated moves. To show obvious transition between scenes, segments or graphics; add energy and action and increase pacing.

Super

Mixing two images together to show two views of subject at the same time, suggesting that main subject is thinking about the other.

Freeze

A single frame of video that is frozen on the screen to end action, accentuate moment or character, background for graphics, lengthen short shot.

Editing - Graphics & Titles

Lower Third Title

Text appearing in the bottom third of the screen. It identifies the name and title of interview subject, provide caption for image.

Full Screen Graphic

It’s a combination of text, background or artwork that fills the screen. For titles in the beginning of a video or a segment, key points or summations, charts and graphs, transition between segments or to or from commercials.

Editing -Techniques & Principles

B-rollIt refers to footage that covers an interview or narration audio. It is done to Illustrate what's discussed in audio, add energy and increase pace, cover audio track edits.

For example -someone talks, scenes relating to what the person is saying is shown.

Establishing the scene It’s a wide shot showing setting, to introduce the location for scene, provide sense of 3D space where action occurs, and introduce characters. Example -All the shots are wide showing people doing things

Changing the scene/segment

It is a Visual or audio cue that a new scene or segment has begun. It moves the story along, add variety to story, indicate passage of time or change in location. for example an establishment shot (with people talking). Followed by the main person talking.

Visual Sequence

it features a series of shots showing the subject or a process in action. To focus attention on action or process, show details of, show progression of action, engage viewer with subject and to facilitate comprehension. Example -a person applying make-up

Montage Sequence

A series of images usually set to music, that quickly show various aspects of the story. It shows passage of time, provide a glimpse of actions or events not covered in detail, capture viewer interest at beginning of video, sum up story at end, provide a change of pace, add energy.

Natural Sound

It includes ambient sounds of subjects overheard during recording. To enhance sense of reality, capture spontaneous speech of subject in the natural situation, establish the setting or situation, show transition between scenes or locations, provide background sound to narration.

Video Resolution

Video resolution is a measure of the ability of a video camera to reproduce fine detail. The higher the resolution the more distinct lines in a given space that the camera can discern, the sharper the picture will look. The standard NTSC broadcast TV system can potentially produce a picture resolution equal to about 300 lines of horizontal resolution.

Minimum Light Levels for Cameras/Threshold level

Television cameras require a certain level of light to produce good-quality video. This light level is measured in lux or foot-candles. The latter is used in the United States and lux is used in other countries.

A foot-candle is a measure of light intensity from a candle at a distance of one foot. Most professional video cameras require a light level of at least 75 foot-candles (750 lux) to produce the best quality video. However, some will produce marginally acceptable video under a few lux of light.

At low light levels the iris of a camera must be wide open (at the lowest f-stop number) to allow in the maximum amount of light. As the light level increases in a scene the iris of the lens must be stopped down (changed to a higher f-stop number) to maintain the same level of exposure on the camera target.

Under low light conditions video can quickly start to look dark with a complete loss of detail in the shadow areas. To help compensate, professional cameras have built-in, multi-position, video gain switches that can amplify the video signal in steps from 3 up to about 28 units (generally the units are in decibels or dB's). There are usually 4 decibels like 1,4,9 and 12. But, the greater the video gain boost, the greater the loss in picture quality. Specifically, video noise increases and colour clarity diminishes.

Night Vision Modules

For very low light situations night vision modules are used. They have electronic light multipliers to amplify the light going through a lens. The most refined of these can produce clear video at night using only the light from stars.Under conditions of no light most of these modules emit their own invisible infrared illumination, which is then translated into a visible they are used bycamera operators covering news especially covering nighttime stories where any type of artificial lighting would call attention to the camera and adversely affect the story being covered.

Camera Mounts

Using a camera tripod can make all the difference. Although it has to be carried and set up, the results can be well worth the effort especially when the subjects move .the legs of the tripod should be extended till it touches the ground. While choosing a tripod one should ensure that the legs are strong because if they are weak then gust of wind or the wind velocity at high altitudes could cause it to shake if the head of the tripod come separately the cost would jump up

Camera Pan Heads

On most tripods the pan and tilt head is not meant to be used for smooth panning and tilting while shooting, it is only to reposition and lock the camera into position between takes. a cut from one scene to another is faster and generally better than panning, tilting or zooming to new subject matter. Today there are many tripods have heads designed to smooth out pan and tilt movements. The most-used type is the fluid head. It provides an adjustable resistance to pans and tilts

Bean Bags

A simple camera bean bag that works in many situations is the beanbag. The beans inside are small round soft plastic cushion

Wireless Camera Modules RF camcorder transmitter

Although camera operators doing "live" broadcasts from the field used to have to be "hard wired" to a production truck, today's cameras can be equipped with an RF transmitter. The camera signal is transmitted to the production truck where it appears on a monitor just like any other source of video.

There are three types of equipment

Consumer- camcorders, handycams: these are used by people for taking family pictures or people who like to shoot as a hobby. They are not that expensive.

Portable professional equipment: These are used in small studios. More expensive, have to be handled with care, used for recording in the studios and outdoors.

In built professional equipment: Very expensive, built for the studio based applications. They are generally not taken outside as they very high precision and sensitive to outdoor conditions.

• Stability and durability

• Consistent results

• Good Image Quality – no picture noise, good colour definition

Studio Camera Mounts

In the studio, the entire camera assembly is mounted on a pedestal or dolly so that the operator can smoothly roll it around on the floor. The three wheels in the base of the pedestal can be turned using the steering ring. The camera is directly attached to a pan head, which enables the pan and tilt (horizontal and vertical) camera movements to be adjusted.

Controls on the pan head allow the camera to move freely, to be locked into position, or to offer controlled resistance to facilitate smooth pans and tilts.

Although the camera may weigh more than 100 pounds (50 Kg), internal counter-weights allow an operator to easily raise and lower the camera when the telescoping column in the centre is unlocked. The photo above shows some of the other key parts of a typical studio camera pedestal.

A simpler camera support is the collapsible dolly shown on the left. This type of mount is used for remote productions and in some small studios. Unlike the elaborate studio pedestal that can be smoothly rolled across a studio floor (even while the camera is on the air), the wheels on small dollies are intended primarily to move the camera from place to place between shots.

Robotic Camera Mounts

Camera operators are being replaced by remotely controlled, robotic camera systems .From the TV control room, technicians can adjust the pan, tilt, zoom, and focus and even remotely dolly and truck these cameras around the studio. They are convenient but undesirable for unpredictable or fast-moving subject matter, for programs such as newscasts and interviews.

Innovative Camera Mounts

The Segway HT Platform

The Segway platform can move over a smooth surface while automatically maintaining balance on its two wheels, the rider gently pulls the steering handle forward, back, left, or right.

The "Follow-Me" Camera Mount

As news departments reduce expenses, This mount can pan the camera to follow a reporter. As the reporter moves, the camera automatically pans left or right to keep the reporter centered in the frame. The unit will track an on-camera person within a 35-foot radius in a 4,000-sq. foot coverage area. The reporter has to wear a belt-pack transmitter, and the receivers on the extended arms on either side of the camera pick up the signal.

Camera Jibs

It is a long, highly maneuverable boom or crane-like device with a mounted camera at the end. They swing overhead at concerts and other events with large audiences, the two video monitors (one for camera output and one for program video) and the heavy weights that help balance the weight of the camera and crane. A jib allows sweeping camera movements from ground level to nine meters or more in the air. For more mobile camera work outside the studio, handheld camera supports allow significant mobility, while still offering fairly steady camera shots.

Camera Tracks and "Copters"

For elaborate productions, installing camera tracks allows the camera to more smoothly follow talent and move through a scene. Although a camera operator can ride with the camera, some cameras are remotely controlled. It can provide aerial views of various sporting events. A ground observer remotely controls the entire unit, and the unit's Omni directional microwave relays the video to the production van.

Gallery/Control Room Team

The following crew positions are only utilised on a multi-camera production. The Gallery or "Control Room" is a separate darkened area away from the studio floor where the action can be viewed across multiple monitors and controlled from a single source.

Television director - Director

a Director in television usually refers to the Gallery (or Control Room) Director, who is responsible for the creative look of a production through selecting which shots to use at any given moment. The Director views the action on the studio floor through a bank of screens, each one linked to one of the studio cameras, while issuing instructions down to the Floor Manager. They also control the Gallery area, calling for sound rolls, on-screen graphics (Astons) and video rolls (VT's). Some directors also work more closely with on-camera talent and others also act as both producer and director. he sometimes works as a switcher

Production Assistant

Commonly referred to simply as the PA, the Production Assistant assumes a prompting role in the Gallery or Control Room. They are responsible for communication with the broadcasting channel during a live show, counting down the time before transmission aloud to the crew via the studio microphone. They also count down time remaining for sections of a programme, such as an interview or an advert break. Prior to a production, the PA is responsible for preparing and timing the script, noting pre-recorded inserts, sound effects and suchlike, and for clearing copyright and other administrative issues. responsible for scripting shots and shot division.

Director of photography

he DOP (director of photography) is responsible for recording the visual image of the film. In artistic terms he or she uses the photography to enhance the telling of the story by manipulating the look or mood of a shot, drawing the audience's attention to one thing or another. The person is responsible to the producer

After reading the screenplay, DoPs meet with the Director to discuss the visual style of the film. They conduct research and preparation including carrying out technical reconnaissance of locations. They prepare a list of all required camera equipment, including lights, film stock, camera, cranes and all accessories etc., for requisition by the production office. During preparation DoPs also test special lenses, filters or film stocks, checking that the results are in keeping with the Director's vision for the film. On each day of principal photography, DoPs and their camera crews arrive early on set to prepare the equipment for the day's work. During rehearsals, the Director and DoP block (decide the exact movements of both actors and camera) the shots as the actors walk through their actions, discussing any special camera moves or lighting requirements with the Camera Operator, Gaffer and Grip. Each shot is marked up for focus and framing by the 1st AC, and, while the actors finish make-up and costume, the DoP oversees the lighting of the set for the first take. On smaller films, DoPs often also operate the camera during the shoot. At the end of each shooting day, DoPs prepare for the following day's work, and check that all special requirements (cranes, Steadicams, remote heads, long or wide lenses, etc.) have been ordered. They also usually view the rushes with the Director. During post production, DoPs are required to attend the digital grading of the film, which may involve up to three weeks of intensive work.

Vision Mixer or Switcher The Vision Mixer is responsible for the actual switching between different video sources, such as camera shots and video inserts. They also maintain colour and contrast balance between the studio cameras. The Vision Mixer is, confusingly, also the name of the equipment which the Vision Mixer operates.

Aston Operator or Graphics operator The Aston Operator prepares and displays on-screen graphics.

VT Operator The VT Operator cues and prepares video inserts into a programme. Heavily used in sports programming, they are also responsible for action replays and quickly editing highlights while a show is in progress.

Post production

Tasks, such as taking down sets, dismantling and packing equipment, handling final financial obligations, and evaluating the effect of the program, are part of the postproduction phase.

As computer-controlled editing techniques and postproduction special effects have become more sophisticated, editing has gone far beyond the original concept of joining segments in a desired order. Editing is now a major focus of production creativity because of the use the video and audio recordings to blend the segments together. Technicians add music and audio effects to create the final product.

The Editing Phase

After shooting is completed, the producer, director, and video recording editor review the footage and make editing decisions. This is often done in two phases: on-line and off-line.

In off-line editing copies of the original taped footage that contains time-code reference are used to develop a kind of blueprint for final editing. In on-line editing the original footage is used in editing. During the final editing phase, sound sweetening, colour balancing, and special effects are added.

Do Postproduction Follow-Up

This includes totaling up financial statements, paying the final bills, and determining the production's success (or failure). Ratings indicate success levels in broadcast television; it may be testing, program evaluations, and viewer feedback. Ratings are those numbers that can signal the end of TV programs. Lastly, the program is review promoted and broadcast.

The Crew

Pre-production

Everything before the shooting of the film is known as the pre-production stage. People involved in this stage include the director, the producer, the scriptwriter, the researcher, the set designer, the make-up artist, and the costume designer.

Editor

The editor works with the director in editing the film that has been shot. The director has the ultimate accountability for editing choices, but often the editor has contribution in the creative decisions concerned in piecing together a finalized product. Often, the editor comes into the picture when filming is still in process, by compiling initial takes of footage. It is an extremely long process to edit a television show, demonstrating the importance, and significance editing has on a production.

The editor follows the screenplay as the guide for establishing the structure of the story and then uses his/her talents to assemble the various shots and takes for greater, clearer artistic effect. There are several editing stages. In the first stage, the editor is supervised by the director, who spells their vision to the editor. Therefore, this first rough cut is often called the "director's cut,". After the first stage, the following cuts are supervised by one or more producers, who represent the production company and its investors. Consequently, the final cut is the one that most closely represents what the studio wants from the film and not necessarily what the director wants.

Sound editor

In television, the sound editor deals with the mixing, adjusting and fixing of the soundtrack. They usually have a major decision-making and creative role when it comes to sound and audio. A sound editor also decides what sound effects to use and what effects to achieve from the sound effects, edits and makes new sounds using filters and combining sounds, shaping sound with volume curves, and equalizing. A sound editor takes the Foley artist's sounds and puts them in place so it works with the picture and sounds natural, even if the sound is unnatural,a sound editor uses a sound effects library extensively, either self-compiled, bought or both, as many of the sounds don't get enough focus if they were taken straight from the shoot of the show.

Foley artist

The Foley artist on a film crew is the person who creates and records many of the sound effects. Foley artists, editors, and supervisors are highly specialized and are essential for producing a professional-sounding soundtrack, often reproducing commonplace yet essential sounds like footsteps or the rustle of clothing. The Foley artist also fabricates sounds that can’t be correctly recorded while filming, much like the sound editor does with digital sound effects.

Publicist

A publicist, or advertiser has the task of raising public awareness of a production, and ultimately increase viewers and sales of it and its merchandise. The publicist's main task is to stimulate demand for a product through advertising and promotion. Advertisers use several recognizable techniques in order to better convince the public to buy a product.

The publicist ensures the media are well aware of a project by distributing the show as a trial run, or a “sneak preview”; through press releases, interviews with members of the cast or crew, arranging exclusive public visits on set of the production, and creating media kits, which contain pictures, posters, clips, shorts, and trailers and brief descriptions on the show and the plot.

Composer

A composer is a person who writes the music for a production. They may also be the conductor of an orchestra who plays the music, or part of the orchestra. The composer is the originator of the music, and usually its first performer. The composer occasionally writes the theme music for a television show. A television program's theme music is a melody closely associated with the show, and usually played during the title sequence and end credits. If it is accompanied by lyrics, it is a theme song. for example the sitcom friends theme song was the ever popular “I will there for you”

Title sequence designer

A title sequence, in a television program, is shown at the beginning of the show; which displays the show name and credits, usually including actors, producers and directors. A montage of selected images and a theme song are often included to suggest the essential tone of the series. A title sequence is essential in preparing the audience for the following program, and gives them a sense of familiarity that makes them trust, and feel comfortable with the film. It is up to the title sequence designer to achieve this very goal, and make it catchy, entertaining, and appealing to increase the audiences feeling of positivity towards the show. Example – That 70s show, the six characters singing in the car.

Special effects coordinator

Special effects (SPFX) are used in television to create effects that cannot be achieved by normal means, such as depicting travel to other star systems. They are also used when creating the effect by normal means is prohibitively expensive, such as an enormous explosion. They are also used to enhance previously filmed elements, by adding, removing or enhancing objects within the scene. The special effects coordinator implicates these effects, and directs them with the help of the visual effects director. The task of the effects coordinator differs frequently, and can range from extensive over-the-top special effects to basic computer animation.

ADR editor

Automatic dialogue replacement (ADR) is the process of replacing dialogue that was recorded incorrectly during filming, with the actors voices recorded and put into place during editing. The ADR editor oversees the procedure and takes the corrupted dialogue, and replaces it with newly recorded lines to the actor's mouth on film to make it lip sync correctly.

The matte artist or blue screen director

Blue screen is the film technique of shooting foreground action against a blue background, which is then replaced by a separately shot "background plate" scene by either optical effects or digital composting. This process is directed and coordinated by the blue screen director. The matte artist is a part of the special effects department who assists in making scenery and locations that don’t exist. They assemble backgrounds using traditional techniques or computers that mix with the footage filmed to create a false set. Both are fairly alike, but blue screen technology is more modern and more widely used.

Studio Hand Signals

Although the studio director can relay signals to the crew via a headset (PL line), getting instructions to on-camera talent while the microphones are on must be done silently through the floor director. To do this the floor director uses agreed upon hand signals. In order for the talent to be able to easily and quickly see these signals they are given right next to the talent's camera lens. The talent should never have to conspicuously look around for cues when they are on camera.

Shooting Angles

In an interview the eyes and facial expressions communicate a great deal often even more than the words the person is saying.

Look at the picture -Profile shots (equivalent to shooting the close-ups from camera position A) often hide these important clues. A close-up of the guest from camera position B, as well as a close-up of Dr. Lee from the camera 2 position, provide much stronger shots.

e a strong close-up of the person talking can be obtained, if you zoom back slightly, an over-the-shoulder shot that can even be used to momentarily cover comments by the person whose back is toward the camera.

The Need to Anticipate

An essential talent for a director is the ability to react quickly to changes in action. In fact, the total reaction time is equal to the accumulated time involved in recognizing the need for a specific action, communicating that action to crew members, having them respond, and then telling the technical director what you want done. That can represent a delay of several seconds.

Although that may not seem long, when audiences are used to seeing production responses in sync with on-camera action, it will clearly reveal that the director is lagging behind the action.

The solution is for the director to try to anticipate what's going to happen.

During an interview a director should be able to sense when the interviewer's question is about to end or when an answer is winding up. By saying standby "early and calling for a camera cut a moment before it's needed, a director will be able to cut from one camera to the other almost on the concluding period or question mark of the person's final sentence.

Also, by watching the off-air monitor in the control room, as opposed to the on-air shot of the person talking, the director will often be able to see when the off-camera person is about to interrupt or visually react to what is being said.

Electrical and lighting equipment

Large amounts of power are usually needed for camera lights and everyday electrical needs on a set. on location, independent sources of power are used. Examples of electrical hazards include shorting of electrical wiring or equipment, inadequate wiring, deteriorated wiring or equipment, inadequate grounding of equipment and working in wet locations. All electrical work should be done by licensed electricians and should follow standard electrical safety practices and codes. Safer direct current should be used around water when possible, or ground fault circuit interrupters installed.

Lighting can pose both electrical and health hazards. High-voltage gas discharge lamps such as neons, metal halide lamps and carbon arc lamps are especially hazardous and can pose electrical, ultraviolet radiation and toxic fume hazards.

Lighting equipment should be kept in good condition, regularly inspected and adequately secured to prevent lights from tipping or falling. It is particularly important to check high-voltage discharge lamps for lens cracks that could leak ultraviolet radiation.

Cameras

Camera crews can film in many hazardous situations, including shooting from a helicopter, moving vehicle, camera crane or side of a mountain. Basic types of camera mountings include fixed tripods, dollies for mobile cameras, camera cranes for high shots and insert camera cars for shots of moving vehicles. There have been several fatalities among camera operators while filming under unsafe conditions or near stunts and special effects.

precautions for camera cranes should be taken like testing of lift controls, ensuring a stable surface for the crane base and pedestal; properly laid tracking surfaces, ensuring safe distances from high-tension electrical wires; and body harnesses where required.

camera cars should be used those are cars that have been engineered for mounting of cameras and towing of the vehicle to be filmed are recommended instead of mounting cameras on the outside of the vehicle being filmed.

Filming location

Filming in a studio or on a studio lot has the advantage of permanent facilities and equipment, including ventilation systems, power, lighting, scene shops, costume shops and more control over environmental conditions. Studios can be very large in order to accommodate a variety of filming situations.

Filming on location, especially outdoors in remote locations, is more difficult and hazardous than in a studio because transportation, communications, power, food, water, medical services, living quarters and so on must be provided.

the film crew and actors are exposed to hazardous conditions, including wild animals, poisonous reptiles and plants, civil unrest, climate extremes and adverse local weather conditions, communicable diseases, contaminated food and water, structurally unsafe buildings, and buildings contaminated with asbestos, lead, biological hazards and so on. Filming on water, in the mountains, in deserts and other dangerous locales poses obvious hazards.

On-Camera Talent Issues Pressure

Makeup

In olden days in low-resolution black-and-white TV, facial features had to be somewhat exaggerated, just as they do now on the stage. Today, makeup is primarily used to cover or diminish facial defects, fill in deep facial chin clefts and five o'clock shadows on men, and to take the shine off faces.

However, when professional talent need to appear at their best under different lighting conditions and for long periods of time, things can get a bit more complicated.

The use of makeup is divided into three categories:

*Basic - designed to compensate for undesirable changes in appearance introduced by the television process.

* Corrective - designed to enhance positive attributes and downplay flaws.

* Character - which introduces major changes in appearance?

Hair

For limited on-camera appearances, no special changes need to be made from normal hair styling. Stray hairs have a way of calling attention to themselves when close-ups are illuminated by backlights, so stray hair needs to be kept in place.

When applied to hair, oils and creams can impart an undesirable patent leather-like shine because it forms a gelatin coating, which will be exaggerated by backlighting. The absence of hair like bald heads may need help from a powder base carefully matched to skin tones.

Backlights and blond hair, especially platinum blond hair, will cause video levels to exceed an acceptable brightness range, so backlight intensity will need to be dimmed or the beams barned off. When it comes to the effect of backlights and even lighting in general, camera shots and lighting should be carefully checked on a good video monitor before a production.

Jewelry

Jewelry can represent two problems. First, if it's highly reflective, the results can range from a simple distraction to the creation of annoying trailing streaks in the video.

The solution is to either substitute non-reflective jewelry or remove it all together. If this isn't an option, dulling spray can be considered. Dulling spray should come off with cleaning, but before you use it, especially with expensive jewelry, you will want to make quite sure there are no lasting effects.

The second problem with jewellery is noise.

Intricate piece of jewellery causes a moiré effect the details appear real close to each other and they appear to jump so the main resolution goes down the guest should be told to avoid this.

DIAMONDS SPARKLE and also result in ugly BURNS.

Wardrobe

In general, clothes that are stylish and that flatter the individual are acceptable -- as long as five caveats are kept in mind.

*Colours that exceed 80-percent reflectance, such as white and bright yellow, need to be avoided. White shirts are often a problem because the reflectance value is higher than the face on TV the exposure of the clothes will appear higher than the face which will be darker.

*Black clothes, especially against a dark background not only can result in a tonal merger, but adjacent Caucasian skin tones can appear unnaturally light, even chalky.

*Closely spaced stripes in clothing shiny clothing can interact with camera scanning and result in a distracting, moving moiré pattern.

* Very bold patterns can take on a distracting and facetious appearance.

* Sequined, metallic, and other shiny clothing (note this photo), which might otherwise look good, can become quite distracting on television, especially under hard lighting.

Pyrotechnics are used to create effects involving explosions, fires, light, smoke and sound concussions. Pyrotechnics materials are usually low explosives mostly Class B, including flash powder, flash paper, gun cotton, black powder and smokeless powder. They are used in bullet hits (squibs), blank cartridges, flash pots, fuses, mortars, smoke pots and many more. Class A high explosives, such as dynamite, should not be used, although detonating cord is sometimes used. The major problems associated with pyrotechnics include premature triggering of the pyrotechnic effect; causing a fire by using larger quantities than needed; lack of adequate fire extinguishing capabilities; and having inadequately trained and experienced pyrotechnics operators. The experts have to be able to control these effects,

Stunts

Only experienced stunt performers should attempt fall stunts. When possible, the fall should be simulated. For example, falling down a flight of stairs can be filmed a few stairs at a time so the stunt performer is never out of control, or a fall off a tall building simulated by a fall of a few feet onto a net and using a dummy for the rest of the fall. They should be insured

Animal scenes

Animal scenes are potentially very hazardous because of the unpredictability of animals. Some animals, such as large cats, can attack if startled. Large animals like horses can be a hazard just because of their size. Dangerous, untrained or unhealthy animals should not be used on sets. Venomous reptiles such as rattlesnakes are particularly hazardous. In addition to the hazards to personnel, the health and safety of the animals should be considered.

Only trained animal handlers should be allowed to work with animals. Adequate conditions for the animals are needed, as is basic animal safety equipment, such as fire extinguishers, fire hoses, nets and tranquilizing equipment.

Water stunts can include diving, filming in fast-moving water, speedboat stunts and sea battles. Hazards include drowning, hypothermia in cold water, underwater obstructions and contaminated water. Emergency teams, including certified safety divers, should be on hand for all water stunts. Diver certification for all performers or camera operators using self-contained underwater breathing apparatus and provision of standby breathing equipment are other precautions.

Fight scenes can involve performers in fistfights or other unarmed combat or the use of knives, swords, firearms and other combat equipment. Many film and stage fights do not involve the use of stunt performers, thus increasing the risk of injury because of the lack of training.

Simulated weapons, such as knives and swords with retractable blades, are one safeguard. Weapons should be stored carefully. Training is key. The performer should know how to fall and how to use specific weapons. Adequate choreography and rehearsals of the fights is needed, as is proper protective clothing and equipment. A blow should never be aimed directly at an actor. If a fight involves a high degree of hazard, such as falling down a flight of stairs or crashing through a window, a professional stunt double should be used.

Vehicle action sequences have also been a source of many accidents and fatalities. Special effects, such as explosions, crashes, driving into rivers and car chase scenes with multiple cars, are the most common cause of accidents. Motorcycle scenes can be even more hazardous than automobiles because the operator of the motorcycle suffers from the lack of personal protection.

Film uses emulsion layers to capture the image while video tape converts the image into electrical data on a magnetic strip, the advantage of this is that it can be overwritten or by passing it through a magnetic field the tape can be wiped and re-used.

Relative Equipment Durability

Film equipment is more durable than video equipment because film cameras are easier to operate and understand; professional video equipment can be used now under extreme conditions because of the technology available but it still colour film stocks suffer from colour shifts and other such problems when it is stored in such high temperatures

Technical Quality Compared

in the presence of controlled production conditions 35mm films are slightly inferior to videos in respect to sharpness and colour fidelity, if the latest video equipment is used for broadcast. This is primarily because if a signal from a video camera is recorded on the highest-quality process, no major difference can be made between the picture coming from the camera and the picture that is later electronically reproduced.

With film first the image is recorded on negative film. then a master positive or intermediate print is made from the original negative film. From the master positive a dupe (duplicate) negative is created; and from that a positive release print is made. This adds up to a minimum of three generations.

At each step colour and quality variations are introduced by film emulsions and processing, there is a general optical degradation of the image, and the inevitable accumulation of dirt and scratches on the film surface starts.

After this process the film release print is projected into a video camera to convert it to an electronic signal, which is where the video signal started out in the first place.

Film is based in a mechanical process. As the film goes through the gate of a camera and projector there is the unavoidable loss of perfect registration. This called a judder, and it results in a slight blurring of film images.

the sharpness of video can be a negative thing, sometimes the softer look of film is desired .There are also subtle tonal and colour changes with film, which, the true values of the original subject matter, are not acquired, the slightly sharper image of video is associated with serious events like news

Coping With Brightness Ranges

First the video cameras simply could not handle the brightness range of film. the brightness range was limited to 30:1

Exposure can be controlled through professional tube-based video cameras, so the film had a major advantage over video. Now because of current technology this problem is not faced.

Film and Videotape Costs

The minute-for-minute cost of 16mm and 35mm film and processing is hundreds of times more than the cost of broadcast-quality video recording.

Unlike film, tape is reusable, which results in even greater savings.

However the initial cost of video equipment is high, the initial investment in video production and postproduction equipment can easily be ten times the cost of film equipment. The maintenance cost is also greater but the costs are lower for in using video for postproduction (special effects, editing, etc.).

Because of these advantages and disadvantages it is often said that video will replace film in motion picture work. The move is well underway.

Video Production

The video production industry creates videos for a wide range of demands, from safety videos for use in corporate environments to medical training videos for use in teaching.

A video production company takes a brief, produces a script, liaises with the customer and puts a production team together. This often includes experts ranging from camera staff to make-up artists. The film is shot and initial footage is put on broadcast quality tapes, edited and presented to the customer in a draft. Sound tracks, visual effects etc. are added in and the final video is presented to the customer. Video-graphy, is the art and service of producing a finished video product to a customer's requirement and consumption.

Television

Television is a telecommunication system for broadcasting and receiving moving pictures and sound over a distance and also refer to all the aspects of television from the television set) to the programming and transmission. It comprises of the TV set satellites, the cables etc.

TV organisations

Network studio operations they have specialised personnel, the latest cameras equipment. The production crew may work on on assignment or program at a time or a series of programs this again depends on the size of the organisation.

Video production Units

In house units- they produce pieces to be used by their own business. They can be freelance too.
Corporate video units. They are mainly for staff training etc.
Campus studio units. They are instructional in nature. They hire the production crew as per the assignments and rely on hired equipment. They produce anything from pop videos to ads.

Television Vs Video Production

TV production falls into two main categories -- Television and Video.

1. Television is the production of live or live-on-tape programming using real time switching between multiple cameras. This process takes place in a studio setting or at a remote venue for events such as sports, concerts, plays, graduation, etc.

Video is defined as using videotape shot on location with a portable camera and then using post-production equipment and film techniques to edit the final production.

2. Television takes more equipment, pre-production planning and setup time. Eventually, since most studio or sports productions will use the same equipment, configuration and basic script.

Video production may take less equipment and setup. However, video productions often require a detailed pre-production script and storyboard. The cinematographers must be skilled in film making techniques to proved the editor with:

· Establishing Shots

· Close-Ups

· Cut Always

· Reaction Shots

· Walk In/Out of frame

· Cut On Action)

3. There is less control of sound and lighting when shooting in remote situations. The video and audio editing for even the simplest productions can be a time intensive operation. The rule-of-thumb is one hour of production time for each minute of finished product.

Bibliography

Notes on Societal Collapses: Past and Present

2012-11-12T21:32:00.000-05:00

(“Look on my works, ye mighty, and despair!” ~ Percy Bysshe Shelly, Ozymandias)

Jared Mason Diamond

All societies, like individuals, are susceptible to forces beyond their control. Strangely, societies when at their prime, like humans, believe that they are immortal and untouchable. They do not ever pause to imagine that they themselves are the agents of their own subsequent collective demise (accelerated or slow – ecocide!).

It may be pertinent to note that managing environmental resources sustainably has been a serious challenge all through the annals of human history. In fact, ‘ever since Homo sapiens,’ Jared Diamond professes, ‘developed modern inventiveness, efficiency, and hunting skills by around 50,000 years ago’ extinction of animal species has always been a natural corollary of human colonisation of a land mass formerly lacking humans – be they larger marsupials in Australia or Dodos in Mauritius.

Societies, in past, that have managed to avert collapse had demonstrated conscious and successful approaches to micromanage their resources, careful regulation of population (Tikopia), and adoption of rigorous measures of environmental protection (Iceland) to retain productivity through sustainable practices.

The phenomena of Collapse may be extreme (demise of civilisations or societies) or mild. Milder types of decline are reflected in acceptable fluctuation in fortune, political or/and economic or/and social restructuring. Jared Diamond, in Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed, lists conquest by a neighbouring state, or society’s decline stemming from neighbour’s rise, ‘without change in the total population size or the complexity of the whole region; and the replacement or overthrow of one governing elite by another’ as some of the other milder forms of decline. (p 3)

There exists a causal nexus between ecocide and unsustainable practices undertaken by societies. The act of ecological suicide, according to Diamond, may be categorised into eight different activities which lead to environmental destabilisation and eventual societal collapse in past:

Deforestation
Effects of introduced exotic flora and fauna on endemic species
Growth in human population
Habitat destruction
Increase in per capita impact of people
Overfishing
Overhunting
Soil problems (erosion, salinization, and loss in soil fertility)
Water management problems

Modern societies, the author contests, have to contend with additional four problems:

Buildup of toxic chemicals in the environment
Energy shortages
Full human utilization of the Earth’s photosynthetic capacity
Human-caused climate change

Societal Collapse cannot be attributed solely to environmental damage. There, according to Diamond, exists a five-point framework of possible contributing factors:

Climate change
Environmental damage
Friendly trade partners
Hostile neighbours

The above sets of factors constitute the damage that people inadvertently inflict on their environment. However, perhaps, the most significant of all –

Society’s response/s to its environmental problems

---------------------
Do Civilizations Really Collapse?

It is difficult not to be swayed by Jared Diamond's interpretation of history and primacy of environment/ecology management (or lack of it) in societal collapse. His case studies of past societies/civilisations make a forceful argument for 'ecocide' or how power groups and ruling elite, often, refuse to accept society's role in environmental damage and climate change. In fact, Diamond's work assumes a more compelling narrative in the light of the ecological disaster looming before the world. The author has been able to yoke a number of different historical disciplines to make his case. However, there seems to be a tendency on part of Diamond to down play cultural forces to arrive at his thesis. Therefore, it may be prudent to hear out the critics of what Eric Powell calls the 'writer of popular science.'

“Diamond's vision of history is celebrated in the popular press and even by many academics as a welcome synthesis of a number of different historical disciplines. The fact that his ultimate goals as a writer are to challenge the idea that the West is superior because of racial or genetic differences and to raise awareness of the environmental catastrophe facing contemporary society make his work all the more compelling.

The problem, say many scholars, is that Diamond gets the past wrong. Criticism of his work focuses on a concern that Diamond fails to appreciate the complex role that culture plays in the development of societies. Anthropologists and archaeologists whose lives are devoted to studying the complexity of culture recoil at Diamond's statement that "historical studies of human societies can be pursued as scientifically as the study of dinosaurs."” (Powell, E. A. (2008, Mar/Apr). Do Civilizations Really Collapse? Archaeology, 61(2), 18-56)

What is Cultural Studies? SERIES I: A General Overview

2012-03-06T20:48:00.000-05:00

'Cosplayers' (from コスプレ kosupure 'costume role-play') - teenagers who dress as characters from film, television or animé cartoons - pose for the cameras in Harajuku, Tokyo. These girls are dressed as members of the Japanese band 'Dir en grey'. Photo © by Sonny Santos from http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Culture_of_Japan

It is apparent that advertising, artefacts, entertainment, fads, fashion, films, graffiti, games, icons, Internet activities, literature, music, national symbols, posters, television, tourist destinations, values, and much more - the products and practices that make our everyday lives defines our culture. In many ways, culture is about us as cultural subjects i.e. the subjects of culture. In short, we are the subjects of culture because culture, apparently, is all about us. It is a natural corollary of our existence.

Interestingly, the word subject also evokes a sinister meaning: one that is placed under authority or control as a captive, dependent, incarcerated, retainer, servant, slave, and or vassal. The picture, suddenly, turns ominous with dark clouds of mass submission, consumerism, gratification, indulgence, and cultivation. However, we are aware that every element of our popular culture is not produced for us as an individual; our mass entertainment is a business – an entrepreneurial venture rather than a facility or a gift; most adults are aware of the catchphrases, headlines, jingles, logic, rhetoric, and slogans with which media tries to entice us. Yet, this knowledge fails us from partaking, producing, and consuming that culture. No matter how selective we are in our preferences or in exercising of our choices. In the end, we all participate, desire, consume, seek gratification, and at times influence or seek to influence and coerce others partake in same values and ways of life. “We are not necessarily taken in by culture, but we are taken with it. In a strange and complex way, then, we both are and are not the you that culture addresses” (Gedalof, Boulter, Faflak, & McFarlane, July 30 2004, p. 1).

Before we venture further, it may be pertinent to define culture and popular culture, and learn to differentiate the two that is if any such differences exist. Dictionaries in English language offer a wide range of definitions. The general impression that one gathers is that the term culture implies a dynamic force, which has causal and effect relationship with people and their lives. In social terms, culture is “a whole way of life, material, intellectual, and spiritual” (Williams, 1961, p. 18). This definition is said to have roots in Victorian poet and critic Matthew Arnold’s humanistic interpretation of culture as the “pursuit of our total perfection by means of getting to know, on all matters which most concern us, the best which has been thought or said in the world” (Culture and Anarchy, 1960, p. 6). Arnold passionately argues that the uneducated English masses could be molded into conscientious individuals who strive for human perfection through the harmonious cultivation of all of their skills and talents. Culture is “an ideal of human life, a standard of excellence and fullness for the development of our capacities, aesthetic, intellectual, and moral” (Collini, 2004).

Matthew Arnold saw culture, not only as pursuit of perfection, but also as means to arrest the negative impact of fast industrialization of society. According to him, the “machinery” (meaning the mindset) of the modern industrial world fostered obsession with material artifacts. These material icons of the modern industrial society are fast becoming the measure of society’s worth at the cost of its spiritual and intellectual development. Matthew saw culture as “sweetness and light” capable of restoring society’s true values and addressing the malice materialism. However, this seemingly egalitarian concept is hierarchical and elitist in its construct with a top-down approach where only people of taste, ethos, learning, and culture decide what the “best” for the rest is!

The Leavises soon after their marriage in 1929

This strong top-down approach, in matters of culture, of “a very small minority’’ capable of “the discerning appreciation of art and literature,” armed with “the finest human experience of the past,” guardians of the “subtlest and most perishable parts of tradition,” got strong support from literary critic F. R. Leavis. According to Leavis, it is upon this small minority “depend the implicit standards that order the finer living of an age, the sense that this is worth more than that, this rather than that is the direction in which to go, that the centre is here rather than there” (Mass Civilization and Minority Culture, 1930, pp. 1-2). In case of both Leavis and Arnold, culture assumes a static stature, a perishable tradition requiring careful nurturing, something that can only be cherished by preservation and protection. Arnold feels a strong and urgent need to protect culture from anarchy, whereas, Leavis advocated guarding culture against the onslaught of mass civilisation. The tendency to view culture in hierarchical and oppositional frame of references, according to Gedalof et al., “has led to reductive distinction between “high” culture and “low” culture” (July 30 2004, p. 4).

"[T]hey involve surrender, under conditions of hypnotic receptivity, to the cheapest emotional appeals, appeals the more insidious because they are associated with a compellingly vivid illusion of actual life." F. R. Leavis on Hollywood films

F.R. Leavis and his wife Q.D. Leavis, made a life's work of studying the decline of 'culture' (Arnold's definition of it) in the new 20th century. They saw the middle class and the working class as a threat to ‘culture of the elite minority’ or the high culture. They saw machine produced goods, like radio programs, movies, pulp fiction, and popular music as monstrous ugly beasts designed to appeal to the uneducated tastes of the working class. 'Mass culture' was the term used mockingly, an ironic joke to mark the lamentation of like-minded Leavisites. They saw this mass culture as a hollow imitation of true culture. It taught nothing, it conveyed no worthwhile messages, and it had no value. Instead, mass culture worked as a type of drug, lulling its audience into a false perception of reality, deadening them to the true difficulties of life. Q. D. Leavis tirade against lowbrow culture (read as mass or popular culture) is exemplified in Fiction and the Reading Public (1932) when she claims that mass culture “does not merely fail to help” its readers, but “prevents him from normal development…, partly by providing him with a set of habits inimical to mental health” (p. 224).

The Leavis' critique continues even today, television and video games are often referred to as a 'drug', and as compensations for reality. While the Leavis' may have had a genuine concern that the public was reading mediocre material instead of Shakespeare, their appeals were also politically motivated. Their impression of history was that 'culture', that is, the likes of Shakespeare, Beethoven, and Michelangelo, had always been under the control of a minority, namely the aristocracy, who best knew how to mediate the culture to the majority, and more importantly, were in a position to quash culture that did not measure up to elite standards. In this role, the aristocracy properly educated the masses, redeeming society in general from cultural profanity. However, from the eighteenth century forward the power of the elite minority gradually began to diminish. The Leavises, a last bastion of the aristocracy, or at least aristocratic thinking, were pleading with British educators to heed their fears. Society's standard of living was deteriorating under the influence of hollow culture, whose growth could only be slowed by a counter-growth of true culture in the schools.

Today, not many critics subscribe to Highbrow and Lowbrow reductionist definitions of culture. Moreover, there is a school of thought, which reads these distinctions as power struggle or political negotiations. According to Herbert Gans (1974), such distinctions are “about which culture and whose culture should dominate in society… As such, the mass culture critique is an attack by one element of the society against another” (pp. 2-3).

Further, blurring of boundaries between “high” culture and “low” culture, once distinct and rigid, have created a ‘no-man’s’ land where artist like Andy Warhol and Richard Hamilton exist as exponents of the “high” culture. His painting, Campbell's Soup Cans also known as 32 Campbell's Soup Cans, hangs at Museum of Modern Art, Midtown Manhattan in New York City. Then there are objects whose status change over a period. Celluloid from the era of silent movies, “are treated as ‘art’ films today but were originally created for (and consumed by) a mass audience” (Harrington & Bielby, 2001, p. 7). This goes on to prove that ‘culture’ is a complex and constantly evolving fabric of everyday human interaction and experience at any given moment in time and space.

Egyptian Woman Protestor Beaten at Tahrir Square

2012-01-05T09:13:00.065-05:00

I have been deliberating on issues related to ‘Commodification of Women’ and ‘Objectification of Women in Popular Culture.’ It has become imperative that a sharing of thoughts takes place amongst friends so that an appropriate approach or alternative perspective emerges to negotiate this complicated and controversial aspect of human behaviour. The proposal is to post a series of notes and for friends to respond with their take on the issue. These postings are a preliminary exploration of the issue and trait observable in everyday life.

There has been a mediated image of a woman protestor from Cairo (Egypt), which has become a showcase for Arab Spring, courtesy Mass Media. The picture has drawn comments and narratives from all corners of world. However, reacting to most bloggers' response to the Egyptian Security Forces' manhandling the woman, I am constrained to point out the perceived hypocrisy on the part of most Arab commentators.

Why are most Middle East narratives screaming about how armed personnel manhandled a ‘Muslim’ woman (the operative word being Muslim), her ‘blue brazier’ exposed and she robbed of her honour, dignity, and who now has to wear a veil of shame. It seems by implication that it is ok to strip a non-Muslim woman! Further the Egyptian male's media consumption habits indicate that women are viewed as a commodity through advertisements and other popular culture. But when a woman protester finds herself exposed at the hands of security forces, we hear voices crying foul. One can sense the male hypocrisy in apparent social sanctions where woman is a property and in need of protection. Worse still, one can detect the deep-rooted tradition of women’s objectification in a society torn with civil strife.

In fact, Egyptian society has consistently betrayed the sexual objectification of women, be it in their films, dance form or fashion. According to Rebecca Chiao, one of the principal players behind HarassMap, an online crowdsourcing resource that allows women in Egypt, to anonymously report incidents of sexual harassment, "every time you walk out of the house, you are under attack – physically and verbally." Los Angeles Times, dateline November 17, 2011 | 12:34pm, reports how a young Egyptian feminist and political activist, Aliaa Magda Elmahdy, recently startled the Egyptian nation by posting a nude self-portrait on her blog. She explains her action as a scream “against a society of violence, racism, sexism, sexual harassment and hypocrisy” in contemporary pro-puritanical Egypt. According to Mona Eltahawy of The Guardian, dateline Friday 18 November 2011 15.36 GMT, “when a woman is the sum total of her headscarf and hymen – that is, what's on her head and what is between her legs – then nakedness and sex become weapons of political resistance.”

It is pertinent to note that images of women, like children, historically become commodities during war or conflict scenarios in ways that men’s are not. Male patriarchal societies view them as goods to protect or spoils for the victor. War or agitation, like so many other things in life, objectifies women. Thus, the mediated image of the Egyptian pro-democracy protester is an act of enforcing the familiar. We are accustomed to seeing the limp, half-naked bodies of women and girls as a vehicle to market perfumes to cars to shoes. These images, also, form a familiar landscape of popular culture and reports of war, honour killings, and gender targeted crimes. Such a cultural conditioning eggs us to adopt an interpretive frame of reference for such images. We find ourselves adopting a posture and a viewpoint where the protester is a victim and therefore an object of either pity or shame.

In reality, what we see in the picture is a universal response of any security force when dealing with forceful protestors. Protestors, like revolutionaries have no gender but are defined by the cause and driven by a passion for change. Somehow, the choice of adjective used to qualify the protestor has left a bad taste in the mouth. It would be saner to use qualifiers like dedicated, passionate, angry, disgruntled, frustrated, or vociferous as security forces come heavily down on protesting Egyptian Intelligentsia.

Why is the 'sex' or for that matter even the religion of the protestor important - why are the highhanded efforts of the Egyptian army not the centre of discussion in this context? The two images on the right show security forces elsewhere on the globe forcefully handling protesters. Yet we do not hear about the need to protect the honour of these violated men. Social conditioning does not permit members of society to view men as commodities, therefore it is considered manly if you came back scarred from a war. But for a woman, these are scars of shame. The Burqa (or Abaya) is a symbol of women’s modesty; therefore, the protestor’s gender becomes the focal point as does the woman’s subservient role in a conservative male dominated society. One hears disturbing voices of young knights wanting to embark on a quest like modern day Don Quixotes to “retrieve” her “honour.” This mind-set reinforces the concept of women as property, which men need to constantly guard and goods that serve the victor as trophies of war.

Modesty and Honour are not problems in themselves! Many women may choose the veil for reasons they find meaningful and significant. Modesty as defined by the veil, becomes a serious problem only if it serves as an instrument to continuously and obsessively focus on women as sex. Modesty, as some Taliban, Wahabi and Salafi voices argue, does not permit women to go out in the streets rubbing shoulders with men as workers and entrepreneurs. Women, as per conservative voices, have no business to be out and protesting! Well, they are out protesting because they are equal in suffering; in denial of rights to express and exercise choice, they are equal in expressing their desire for change and removal of an oppressive martial regime! Oppressors have no gender; they are the powerful elite who have everything to lose in any popular revolution!

The image assumes its true potency and import once we liberate the ensuing narrative of its misogynistic fetters. Today women are agents in conflict and agents of change. We see in the picture, a saga of an everyday protestor facing the wrath of security instruments of an oppressive regime. We see no flesh, no gender, no shame, but an activist of a popular democratic movement. We see a warrior! Moreover, it is difficult not to see the photograph as a social document. It does raise some questions, and it speaks volumes… Let us not go to battle for her. Why not go to battle with her!

Reacting to Chikini Chameli – the official Song on Youtube by Karan Johar producer/director of Agneepath [film]

2011-12-16T23:58:00.000-05:00

Recently, I came across a link to a song sequence, Chikni Chameli, from a yet to be released film, Agneepath, by the producer/director, Karan Johar. Suspecting a rich fare of music and dance lurking in store a click of the mouse away, my fingers did the salsa. What unfolded was abhorrent and repulsive.

Firstly, the title of the song track reeks of overt sexual tones. ‘Chikni,’ a word both in Hindustani and in Urdu language, is an adjective and feminine gender. The classical meaning is greasy or slippery as in loamy soil after rain. However, the slang or vulgarised usage means appealing, attractive, desirable, sleek, sexy, shiny, showy, and slick apart from other regional variations. Nevertheless, it is not very complimentary to call a woman ‘chikini.’ It is a euphemism for carnal desirability – an object of sexual consumption. Another equally important implied reference is to women of fair or white skin. Chameli, a Hindi equivalent of Yasmin in Arabic, is a white jasmine flower known for its strong exotic fragrance in many cultures across the world. ‘Chameli,’ though not very popular, is also a name for girls in rural & suburban belts of the northern stretches or the Indo-Gangetic plains of the Indian subcontinent. The combination of ‘Chikni’ (adjective) with ‘Chameli’ (proper noun) has unambiguous negative connotation, the phrase implies a fair coloured seductress or a white skinned temptress who exists as an object of sexual gratification for the alpha male. In fact, sub-urban hoodlums while eve teasing resort to calling names like ‘Chameli,’ to passing girls. Many a work of popular culture portrays prostitutes as dramatis personae named Chameli. Therefore, the phrase ‘Chikni Chameli’ has, understandably so, negative social sanctions.

Secondly, the visual design, the mise-en-scène of the song, has a white skinned nubile woman skimpily clad in warm (yellow, reddish pink, and orange set of costumes) tones offset against a group of dark skinned bunch of young gun and laathi (bamboo-sticks) wielding clean shaven dacoits. The evening ambience, glow from the lanterns, and the dark green bush-shirts and whitish loin clothes of the dacoits function as a foil to the projected sexuality, foxiness, and implied physical vulnerability of the fair maiden - Katrina Kaif. In an another sequence elsewhere in the same song, Katrina Kaif swings from a chandelier above a horde of dark sex starved human wolves lusting to sink their teeth into the exposed dangling meat revealed through her underskirt, as implied by the camera angle. The visual metaphor of heat & fire for lust and youth comes into play when Katrina lights a matchstick by running it across her arm before lighting a dacoit’s beedi (local Indian cigarillo made from leaf and cut tobacco). It, also, serves as a signal to the stubble sporting, youthful, muscular male protagonist who is busy playing hard to get or is unmoved by the wiles of the gustily oscillating fair sex. Another cinematic metaphor reinforces the idea of women as objects of consumption, consumption as in alcohol and perhaps a possible subsequent headache. Kaitrina Kaif is seen vibrating like tin foil with out-stretched arms holding a bottle of alcohol in each hand as she furtively issues an invitation to a binge of indulgence and drink from the ‘bottle of youthful consummation.’ If we were to map the intra & extra diegetic gaze through the available version of the music video, most visuals from the song sequence follow a predictable pattern. Choreography is crass and unsophisticated, betraying bad taste. High contrast lighting ratio attempts to play the spasmodic danseuse in limelight and compliments her limited assets. In other words, it is Sheela ki Javani all over again. Karan Johar either lacks enough visual sense to conjure up the erotic and aesthetically pleasing text or is just a crude holder of the typical male gaze.

Lastly, the lyrics, too, are crass, bizarre, and vulgar. I will try to translate keeping the spirit, mood, and intention rather than transliterate the words. The opening stanza reads as follows -

(line 01)           Bichhoo mere naina badi zehereeli ankh maare
(line 02)           Kamsin kamariya saali ik thumke se lakh maare
(line 03)           Note hazaaron ke, khulle chhutta karaane aayi
(line 04)           Husn ki teeli se beedi chillam jalaane aayi
(line 05)           Aayi chikni chameli chhup ke akeli pawwa chadha ke aayi
(line 06)           Aayi chikni chameli chhup ke akeli pawwa chadha ke aayi..

(Translation to lines 01 to 06)

My scorpion eyes sting with poison laden wink...

This be-witching slender waist kills thousand with single swing,
I have come to en-cash thousand currency bills, [no idea what it means]
I light passion with the flame of my beauty… [Ignite male passion with her wanton beauty]
The desirable Chameli has come alone and on the sly, drunk on a quart of alcohol... [Implying that she has abandoned her inhibitions]
The desirable Chameli has come alone and on the sly, drunk on a quart of alcohol...

(line 07)           Jungle mein aaj mangal karungi
(line 08)           Bhookhe sheron se khelungi main
(line 09)           Makkhan jaisi hatheli pe angaare le lungi main
(line 10)           Haaye! gehre paani ki machhli hoon Raja
(line 11)           Ghaat Ghaat dariya mein ghoomi hoon main
(line 12)           Teri nazron ki lehron se haar ke doobi hoon main

(Translation to lines 07 to 12)

I will revel in gay abandon in the jungle
I will play with [sex] hungry tigers,
I will enslave the fiery embers [of passion & desire] on my smooth and soft palms,
Oh! I am a fish of deep waters, oh my dear,
I have swum many a river
Nevertheless, I cannot safely wade through the swirling depth of your eyes…

(line 13)           Hoye.. jaanleva jalwa hai
(line 14)           Dekhne mein halwa hai
(line 15)           Pyaar se paros doongi toot le zaraa
(line 16)           Yeh toh trailer hai poori filam dikhane aayi
(line 17)           Husn ki teeli se beedi-chilam jalaane aayi

(Translation to lines 13 to 17)

Oh, your charisma and charm is a killer,

You look like tasty dish,
My love will consume you, a piece at a time...
this is an epilogue to the events yet to unfold, let me show you the future…
I will light passion with the flame of my beauty… [ignite male passion with her wanton beauty]

(line 18)           aayi chikni chameli chhup ke akeli pavva chadha ke aayi
(line 19)           ayi chikni chameli chhup ke akeli pauua chadha ke aayi…
(line 20)           Banjar basti mein aayi hai masti
(line 21)           Aisa namkeen chehra tera
(line 22)           Meri neeyat pe chadhke chhoote na hai rang gehra tera
(line 23)           Joban ye mera crajy hai raja
(line 24)           Saare pardo ko kaatungi main
(line 25)           Shaamein meri akeli hain aaja sang tere baatungi main
(line 26)           Haaye! baaton mein ishaara hai
(line 27)           Jisme khel saara hai
(line 28)           Tod ke tijoriyon ko loot le zara
(line 29)           Choom ke zakhmo pe thoda malham lagaane aayi
(line 30)           Husn ki teeli se beedi chillam jalaane aayi

(Translation to lines 18 to lines 30)

The desirable Chameli has come alone and on the sly, drunk on a quart of alcohol...
The desirable Chameli has come alone and on the sly, drunk on a quart of alcohol...
the dry, barren, and drab community is blessed with joy & festivity,
radiance of your face...
engulfs my body in eternal grace…
my youth is brazen, O dear, [knows no bounds]
I'll lift all the veils, for I have no fear [transcend all boundaries]
come, share my lonely evenings,
in my words, you will find certain meanings,
There is ecstasy in this game...
Break open the lock for there is something to gain [wealth of my body]
I will caress and administer balm of my kisses to your wounds [wounds of violent passion]...

(line 31)           aayi chikni.... aayi.
(line 32)           Aayi chikni chameli chhup ke akeli pawwa chadha ke aayi
(line 33)           Aayi chikni chameli chhup ke akeli pawwa chadha ke aayi..

(Translation to lines 18 to lines 30)

Here comes the desirable…here she comes
The desirable Chameli has come alone and on the sly, drunk on a quart of alcohol...
The desirable Chameli has come alone and on the sly, drunk on a quart of alcohol...

In short, the song, which is a teaser to the film, primarily serves to titillate carnal instincts of the audience. It is yet another example of a pathetic display of ‘objectification of women’ in traditional Hindi films from Bollywood, India. Song sequences, in particular, have become show windows catering to the baser needs of the audience from male designers of cultural text in a largely patriarchal society. Popular films tend to present men as active, controlling subjects and treat women as passive objects of desire. Men do the looking; women are there to be looked at! The cinematic codes of popular films ‘are obsessively subordinated to the neurotic needs of the male ego,’ says Laura Mulvey[ i].Traditional films, Mulvey argues, do not allow women to be ‘desiring’ sexual subjects in their own right. Such films objectify women in relation to ‘the controlling male gaze’ (Mulvey 1992, 33), presenting ‘woman as image’ (or ‘spectacle’) and man as ‘bearer of the look’ (ibid., 27). Since, audience identifies with the male protagonist; they too are holders of this gaze. According to Mulvey, this ‘Male Gaze’ is responsible for overvaluation of the female image and to the cult of the female movie star – a logic that can help explain the recent rise in status and role of ‘item girl’ or ‘item number’ in Bollywood.

Femininity is a social construct, and thus the Lacanian statement that "Woman is a symptom of man." Some readers may argue that Katrina Kaif is not a passive player in the politics of sex. Is she not only educated and in more than one way - liberated, and a professional film artist by her free will. She [Kaif] exercised ‘choice’ by accepting a clearly defined screen role and, as well as, mutually agreeable professional fee towards the same. She by agreeing to be a catalyst in ‘manufacturing desire,’ and by her direct gaze both engages and deliberately challenges the voyeuristic audience, thereby, exercising her political power over her male audience – power that extends beyond the realm of the cinema screen into the everyday arena of life . Maybe, she draws satisfaction in this politics of power play by knowing how the spectator gaze (both voyeuristic and fetishistic) operates and that she can control and direct the erotic instinct, which focuses on the look alone. However, I have some questions of my own – how does the female audience view Katrina Kaif on screen? Do they actively gaze upon Hrithik Roshan (the male protagonist) in the film? Is there a guilt factor when women voyeuristically gaze upon the male protagonist?

The primary purpose of this uninvited splash of discursive narrative is to think critically about the powerful and prevalent cultural texts that surround us in our daily lives, and encourage working towards a better understanding of what our culture is saying to us through the cultural texts we consume. It is very important that we negotiate meaning about what our cultural texts say about us as a society. Nevertheless (on a lighter note), another tragedy ensues from the fact that Katrina Kaif is a strange spasmodic gyrator with little pretentions to dancing.

Endnote:

[1]Mulvey, Laura ([1975] 1992): ‘Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema’. In Caughieet al. (Eds.), op. cit., pp. 22-34. Also published in: Mulvey 1989; Mast et al. (Eds.) (1992), op. cit., pp.746-57; abridged version in Bennett et al. (Eds.) (1981), op. cit., pp. 206-15; originally published in Screen 16(3): 6-18

Should "Radio stations should stop the music at 11am on Remembrance Day..."

2011-11-07T18:39:00.010-05:00

War Monument in Niagara Falls, Canada.

In response to “Radio stations should stop the music at 11am on Remembrance Day out of respect for the vets http://kowchmedia.com/blogs/on-the-kowch.”

Steve Kowch, Canada's Online radio mentor to talk show hosts, anchors, reporters and tutor to radio and J-students at kowchmedia.com, recently proposed, “Radio stations should stop the music at 11am on Remembrance Day to honour our veterans.” It is difficult not to agree with what he says. All nations and societies should honour their men in uniforms, leaders, and the war dead. I am personally aware of organizations and institutions that solemnly observe a moment of silence, honouring the brave. Nevertheless, it is a little difficult to envisage a scenario where the entire ‘Commonwealth’ falls silent to honour the dead. We cannot enforce, forcibly, people to abide by such norms.

Therefore, it is a little difficult to agree with the proposal though I appreciate the sentiment! I am afraid that it may transform into a hollow ritualistic gesture meaning nothing. Remembrance Day, minus the radio issue, will always leave our eyes moist and throats lumpy. Nevertheless, should we not be doing something more concrete for the members of our armed forces and their families?

Moving on, do remember, many a time a simple, noble and well intentioned gesture may morph into a signifier of a dangerous and chauvinistic mind-set. Today we stop music on radio stations to honour the war dead; tomorrow we force clubs and bars to shut down, and the day after…only God knows!

Steve Kwoch, like any patriot with a reasonable dose of emotion, goes on to say that “it's hard to believe that an industry like the radio benefiting from a freedom of expression our veterans died to preserve can be so ungrateful on the one day of the year everyone else - including listeners - pause to remember.” Despite his well-intentioned exclamation, there lurks the danger of voicing what many media professionals do, “merely reflect the world as powerful groups wish it to be perceived.” I see an inadvertent hint of bias mobilisation and internalised preconception.

The whole idea, by implication, of the Allied forces representing the forces of everything good and noble and the Axis powers as regimes of evil, is a little difficult to digest. What does “freedom of expression” have to do with the World Wars, the Korean War, the Cambodian War, the Vietnam War, and Intervention in Nicaragua, Brazil, Chile & the Philippines. Or, what does “democracy” have to do with the support for regimes in Guatemala, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain & Israel. It is a simple case of "greed & self before the humanity" factor.

The so called ‘Great Wars’ were fought over a sharing of the pie – the colonial hegemony and accruing profits for industrial (western) societies through an overt and systematic exploitation of resources in Africa & Asia. Irrespective of the outcome of the Great Wars, the winning side would have carved a similar role for themselves, as have the present world powers. The Third World and the developing World would have continued to pay the same price, the dictatorial regimes would have plagued the poor and the oppressed aided and abetted by the winners of the Great Wars; and thirst for “the black gold” and other resources would have yielded similar results. It is time we learnt to read history without the baggage and the biases of the victor.

On a different note but on the same subject, the establishment, with the manufacturing consent of its established industrial order, uses events like Remembrance Day for a subtle drumming up of war-jingoism or whipping up of a threat perception of a hidden enemy or ‘war against terror’ or ‘the clash of civilisations’ white wash for mass consumption. A serving of a stiff swig of sentimentality through stylized night vigils carried out across the Commonwealth marks the ‘event’.

Or, is it that the Flanders poppy we wear, perhaps, is a symbol of our collective guilt for failing to do enough for ‘the brave but unsuspecting cannon fodder,’ and our failure to hold the ruling elite responsible for their greed, selfish pursuits and internecine policies that perpetuate & precipitate all conflicts & wars like they did - the Great Wars.

Ironically, our well-intentioned gestures of “lest we forget” serve a clinical cathartic device employed by the ruling few. The dominant elite (government) through the Remembrance Day not only deploys a pressure-valve technique but uses it as a diversion tactic, lest we discover that, we, the commoners, face the horrors of war and the miseries of failed free-market oriented capitalist policies because of the ruling elites’ refusal to change and mend their ways. That is why the ruling class fixes our premises of discourse and interpretation through the manipulation of the media. This process appears so natural and seamlessly smooth that most media professionals, like Steve Kwoch, despite all the integrity and good intentions find themselves convinced of the fact that it is they, who choose and interpret issues and news for the public. Further, it is used to enforce a state of collective amnesia, lest we remember that we possess the power, the power to change, and the power to undo the hegemonic exploitative structures & devices of the elites, the world over. We need no socialists or democrats to set our world in order – just common sense and insight!

The issue of ‘radio-silence,’ pun intended, is a complex multi-dimensional issue with far reaching consequences. On the surface, it is all about remembrance and honouring the war dead. On another level, it is about taking concrete steps to rehabilitate of our war veterans as socially healthy and productive members of civil society. On a different plane, it is about how governments carry out campaigns of dis-information to execute a self-serving agenda. It is about creation of myths and alternative truths to justify actions of the ruling elite. It is, also, a saga of silencing of the masses by manipulating information through media and established industrial order. It is like the Opium Wars where the governments actively encourage a state of lotus eating existence. This regulated diet, consumption of part-truth part-fabrication and often-fallacious information, is to prevent the public, the masses, from questioning the true intent or the agenda setting by the elites. The issue is about a “guided market system,” with normative guidance provided by the ruling class – i.e. the government, corporate community leaders, higher echelons of media industry, and few selected & screened individuals or/and pressure groups.

Social Media and Construction of Alternate Truths

2011-10-27T10:56:00.000-04:00

Every year, just as the Indian festival of Lights, Deepawali, gets over, a viral composite image of a satellite picture by NASA ritualistically starts making the rounds on social media. If we see the lights and concentration of colour then Deepawali seems to be a major festival in parts of Afghanistan (Hindu-Kush region), Chinese Occupied Kashmir (Aksai Chin), Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan (Indus Basin), Pakistan Occupied Kashmir (Azad Kashmir), Sri Lanka, and all across India (from Kashmir to the Andaman) apart from regional deviance or predilection for different colours. Further, for the alleged Diwali light spots to be burning so bright, megatons of magnesium, sulphur, and phosphorous (to say the least) would have been burnt and pollution equivalent to the annual output from America and China would have risen from the Indian sub-continent, in a single night, wreaking a major environmental catastrophe.

As early as in 2009, a watertight case sealed the fate for the photograph christened ‘How INDIA Looked on Diwali Night from the Sky.’ The image was contextually a ‘fake.’ The photograph is a NASA satellite composite put together from many different images taken at different times.

The original caption to the alleged photograph of How INDIA Looked on Diwali Night from the Sky reads:

“India at night, satellite view. This image is a composite showing the change in illumination over India from 1992-2003. Satellite data from 2003 is coloured red, 1998 is coloured green and 1992 is blue. The three data sets are composited to form the image. Night-time lights on the map that are white are lights that were present throughout the entire period. Areas that are marked by red have only appeared in 2003. Areas coloured green and blue were only present in 1998 and 1992 respectively but are no longer visible. This image was created by the Defence Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP), National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration, USA.”

To review the composite satellite image and the caption readers may visit http://www.sciencephoto.com/media/160012/view. Alternatively, visit http://www.sciencephotogallery.co.uk/india_at_night_satellite_image/print/1705155.html.

The photograph or the visual, however, is not important but the idea behind it, which has serious ramifications. The construction and interpolation of an alternative truth and negotiation of meaning by the working class is of serious concern. It is possible to construct alternate truths and let the media (social media in this case) do the rest. Often, behaviour psychologists, agents of the ruling elites, and online advertisers make use of such tactics. This technique is not limited to visual communication; in fact, it can help percolate any information requiring a simple contagion to diffuse as truth!

This incident, as have other countless examples, demonstrates the efficacy of any form of media (especially social media) as a tool to build convincing alternative truths and how interested parties (vested interests) can use this aspect as a semi-politico media complex to re-construct the (imaginary and euphoric) notion of ‘nation,’ specially amongst the Indian diaspora. Further, such social constructs of alternative truths always help the impoverished and denied masses with a dose of opiated nationalism and a false sense of progressive identity. What gives credence to the alternative truths on social media are their supposed inherent democratic credentials. True, the democratic potential of media increases the working classes’ access to information, which may lead to a functionally better-informed work force. However, at the same time, it leads to issues of information overload and practices of disinformation (through corporate and governmental malfeasance) generally with the complicity of the favoured elite or their agents. Both, information overload and practices of disinformation (propaganda) result in re-enforcement of prevalent and socially accepted norms and behaviour, i.e. status quo.

This construction of an alternative truth suits the agenda of the ruling elite. In fact, the elite class aids and abets most constructions of alternative truths. In some instances, it directly plants and grafts such constructs, thereby, curtailing and regulating the working class and their hopes & aspirations, while sanitising the social environs of any signs of class struggle or dissent - real or perceived. Any well-informed consumer of the internet knows that in the world of social media there is hardly a website not spiced with little icons encouraging a consumer to share, like, comment, publish, and so on. Just a few pixels square, these icons are signifiers of the potent tools for influencing people’s lives. They strongly influence and in some instances govern the way the working class generates and consumes all forms of data. It is important to understand that “the instruments of social media are well suited to making the existing social order more efficient. They are not a natural enemy of the status quo.” (Gladwell, 2010) Another point that is noteworthy, is that there are 800 million active Facebook users (Facebook, 2011), 100 million active tweeters (Twitter, 2011), over 4 billion cellular phone subscribers by late 2008 (International Telecommunication Union (ITU), 2008) and these people actively consume and gratify themselves with new technology media products & services. The data available to an everyday consumer is phenomenal and beyond her/his capability and ability to process and negotiate meaning. Indeed, the age of Web 2.0 is the age of ‘communication overload’. This information overload suits the favoured governing elite of the third world, when in reality these selected few are by-products of the process of ‘manufacturing consent’ (Herman & Chomsky, 1988), which replaced the Era of Colonial Empires. The super elites, the custodians of post-colonial hegemony, sit smugly enthroned in the western/developed world, manipulating, as biased gatekeepers, all data (information) to engage in subversion of universal rights and aspirations by the engineering of consent. Ironically, the ruling elite subscribe to manufacturing consent when dealing with their own working class and media. It is, therefore, of little surprise that technology, technological innovations, and media ownership should be concentrated in the hands of the few. In fact, all key industrial and production units in any society are always owned by the watchdog elite (agents of the ruling elite - second tier in the hegemony of manufacturing consent), though not necessarily by the ruling elites themselves (barring in the third world).

So, coming back to the photograph, if everyone knows that the image is a ‘fake’ (in the Diwali context), then, why should this image virally surface every year? What is in the image that makes it so endearing to Indians and people of Indian origin? Does the caption, ‘How INDIA Looked on Diwali Night from the Sky,’ fulfill any of J. L. Austin’s ‘felicity conditions’ required of some ‘performative utterances’? Alternatively, is this image, as Émile Durkheim would have suggested, a visual symbol acting as a catalyst to achieve ‘collective effervescence,’ which in the eyes of some interested party/s serves to help unify Indian (read Hindu) society? Is there an ulterior motive, as was in the case of Babri Masjid/Ram Janam Bhoomi movement… is some individual or a politico-religious entity attempting to gauge public opinion or seek public (read majority’s) approval? Any person or organization depends, according to E. L. Bernays, “ultimately on public approval, and is therefore faced with the problem of engineering the public’s consent to a program or goal…When the public is convinced of the soundness of an idea, it will proceed to action.” (Bernays, 1947, 114) However, it may still early and the data insufficient and inadequate for any scientific/rational inference…or, is it?

Bibliography

Austin, J L. How to Do Things with Words. Ed. J O Urmson and Marina Sbisà. 2nd. Harvard University Press, 1975..

Bernays, Edward L. "The Engineering of Consent." The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 250.1 (1947): 113-120.

Durkheim, Emile. The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. Oxford: Oxford Paperbacks, 2008.

"Facebook: Press: Statistics." 27 October 2011. Facebook. 27 October 2011. .

Gladwell, Malcolm. Small Change: Why the revolution will not be tweeted. 27 September 2010. web page. 6 May 2020. .

Herman, Edward S and Noam Chomsky. Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media. New York: Pantheon Books, a division of Random House, Inc., 1988.

International Telecommunication Union (ITU). (2008, September 25). Press Release: Worldwide mobile cellular subscribers to reach 4 billion mark late 2008. (http://www.itu.int/newsroom/press_releases/2008/29.html, Editor) Retrieved October 27, 2011, from International Telecommunication Union: http://www.itu.int/newsroom/press_releases/2008/29.html

Twitter. (2011, October 27). Basics: What is Twitter. Retrieved October 27, 2011, from Twitter: http://business.twitter.com/basics/what-is-twitter/

Growing Older is Mandatory. Growing Up is Optional

2011-10-21T21:52:00.000-04:00

There is always a chance that some of the post one may get courtesy social media contain wonderful story worth contemplation. This is the text as received:

"The first day of school our professor introduced himself and challenged us to get to know someone we didn't already know. I stood up to look around when a gentle hand touched my shoulder. I turned around to find a wrinkled, little old lady beaming up at me with a smile that lit up her entire being.

She said, "Hi handsome. My name is Rose. I'm eighty-seven years old. Can I give you a hug?" I laughed and enthusiastically responded, "Of course you may!" and she gave me a giant squeeze. "Why are you in college at such a young, innocent age?" I asked. She jokingly replied, "I'm here to meet a rich husband, get married, and have a couple of kids..."

"No seriously," I asked. I was curious what may have motivated her to be taking on this challenge at her age. "I always dreamed of having a college education and now I'm getting one!" she told me.

After class we walked to the student union building and shared a chocolate milkshake. We became instant friends. Every day for the next three months we would leave class together and talk nonstop. I was always mesmerized listening to this "time machine" as she shared her wisdom and experience with me.

Over the course of the year, Rose became a campus icon and she easily made friends wherever she went. She loved to dress up and she reveled in the attention bestowed upon her from the other students. She was living it up.

At the end of the semester we invited Rose to speak at our football banquet. I'll never forget what she taught us. She was introduced and stepped up to the podium. As she began to deliver her prepared speech, she dropped her three by five cards on the floor. Frustrated and a little embarrassed she leaned into the microphone and simply said, "I'm sorry I'm so jittery. I gave up beer for Lent and this whiskey is killing me! I'll never get my speech back in order so let me just tell you what I know."

As we laughed, she cleared her throat and began, "We do not stop playing because we are old; we grow old because we stop playing.

There are only four secrets to staying young, being happy, and achieving success. You have to laugh and find humor every day. You've got to have a dream. When you lose your dreams, you die. We have so many people walking around who are dead and don't even know it!

There is a huge difference between growing older and growing up. If you are nineteen years old and lie in bed for one full year and don't do one productive thing, you will turn twenty years old. If I am eighty -seven years old and stay in bed for a year and never do anything I will turn eighty-eight.

Anybody can grow older. That doesn't take any talent or ability. The idea is to grow up by always finding opportunity in change. Have no regrets. The elderly usually doesn’t have regrets for what we did, but rather for things we did not do. The only people who fear death are those with regrets."

She concluded her speech by courageously singing "The Rose." She challenged each of us to study the lyrics and live them out in our daily lives. At the year's end Rose finished the college degree she had begun all those years ago.

One week after graduation Rose died peacefully in her sleep. Over two thousand college students attended her funeral in tribute to the wonderful woman who taught by example that it's never too late to be all you can possibly be.

When you finish reading this, please share this peaceful word of advice, people will really enjoy it!

These words have been passed along in loving memory of ROSE.

Remember, growing older is mandatory. Growing up is optional. We make a Living by what we get, we make a Life by what we give.

God promises a safe landing, not a calm passage. If God brings you to it, He will bring you through it.

"Good friends are like stars ... You don't always see them, but you know they are always there."

Ibn Rushd (Averroës), 1126-1198

2011-10-12T10:59:00.000-04:00

A chance ‘encounter’ with a write-up on Ibn Rushid, a philosopher remains my only exposure to his thoughts and writings. Please be warned that the article makes no claims of academic or theological authority on Ibn Rushd, Islam, and the Holy Book – The Quran.

Ibn Rushd (Averroës) (1126-1198) was one of the most important Islamic philosophers. His writing tend to focus on medicine and jurisprudence, but he is best known for his work on the philosophy of Aristotle. The excerpt, which follows, is from one of his best-known works. Written around 1190, he attempts to demonstrate that the study of philosophy is compatible with Islam.

The present text is from Ibn Rushd: On the Harmony of Religions and Philosophy, in Arabic Kitab fasl al-maqal, with its appendix (Damina). Appended is an extract from Kitab al-kashf`an manahij al-adilla, published and translated as: Averröes, The Philosophy and Theology of Averroes, trans. Mohammed Jamil-al-Rahman (Baroda: A. G. Widgery, 1921), pp. 14-19.

…All that is wanted in an enquiry into philosophical reasoning has already been perfectly examined by the Ancients. All that is required of us is that we should go back to their books and see what they have said in this connection. If all that they say be true, we should accept it and if there be something wrong, we should be warned by it. Thus, when we have finished this kind of research we shall have acquired instruments by which we can observe the universe, and consider its general character. For so long as one does not know its general character one cannot know the created, and so long as he does not know the created, he cannot know its nature.

All things have been made and created. This is quite clear in itself, in the case of animals and plants, as God has said, "Verily the idols which you invoke, beside God, can never create a single fly, though they may all assemble for that purpose" [Qur'an 22.72]. We see an inorganic substance and then there is life in it. Therefore, we know (for certain) that there is an inventor and bestower of life, and He is God. Of the heavens, we know by their movements, which never become slackened, that they work for our benefit by divine solicitude, and are subordinate to our welfare. Such an appointed and subordinate object is always created for some purpose. The second principle is that for every created thing there is a creator. So it is right to say from the two foregoing principles that for every existent thing there is an inventor. There are many arguments, according to the number of the created things, which can be advanced to prove this premise. Thus, it is necessary for one who wants to know God, as He ought to be known to acquaint himself with the essence of things, so that he may get information about the creation of all things. For who cannot understand the real substance and purpose of a thing, cannot understand the minor meaning of its creation. It is to this that God refers in the following verse "Or do they not contemplate the heaven and the earth, and the things which God has created?" [Qur'an 7.184]. And so, a man who would follow the purpose of philosophy in investigating the existence of things, that is, would try to know the cause which led to its creation, and the purpose of it would know the argument of kindness most perfectly. These two arguments are those adopted by Law.

The verses of the Qur'an leading to a knowledge of the existence of God are dependent only on the two foregoing arguments. It will be quite clear to anyone who will examine closely the verses, which occur in the Divine Book in this connection. These, when investigated, will be found to be of three kinds: either they are verses showing the "arguments of kindness," or those mentioning the "arguments of creation,” or those which include both the kinds of arguments. The following verses may be taken as illustrating the argument of kindness. "Have we not made the earth for a bed, and the mountains for stakes to find the same? And have we not created you of two sexes; and appointed your sleep for rest; and made the night a garment to cover you; and destined the day to the gaining of your livelihood and built over you seven solid heavens; and placed therein a burning lamp? And do we not send down from the clouds pressing forth rain, water pouring down in abundance, that we may thereby produce corn, and herbs, and gardens planted thick with trees?" [Qur'an 77.6-16] and, "Blessed be He Who has placed the twelve signs in the heavens; has placed therein a lamp by day, and the moon which shines by night" [Qur'an 25.62] and again, "Let man consider his food" [Qur'an 80.24].

The following verses refer to the argument of invention, "Let man consider, therefore of what he is created. He is created of the seed poured forth, issuing from the loins, and the breast bones" [Qur'an 86.6]; and, "Do they not consider the camels, how they are created; the heaven, how it is raised; the mountains, how they are fixed; the earth how it is extended" [Qur'an 88.17]; and again "O man, a parable is propounded unto you; wherefore hearken unto it. Verily the idols which they invoke, besides God, can never create a single fly, though they may all assemble for the purpose" [Qur'an 22.72]. Then we may point to the story of Abraham, referred to in the following verse, "I direct my face unto Him Who has created heaven and earth; I am orthodox, and not of the idolaters" [Qur'an 6.79]. There may be quoted many verses referring to this argument. The verses comprising both the arguments are also many, for instance, "O men, of Mecca, serve your Lord, Who has created you, and those who have been before you: peradventure you will fear Him; Who has spread the earth as a bed for you, and the heaven as a covering, and has caused water to descend from heaven, and thereby produced fruits for your sustenance. Set not up, therefore, any equals unto God, against your own knowledge [Qur'an 2.19]. His words, "Who has created you, and those who have been before you," lead us to the argument of creation; while the words, "who has spread the earth" refer to the argument of divine solicitude for man. Of this kind also are the following verses of the Qur'an, "One sign of the resurrection unto them is the dead earth; We quicken the same by rain, and produce there from various sorts of grain, of which they eat" [Qur'an 36.32]; and, "Now in the creation of heaven and earth, and the vicissitudes of night and day are signs unto those who are endowed with understanding, who remember God standing, and sitting, and lying on their sides; and meditate on the creation of heaven and earth, saying O Lord, far be it from You, therefore deliver us from the torment of hellfire" [Qur'an 3.188]. Many verses of this kind comprise both the kinds of arguments.

This method is the right path by which God has invited men to a knowledge of His existence, and informed them of it through the intelligence which He has implanted in their nature. The following verse refers to this fixed and innate nature of man, "And when the Lord drew forth their posterity from the loins of the sons of Adam, and took them witness against themselves, Am I not your Lord? They answered, Yes, we do bear witness" [Qur'an 7.171]. So it is incumbent for one who intends to obey God, and follow the injunction of His Prophet, that he should adopt this method, thus making himself one of those learned men who bear witness to the divinity of God, with His own witness, and that of His angels, as He says, "God has borne witness, that there is no God but He, and the angels, and those who are endowed with wisdom profess the same; who execute righteousness; there is no God but He; the Mighty, the Wise" [Qur'an 3.16]. Among the arguments for both of themselves is the praise which God refers to in the following verse, "Neither is there anything which does not celebrate his praise; but you understand not their celebration thereof" [Qur'an 17.46].

Issues and Challenges of Television Advertising: Empowering the Future Generation through Education

2011-09-11T20:32:00.000-04:00

INTRODUCTION

Advertising, a persuasive venture, is a complex phenomenon. It is today an intrinsic part of society, culture, history, and the economy — defying any simple or single definition. Some aspects of it are universal, while others are culturally specific. It is personal salesmanship metamorphosed into mediated communication. Most academicians agree that it sometimes provides new information, often cajoles, and always attempts to persuade. In addition to selling messages, advertising encodes cultural values and social ideals. Further, depending on one’s point of view, it is a positive or negative force in society and the economy.

In general, there are two ways that persuasion occurs, either through a rational, analytical process or through an instinctive, reactive process. The key features of the rational process include active listening, active thinking, focusing on the issue at hand, weighing the pros and cons, and reason and logic which dominate the process. In contrast, the key features of the instinctive, reactive persuasion process include passive listening, not thinking at all, not focused on the issue at hand, not analysing the arguments, and instinctive and mindless reactions dominate.

Raymond Williams (1997) recognized the historical role of advertising as a means of getting attention and providing information, which is the essence of James Laver's definition (De Vries, 1968, p. 6). Raymond concentrates on looking at advertising as a modern institution and a profession that evolved around 1800s in Britain and elsewhere, its commercial function, and its persuasive power.

In economics, there are two contradictory approaches to the role of advertising in the economy. One school of thought believes that advertising is a source of information for consumers who can use it to make better-informed decisions in the market place. This school of thought believes that advertising increases market efficiency by providing information about alternatives (Mitra & Lynch, 1995).

The alternate school of thought was made popular by Harvard economists such as John K. Galbraith. Galbraith, in his book, The Affluent Society, stated that advertising is manipulating the public by creating artificial needs and wants (Galbraith, 1958). Economists catering to this school of thought argue that advertising adds to cost, encourages consumers to perceive new wants and desires, and redirects the distribution of their scarce resources to acquire highly advertised products. Other disciplines too have their own priorities, for instance, Psychology emphasizes persuasion, Political Science - regulation, Sociology and Cultural Studies stress on gender, race, and class while Anthropology is concerned mainly with culture. Consumer myths, marketplace mythology, and mythmaking are central concepts used by advertising academicians and advertising professionals today. They define advertising as a form of mythmaking (Randazzo, 1993).

To sum up, Advertising is about desires, aspirations, and values. It identifies them, describes them, and offers satisfaction through the purchase and consumption of consumer goods. But, whose are the desires, aspirations, and values that advertising talks about? This definition of advertising suggests that the core values in most advertising copy are those of the middle class, or those who would aspire to be a part of it (Deresiewicz, 1998). Advertisers use advertisements for various purposes with diverse possible effects. However, the core motivating factor for the producer-manufacturer-corporate establishment to use this mode on consumers is the persuasive power of the medium.

TELEVISION ADVERTISING

The term ‘Television’ has come to refer to all aspects of television programming and transmission as well. The medium, similar to any contemporary means of communication, acts as a link in the living rooms - like a magical bridge opened to the world. More than anything however, Television, perhaps is the most influential form of media as a primary storyteller (Oulette, 1997). According to George Gerbner, stories teach us ways of thinking about the world that stay with us for a lifetime. Storytelling has taken different forms throughout history; however, with the advent of the electronic revolution and the introduction of the electronic storyteller the process of storytelling and television has changed, and thereby the process of enculturation (Jhally, 1997).

CHILDREN’S EXPOSURE TO TELEVISION ADVERTISING

Children’s exposure to television advertising is often conceptualized as a simple by-product of their time spent watching television. In the late 1970s, a research team estimated that children viewed an average of about 20,000 commercials per year (Adler, et al., 1977). The formula was simple, average number of advertisements per hour multiplied by average number of hours a child viewed television during a day, and all this multiplied by 365 days. It was estimated, using the same approach, that children typically viewed more than 30,000 product commercials per year in the late 1980s (Condry, Bence, & Scheibe, 1988). This estimate rose to 40,000 television advertisements per year for children by early 1990s (Kunkel & Gantz, 1992). Indeed, with the growing proliferation of 15-second spots, even these enormous figures may be a gross underestimation of the true number of commercials viewed by children in the new millennium (Comstock & Scharrer, 1999).

Advertisements are growing not only more prolific but are also being made more appealing for children by many of the advertising and marketing campaigns who use popular children’s television and movie characters to attract and retain children’s attention. For many children thus, advertising media has become a normal part of life. Anderson et al. (1986) had raised a serious concern over time spent by children and young ones using or watching television being upped to between 20 and 30 times greater than the time spent associating with their family. The latest trend, taking into account the nuclear structure of the family and working parents, indicates that children in the United Kingdom and the United States may, on an average, spend between four and five hours a day, outside school time, watching some form of electronic media (Cooke, 2002). This may expose children to much potentially harmful material. Kunkel (2001) suggested that today’s children in the United States might view more than 40,000 advertisements every year. The huge number of advertisements on television means that many children spend a significant proportion of their lives watching advertisements. Although it seems to be an issue of concern for most academicians, a study by R. K. Gupta et al (1994), also found that television viewing enhances cognitive development, and conveys knowledge, skills and information to the child. It motivates learning and imparts general awareness.

Recent developments in advertising for children indicate a tendency of marketers and advertisers to employ some form of animation in children's television advertising. This helps them to catch children's attention during commercial programming. The technological advancements, especially in computer graphics, allow a greater flexibility, variability, and creativity in the elaboration of advertisements. On the other hand, the practice of taking advantage of the improvements in computer animation and special effects seems to suggest that marketers may be experiencing an increasing challenge to capture children's attention. They are therefore compelled to be even more creative, requiring new and improved ways of reaching them, particularly because children of the 1990s grew up accustomed to technology, consumer electronics, and video games.

One aspect of today’s media dominated society that is of particular concern is that the advertising industry aggressively seeks to understand, anticipate, and influence the perceived needs and desires of young consumers. By taking an increasingly disciplined approach to market research, marketers have gained a wealth of information about children. Successful marketing relies on correctly representing customer lifestyles and making products relevant to their lives. The range of advertising styles, techniques, and channels used, reach children and youth to foster brand loyalty and encourage product use. Some of these approaches are market segmentation; television advertising; sales promotions at schools, stores, and sporting events; multimedia exposure; celebrity endorsement; kid’s clubs; product placement; and advertorials. In addition, retailers, manufacturers, wholesalers, the media, schools, and corporate donors are creating mutually beneficial partnerships to gain access to and capture the attention of young consumers. One of their long-term goals seems to be to develop a market for tomorrow’s adult consumers.

ADVERTISING, CHILDREN AND LAW

The pervasiveness of marketing to children is of particular concern because of their inherent vulnerability to commercial persuasion. Children under the age of eight do not recognize the persuasive intent of ads and tend to accept them as accurate and unbiased (Kunkel D., 2001). It was also found that a 30-second commercial can influence brand preferences in children as young as two years old. As young children have not developed the cognitive skills and abilities of older children and adults, they do not grasp commercial messages as do mature audiences, and, therefore, are susceptible to the persuasive intent of advertisements. Many researchers have documented evidence that there is an age-related difference in children’s understanding, and, thereby, the way television advertising affects them. Such evidence has formed the basis for a wide range of policies in the United States intended to protect children from advertising.

It is obvious that Advertising enjoys an unfair advantage over youngsters due to their limited comprehension of the nature, purpose, and intent of commercial appeals (Kunkel D., 1990); (Young, 1990); (Kunkel & Roberts, 1991). These policies form the foundation of a broad societal consensus that children require special treatment and protection from the unbridled efforts of the economic marketplace (Kunkel, Wilcox, Cantor, Palmer, Linn, & Dowrick, 2004). In some western nations, the authorities have tried to protect children by establishing age limits and ratings. However, all children and their parents do not always understand the ratings, or they tend to belittle their value. The year 1874 saw the English Parliament enacting the Infants’ Relief Act to protect children “from their own lack of experience and from the wiles of pushing tradesmen and moneylenders” (James, 1965, p. 8). The Infants’ Relief Act is one of the earliest known modern-day governmental policies recognising children’s vulnerability to commercial exploitation. The core issues underlying this 20th century policy remain much the same today even more than a century later.

Advertising in India falls under the purview of statutory and self-regulatory authority. Regulatory authority of all broadcast media (cable channels and ground stations operating within and directed at India) is the responsibility of the Information & Broadcasting Ministry of the Government of India. Special protection for children is included briefly in the India Cable Television Networks (Regulation) Act (1994) and in the self-regulatory code of the Advertising Standards Council of India (Hawkes, 2007, p. 34). However, there is still serious concern that the basic tenet of advertising regulation – that it should not mislead – is not being observed. One legal expert stated that “children in India seem to be particularly vulnerable to the infringement of these regulations which is unfortunately a common occurrence” (Vadhera, Quarter 4, 2004). Two efforts are being made to address this situation, one statutory and one self-regulatory. Yet, it is apparent that there is plenty of room to improve to protect young impressionable minds from commercial exploitation.

In today’s globalised scenario, some researchers argue, the opening of regional and local markets to international business has increased consumerism and created an appetite for what is American in many developing countries. The spread of American television and the general spread of Western mass media programming to the developing world have acted as a catalyst in increasing people’s consumerist appetite. Writing on this process, Schiller (1991) says that the goal of Western media is the creation of good consumers. Exposure to Western media, including advertising, has increased consumerism and created the desire to possess advertised goods. This aspect of globalisation affects everyone, but it may have its largest impact on children. According to D’Silva et al (2007), advertising forms, a significant part of American television programming, both overt and embedded, because advertisers constantly seek an effective means of influencing consumer behaviour. This trend is now spreading to Indian shores. A number of studies show that children who are heavy viewers of television consume more advertised foods and want more advertised toys than do children who are light viewers of television (Atkin C. K., 1982); (Goldberg M. , 1990); (Robertson T. S., Ward, Gatignon, & Klees, 1989).

Most of these studies focus on American children, and it is important to find out whether such behaviour is or is likely to be replicated by children in countries like India. A quick glance at Third World & Indian television programming makes it obvious that embedded advertising is pervasive. Imported programming, particularly from core countries, forms a substantial part of the programming in India. Of particular interest, therefore, are its influences on the vulnerable segment of Developing Societies population – children. Although children generally are very perceptive and intelligent, the fact is that they are considerably less informed - as compared to adults – and, thereby, are a largely vulnerable audience for hard advertising. Advertising converts a child's natural energy into a permanently heightened state of acquisitiveness. It moulds the self-concept of a child on material acquisitions. Some toy manufacturers use selling strategies, which make children who do not have their products feel ‘un-cool’, or ‘inferior’. In 2004, the Information & Broadcasting Ministry (of India) began to monitor actively and decide on violations of its television advertising codes for TV as per the Cable Television Act’s Rules (The Cable Television Networks (Regulation) Act, 1995).

In 2002, they set up an inter-ministerial committee, which has since been reviewing complaints, issuing notices to television channels, and deciding whether advertisements violate the rules. A bill was introduced on the floor of the parliament, which was passed as the Cable Television Networks (Regulation) Amendment Act 2002. However, in 2006, the Ministry set up another 30-member committee “representing diverse interests” to rewrite the programme and advertising codes for the Cable Television Act and its Rules, and to develop a mechanism by which to enforce the codes, a process which is far from complete, till date. It is reported that the codes developed by the committee are primarily adapted from the United Kingdom’s Ofcom codes, with specific sub-sections on children and food advertising (Hawkes, 2007, p. 34); (Express, 2005).

In 2008, the Central Government amended the Cable Television Network Rules through a gazette notification to ban ‘surrogate advertisements” in order to prevent tobacco and liquor brands from circumventing the law. According to the notification, no advertisement would be permitted which encourages “directly or indirectly sale or consumption of cigarettes, tobacco products, wine, alcohol, liquor or other intoxicants.” The Ministry of Consumer Affairs also recently set up a committee to make recommendations to confront misleading advertising (Joshua, 2008).

ISSUES IN CONTEMPORARY ADVERTISING

The growth and development of modern-day advertising as a social system, an important component of mass media, connects with the growth of an economy into industrial, mass, and affluent society. The more a society develops wider circulation of information through nongovernmental agencies, mass production of goods & services, high degree of reliance on technology, and highly specialized division of labour.

People in developed and developing societies rely on the established Industrial Order or the system called “the market” to satisfy their needs. People no longer produce what they consume. In fact, they earn wages by selling their labour so that they can buy the goods produced by others for consumption. It is here that we see advertising’s principal function – to inform and persuade consumers - come into play. Today, advertising is all-pervasive and a part of our daily environment. Advertisements aired on television are now a measure of a programme’s success (Jamieson & Campbell, 2000, p. 156).

To survive, maintain and sustain itself Advertising seeks to generate profits, which in turn requires attracting sizeable audiences. Mass media audiences fulfil this requirement of sizeable audience. Advertising, therefore, is subject to various influences. Changing demographics have also had an impact on advertising. Today, target audiences are referred to by advertisers as ‘upscale’ or ‘downscale’. Some nations can also influence and control their media greatly. In addition, powerful corporations have enormous influence on mainstream media. Further, the market pressures that affect these companies, affect the media as well and hence, the media itself is largely driven by the forces of the market.

However, the niche and segmented audiences also consume mediated messages but negotiation of text from mass media remains a major source for most advertisers. Thus, it is of little surprise that television and commercials (advertisements) on television remain a major source of debate for impact studies. Some of our fear and distrust arises from a belief that the mass media are monolithic, owned and / or controlled by ever fewer people who tend to speak in one voice (Jamieson & Campbell, 2000, p. 9).

The emerging ownership pattern, which also seems to fuel our suspicion, is that fewer media conglomerates own more and more media outlets. The concentrated ownership of mass media seems to work against alternative sources of opinion / diversity of opinion; this seems to work against democracy. The fact that a broadcast signal is no respecter of geo-political boundaries means that a message from one society finds its way into another with diverse traditions, patterns of social, economic & cultural life, needs and possibilities, unhindered. Increasingly, national broadcasting is being replaced by an international medium through satellites, making it available to people in different countries across the globe. The Cable News Network entered into an agreement with the Soviet Union in 1986 to use the Intersputnik satellite to increase its effective footprint to the Indian sub-continent & adjoining arena. Along with its use of Pan Am Star transponder, CNN is today transmitting its signal to over 85 sovereign states over and above the United States of America (Tuch, 1990, p. 122); (Carmody, 1989).

The ability of mediated messages to flow across international boundaries has had an impact on the politics of many a nation. Today, the world has witnessed the rise of global media and with it the rapid fall of informational barriers though economic barriers tend to be more tenacious. In fact, television commercials do not even require the audience to be either literate or multi-lingual. There is a steady decline in the use of text or copy in advertisements and the increase in display and illustrations, as pointed out by Daniel Boorstin (1962); Guy Debord (1975); Jean Baudrillard (1975); (Baudrillard, Simulations, 1983) and Leiss et al. (Leiss, Kline, & Jhally, 1991), concerning the increased importance of images in contemporary culture. And with this trend, yet another important issue of concern has emerged, a shift of emphasis within advertisements away from communicating specific product information towards communicating the social and symbolic uses of the products.

Consumer society has caused a "profound transformation in social life" involving "the change in the function of goods from being primarily satisfiers of wants to being primarily communicators of meanings" (Leiss, Kline, & Jhally, 1991). In the consumer society, individuals identify themselves as consumers and obtain gratification from consuming products. Hence, marketers and advertisers by associating their products with certain lifestyles, symbolic values, and pleasures generate systems of meaning, prestige, and identity.

According to the Critical theory of Advertising, advertising plays a key role in the transition to a new image culture where discursive concepts are replaced by aesthetic figures as a mode of cultural communication and power (Jhally, 1987); (Leiss, Kline, & Jhally, 1986). In today’s environment, advertising is playing increasingly important roles in subtly shaping consumer needs and continuing to channel desire into various products, fashion, and lifestyles (Kellner, 1989a).

ADVERTISING AND GLOBALIZATION

Connecting and stratifying peoples around the world, globalization shrinks time and space, and intensifies awareness of the world as a single place (Robertson R., 1992). Globalization and consolidation are also leading to rapid changes in the advertising industry (Levitt, 1983); (Kennedy, 1993); (Legrain, 2003); (Mittelman, 2000). Clearly a process involving the compression of international time and space, and intensification of trans-national relations is taking place (Hargittai & Centeno, 2001).

Scholars often examine “change,” and its closely kindred concept “difference,” as a vehicle for getting into the particularities of a culture (Nederveen, 2003); (D'Silva, Futrell, & Reyes, 2007, p. 254). While some researchers focus on cultural change, others confess that some things have remained the same. In particular, many deeply held cultural beliefs persist even in the face of momentous changes. To a large extent, globalization is about the negotiation (sometimes referred to as a “clash”) that occurs between change introduced from outside a culture and the conservatism that sustains a culture.

ADVERTISING AND DEMOCRACY

Advertising, it is argued, represents a free flow of information and helps people exercise choice – a valuable instrument of democracy. On the other hand, it can be said that advertising’s current role in society is to a degree exploitative, wasteful, and manipulative (Ewen, 1988). It indirectly represents a form of domination that perpetuates capitalist hegemony (Leymore, 1975) and obstructs participatory democracy and the development of individual autonomy (Schudson, 1984); (McChesney, October 2000). From a historical, developmental perspective, advertising can be said to erode traditional social structures of meaning, which it replaces with ideals and images of privatized commodity consumption.

In a Capitalist Democracy, advertising attempts to assure and assuage its audience and to promote the belief that individual commodity consumption is the solution to all problems (Haug, 1986). Advertising also undermines the psycho-cultural base for a public sphere and democratic participation in social life (Best & Kellner, 1991) A close examination of the relationship between increasingly concentrated and powerful corporate advertisers and increasingly fragmented and isolated consumers/citizens reveals that advertising's practices and trends contradict democratic ideals and goals (Ewen, 2001).

ADVERTISING AND ECONOMIES

Advertising has often been charged with promoting consumerism in developing societies. Concurrent with the development of consumerism has been the creation of new and sophisticated types of marketing and advertising. While these effects of consumerism benefit a developing society, the weight of the argument concerning the effects of consumerism lies heavily with the alternative approach. From an alternative approach, Sterns (2001) suggests that consumerism describes a basic function of our society that is populated by people who are no longer concerned with subsistence, but desire to acquire and accumulate goods.

It has been argued often that western-style marketing and advertising are causing the spread of conspicuous consumption with negative consequences for developing countries. While some argue that globalization is raising the standard of living in low income countries, “more than one-fifth of humankind still lives in acute poverty” (Mueller, 1996, p. 250), critics point out that even the poor have become subsumed by consumerism and that, “local governments in developing countries must consciously decide where valuable resources are to be spent” (Mueller, 1996, p. 256).

ADVERTISING AND TECHNOLOGY

Satellites, force multipliers, have profoundly influenced advertising. Today millions across the globe watch a single television commercial. This has brought into play ‘International Advertising’ (Jones, 2000), where the global players do not advertise on a regional basis but the goods and services in a worldwide market. Technological innovations have also influenced the production design. Computer aided animation has captured fantasy into a smooth flowing reality on screen. The success of computer creatures led to an explosion of Computer-Generated Imagery or CGI in all media. Manipulation of digital pictures is a valuable technology enabled tool for producers of advertising content. The ability to alter motion pictures and visuals by computer software and technology can be considered a serious threat to the integrity of the profession because it distorts the historical record of a culture.

On the other hand, advertisers themselves use technology as a signifier in advertisements such as those of Mobile phones, Notebook computers, and cars (to name a few) in appealing to the fantasies and dreams of consumers to become part of the elite class. Portrayal of images of successful businesspersons and elitists suggests the luxury of mobility that comes from using the advertised company's product. Such advertisements tend to lead consumers to falsely believe that the globalization process is having a positive effect on everyone and eventually we will all become richer.

STEREOTYPING IN ADVERTISING

Media’s stereotypical portrayal of women reflects society’s male-dominated view. Women are often portrayed as sex objects designed only for man’s pleasure, as wives whose chief duty is to serve their husbands, and as mothers who must often singlehandedly bring up their children. Women are portrayed as “being less intelligent than men, being inferior” (Lester, 2000, p. 90). Stereotypes in media are also often culturally biased. Often, the only place where people regularly and over a long time come across other cultural groups is in the pages of newspapers and magazines, on television, and in the movies. However, when most of those media images are misleading, viewers often accept them as reality and fail to realize their prejudices. To change people’s mind about diversity may require far-reaching changes in the entire culture.

FALSE AND MISLEADING INFORMATION IN ADVERTISING

False advertising, in essence, is the passing off goods or services as something or someone’s they are not. It is the usurpation of good will and sales by unfair means. False advertising is prohibited and actionable in most societies by various state statutes, which prohibit deceptive trade practices and unfair competition.

ADVERTORIALS — ADVERTISEMENTS DISGUISED AS NEWS!

Sometimes, news stories or editorials are subtle product advertisements, giving rise to new terms in critical circles, such as advertorials. Advertisements designed to simulate editorial content, also known as infomercial, offer commercial information to prospective clients -the underlying idea being that people give more credibility to editorial content than to paid advertisements, since all producers would claim their product to be the best. Editorial content, however, would suggest that an outside agency has endorsed the product or service.

ADVERTAINMENT — ADVERTISEMENTS DISGUISED AS ENTERTAINMENT!

Advertainment is where advertisers focus on creating entertaining branded content. This does not mean simply placing your brand in the context of pre-existing programming. Advertainment instead creates entertaining content and weaves a brand message into it. This type of advertainment represents a trend in television advertising: creating advertising that is so entertaining, people want to watch.

FREE MEDIA CHANNELS HAVE A COST – COMMERCIALLY PERSUASIVE MESSAGES

With the growth and evolution of mass media, advertisers have used this means of communications to inform a large number of people about their products, thereby, allowing a free flow of innovative ideas and concepts. However, over time, as advertising methods and techniques became sophisticated, enticing, shaping and even creating consumerism and needs where there had been none before or turning luxuries into necessities, became the order of the day.

Various public and free media, such as the numerous channels available in most countries, sought subsidization of their running costs with advertising. However, as corporate competition increased, so too has the need for returns on massive expenditures on advertising. Producers of goods and services spend millions to win the hearts of their audiences and influence their choices towards their products and ideas. The sheer amount of money this brings to media companies is significant and, in many cases, forms their main form of support. Hence, if something is reported that the advertiser does not like, the media company risks losing much needed revenue to stay alive.

ADVERTISING AND COMMERCIALIZATION OF CHILDHOOD

Commercialization of public and religious holidays helps promote sales as well. Christmas, Valentine’s Day, Deepawali, Id, Holi, Makkarsankranti or Independence Day (15th of August) in India, like in numerous other countries, sees a high amount of consumerism. The purchasing power of children, and their purchasing influence, has forced marketers and advertisers to deliberately adopt focused strategies in an attempt to influence those dollars (Barbaro & Earp, 2008).

TELEVISION ADVERTISING AND ITS IMPACT ON CHILDREN

Throughout the history of children's television advertising, researchers have criticized in various ways the use of television commercials directed towards children. Winick et al. (1973) argued that while advertising directed towards children stimulated their materialism and consumption, it also encouraged conflicts with their peers and parents for the same materialistic issues. They further advocated that, because children have not yet fully developed reasoning abilities, they are unable to evaluate the conveyed message, which could contain non-rational or unrealistic information that could be deceptive. Children, therefore, should be protected from advertising.

Today, researchers have explored a whole plethora of topics reflecting the child as a consumer, its knowledge of products, brands, advertising, pricing, decision-making strategies, and parental influence and negotiation approaches. In addition, the social aspects of the consumer role, exploring the development of consumption symbolism, social motives for consumption, and materialism have been examined in detail.

On the whole however, behavioural studies tend to focus on the extent to which children are persuaded by advertisements. They focus on children’s preferences for certain products over others and/or by the requests made for products in response to advertising. Studies on the behavioural effects of advertising, notably, find that television has a major effect on the products children ask for and that increased television-watching leads to increased requests for advertised products.

In addition, television advertising creates misconceptions among children about the nutritional values of foods and ways to maintain positive health. Health experts believe that constant promotion of high-calorie food significantly contributes to the epidemic of childhood obesity in the United States by encouraging preferences for junk food and encouraging poor eating habits.

However, according to George Gerbner, the mass media cultivate attitudes and values, which are already present in a culture: the media maintain and propagate these values amongst members of a culture, thus binding it together. He argues that television tends to cultivate middle-of-the-road political perspectives. Gerbner and his colleagues (Gerbner & Gross, 1976) & (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, & Signorelli, 1986) contend that television has a small but significant influence on the attitudes, beliefs, and judgments of viewers concerning the social world. The focus is on ‘heavy viewers’ (Miller K., 2005). People who watch a lot of television programmes are likely to be more influenced by the ways in which television programmes frame the world than are individuals who watch less, especially regarding topics of which the viewer has little first-hand experience. Light viewers may have more sources of information than heavy viewers. Judith van Evra (1990, p. 167) claims that due to inexperience, young viewers may depend on television for information more than other viewers do.

In addition to immediate obvious advertising, there is also the persuasive influence in television shows (The National Readership Studies Council, 2006). Commercially crafted words and images promoting from unhealthy foods to toys and commercial vehicles confront today’s child wherever the child may choose to turn, in fact even commodities & services like paints & distemper to vacations that children cannot directly need are targeted at them in the hope that they may act as a pressure group for parents. Advertising messages designed to capture children’s imagination, appear on television and radio, on the internet, at the cinema, in comics and magazines, on food labels and even at school. Whilst most parents and many medical, health and education professionals agree with the Government advice that fatty, sugary and salty foods should be consumed only infrequently and in limited quantities, food advertising targeted at children portrays these unhealthy foods as attractive food choices. The food sector, as also other goods’ manufacturers & service providers recognize television as a particularly powerful advertising medium, which reaches tens of millions of children and adults on a daily basis. Some European countries, most notably Sweden, recognize the need to protect children from commercial pressures created by television advertising and have well-established controls to ensure that advertisements are not targeted to children under the age of 12 years.

EFFECTS OF TELEVISION ADVERTISING ON CHILDREN

To evaluate the effects of television advertising on children, it is pertinent to conceptualise the impact of television advertising as intended and unintended. Intended or “primary” effect, as Comstock and Paik (1991) call it, of most advertisements on television is the direct promotion of the advertiser’s economic interest, i.e., generating product purchase requests and increasing product consumption. Although, each advertisement may have as its primary purpose promoting the sales of its featured product, the cumulative impact from the totality of television advertising to children may exert far broader sociological influence. These effects are categorised as unintended or “secondary” effects.

Advertisers are interested in outcomes such as viewers’ recall for the product, desire for the advertised product, and (depending on the age of the child) either purchase influence attempts or actual purchase of the product. Certain advertising strategies tend to enhance the effectiveness of advertising appeals to children. Finally, research also makes clear that children’s purchase-influence attempts have a relatively high degree of success. Frequent parent yielding to children’s purchase requests has been reported in studies that rely on parent self-reports (Frideres, 1973) & (Ward S. &., 1972) as well as unobtrusive observation of behaviour in the supermarket (Atkin C. K., 1978) & (Galst & White, 1976). Thus, it will be correct to state that television commercials, when directed at children, are highly successful at accomplishing their intended goal of securing product sales.

The “secondary” effects, some researchers have suggested, of television advertising to children include increase in materialistic attitudes (Goldberg & Gorn, 1978) & (Moschis & Moore, 1982). The influence of television advertising on children’s eating habits is worth mentioning. Many studies (Dietz, 1990) & (Jeffery, McLellarn, & Fox, 1982) convincingly demonstrate the influencing/persuasive power of television advertising on children. The general finding that eating habits formed during childhood often persist throughout life underscores the serious implications of advertising influence in this realm (Jacobson & Maxwell, 1994). Further, there are some modest short-term effects of influence of commercials for sensitive products not intended for children, including drugs and medicine as well as alcoholic beverages (Almarsdottir & Bush, 1992); (Butter, Weikel, Otto, Wright, & Deinzer, 1991); (Robertson, Rossiter, & Gleason, 1979) & (Rossiter & Robertson, 1980). Children’s pestering their parents for a product they have just seen advertised on TV is often taken as evidence of immediate effects.

Another important area of unintended effects worth considering is the parent-child conflict that emerges when parents refuse to respond to children’s purchase-influence attempts (Robertson T., 1979). In one study, Atkin (1975) found that more than half of the children reported becoming angry or arguing when a toy request was denied; in another (Atkin C. K., 1978), he observed high rates of child disappointment and anger in response to the majority of parent refusals for cereal requests at the supermarket. Other studies have also confirmed these patterns (Goldberg & Gorn, 1978) & (Sheikh & Moleski, 1977).

THE INFLUENCE OF ADVERTISING RELATIVE TO OTHER FACTORS

Messages conveyed in mass media are more effective when it comes to calling attention to products and phenomena than they are at bringing about long-term changes in attitudes or behaviour. It is worth noting that television has long been the predominant medium that advertisers have chosen for marketing products to children. Proponents of television advertising point out that it is difficult to isolate direct effects of advertising from other interpersonal influences.

Furnham (1996) finds it impossible to isolate the influence of TV commercials from other influences. Furnham argues, further, that we have to consider factors such as the age of the child, the family’s socio-economic status, the parents’ level of education and cultural background as well as the product category in question when we discuss influence. However, despite his conviction it is impossible to demonstrate the direct effects of TV commercials in isolation from other factors.

To sum up then there is consensus among researchers that family, siblings and friends exert a stronger influence on children’s lives than mass media in general and TV advertising in particular. This has long been considered an established truth among mass communication researchers. All these studies point to the hypothesis that interpersonal communication is far more effective when it comes to influencing attitudes, conceptions and behaviour than mass communication. The main difficulties we face when we attempt to assess the effects of media content are (1) to specify the various influences, independent from others and (2) to specify the interaction between interpersonal and mass communication. Questions that need to be answered are, for example: How do messages carried in the mass media penetrate and circulate through groups and interpersonal networks? If a friend tells a child that he should obtain something s/he has seen in a TV commercial, is the source of influence the child’s friend, or the commercial?

Surveying the research on children and television, we found that many different social and market agents having economic and political stakes in the issue are active in the policy debate. Proponents as well as opponents of television advertising aimed at children have initiated and financed studies, the results of which often serve their respective interests. The fact that a majority of the studies on this subject have been steered by extra-scientific interests, e.g., the policy decision, whether or not advertising to young children should be banned or regulated, means that the studies have had different starting points and perspectives. Thus, we find that those favouring TV advertising aimed at children prefer to cite research based on observations, the results of which indicate that even very young children can recognize and comprehend commercial messages. Opponents of such advertising tend, on the other hand, to cite findings based on verbal responses that show that only after some years can children distinguish commercials from other programme content and perceive its intent.

CHILDREN’S COMPREHENSION OF ADVERTISING

Children are required to acquire two key information-processing skills to negotiate meaning and “mature” comprehension of advertising messages. First, children should be able to discriminate at a perceptual level commercial from non-commercial content, and secondly, children must be able to understand the persuasive intent behind advertising and adjust their interpretation of commercial messages consistent with that knowledge. Most researchers agree that these capabilities develop over time, largely as a function of cognitive growth and development rather than the accumulation of any particular amount of experience with media content (Kunkel D., 2001).Due to the similarities in terms of production conventions and featured characters in both children’s television programs and commercials, it is little wonder that young children experience difficulty in distinguishing between the program and commercial content.

There is evidence that young children often fail to discriminate between a program and a commercial (Palmer & McDowell, 1979). Even if they acquire the ability to correctly apply the label “commercial” to advertisements, they do not necessarily understand that such content is separate and conceptually distinct from the program material. (Kunkel D., 1988a), It is apparent that the primary purpose of all television advertising is to influence the attitudes and subsequent behaviour of its viewers. Adults use a defence mechanism, a kind of cognitive filter, which helps them comprehend the intent and purpose of the commercial. However, young children, by virtue of their limited cognitive development, typically lack the ability to apply such protective and cognitive mechanisms to their understanding of television advertising. Given the complexities involved in appreciating the source’s perspective in the advertising process, there is a strong theoretical basis to expect that young children will have difficulty recognizing the persuasive intent underlying television advertising (Roberts, 1982).

MEDIA LITERACY: EMPOWERING CHILDREN THROUGH EDUCATION

It is noted that education and democracy are highly correlated. Education raises the benefits of civic engagement (Glaeser, Ponzetto, & Shleifer, 2007). “The uneducated man or the man with limited education is a different political actor from the man who has achieved a higher level of education” (Almond & Verba, 1989, p. 316). Democracy’s mainstay, citizenship, requires responsibility and exercise of such responsibility well and thoroughly in turn requires the need to be able to see the world and to see through media’s limited and inadequate representations of it (Silverstone, 2004).

Media literacy has often been described as a facilitation of a greater understanding of the persuasive intent behind advertising (Austin & Johnson, 1997a). This narrow definition presumes that by being forewarned of the persuasive intent, both adults and children can acquire necessary tools to effectively negotiate undesired effects of advertising in general. As the importance of media, information and communications in society grows media literacy has come to imply the ability to access, analyse, evaluate, and communicate information in a variety of format including print and electronic/digital. It includes the ability to both read (comprehend) and write (create, design, produce). It should lead to individuals attaining competencies develop critical thinking skills in order to question, analyse and evaluate any mediated information/message (Considine, 1995).

Media literacy Education and training has long been proposed as a necessary intervention in order to protect consumers, especially children, from the negative impact of persuasive communication such as advertising and product placement and to enable children to make informed choices before purchasing, or requesting, products (Kennedy D. G., 2004); (Rogers, 2002); (Armstrong & Merrie, 1988). There is some evidence that specific interventions in other areas, particularly alcohol use, tobacco use, body image issues and eating disorders, can be effective in changing both perceptions and behaviours and that pre-adolescents can be successfully targeted (Gonzales, Glik, Davoudi, & Ang, 2004); (Irving & Berel, 2001); (Austin & Johnson, 1997a); (Austin & Johnson, 1997b). Immediate effects included an understanding of the persuasive intent of advertising and a decreased perception regarding the desirability of products such as alcohol.

Concerned Children’s Advertisers (CCA) is a non-profit organization of Canadian companies established in 1990 which includes such flagship brand owners as Coca-Cola, McDonalds Restaurants, Kellogg and Nestlé. For over fifteen years, CCA have provided a wide range of educational programs for children on topics such as drug use, self-esteem, coping with bullying and media literacy. Television public service announcements addressing each topic are aired using donated television time (Loblaw, 2001). Similarly, Media Smart a U.K. based media literacy program focuses specifically on advertising and has been working towards increasing the ability of children to think critically about information from the media to which they are exposed (Media Smart 2003a and b). They base their recommendations for intervention on Section 6.7.1 of the British Communications Act: “This will help people to understand the distinctions between different media services, to appraise their content critically, to use the tools which are increasingly becoming available to navigate the electronic world, and to become empowered digital citizens. It will also help children to learn how to maintain critical distinctions such as those between fact and fiction (especially in interactive environments) or between reportage and advocacy, as well as how to assess commercial messages" (Media Smart, 2003a p. 1).

By contributing media literacy resources, the marketing industry may be seen positioning itself as being part of the solution to these problems and thereby seeks to avoid wide restrictions or outright bans on marketing communication, particularly for food products deemed to have little nutritional value directed at children (Kleinman, 2003a); (Rogers, 2002); (Teinowitz, 2001). The need to be seen to be taking positive action primarily in order to avert potential restrictions on advertising, says Cincotta (2005), is openly acknowledged by some sectors of the industry itself. Further, Hobbs (1998) suggests that such programmes are also in the interests of media organizations that support the interventions in order to reduce criticism of the potential negative effects of the media themselves. Considine (2002) somewhat cynically suggests that there is also an element of exploitation of the issue of media literacy by all parties simply for its rhetorical value.

Not much research has been done about how well adults themselves understand online content, but small-scale studies suggest that they are often unaware of the origin of information and may lack the skills to consider the point of view from which that information is presented. This begs the question, that if parents themselves are not media literate how will they help their children understand the implications behind the advertisement? Although viewers are well aware when they are confronted with commercial messages on television (Sancho & Wilson, 2001), the changing conditions of advertising, sponsorship, branding, merchandising, paid-for-content, and other forms of promotion through broadcasting, the internet and mobile phones, set new literacy requirements. Little research exists on adults’ critical awareness of such promotional practices or on how better to support parental mediation of promotion to children (Kunkel & Wilcox, 2001); (Montgomery, 1996).

Media literacy therefore needs to be addressed not only towards children but adults as well. There are three main areas where media literacy can contribute. In a democratic society, a media-literate individual can take more informed decisions on matters concerning the public and political environment. Thus, in a media-literate society an individual would be more aware, critical and proactive in the public sphere. In a market economy increasingly based on information, a media-literate individual would be innovative and competitive and would be able to make positive choices. In today’s heavily mediated environment which informs and constructs the choices, values and knowledge that give meaning to everyday life, media literacy would facilitate an informed, creative and ethical society.

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Paper presented at the Eighth AIMS International Conference on Management (AIMS-8) jointly organized by Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad (www.iimahd.ernet.in) and AIMS International-The Association of Indian Management Scholars (www.aims-international.org) January-1-4, 2011

Authors: Rashid Narain Shukul & Bellukutty Sudhakar (Manipal University (Dubai Campus))

The Anna Fever

2011-09-02T07:04:00.024-04:00

Political and bureaucratic corruption in India has always been a major concern. A 2005 study conducted by Transparency International in India found that more than 45% of Indians had first-hand experience of paying bribes or influence peddling to get jobs done in public offices successfully. Interestingly, Transparency International estimates that truckers in India pay US$5 billion in bribes annually. In 2010, India slipped three notches to the 87th rank out of 178 countries in Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index.

The tentacles of corruption are spread everywhere and not just limited to government organizations. Recent instances such as the IPL scam and the Commonwealth Games fiasco underscore how big money attracts corruption in every occupation. Corruption is not just limited to India. It is a dark all-pervasive phenomenon, a malignant cancer, destroying the benefits of globalization in many poor countries.

Given the scenario, Anna Hazare is a breath of fresh air that has fired up the soul and imagination of a nation plagued by corrupt polity. Being anti-Anna would imply being corrupt, against the very aspirations of a commoner, and archenemy of the great architects of a young independent India! Yet, this holistic dictum of 'either you are with us or against us,' is reminiscent of rhetoric used by then-President George W. Bush in the run-up to the Iraq war. Yet, the more one reads about the Jan Lokpal Bill as espoused by Anna Hazare and his alleged supporters the more one doubts the true intent and purpose of this so-called mass movement.

The ever hungry for anything that can make as headline, Media made much ado about Anna’s tirade. Further, its usage of terms like ‘Team-Anna’ and making it sound synonymous with Team-India has gone a long way in firing up the moral fibre of a very decadent society.

In fact, Anna Hazare and his supporters were able to capitalize on the federal government's inept handling of the issue. The bumbling congress party leaders made sure that world saw Anna Hazare as a 'noble crusader' rather than a politically naïve activist who is using 'fasting' as a tool of blackmail to push an agenda, no matter how noble, which is likely to destroy the democratic fabric of our polity.

No one can dispute Anna Hazare's principal assertion that corruption is harming India. However, his demand to give the proposed watchdog, The Jan Lokpal, authority to investigate and prosecute Supreme Court judges and the prime minister is bothersome. In a typical democracy, judges and top elected officials have immunity. The idea is to protect these people, while in office, from politically motivated prosecutions. Moreover, the present constitutional checks and balances are adequate to impeach any erring political entity. Anna Hazare’s argument that the present system allows government to shield the corrupt officials & elected representatives holds little water. In fact, any supreme council or supreme watchdog agency, like the Lokpal, is always in danger of assuming the authoritarian role of providing a safe haven to the corrupt & the criminal elements.

His ideologue seems to go against the very tenets of democracy that he professes to be upholding. He seems to be an unwitting instrument to usher in chaos and destabilise the present form of polity. He is either an unwitting sleeping partner or an activist wedded to usher in an era of right-wing Presidential Autocracy advised by an elite panel of Dharam Gurus & Nagpur based Chanakyas. There has been a deliberate and concerted effort to brand Anna Hazare as modern day Mahatama Gandhi and Lal Bahadur Shastri.

However, before we jump to conclusions and my motive let us deliberate on the questions and issues raised below:

01.) Is Anna Hazare a naive activist marshalling the cause of anti-corruption forces or a messiah of truthfulness, justice, equality, and a new socio-economic order?

02.) Is Anna Hazare really the face of a resurgent young India or yet another front chosen by the ultra-right wing parties and other opportunist political entities?

03.) Are we that naïve that we would fail to notice the organized forces that are behind Anna Hazare's campaign?

04.) Why is Anna Hazare incessant on creating a divide based on dangerous politics of ‘Us & Them’?

05.) Why is Anna Hazare so convinced of his own virtuosity? Watching him on a certain TV channel (in a highly politicised game show, which was supposed to show case the talents of kids singing par excellence) he came across as desperately trying to portray himself as the modern day ‘Gandhi.’ He (in words and body language) did not betray a single sign of Humility, Selfless dedication to a cause, and Humbleness. He came across as a person desperate to go down as a martyr. He did not speak like a social reformer but like a political aspirant!

06.) If the entire nation has become so intolerant of ‘corruption’, then why is every elected government corrupt?

07.) Why is every official corrupt? Is it because we allow them to be corrupt? Or, because deep inside we are equally corrupt?

08.) In addition, why is every businessman/entrepreneur busy cheating, peddling, lying, and defrauding the Federal Exchequer?

09.) Why do we sell our votes at the political hustings?

10.) Why do we elect such corrupt governments?

11.) Why are known anti-social elements shouting themselves hoarse chanting ‘Vande Mataram’? The very hoodlums who only till yesterday were busy black-marketing, drug peddling, bribing, over-charging, cheating on taxes, perjury – in fact, the list is endless.

12.) Why are we busy selling our consciousness at the drop of a hat?

An interesting observation that is worth leaving the readers with is that the so called mass movement appears to be an upper-caste, middle-class movement as it seems to address their issues – such as bribes paid to the police or at passport offices. Peasants, vulnerable sections, do not fall in their purview.

'India Graduates Millions, but Too Few Are Fit to Hire'

2011-08-08T07:11:00.000-04:00

The bane of our education system is deeply rooted in our failure to keep pace with latest developments in various academic fields, world over. We still teach from redundant texts. The traditional government sponsored institutions of learning are slowly crumbling into oblivion due to lack of funds and infrastructure. Moreover, Un-regulated privatisation of education in India is another major issue. Further, today, students seek a piece of paper called degree and are largely oblivious of the need to pursue knowledge and benefits of being well educated. Worse still, the schools and colleges are busy chasing profits – it’s just another business! They refuse to provide decent wages to their army of workers. Interestingly, just a decade ago these workers used to be called educators. The result is that we have teachers who take to teaching because they could not manage any other job. There is no passion or calling – just substandard human work force.

There is a new corporate culture which has overtaken the education sector and subverted it into a regular profit centric industry with little or no ethics and moral qualms. The quality of students passing out each year has been steadily deteriorating by the passage of each academic year. These jewels are burgeoning as our new intelligentsia. These newly spawned intellectuals, products of privatised individual consumption and capitalist hegemony, form the capital that will decide the fate of our country – a frightening thought, indeed!

Yet, all is not lost! Despite the all-pervading bleak scenario – there is hope. Once in a while, we do run across a youngster studying with unadulterated thirst for knowledge; a gifted educator teaching with burning passion – a mortal who took to teaching out of ‘calling’; and a business man chasing a selfless vision for better tomorrow decides to setup schools and seats of higher learning. Yes, there still exist a certain percentage of people who realise that all private institutions are always better, efficient, and professionally managed than public institutions is a myth of modern consumer based market. It is time when we all reign in the downslide by contributing our mite before this sign of dwindling hope is lost for ever.

Also, please read: 'India Graduates Millions, but Too Few Are Fit to Hire' at

http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703515504576142092863219826.html

“SHORTS”: Not So TALL Tales from the Director of 'Spy Kids'

2009-11-28T16:40:00.000-05:00

my kids to see Robert Rodriguez’s Shorts (released 2009). The kids laughed and seemed to enjoy it, so did my wife. The film has a non-linear story structure coupled with a storyline, which is not too boring! I must admit, much to the director’s credit that the cast & the narrative do manage to keep one’s interest in this otherwise ordinary film.

Critically speaking, the movie lacks finesse and survives on a rather low-mid end effects and an over-simplistic script. Robert Rodriguez fails to capitalize on Jon Cryer, and Leslie Mann while wasting a very versatile actor in James Spader.

I find it hard to believe that anybody thinks this movie will be successful. Actually, it is going to be surprising if this movie really does well at the box office. It tries rather unsuccessfully to tag themes like wishful thinking, intra-personal communication, teamwork, parenting, brothers, bullies, and boogers into a film with the hope that any one device will work… the end is too didactic! I found some redeeming features in the portrayal of a child who emerges as the most intelligent being in the Black Fall community and saves the world (read as the film) from disaster.

However, the film can stake claim to having focused our attention on a rather talented child-actress, Jolie Vanier, who plays the female lead. I think this young eleven-year-old woman seems to have a great future.

In the end, it may be surmised that this movie is not suitable for anybody over ten. However, some adults (parents) are likely to give it a nod more for the clean sanitized script rather than for any other reason.

Jolie Vanier photograph taken from: http://ia.media-imdb.com/images/M/MV5BMTc5Mjk3MjU2OF5BMl5BanBnXkFtZTcwODE0MzkyMg@@._V1._SX289_SY400_.jpg

Is America bashing just a sport...

2009-11-27T07:08:00.000-05:00

Many people revel in loving to hate America. Some say that this hate has flowered into a favorite past time for many a disgruntled lot. Well, what ever is your viewpoint, I am sure, you have your reasons.

I am rather indifferent to such expressions of hate and love. I don't hate America. However, its foreign policies remain largely unacceptable and its attitude to some of the issues like pollution, environment, arms race, Israel and nuclear control is appalling, immature and short sighted.

Yet, I say - without any fear of contradiction - I do admire America and like Americans. I am no America-hater, but do not indulge in over simplistic uttering of George Bush and likes... ‘American way or the highway’.

We have to take a note of the fact that America has over exploited the initial doctrine of Grand Isolation to the hilt and interfered everywhere to suit its shortsighted gains.

If America is to redeem itself, it has to realize (and same goes for its bitter critics) and accept that it is an important leader in the world community... but America needs to embrace this role with sagacity, seriousness and without typical western biases.

I would encourage the readers to visit an interesting link below to get some insight on the issue...
http://www.vexen.co.uk/USA/hateamerica.html

Television Advertising & Indian Urban Children: An Introduction

2009-04-28T04:32:00.004-04:00

Advertising, ‘the hidden persuader[i]’, ranks fifth amongst the big businesses of the world (Chunawalla & Sethia, 2003)[ii]. Advertisers use advertisement for many purposes with many different possible effects. However, what guides the producer-manufacturer-corporate establishment to use this mode on consumers is the persuasive power of the medium.

Through television, we learn new behaviours as the result of perceived needs. NIKE and Lexus went from perceived as luxury items to needed items through advertising. Apparently, men now must have big screen TVs and women want constantly to buy shoes. At least, this is the message given out through advertising.

In addition, the way in which we buy products has changed. For example, there is a MasterCard commercial that shows a woman walking down the street impulsively buying on credit, and receiving a feeling that the end result is: Priceless.
Skills and knowledge have changed by television advertising immediate communication and awareness. Many insurance companies advertise their internet sites online, which can be used to raise awareness. They are not alone. With the instant communication age, we advertise the necessity of consumer awareness.
In addition to immediate obvious advertising, there is also the influence in television shows. Take the evening news, which often focuses on consumer awareness. Take comedies, which show various brands of soda used in a household, implying that everyone worthwhile drinks that brand. Take dramas, which show women crying into Ben and Jerry's after the tearful break-up. Our needs and wants have changed. We no longer decide for ourselves that we want products or how we want them. Instead, we allow television to teach us, since after all, if it's on television, then everyone must be doing it, and it must be true.
For many children, advertising media is a normal part of life. Anderson et al (1986)[iii] had raised a serious concern over time spent by children and young ones using or watching the television being upped to between 20 and 30 times greater than the time spent associating with their family The latest trend, due to working parents and nuclear structure of the family, indicate that children in the United Kingdom and the United States may, on an average, spend between four and five hours a day, outside school time, watching some forms of electronic media (Cooke, 2002)[iv]. This exposes children to much potentially harmful material. Kunkel (2001) suggested that today’s children in the United States may view more than 40,000 advertisements every year. The huge number advertisements on television mean that many children spend a significant proportion of their lives watching advertisements. Unfortunately, there is no such authentic data available from Indian-Sub-continent on television viewing habits of urban children (even for metropolitan cities!).
Recent developments in advertising for children indicate a developing tendency of marketers and advertisers to employ some form of animation in children's television advertising. This helps them to catch children's attention during commercial programming. The technological advancements, especially in computer graphics, allow a greater flexibility, variability, and creativity in the elaboration of advertisements. On the other hand, the practice of taking advantage of the improvements in computer animation and special effects seem to suggest that marketers may be experiencing an increasing challenge to capture children's attention. They are therefore compelled to be even more creative, requiring new and improved ways of reaching them, particularly because children of the 1990s grew up accustomed to technology, consumer electronics, and video games.
Commercially crafted words and images promoting from unhealthy foods to toys and commercial vehicles confront today’s child wherever the child may choose to turn, in fact even the commodities & services like paints & distemper to vacations that children cannot directly need are targeted at them in hope that they may act as pressure group for parents. Advertising messages designed to capture children’s imagination, appear on television and radio, on the internet, at the cinema, in comics and magazines, on food labels and even at school. Whilst most parents and many medical, health and education professionals endorse Government advice that consumption of fatty, sugary and salty foods only infrequently and in limited quantities, food advertising targeted at children portrays these unhealthy foods as attractive food choices.
The food sector, as other goods manufacturers & service providers recognise television as a particularly powerful advertising medium, which reaches tens of millions of children and adults on a daily basis. Some European countries, most notably Sweden, recognise the need to protect children from commercial pressures created by television advertising and have well-established controls to ensure that advertisements are not targeted to children under the age of 12 years.
The ‘problem’, in today’s media dominated society is that children advertising industry aggressively seeks to understand, anticipate, and influence the perceived needs and desires of young consumers. Because marketers have taken an increasingly disciplined approach to market research, they have gained a wealth of information about children. Successful marketing relies on correctly representing customer lifestyles and making products relevant to their lives. A range of advertising styles, techniques, and channels used, reach children and youth to foster brand loyalty and encourage product use. Some approaches are market segmentation; television advertising; sales promotions at schools, stores, and sporting events; multimedia exposure; celebrity endorsement; kid’s clubs; product placement; and advertorials. In addition, retailers, manufacturers, wholesalers, the media, schools, and corporate donors are creating mutually beneficial partnerships to gain access to, and capture the attention of, young consumers. One of their long-term goals is to develop a market for tomorrow’s adult consumers.
Present Advertising Aimed At Children
Advertising hardly a recent human endeavour dates back to as early as ancient Rome and Pompeii. Town criers were another early form of advertising. As an industry, advertising did not take off until the arrival of the various mass media: printing, radio, and television. Nevertheless, concerns over advertising targeting children preceded both radio and television. The British Parliament passed legislation in 1874 intended to protect children from the efforts of merchants to induce them to buy products and assume debt.
Targeting children as consumers, however, did not become commonplace until the advent and widespread adoption of television and grew exponentially with the advent of cable television, which allowed programmers to develop entire channels of child-oriented programming and advertising. Opportunities to advertise to children further expanded with the explosive growth of the Internet, and thousands of child-oriented Web sites with advertising content have appeared in the past few years (Report of the APA Task Force on Advertising and Children 2004)[v].
In most western nations, the authorities try to protect children by establishing age limits and ratings. However, all children and their parents do not always understand the ratings, or they tend to belittle their value.
The term ‘Television’ has come to refer to all the aspects of television programming and transmission as well. The medium, similar to any contemporary communication means, is a link in the living rooms like a magical bridge opened to the world. Television, however, is perhaps the most influential form of media as a primary storyteller. Research on television viewing and children's socialization indicates that television has a great impact on children's lives (Lauer & Lauer, 1994)[vi]. Studies have shown that preschoolers spend nearly 30 hours a week watching television; they spend more time watching television than they spend on anything else except sleeping (Anderson et al, 1986; Kaplan, 1991; Aulette, 1994)[vii]. Nielsen Media Research[viii] has found that by the time children are 16 years old, they have spent more time watching television than going to school (as cited by Basow, 1992)[ix]. As a result, by extremely conservative estimates, children are exposed to about 20,000 advertisements a year (Stoneman & Brody, 1981)[x].
The pervasiveness of marketing to children is of particular concern because of their inherent vulnerability to commercial persuasion. Children under the age of eight do not recognize the persuasive intent of ads and tend to accept them as accurate and unbiased (Kunkel et al. 2001)[xi]. Kunkel et al, also, found that a 30-second commercial can influence brand preferences in children as young as two years old[xii].
Advertising has been shown to have a harmful effect on children’s health. For example, research shows there is a link between advertising and childhood obesity. The majority of ads targeted to kids are for candy, cereal, soda and fast food (as cited by www.commercialexploitation.com/what_we_do.htm, generated 03/06/04)[xiii]. As Brian Wilcox, Ph.D., former chair of the American Psychological Association Task Force on Advertising and Children said that “uch advertising of unhealthy food products to young children contributes to poor nutritional habits that may last a lifetime and be a variable in the current epidemic of obesity among kids” (American Psychological Association press release, 23/02/04)[xiv]. Further, many of these advertising and marketing campaigns use popular children’s television and movie characters, thus making the ads more appealing and interesting to children. As the Kaiser Family Foundation report, “The Role of Media in Childhood Obesity,” concludes, “(I)t appears likely that the main mechanism by which media use contributes to childhood obesity may well be through children's exposure to billions of dollars worth of food advertising and cross-promotional marketing year after year, starting at the very youngest ages, with children's favorite media characters often enlisted in the sales pitch”( Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004)[xv].
Indian Advertising Scenario
Advertising has a medium to heavy concentration in India, which is only bound to get heavier. In India, the advertising business is growing at the rate of 30 to 35 percent. The advertisement expenditure, from 1997 in the country rose from 850 million dollars to roughly 5 billion dollars by the year 2000. The year 2005 end registered advertisement expenditure of well over 10 billion dollars.
“Advertising started to grow at a phenomenal rate of 40% and more after ‘liberalisation’. Then recession set in. In 1998-99, the industry grew by 17.9%, with 12 of the top agencies zooming up by more than 20%. As compared to the usual 4-5% growth rates in the West, these are very respectable figures. As compared to the rest of Asia, the growth rate is miraculous” (Chunawalla & Sethia, 2003)[xvi].
Television advertising in India has undergone a rapid change over the last few years. Today, it reflects technological advancements in its sophistication and can match advertising efforts in many parts of the world. Children comprise a major portion of any TV audience, a fact that is capitalised by advertisers. Knowing them to be a captive audience, advertisers direct their advertisements specifically at them and through them at their parents. The children are easy prey to the hard sell, the flashy images, and the repetitive images that embed messages into their receptive minds. If allowed to continue unchecked, advertising in India may soon reach the stage of abuse and manipulation as witnessed in the US.
Review of Literature
Throughout the history of children's television advertising, researchers have criticized in different ways the use of television commercials directed towards children. By the 1970s, the criticism generally fell into two categories:
The persuasive nature/function of advertising and the possible hidden messages believed to be part of the advertisement, and the specific content of the advertisement per se (Winick et al. 1973)[xvii].
Winick et al. (1973) argued that while advertising directed towards children stimulated their materialism and consumption, it also encouraged conflicts with their peers and parents for the same materialistic issues. They further advocated that, because children have not yet fully developed reasoning abilities, they are unable to evaluate the conveyed message, which could contain non-rational or unrealistic information that could be deceptive. Children, therefore, should be protected from advertising.
Investigations on the content of children's television advertising grew in importance after the genesis of television advertising directed to children (Alexander et al. 1998)[xviii] in conjunction with the development of marketing to children during the 1950s (McNeal 1987)[xix]. Content analysis was the research methodology generally employed to explore the environment of children's television advertising. Albeit content analysis was a relatively new methodology for consumer research in the 1970s, it was already broadly used in other research areas such as political science, journalism, social psychology, and communications research (Kassarjian 1977)[xx]. Unfortunately, no such extensive study has been undertaken in the Indian context. However, some journalistic works exist but serious study is conspicuous by its absence.
Though serious research into children’s consumer behaviour dates back to the 1950s with the publication of Brand Loyalty (Guest, 1955)[xxi] and Careers and Consumer Behaviour (Reisman et al, 1955)[xxii], it was in the 1960s that children as a consumer market was recognised. The recognition was due to researchers expanding their scope of inquiry to include children’s understanding of marketing and retail functions, influence on parents in purchasing decisions (McNeal, 1964)[xxiii], and relative influence of parents and peers on consumption patterns (Cateora, 1963)[xxiv]. These pioneering papers were largely responsible for establishing the topic of children’s consumer behaviour to a marketing audience, presenting empirical methods and data pertaining to children, and communicating results in mainstream marketing journals.
However, it was around the mid-1970s that children-consumers related research gained currency in the marketing community. In 1974, Scott Ward published his article “Consumer Socialisation”, where he argued forcefully in favour of studying children and their socialization into the consumer role. The author defined consumer socialization as “processes by which young people acquire skills, knowledge, and attitudes relevant to their functioning as consumers in the marketplace” (Ward 1974, p. 2)[xxv]. Today, researchers have explored a whole plethora of topics reflecting child’s as a consumer, knowledge of products, brands, advertising, pricing, decision-making strategies, and parental influence and negotiation approaches. In addition, the social aspects of the consumer role, exploring the development of consumption symbolism, social motives for consumption, and materialism have been examined in detail.
The role played by television in moulding children's behaviour as consumers has been widely documented in marketing literature. Osman & Aliah Hanim (1987/88)[xxvi], for example, asserted that their sample of children from the urban district of Petaling Jaya were able to recall unaided a wide variety of brands for snacks, clothes, toothpaste and soft drinks as a result of their television viewing patterns.
Frideres (1973)[xxvii] concluded from his study findings that television tended to create desires for toys among small children. He further posited that television advertisements might not affect all children directly. Instead, informal communication between children tended to also create needs in an indirect manner. Robertson, Rossiter and Gleason (1979)[xxviii] have also found some support for a direct link between exposure to medicine advertisements and a child's beliefs, attitudes and requests to parents regarding medicine.
Behavioural studies generally focus on the extent to which children are persuaded by advertisements. More specifically, they focus on children’s preferences for certain products over others and/or by the requests made for products in response to advertising. Studies on the behavioural effects of advertising find that television has a major effect on the products children ask for and that increased television watching leads to increased requests for advertised products. In addition, television advertising creates misperceptions among children about the nutritional values of foods and how to maintain positive health. Health experts believe that constant promotion of high-calorie food is contributing to the epidemic of childhood obesity in the United States by encouraging preferences for junk food and contributing to poor eating habits.
In "Advertising Decisions and Children's Product Categories," Eileen Bridges, Richard Briesch, and Chi Kin Yim (2004)[xxix] find that the “nag factor” (see Glossary) is effective and frequent brand switching is common for households with children. It may be pertinent to cite Professor George Gerbner, dean of the Annenberg School of Communications at the University of Pennsylvania. Gerbner argues that the mass media cultivate attitudes and values, which are already, present in a culture: the media maintain and propagate these values amongst members of a culture, thus binding it together. He has argued that television tends to cultivate middle-of-the-road political perspectives. And, Gross considered that 'television is a cultural arm of the established industrial order and as such serves primarily to maintain, stabilize and reinforce rather than to alter, threaten or weaken conventional beliefs and behaviours' (Boyd- Barrett & Braham, 1987)[xxx]. Such a function is conservative, but heavy viewers tend to regard themselves as 'moderate'.
If Gross is to be believed then we need to address one major issue that of ‘Established Industrial Order’. In American and also to a fair extent in European context this may be true but what about in societies where the established Industrial Order is from another cultural-set (western / developed society) and operates and seeks to influence the viewer (children) in a developing society like India.
Gerbner and his colleagues contend that television has a small but significant influence on the attitudes, beliefs, and judgements of viewers concerning the social world. The focus is on ‘heavy viewers’. People who watch a lot of television-programmes are likely to be more influenced by the ways in which television programmes frame the world than are individuals who watch less, especially regarding topics of which the viewer has little first-hand experience. Light viewers may have more sources of information than heavy viewers may.
However, Judith van Evra (1990)[xxxi] argues that by virtue of inexperience, young viewers may depend on television for information more than other viewers do, although Hawkins and Pingree (as cited by van Evra)[xxxii] argue that some children may not experience a cultivation effect at all where they do not understand motives or consequences. It may be that lone viewers are more open to a cultivation effect than those who view with others (Evra, 1990)[xxxiii].
Like wise, dominating our 'symbolic environment' is television advertising. It presents 'not a window on or reflection of the world, but a world in itself' (McQuail and Windahl, 1993)[xxxiv].
While absolute consensus has yet to be reached on the impact of advertising on children, many experts agree that television has a unique capacity to influence children both cognitively and behaviourally. Studies of cognitive effects generally focus on a child’s ability to distinguish between commercials and television programming and to understand that advertising is a tool used to sell products. Many young children, especially those under the age of eight in India, may have difficulty with this distinction; it is not until around the age of 12 that most children are able to comprehend the purpose of advertising.
Defining the Problem
In certain western countries, the authorities try to protect children by establishing age limits and ratings. However, children and their parents do not always understand the ratings, or they tend to belittle their value. In addition, many movie theatres and video-rental stores are known to disregard the age limits. Besides, some programmes and films are not even rated. The situation in India is far more alarming and unregulated (Vadehra, 2004)[xxxv].
Significance & Rationale
The study ‘Advertising and Indian Children: A Study of Socio- Economic & Political Impact in the National Capital Region’ assumes that the media have significant effects. Our minds are full of media-derived information and impressions. We live in a world flooded by media sounds and images, where politics, government, and business operate on the assumption that we know what is going on in the wider world. (This is true in case of population above the age of 18 years. However, in case of children, perception of reality is often, as many studies suggest, most prone to be compromised.) Few of us cannot think of some personal instance of gaining significant information or of forming an opinion because of the media. Much money and effort is also spent on directing the media to achieve such effects.
Ever since James McNeal (1992)[xxxvi] recognized children as a distinct consumer market, advertisers have been interested in developing strategies to reach the child consumer. Matching the growing interest in children as consumers is increased concern about the consequences of marketing aimed at children, in particular television advertising.
Children’s exposure to television commercials is all through the year; and according to Kaplan (1991)[xxxvii] and Aulette (1994)[xxxviii] children ages 2 to 11 watch as many as 22,000-25,000 commercials each year. On an average, children will see 420 or more commercials each week[xxxix]. Come holiday or festival season the barrage of television advertising intensifies and children become extra vulnerable to the pressure. Pitted against bright, talented ad-agency teams devoted to convincing kids they cannot live without a certain action figure, computer game, or pair of brand-name sneakers is an adult’s sense of moderation. Many children expect that the holiday season will bring them every gift on their wish list. The result can be disastrous -- disappointed kids and guilty parents. Further, there is manipulation of media content through product placement; that is, financing programming by incorporating a sponsor's product into a show's content (Linn, May 21, 2000)[xl]. The children remain exposed to this double jeopardy.
Therefore, this paper looks at the mass media (advertising) as a socializing agent and investigates whether advertisement viewers (children) come to believe the ‘Ad’ version of reality the more they watch it.
The study further investigates another hypothesis that Indian Urban Children, under the influence of advertising campaigns of corporate like Kellogg, Coca-Cola, Pepsi, Nestle-Cadburys, McDonald, Parle, Leo-Mattel, Maruti Udyog, and Peers soap are slowly transforming from a Pester Group Into A Pressure Group through a case study in the National Capital Region (New Delhi, India).
The mainstay of this research is that Advertising constitutes a separate ‘social institution’ within society, with its own rules and practices, but subject to definition and limitation by the wider society. “The media (advertising being part of it) are ultimately dependent on society, although they have some scope for independent influence and they may be gaining in autonomy as their range of activity, economic significance, and informal power grows” (McQuail, 2000)[xli].
The influence of television on children's behaviour has long been of concern among parents. Grossbart and Crosby (1984)[xlii] have suggested that heavy television advertising of food products creates some concern among parents because it promotes poor nutritional habits and serious health risks. Another source of television influence emanates from the advertisements interference with the content and/or structure of parent-child interactions. Television advertising can create a conflict between a child and his/her parents when they disagree as to what is "best" for the child.
The advertising industry aggressively seeks to understand, anticipate, and influence the perceived needs and desires of young consumers. Because marketers have taken an increasingly disciplined approach to market research, they have gained a wealth of information about children. Successful marketing is based on correctly representing customer lifestyles and making products relevant to their lives. A range of advertising styles, techniques, and channels are used to reach children and youth to foster brand loyalty and encourage product use. Some approaches are market segmentation; television advertising; sales promotions at schools, stores, and sporting events; multimedia exposure; celebrity endorsement; kid’s clubs; product placement; and advertorials. In addition, retailers, manufacturers, wholesalers, the media, schools, and corporate donors are creating mutually beneficial partnerships to gain access to, and capture the attention of, young consumers. One of their goals is to develop a market for tomorrow’s adult consumers.
The basic premise of market segmentation is that different groups of consumers have diverse attitudes, interests, and behaviours. Moreover, by acknowledging these differences, marketers believe they can increase their chances of influencing consumers’ behaviours. Segmentation involves describing the potential market’s physical, behavioural, demographic, psychographic, and geographic characteristics. Gender, age, socioeconomic status, and ethnicity are four ways that advertisers segment the youth market.
Marketers often segment age with several other factors, such as gender and socioeconomic status. Only recently have marketers acknowledged the importance of ethnic minority subcultures. Marketers tend to assume that the preferences and consumer habits of various ethnic groups are not significantly different among young children, but these preferences and habits become significant during older childhood and adolescence when ethnic and cultural identities are formed. The ability to understand and depict cultural nuances and the use of appropriate language are the two greatest challenges faced by marketers and educators in effectively reaching ethnic minority groups that are distinct and heterogeneous.
Television has been identified as the medium that provides the widest and most frequent reach for younger children. Studies, conducted in the United States of America and Europe, show that pre-schoolers spend more time watching television than they spend on anything else except sleeping (Anderson, Lorch, Field, Collins, & Nathan, 1986)[xliii]. According to Kaplan (1991)[xliv] and Aulette (1994)[xlv] children ages 2 to 11 watch an average of 26 hours of television each week. In a 3-hour setting, a child may watch about 30 minutes of advertising, totalling 20-40 advertisements each hour depending on their length and may be exposed to as many as 22,000-25,000 commercials each year. Research on television viewing and children's socialization indicates that television has a considerable impact on children's lives (Lauer & Lauer, 1994)[xlvi]. Television commercials use attention-catching techniques such as attractive models and familiar songs and jingles; they provide easily stored and recalled images from memory; they motivate children to retain information by highlighting the relevant, desired behaviour; and they are highly repetitious. Advertisers are now looking beyond children’s programs to reach the larger audience of children who are watching prime-time television or listening to the radio with their parents because it is an opportunity to reinforce the connection between children’s independent purchases and their influence on family purchases. Marketers who want to focus on children’s personal spending choose media that deliver messages to a large number of children in their desired target group. Marketers who want to take advantage of young people’s power to influence family purchases choose commercials or television programs that reach children or teenage youth together with their parents.
Heroes, heroines, and role models can motivate children and teenage youth to buy products and services. The celebrities most admired by children are entertainers or athletes. The likes of McDonald’s and Pepsi have used Michael Jordon, Michael Jackson, Shahrukh Khan, and Virendra Sehwag to endorse food and beverage products targeted to children. Celebrity endorsements encourage children to buy products for their status appeal.
The status products being marketed are costly, and celebrity commercials are becoming increasingly slick. Today’s children are contending not only with the celebrity appeal in television and magazine advertisements but also with peer pressure from friends who see the same commercials. Children must also face the financial realities of wanting products that they do not need and/or their parents cannot afford.
Some corporations (Nickelodeon, Fox, Burger King, and Disney) have created kid’s clubs. A kid’s club establishes an ongoing relationship with its members by providing membership cards and participatory activities that are dependent on spending money. Research has suggested that kid’s clubs promote consumerism, reinforce commercial interests by building brand loyalty, and provide a convenient vehicle to deliver commercial messages and perpetuate ongoing advertising to children. Many of these clubs use their enrolment databases to distribute coupons for club merchandise.
The above-sited issues in themselves warrant a further in-depth study on impact of advertising on children as:
Children represent a group of potential consumers, with increasing purchasing power, yet on account of their youth are easily influenced by impressions conveyed by adults. They are probably the most susceptible group of all consumers in this respect.
Children are exposed and should be protected. The adults closest to them, normally the parents, usually provide the first line of protection. However, this is a difficult perhaps impossible task for the parents alone, especially considering the enormous effectiveness of the TV medium.
Children cannot distinguish between TV advertising and programs. A substantial part of the research indicates that it is only around the age of 12 that most children have developed a more complete understanding of the purpose of advertising. (Even if children at an earlier age may very well be aware that TV ads are presented in a different form than TV programs, it does not mean that they are also aware of the commercial purpose).
Children look at advertising for adults, why can they not have their own. Research shows that children understand more easily the purpose of TV advertising directed towards adults than the purpose of ads directed at them.
Children are an important economic factor. To companies children are an attractive target groups as they become aware of certain products at an early age and significantly affect the purchasing decisions of their parents.
A large proportion of food advertising in connection with children’s programs bears testimony to the fact that companies increasingly tend to challenge the decisions of parents.
The proposed research’s premise is that the main kinds of media (Advertising) induced changes can:
Cause intended change
Cause unintended change
Cause minor change (form or intensity)
Facilitate change (intended or not)
Reinforce what exists in larger social reality (no change)
Prevent change
Any of these changes may occur at the level of the individual, society, institution, or culture. Heavy watching of any media is seen as ‘cultivating’ attitudes, as George Gerbner argues (as cited by Severin & Tankard, June 2000)[xlvii], which are more consistent with the world based on commercial dictates of corporate producers of goods & market rather than with the everyday world. Watching advertising may tend to induce a general mindset about needs, “must have,” and consumerism in the world. Some young impressionable minds on growing up as adults may exhibit tendencies of blind brand loyalties, or fickleness of mind, or subscribe to certain biased free-market oriented socio-economic policies, and or even divergent neo-cultural political mindsets. This in turn may prompt deviant or irrational approach to life, society, and social interaction. In western-developed societies, much policy and regulation is directed at preventing the media from causing harm.
In the epilogue to her path-breaking book, When Old Technologies Were New: Thinking About Electric Communication in the Late Nineteenth Century[xlviii], Carolyn Marvin writes that the early electrical technologies - the electric telegraph and the electric light - were central to the new era of "cognitive imperialism", in which "Western civilization was the centre of the stage play for which the rest of the world was an awestruck audience”. This holds true today for advertising as the gradual westernization of developing societies is an inevitable consequence of the, perhaps unconscious propaganda of multi-national advertising agencies.
Operative definitions:
What is a Child?
Article 1 defines the holder of rights under the Convention on the Rights of the Child[xlix] as ‘every human being below the age of 18 years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier.’ The Convention clearly specifies the upper age limit for childhood as 18 years, but recognises that majority may be obtained at an earlier age under laws applicable to the child.
Though legislation has been enacted to make 18 years the general age of majority in India, 21 years continues to be the upper limit for childhood for some purposes, partly due to the influence of nineteenth-century English Law and partly due to current exigencies (Child and Law, 1998)[l] For example, India recognises 21 years as the age of majority in circumstances where a guardian has been appointed by the Court for a child below the age of 18 years.[li]
Through out the study, the term child / children refer to young people aged between 8 years and 12 years only. Children are economically dependent and not capable of reasoning at the adult level, and considered emotionally and economically vulnerable. According to Allen Kanner (October, 2003)[lii], a child psychologist, “They (children) are less sophisticated in terms of analyzing the purpose of an advertisement, and the strategies and manipulation being used to convince them…”
What is advertising?
Advertising can be recognised and defined as openly paid, non-personal communication forms used with persuasive intent by identified sources through various media.
An analysis of each element of this definition follows:
Openly Paid: Advertising is openly (and directly) paid for as against publicity, which is not openly paid for by the source (therefore, the source, meaning the sponsor, is not identified). Since it is paid, the sponsor (identified source) has control over the form, content and scheduling of the advertisement.
Non-personal communication: This phrase excludes any form of personal selling, which is usually done on a person-to-person or on a door-to-door basis. If it is a person-to-person presentation, it does not strictly constitute advertising.
Forms: Advertising may be in any form of presentation. It may be a sign, a symbol, and an illustration, an ad message in a magazine or newspaper, a commercial on the radio or on television, a circular despatched through the mail or a pamphlet handed out at a street corner, a sketch or a message on a hoarding or a poster or a banner on the Net. Any form of presentation, which an advertiser imagines will fulfil the requirements of an ad can be employed. The proposed study shall, however, be confined to advertising on electronic media namely Television.
Persuasive Intent:
The message of any advertising is always to ‘persuade’ the target audience to realise the potential, merits, and importance of the product or goods, services, and Ideas for Action and awaken the sleeping desire or encourage a need to purchase the same. The text prompts the audience to explore, evaluate, and realise the need for the product or service and thereby prompt the target audience member to undertake a purchasing decision.
All this can be done by attracting attention, rousing interest, building desire, and obtaining action (which will result in successfully selling of goods, services, Ideas for Action.).
Identified Sources:
The sponsor (source) of any advertising material is always openly identified. It may be so by his or her company’s name or brand name or both. If, in an ad, the sponsor is not identified and it is not paid for its use of the media in which it has appeared, the message is considered publicity. The publicity material, when prepared, may be paid for by its sponsor; but the media that carries it does so free of charge.
Advertising is a disarmingly simple and extraordinarily complex phenomenon. The study of implications of this phenomenon or advertology, as Isaac Asimov called it, is based on three traditional premises:
That media (advertising) is a part of the larger whole of the society and business system.
That the receiver of the advertising message is at the heart of the advertising transaction: Advertising seems to perform most efficiently when it interprets its subject matters in terms that are ‘meaningful’ to the lives of those it seeks to influence.
That advertising does not lend itself to oversimplification and facile categorisation. Hence, the various forms of advertising (retail, business, trade, idea, and etcetera) and is referred through out the study as a whole rather than treated as things apart or different forms since the intent in case of addressing the young consumer is the same.
Aims & Objectives
To understand responses of children about selected advertising.
To ascertain persuasive power of advertising on children in urban India has both short-term and long-term effects, which are small, gradual, indirect but cumulative and significant.
Explore the effects of advertisement viewing on the attitudes of viewers (urban Indian children).
Explore possible “first order effects” (general beliefs about the everyday world) and “second order effects” (specific attitudes) on urban Indian children.
A policy recommendation be developed on the basis of which i) a ban for children under 12 be recommended or ii) a rational, stringent set of guidelines and regulations governing advertising for children.
[i] Packard, Vance (1961). The Hidden Persuaders. Pocket. later Printing. Mass Market Paperback.
[ii] Chunawalla, S., A., & Sethia, K., C. (2003). Foundations Of Advertising – Theory & Practice (5th Edition). Himalaya Publishing House. Mumbai
[iii] Anderson, D. R., Lorch, E. P., Field, D. E., Collins, P., & Nathan, J. G. (1986). ‘Television viewing at home: Age trends in visual attention and time with TV’. Child Development, 57, p. 1024-1033.
[iv] Cooke, R. (2002). Kids and Media. International Journal of Advertising and Marketing to children, 3(4), p.29-36.
[v] American Psychological Association (2004), "Report of the APA Task Force on Advertising and Children", American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, available at: www.apa.org/releases/childrenads.pdf.
[vi] Lauer, R. H., & Lauer, J. C. (1994). Marriage and family: The quest for intimacy. Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark.
[vii] Anderson, D. R., Lorch, E. P., Field, D. E., Collins, P., & Nathan, J. G. (1986). Television viewing at home: Age trends in visual attention and time with TV. Child Development, 57, p. 1024-1033.
Kaplan, P. (1991). A Child's Odyssey. St. Paul, M N: West Publishing.
Aulette, J. R. (1994). Changing families. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
[viii] See Glossary
[ix] Basow, S. A. (1992). Gender stereotypes and roles (3rd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing.
[x] Stoneman, Z., & Brody, G. H. (1981). Peers as mediators of television food advertisements aimed at children. Developmental Psychology, 17, p. 853-858.
[xi] Kunkel, Dale, “Children and television advertising,” Dorothy G. Singer & Jerome L. Singer, 2001 edition, Handbook of Children and the Media, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. pp. 375-393.
[xii] Kunkel, Dale, “Children and television advertising,” Dorothy G. Singer & Jerome L. Singer, 2001 edition, Handbook of Children and the Media, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. pp. 375-393.
[xiii] Stop Commercial Exploitation of Children, http://www.commercialexploitation.com/what_we_do.htm, generated 6/3/04.
[xiv] “Television Advertising Leads to Unhealthy Habits in Children; Says APA Task Force,” American Psychological Association press release, 2/23/04, http://www.apa.org/releases/childrenads.html, generated 6/4/04.
[xv] Kaiser Family Foundation, The Role of Media in Childhood Obesity, February 2004, p. 10, http://www.kff.org/entmedia/loader.cfm?url=/commonspot/security/getfile.cfm&PageID=32022, generated 6/6/04.
[xvi] Chunawalla, S., A., & Sethia, K., C. (2003). Foundations Of Advertising – Theory & Practice (5th Edition). Himalaya Publishing House. Mumbai. (2p)
[xvii] Winick, Charles, Lorne G. Williamson, Stuart F. Chuzmir, and Mariann P. Winick (1973), Children's Television Commercials: A Content Analysis, New York: Praeger.
[xviii] Alexander, Alison, Louise M. Benjamin, Keisha Hoerrner, and Darrell Roe (1998),""We'll Be Back In a Moment": A Content Analysis of Advertisements in Children's Television in the 1950s," Journal of Advertising, 27 (3), p. 1-8.
[xix] McNeal, James U. (1987), Children As Consumers: Insights And Implications, Lexington: Lexington Books.
[xx] Kassarjian, Harold H. (1977), "Content Analysis in Consumer Research," Journal of Consumer Research, 4 (June), p. 8-18.
[xxi] Guest, Lester P. (1955), “Brand Loyalty—Twelve Years Later,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 39 (December), p. 405–408
[xxii] Reisman, David and Howard Roseborough (1955), “Careers and Consumer Behavior,” in Consumer Behavior, Vol. 2, The Life Cycle and Consumer Behavior, ed. Lincoln Clark, New York: New York University Press, p. 1–18
[xxiii] McNeal, James U. (1964), Children as Consumers, Austin: Bureau of Business Research, University of Texas at Austin.
[xxiv] Cateora, Phillip R. (1963), An Analysis of the Teenage Market, Austin: University of Texas Bureau of Business Research.
[xxv] Ward, Scott (1974), “Consumer Socialization,” Journal of Consumer Research, 1 (September), p. 1–14.
[xxvi] Osman Md Zain & Aliah Hanim Mohd Salleh. 1987/88. Patterns of Television Viewing by Malaysian Children in the Urban District of Petaling Jaya." Journal Pengurusan 6 & 7: p. 69-80.
[xxvii] Frideres, James S. 1973. "Advertising, Buying Patterns and Children." Journal of Advertising Research 13, 1 (February): p. 34-36.
[xxviii] Robertson, T, Rossiter, J R & Gleason, T C. 1979. "Children's Receptivity to Proprietary Medicine Advertising." Journal of Consumer Research 6 (December): p. 247-255.
[xxix] Eileen Bridges, Richard A. Briesch, and Chi Kin (Bennett) Yim (August 2004). “Advertising Decisions and “Children’s” Product Categories. A SMU Cox Research Paper for A.C. Nielsen Company
[xxx] Boyd-Barrett, Oliver & Peter Braham (eds.) (1987): Media, Knowledge & Power. London: Croom Helm. (100p)
[xxxi] Evra, Judith Page van. (1990). Television and child development. Hillsdale, N.J.: L. Erlbaum Associates, p. 167
[xxxii] Evra, Judith Page van. (1990). Television and child development. Hillsdale, N.J.: L. Erlbaum Associates, p. 167
[xxxiii] Evra, Judith Page van. (1990). Television and child development. Hillsdale, N.J.: L. Erlbaum Associates, p. 171
[xxxiv] McQuail, Denis & Sven Windahl (1993): Communication Models for the Study of Mass Communication. London: Longman (p. 100)
[xxxv] Vadehra, Sharad. “Advertising to children in India”. Young Consumers Quarter 4, 2004
[xxxvi] McNeal, James U. (1992) Kids as Customers: A Handbook of Marketing to Children. Lexington Books, nd, c1992
[xxxvii] Kaplan, P. (1991). A Child's Odyssey. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing.
[xxxviii] Aulette, J. R. (1994). Changing Families. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
[xxxix] Poussaint, Alvin and Linn, Susan. In their web article: Surviving Television Advertising. on http://fun.familyeducation.com/television/advertising/34912.html claimed this figure to be 576 television advertisements per week.
[xl] Linn, Susan (May 21, 2000). How about "The Sopranos" sell . . . soda? Product messages of big time sponsors leach into shows and scripts. © 2000 Globe Newspaper Company
[xli] Denis McQuail, Mass Communication Theory, fourth ed. 2000, SAGE Publications
[xlii] Grossbart, S L & Crosby, L A. 1984. "Understanding the Bases of Parental Concern and Reaction to Children's Food Advertising.” Journal of Marketing 48 (Summer): p. 79-92.
[xliii] Anderson, D. R., Lorch, E. P., Field, D. E., Collins, P., & Nathan, J. G. (1986). ‘Television viewing at home: Age trends in visual attention and time with TV’. Child Development, 57, p. 1024-1033.
[xliv] Kaplan, P. (1991). A Child's Odyssey. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing.
[xlv] Aulette, J. R. (1994). Changing Families. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
[xlvi] Lauer, R. H., & Lauer, J. C. (1994). Marriage and Family: The Quest for Intimacy. Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark.
[xlvii] Severin, Werner J. & Tankard, James W. (June 2000) Communication Theories: Origins, Methods and Uses in the Mass Media (5th Edition), Allyn & Bacon; 5 edition (June 19, 2000), p. 299-301.
[xlviii] Marvin, Carolyn (1988). When Old Technologies Were New: Thinking About Electric Communication in the Late Nineteenth Century. Oxford University Press; Reprint edition (May 1990)
[xlix] Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989). The United Nations adopted the ‘Convention on the Rights of the Child’ (CRC) in 1989. In 1992, just three years later, India acceded to the CRC, becoming one of the first few countries in the world to do so.
[l] Child and Law, Indian Council for Child Welfare, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India, 1998, page 210.
[li] Child and Law, Indian Council for Child Welfare, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India, 1998, page 210.
[lii] Kasser, Tim and Kanner, Allen D. (Eds). Psychology and Consumer Culture: The Struggle for a Good Life in a Materialistic World. American Psychological Association (APA) (October 2003).

George Walker Bush: A Failed Legacy

2008-12-22T11:26:00.000-05:00

How will you remember the out going 43rd president of the United States of America, George Walker Bush? The days after 9/11 were a spine-chilling reminder that America faces murderous enemies spanning the globe, and to his credit, it was President Bush who reassured and led his nation in a time of unimaginably harrowing grief. His leadership immediately following the September 11th attacks, especially with regard to building a worldwide coalition in the early fight against the Taliban and al-Qaeda in Afghanistan, seemed to promise great things… but then promises are mere promises!

Those great things, however, never materialized. The Iraq war, the Hurricane Katrina debacle, near showdown with Iran, standoff with North Korea, handling of emergent Russia and a history of disregard for civil liberties and international law has virtually destroyed President Bush’s legacy in the short term, at least for the remainder of his lifetime. Not to forget, his lame duck role as the American Economy went into recession and thousands lost jobs and homes.

I still remember, it was hot and sultry in the newsroom and everyone’s eyes were glued to a TV set - New York’s iconic twin towers were conspicuous by their absence, amidst dirt and rubble, at ‘Ground Zero’ stood President George W. Bush addressing a shell-shocked nation. “America today is on a bended knee, in prayer for the people whose lives were lost here, for the workers who work here, for the families who mourn. This nation stands with the good people of New York City and New Jersey and Connecticut as we mourn the loss of thousands of our citizens.” A rescue worker, who couldn’t hear the President uttered: “I can't hear you!” What followed was unscripted rhetoric. President Bush remarked extemporaneously, "I can hear you! I can hear you! The rest of the world hears you! And the people -- and the people who knocked these buildings down will hear all of us soon!" [Transcript Source: White House (www.whitehouse.gov)] I immediately developed a sense of awe and respect for the patriarch whose paternalistic devotion to protect his people in the wake of 9/11 reigned supreme. But what followed was an unmitigated disaster for America.

If my memory serves me right, I think President Bush has the unique distinction of being the first president of the United States to include diverse underrepresented groups within the federal government, especially within his cabinet. He needs to be acknowledged for crossing partisan lines and continuing the Clintonian tradition. History will remember President Bush in part for appointing Condoleezza Rice (the first African American National Security Advisory), Colin Powell (the first African-American Secretary of State), Elaine Chao (the first Asian-American Secretary of Labour), and Alberto Gonzales (the first Chicano Attorney General). Dr. Condoleezza Rice subsequently went on to become the Secretary of State (second African American, and the second woman - after Madeleine Albright) …

President Bush, despite having highly qualified and intellectual office-bearers at the Oval Office, has suffered a misplaced ideological handicap. He never came out of the influence of the Cold War Era (perhaps courtesy his father and Ronald Reagan, his hero) nor did he choose to acquaint himself with the larger reality that the American Way of Life is not the only way of life. He was lost in the world where free and unregulated Market Forces formed the only life support system and Capitalism was the will of God. Economic & Market Regulatory framework amounted to governmental control, therefore akin to Socialism – thus a taboo! Therefore, when the American Economy showed the first major signs of crisis, about two years ago with the housing/realty sector, some intervention was warranted. No not for President Bush! Run away corruption and greed has been raising its ugly head at Wall Street for now roughly three years. Corporate scandals (like Enron) abounded as did the greed of Oil companies to reap profits with the ethics of a grave robber. All this did not bode well for the corporate sector, the economy, and the American goodwill world wide.

What will be George W. Bush’s legacy? The answer seems sadly simple… the president who, on his farewell visit to Iraq, had to duck and negotiate flying shoes. The “President of War”! The President who misinformed and, in all probability, even lied to the world, as his administration conspired against Saddam Hussein. Bush mesmerized the American people with his highly imaginative and inaccurate tales of Osama Bin Laden and Saddam Hussein being flip sides of the same coin.

The 43rd President of the United States of America will also be remembered as the one who finally managed to alienate America’s closest European allies. Germany and France found themselves openly voicing their disenchantment with the “Bush Doctrine”. Ironically, after eight years of Bush rule - inclusive of five years of the “Bush Doctrine,” America landed up undermining the very foundation of the United Nations that it had helped create by unilaterally embarking on the Invasion of Iraq. Interestingly, the American Don Quixote while championing the cause of democracy pursued a typical authoritarian road map to Baghdad. In the process, the knight in tin armour sowed seeds of discontent and resentment even in quarters that were sympathetic to the American View of the World. It is under President Bush’s stewardship, the Pew Global Attitudes Project findings indicate, that the global opinion of the United States of America has taken a serious tumble.

In today’s world of economic inter-dependency, given the size and nature of the America-centric international trade and commerce, it is unlikely that many countries may go the whole hog in assuming rigid anti-American stances. But I fear that America may have isolated itself in most international organisations, including the United Nations.

Denial of the Global Warming Phenomena, Somersaults on the Kyoto Agreement, keeping quiet on the China-Tibet issue, overlooking tin-pot dictators in Africa (and at times supporting them), skewed policies in dealing with Al Qaeda and the Taliban, wanton violation of the Geneva Convention at prisons like Abu Ghraib and detention centres like in Guantanamo Bay have done irreparable damage to America. And, all of that has happened under the watch of George W. Bush.

It was not long ago when President Bush stood on a naval aircraft carrier with a banner screaming “mission accomplished!” The invasion of Iraq was over, the war on terror won and democracy established in Iraq! Three years down the line body bags continue to arrive in America, with no end in sight. America today rides a tiger which it fears disembarking! The truth is that the moment American forces retreat from this quagmire; all rival factions will usher Iraq into a bloodbath. It seems, Iraq was definitely better off under Saddam!

On the other hand, spasmodic efforts to engage Al Qaeda and the Taliban in Afghanistan have failed to secure safety for America. Mr. Bush committed himself and his people to the Afghan War (and I am reminded of “Auckland's Folly” of 1838) without having deliberated on a viable alternative to Taliban for Afghanistan – like economic and social development. The President had rushed in where angels have feared to tread! Today, America faces graver security threats at the hands of terrorist than ever before.

President Bush went on to become highly unpopular within his own country, as well. The Patriot Act provided the federal government with the legal jurisdiction and political capital to access the personal information of its citizens. President Bush reversed some of the most basic of guaranteed civil liberties including Article IV of the Bill of Rights. The security agencies indulged in stereotypes and social profiling is carried out against a certain set of people irrespective of their nationality to the extent that it has become an abomination.

Many critics believe that Bush was a disaster; they have gone to the limit of attributing even the present global economic crash to his policies. According to them, President Bush will go down in history books for the following reasons:

Abu Ghraib
Alberto Gonzalez
Blackwater
Cheney shooting someone in the face
Enron
Faith Based Initiatives
Falsified intelligence
Firing of U.S. Attorneys
Inflation
Loss of Habeas Corpus
Rising unemployment
Scooter Libby
September 11, 2001
Sinking economy
Sinking public opinion
Soaring gas prices
Suppression of climate science
The Afghan War
The Iraqi Quagmire
The Katrina debacle
The Patriot Act
Torture
Tyco
Veto of stem cell bill
Water Boarding
Wire Tapping

To sum up I would like to quote Monti Narayan Datta’s dissertation work focusing on the consequences of anti-Americanism for the US national interest.

“The legacy of George W. Bush will be bleak. Here stands a man with essentially a good heart, and the right intentions—to help spread freedom and democracy around the globe. He has enjoyed the company of a brilliant cabinet in the Oval Office that has shared his ideological misadventures. Yet, the man has done more harm to the US national interest in the past five years than all other US presidents have over the past fifty-years combined... President Bush’s policies have garnered hatred around the world, particularly in the Middle East. Meanwhile, the Bush Administration has sharply curtailed some of Americans’ basic civil liberties... tarring America’s image as a country of freedom and equality... America is far less safe today because of one, and only one man—George W. Bush.”

It may be difficult to absolve President Bush of his doings, but I am also convinced that President Bush served merely as a catalyst to polarise all Anti-American sentiment which had been simmering across the globe for a long-long time. Europe has been talking of the neo-imperialism of America long before even George Bush Senior had descended on the White House. Latin America always found itself at wrong end of the White House’s policies. Many dictators and unpopular governments, all across the globe, have survived by merely granting concessions to Multi-National Companies (to be read as the American Interest). Ever since the Balfour Declaration in 1918, the Arab World has felt cheated! The American policy in dealing with Israel has done little to restore trust or even assuage the frayed tempers in the Middle East. The West’s and the US’s long-standing obsession with Islam as a threat perception has added fuel to fire.

We know that George Walker Bush did not conjure up the “Clash of Civilisations” theory, he simply was not wedded to the idea of a “Dialogue among Civilizations” keeping in line with polices of many of his predecessors. Most of the Third World and the Developing Nations have been wary or “pissed off” with the American View of the World. President Bush did not create Osama bin Laden, Osama and his likes are outcome of a consistent viewpoint held by the American polity! Ironically, Bush tried to don the mantle of the Messiah of Peace between Israel and Palestine but failed miserably! When giants cast a shadow hope for shade!

America is definitely not a villain of the first order nor is all encompassing conclave of so-called anti-American sentiment innocent lambs. All that the 43rd President of the United States of America did was, rather tactlessly; bring the malady plaguing the world to the fore! He was, in part, reaping the fruits from the seeds that some of his predecessors had sown. Yet, he will be seen as a President who missed opportunities at every turn to make the country and the world a better, safer place. He will be remembered as the leader who diminished respect for America around the globe. And more than any President in American history, he divided people along religious and ideological lines to further his own agenda. Given the reason for the ongoing fight in Iraq, this last part is the saddest irony of all. He was simply a wrong man at a wrong place at a wrong time!

Mumbai 26/11 - Hostage Drama plays out on Electronic Media

2008-11-28T07:58:00.000-05:00

It is has been over 42 hours since Indians have been struggling to come to terms with the new face of terrorism which descended on Mumbai with altered ‘rules of the game’. The wake of terror has left around 125 dead, over 300 injured and some 30 presumably held hostage.

Yes, the security lapses are evident, from the luxury hotel staff level to anti-terrorist forces right through counter-terrorist bodies & intelligence agencies. Yes, the Financial Capital of India, Mumbai, with a population of around 19 million coupled with a humungous figure that floats in and out each day as immigrant work force makes it a rather uphill task to enforce a security blanket or track potential threat perspectives with surety.

Yes, the security forces may have fumbled initially but to insinuate that they were a bunch of headless chickens running amok is wrong, biased, outright stupid and irresponsible as some of the international media tried hinting. The BBC World Services went to the extent of stating that the Indian Security Forces were adopting the same foolhardy approach that the Russians had taken during the Chechen separatist / terrorists’ October 2002 seizure of Moscow's Dubrovka Theater, where approximately seven hundred people were attending a performance. Russian Special Forces launched a rescue operation, but the opium-derived gas they used to disable the hostage-takers killed more than 120 hostages, as well as many of the terrorists. BBC London went the whole hog on how India has transformed from a strong emergent economy and a highly favoured foreign investment destination to a highly unsafe, terror and strife ridden country. According to initial reports from London, foreign investors are trying to withdraw their capital, lock stock and barrel. It seems that this illustrious institution of journalism forgot all about the global credit crunch, recession in Europe and the United States of America, not to mention China, India, Japan and the rest of the world. Interestingly, all of the major financial rating companies have attributed the decline in foreign investment in India to the global credit crunch and strongly feel that 26/11 – the Mumbai crisis will have a marginal effect in the long run. The foreign media seems to be much more concerned with the foreign tourists being targeted rather than the human tragedy which is unfolding. However, despite the initial reports of British and American passport holders being singled out, according to the reports filtering in, out of the 125 deaths so far, only six were that of foreign nationals while the death toll of security personnel lost has still not been released.

Paula Newton, an international security correspondent for CNN based in CNN's London bureau, came up with an equally ridiculous stance that the Indian Intelligence was as blind as a bat and had no idea how to react to situations like 26/11. She then embraced a didactic avatar educating the viewers about how the security forces should have conducted themselves and what precautions should have been taken by the Indian Security Agencies post-Islamabad Marriott Hotel bombing that occurred on 20 September 2008. She made it seem that American Security Agencies knew that 9/11 would take place and they had prevented it. She spoke of how western security concerns are addressed by their respective countries. Ironically, the security agencies in the world’s most monitored city by all sorts of cameras failed to foil the 7 July 2005 London bombings (also called the 7/7 bombings).

Al Jazeera had its own take! Mahan Abedin, an insurgency analyst, deliberated on the “sheer inequality of life in India” theory. Al Jazeera is confident that India has highly fractured, bitter and acrimonious inter-communal relations between the Muslims and the Hindus as the order of the day. Terrorism in India should be seen in this light and be regarded as home grown. Abedin stated that even people who commit heinous acts of violence occasionally make a valid point. I do concede that indeed by showing genuine concern for the plight of the millions of people who are at risk of death from poverty and by honouring the sanctity of the lives of the most destitute, we have the best chance of defeating the ideologies of hate. However, it is pertinent to point out that this alleged hatred is confined to the ultra-rightwing thinkers of both side of the divide only. India would have not emerged as a major economy if a state of peaceful coexistence and profit making had not existed.

Here I would like to point out that it is highly probable that there is a ‘foreign sectarian conspiracy’ that seeks to punish India for having sided with two major western powers in its so-called war against terror. This foreign hand has tapped on the ultra-rightwing minorities. But the Indian Terrorist/Separatist Movement (and mind you I refer to all ultra-right wing Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs and Nagas) has never ever targeted the western populace. It has at most indulged in planting bombs, low or high intensity, but never sent trained warriors to undertake ‘urbanised terror-war games’. Unfortunately, the appearance of the Grand Old Butcher of the Western Indian State of Gujarat, Narendra Modi, on the national media with his blame game did validate Al Jazeera’s claim.

The very fact that India’s war on terror, and I use the term with some reservation and it is not in the same way that Bush uses it, is summoning up resources from various federal and state authorities, also came under fire from many an international news agencies. All three major and respected broadcasting agencies used disparaging terms like ‘confused’, ‘uncoordinated’, and ‘aimlessness of the effort’. I am yet to come across any security operation conducted by any security agency anywhere in the world having invited the media as its silent partner. The media has always been used by everyone as a vehicle of their intent only. Yet it is the duty of the media to work as a watchdog of society to deliver authenticated facts and not indulge in rumour mongering. Maybe, in retrospect, the Indian authorities should have had regular press-briefings to feed the media with controlled information that could circulate in the public domain. When the press briefings did happen they were definitely uncoordinated, ill prepared and the authorities seemed to present unfriendly officers before the press. These officers were members of the actual tactical teams that had gone in. Further, these officers had not been briefed, by their superiors with public relations experience, about how much to speak or what to speak.

It was natural for all international media to turn to the Indian broadcast institutions for information. It turned out to be a case of the ‘blind leading the blind’. NDTV, one of India’s major news channel’s coverage looked immature charged with passion, devoid of any real authentic facts, pathetic use of clichés, and highly ungrammatical usage of English. We heard pidgin statements like “terrorists full of guns”, “eighth round of gunshots”, “forces will encounter here”, “two terrorist are encountered here”, “this is where fresh blood fell”, “they first come by sea” etc.

The first 12 hours were reported with the enthusiasm of an election coverage mated with readings of a cricket score card. Reporters, it is obvious were fresh and had no idea how to report an incident like what was unfolding in Mumbai. One excited young lady reported with spasmodic gestures, “These are fresh blood stains, this is exactly where somebody was killed.” Another, journalist was seen beaming with pride that she was at an undisclosable location to witness “the end game” unfold… a refrain that she is still using after a lapse of 40 hours of the hostage drama. Another journalist, obviously impressed by the phrase, adapted a new construct of ‘final push’. Then there was another journalist who could only utter “there is utter confusion here” repeatedly, as the camera kept rocking and swaying only to reveal security forces calmly lining up some hundred metres away. We also heard the refrain of “mother ship”, “delicate stage of end game”, “war zone”, “this is India’s 9/11”, “Mumbai 9/11”. And we had a barrage of questions at the press conference, with classics like “What is the condition of the dead bodies?” “What is the condition of the explosives?” and “How did the holed up terrorists defend themselves?”

However, once the initial rush of adrenaline subsided and the senior journalists descended on the scene, NDTV tried going slow on the rumour mill and projecting unconfirmed reports and conjectures as facts. Unfortunately, by then the damage had been done. International media was quoting them as Indian commentators calling the situation as fluid and highly confusing. This picture may be attributed to the fact that most Indian broadcast journalists claimed access to well placed, authoritative and informed sources and what they were narrating as facts. NDTV’s attempt to portray the human angle to this hostage drama is commendable, especially when facts are hard to come by.
On a lighter note, I couldn’t help noticing, during the early hours of the hostage drama, that when one foreign media chose to interview some Mumbai radio jockey by the name of Ms. Malini, as a witness, her accent transformed from a typical Indian to a highly affected and anglicised and nasal English…

To finally conclude, I feel that the counter-terrorist operations are being conducted in a highly professional and coordinated manner. But, the flow of information from secured governmental domain to public domain is conspicuous by its absence. The ire of the public especially those were directly affected, who had their kith and kin and loved ones unaccounted for is understandable. Here it is commendable that the dissemination of information expected from governmental agencies is actually being done by the media, no matter how sketchy at times. This is an important aspect of the outcome of this scenario which hopefully the government will review seriously. After an ordeal of 40 hours, hanging about in the hope of some news, nay any news of the ones trapped inside; unfortunately the only lists to come out were for the consumption of the foreign consulates in Mumbai. This preferential treatment speaks ill of the attitude of the governmental institutions for their own citizens. The government will have plenty to think about in the future about how to coordinate activities of various counter-insurgency, counter-terrorist, intelligence agencies and how they should work in tandem and in a coordinated fashion. Who will coordinate all these dime a dozen federal and state bodies, further how should these bodies be administered without getting caught in a quagmire of red-tapism? Maybe, the government will also want to work out its logistics as well… there are questions that come to fore… why did it take such a long time to deploy the NSG? Why were the NSG units bundled in to public buses to be ferried across the city and not deployed with the help of choppers? Are the anti-terrorist security agencies not well equipped to fight the changing face of war on terror with a change in the rules of the game? Why were no remote controlled devices used to survey the interiors of the hotel before committing the commandos to the hostile situation?

The broadcast media in the country should take a long and hard look at how they covered this situation. I feel most of the failures stemmed from the news desks and it was the editorial and research teams at the studio end which mucked up! The senior correspondents and editors could have guided reporters from falling into the trap of generalisations and sensationalisations and not project their own confusions on to the scene/scenario that was being covered. It is time that the Indian media pressurises the governmental agencies to hold regular press briefings (like the ones held in the United States and in England) through a single platform especially when multi-governmental agencies are involved. Finally, the reporters, senior and junior alike, should acquire some sort of proficiency in the language that they want to use when broadcasting. Plus these broadcast agencies and institutions should develop a style book which they can follow when in the field!

What is Gestalt psychology?

2008-11-25T22:43:00.062-05:00

Gestalt psychology is a school of thought that looks at the human mind and behaviour as a whole. Originating in the work of Max Wertheimer, Gestalt psychology formed partially as a response to the structuralism of Wilhelm Wundt. The development of this area of psychology was influenced by a number of thinkers, including Immanuel Kant, Ernst Mach and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. The word Gestalt in German literally means "shape" or "figure."

Wilhelm Wundt is best known for establishing the first psychology lab in Liepzig, Germany, generally considered the official beginning of psychology as a field of science separate from philosophy and physiology. In addition to this accomplishment, Wundt also established the psychology journal Philosophical Studies. Structuralism was the first school of psychology and focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components. Researchers tried to understand the basic elements of consciousness using a method known as introspection. By today’s scientific standards, the experimental methods used to study the structures of the mind were too subjective—the use of introspection led to a lack of reliability in results.
Other critics argue that structuralism was too concerned with internal behaviour, which is not directly observable and cannot be accurately measured.

Gestalt psychology is a theory of mind and brain that proposes that the operational principle of the brain is holistic (meaning that “the whole is more than the sum of its parts”, that is the idea that all the properties of a given system (biological, chemical, social, economic, mental, linguistic, etc.) cannot be determined or explained by its component parts alone. Instead, the system as a whole determines in an important way how the parts behave. Therefore, reductionism is sometimes seen as the opposite of holism.), parallel, and analogue, with self-organizing tendencies; or, that the whole is different from the sum of its parts. The Gestalt effect refers to the form-forming capability of our senses, particularly with respect to the visual recognition of figures and whole forms instead of just a collection of simple lines and curves.

"The fundamental "formula" of Gestalt theory might be expressed in this way,” Max Wertheimer wrote in 1924. “There are wholes, the behaviour of which is not determined by that of their individual elements, but where the part-processes are themselves determined by the intrinsic nature of the whole. It is the hope of Gestalt theory to determine the nature of such wholes.”

Have you ever noticed how a series of flashing lights often appears to be moving, such as neon signs or strands of Christmas lights? According to Gestalt psychology, this apparent movement happens because our minds fill in missing information. This belief that the whole is greater than the sum of the individual parts led to the discovery of several different phenomena that occur during perception. Based upon this belief, Gestalt psychologists developed a set of principles to explain perceptual organization, or how smaller objects are grouped to form larger ones. These principles are often referred to as the “laws of perceptual organization.”

Prägnanz (German. n. conciseness, concision, quality of being brief and comprehensive, succinctness) is the fundamental principle of gestalt perception, also referred to as the law of prägnanz, which says that we tend to order our experience in a manner that is regular, orderly, symmetric, and simple. According to Robert Sternberg (See Cognitive Psychology, 3rd Ed., Thomson Wadsworth© 2003), Gestalt psychologists attempt to discover refinements of the law of prägnanz, and this involves writing down laws which hypothetically allow us to predict the interpretation of sensation, what are often called “gestalt laws.” However, it is important to note that while Gestalt psychologists call these phenomena “laws,” a more accurate term would be “principles of perceptual organization.” These principles are much like heuristics, which are mental shortcuts for solving problems. You will find below some of the different ‘Gestalt laws’ of perceptual organization, with the law of Prägnanz being the most general law.

Law of Prägnanz

The law of Pragnanz is sometimes referred to as the law of good figure or the law of simplicity. This law holds that objects in the environment are seen in a way that makes as simple as possible. According to the law, we are innately driven to experience things in as good a gestalt as possible. “Good” can mean many things here, such a regular, orderly, simplicity, symmetry, and so on, which then refer to specific gestalt laws. For example, a set of dots outlining the shape of a star is likely to be perceived as a star, not as a set of dots. We tend to complete the figure, make it the way it “should” be, finish it. Like we somehow manage to see this as a "B"...

One very important aspect of Prägnanz is figure – ground relationship. This aspect is often elaborated as an extension of general law of Prägnanz or the law of similarity. Camouflage has a direct bearing on figure-ground relationship.

However, it was Edgar Rubin, a Danish psychologist, who was the first to systematically investigate the figure-ground phenomenon. The phenomenon captures the idea that in perceiving a visual field, some objects take a prominent role (the figures) while others recede into the background (the ground). The visual field is thus divided into these two basic parts. This effect is often used by smart logo makers, as in the three figures suggest: The logo of visitnorway.com (see figure left-above) can be viewed as both three separate elements of blue, green and navy colour. It may, however, also be viewed as a person stretching his/her arms into the air. Similarly, the logo of the Gnome Desktop Environment (see figure on the right) can be viewed as both a "G" and a footprint. Lastly, the Macintosh logo (see figure below)be viewed as a regular happy face and a happy face in profile (looking at a computer screen).

Common to these logos is that you can focus on only one "interpretation" at a time; you cannot observe both the figure and ground at the same time, as ground will become figure when shifting the focus.

It should be noted that the figure-ground is most often exemplified using the Rubin Face/Vase Illusion, named after Edgar Rubin.

Law of Closure

According to the law of closure, things are grouped together if they seem to complete some entity. Our minds often ignore contradictory information and fills in gaps in information. In other words, the mind may experience elements it does not perceive through sensation, in order to complete a regular figure (that is, to increase regularity) i.e. the law of closure says that, if something is missing in an otherwise complete figure, we will tend to add it. A triangle, for example, with a small part of its edge missing, will still be seen as a triangle. We will “close” the gap.

In other words, the law of closure posits that we perceptually close up, or complete, objects that are not, in fact, complete. In the figure on the left the letters 'I', 'B', and 'M' although the shapes we see, in fact, are only lines of white space of differing length hovering above each other.

Similarly, we see the figure on Paul Thagard's book (see figure on the left) as forming a three-dimensional box although all we see, in fact, is 24 dissimilar red shapes (count for yourself!) on a dark red background. The figure above is the typical textbook example of the law of closure; we perceive a circle and not 8 individual circles.

The Gestalt approach can be said to be a "bottom-up" theory as it starts from the bottom (the aspects of the stimuli that influence perception) and work its way up to higher-order cognitive processes. An example of another bottom-up theory (of perception) that is well-known in the HCI community is James Gibson's theory of "direct perception" (see affordances and perception).

Law of Similarity

The law of similarity holds that things which are similar in some way appear to be grouped together. Grouping can occur in both visual and auditory stimuli. In other words, the mind groups similar elements into collective entities or totalities. This similarity might depend on relationships of form, color, size, or brightness. According to the law, we will tend to group similar items together, to see them as forming a gestalt, within a larger form. Here is a simple typographic example:

OXXXXXXXXX
XOXXXXXXXX
XXOXXXXXXX
XXXOXXXXXX
XXXXOXXXXX
XXXXXOXXXX
XXXXXXOXXX
XXXXXXXOXX
XXXXXXXXOX
XXXXXXXXXO

It is just natural for us to see the o’s as a line within a field of x’s.

Law of Proximity

According to the law of proximity, things that are near each other seem to be grouped together. In other words, spatial or temporal proximity of elements may induce the mind to perceive a collective or totality i.e., things that are close together as seen as belonging together. For example:

**************

You are much more likely to see three lines of close-together *’s than 14 vertical collections of 3 *’s each.

The law of proximity posits that when we perceive a collection of objects, we will see objects close to each other as forming a group. In figure on the left, we perceive the MTV logo and the logo for the Europe Music Awards as forming a group in the top left corner and the logos of the sponsors as forming a group in the bottom right corner. The white space separating the two groups of logos is used to indicate 'grouping', and the proximity of the logos of each groups is thus used to this end. Thus, a semantic separation of 'organisers' from 'sponsors' is achieved via structuring the graphical layout in accordance with this simple principle of perceptual organisation.

Figure, see on the right, is taken from Kazaa Media Desktop, where the law of proximity is used in designing the user interface of the popular peer-to-peer (P2P) software. As shown by the screen dump, the user can choose between P2P and web search. The group of radio buttons underneath are only associated with the P2P search and not the web search. To signal this association to the user, the vertical row of radio buttons are placed comparatively closer to the P2P-search radio button. Figure below is a typical textbook example, exemplifying how the law of proximity groups the items into 3 groups as opposed to 8 individual items.

Law of Symmetry

According to the law, symmetrical images are perceived collectively, even in spite of distance. The law of symmetry captures the idea that when we perceive objects we tend to perceive them as symmetrical shapes that form around their centre. Most objects can be divided in two more or less symmetrical halves and when for example we see two unconnected elements that are symmetrical, we unconsciously integrate them into one coherent object (or percept). The more alike objects are, they more they tend to be grouped.

In the figure on the left, CSC Finland's logo is perceived as an integral whole although the two constituent geometrical shapes seem to be pointing in different directions and have differing colours.

A typical textbook example of the law of symmetry (see figure on the right-below), consists of a configuration of a number of brackets. When perceiving the configuration, we see three pairs of symmetrical brackets as opposed to 6 individual brackets, or two pairs and two singles. This happens despite what is suggested by some of the brackets immediate proximity to each other. Despite the pressure of proximity to group the brackets nearest each other together, symmetry overwhelms our perception and makes us see them as pairs of symmetrical brackets.

Law of Continuity

The law of continuity holds that points that are connected by straight or curving lines are seen in a way that follows the smoothest path. Rather than seeing separate lines and angles, lines are seen as belonging together. That is to say that the mind continues visual, auditory, and kinetic patterns.

When we can see a line, for example (as in figure on the left), as continuing through another line, rather than stopping and starting, we will do so, as in this example, which we see as composed of two lines, not as a combination of two angles.

Law of Common Fate

According to this law, elements with the same moving direction are perceived as a collective or unit. The law of common fate states that when objects move in the same direction, we tend to see them as a unit. In the other words, the law of common fate is a Gestalt principle of organization holding that aspects of perceptual field that move or function in a similar manner will be perceived as a unit.

Gestalt grouping laws do not seem to act independently. Instead, they appear to influence each other, so that the final perception is a combination of the entire Gestalt grouping laws acting together. Gestalt theory applies to all aspects of human learning, although it applies most directly to perception and problem-solving. The law of common fate is one of the visual perception laws as theorized by gestalt psychologists. Paul Martin Lester, the author of Visual Communication, an expert in the field wrote: “the law of common fate…A viewer mentally groups five arrows or five raised hands pointing to the sky because they all point in the same direction. An arrow or a hand pointed in opposite direction will create tension, because the viewer will not see it as part of the upwardly directed whole."

Gestalt’s law of common fate is a pretty simple concept. It is basically referring to visual directional lines within a design or layout. In a photograph, if two or more people are moving in the same direction, they have created a directional line known as the law of common fate. Together, they have a common fate or destiny. Another example of the law of common fate could include similar shapes aimed in the same direction. You might wonder why the law of common fate is of importance to artists. First of all, when two objects (whether it be shapes or organic forms) are pointed in the same direction in a layout, the directional lines become dominant in a design. So, if two or more powerful shapes are aimed at or moving in a certain direction, an artist knows to put the message at the point of destination.

Directional lines push our eyes around a page. This can be a problem every bit as much as bonus. For instance, visual collisions frustrate the viewing audience. It can cause too much tension and cause anxiety for the reader which in turn, makes the layout uninviting and too intense.

If a candid photograph of a moving car is heading to the right, the law of common fate dictates that the directional line is pointing to the right. Then again, if a candid photograph of a car is aimed towards the left and the image is part of a design, the directional line is now aimed towards the left. Therefore, if a car is headed towards the right (on an image), the image of the car should be placed towards the left-hand side of a layout, because our eyes read from left to right. This is why the law of common fate is so important. The law of common fate should not be ignored in graphic designs and advertisements. Understanding the law of common fate and how directional lines work on layouts can make all the difference in how information is read and understood.

References:

http://edinburgh-gestalt-institute.moonfruit.com/#/whatisgestalt/4509313638
Vacche, Angela Dalle. (2003). The Visual Turn: Classical Film Theory and Art History. Rutgers University Press.
http://www.gisc.org/WhyCometoGISC/WhatisGestalt/tabid/57/Default.aspx
http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/gestalt.html
http://psychology.about.com/od/schoolsofthought/f/gestalt_faq.htm
http://psychology.about.com/od/sensationandperception/ss/gestaltlaws.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_psychology
Lester, Paul Martin. (2005). Visual Communication: Images with Messages. Thomson Wadsworth.
http://www.interaction-design.org/encyclopedia/gestalt_principles_of_form_perception.html

Visual Analysis of Mediated Images

2008-11-17T04:56:00.082-05:00

Though a visual may be analysed in many ways, of late a convention has been established to study under Six major schools of thought.

The personal perspective deals with an emotional subjective opinion. ‘What do I think of the picture’. It’s the first response or first thought that crosses your mind on viewing the picture. It bears personal bias and prejudices.
The historical perspective helps to determine the importance of the work based on the time period that it was created in. ‘When was this created? What was the social setup at that period of time?
The technical perspective tries to draw a relation b/w the medium and the message. ‘What medium has been used to create the message? How has the creator expressed himself through the medium chosen.
The ethical perspective looks at the moral and ethical responsibilities of the artist. ‘What are the moral responsibilities of the creator? Is his portrayal of the image ethical?
The cultural perspective relates the symbols used in the image to the society. ‘What symbols has the creator used? What is the message conveyed by them?
The critical perspective is a rational conclusion that the viewer draws from the image. It is a personal reaction though free of bias and prejudice. ‘What have I concluded after critically analyzing the picture? How different was my first opinion from the second?

Aim of Critical analysis: A producer of messages must have an understanding of the culture of the audience and use symbols that are comprehensible by them. It helps a viewer understand, interpret and appreciate art.

List all the Objects and Elements

One must notice all the objects and elements in the picture and draw a distinction between the most important and the less important. The placements of elements gives a sense of movement within the picture hence the positioning of objects must be noted. Centre, left, right, top and bottom. Shadows and lighting suggest what part is in focus and give a sense of depth. The location helps in interpretation of the message. One must categorize the purpose as news, art, personal, or any other.

The List

• 4 girls
• Water
• Old building
• Small boys
• Road

The Composition

Placement of Objects
• Foreground: Girls in centre
• Background: Water + Kids (left) playing
• Background: Brightly lit Building on the right
• Background: High contrast / Darker building behind the boys

The girls in the centre are the subject of the picture. The water in the background seems to be coming from a nearby hose pipe or fire hydrant. The girls seem drenched in water. One can see small boys still playing in the water in the background.

Study visual cues

Shadows and lighting
•Illuminated building on right hand side
•Light source is in front of the girls at an angle above them
•Building behind the boys is in shady region

The light and shadow suggests its little after 15:00 hours. It sets the mood of summer and playful indulgence of kids by drenching themselves. There is a sense of innocence.

Study visual cues...

Colour
•Objective- perception of colour & its characteristics
•Comparative- association of colour with objects, events, emotions
•Subjective- Every different colour has different associations in different cultures and societies.
•The girls dark complexion.
•The light shades worn suggests summer season.
•The dark shades suggests old and shanty town.

Form

The triangle shape of the girls is a dynamic shape. its base gives a sense of stability. They are also in a group and seem like a whole unit.

The buildings give a sense of serenity and form the base for the girls that seem in front of it.

'Eight' depth Cues

Many representational visual texts give a very strong feeling of depth despite the fact that they are painted on flat surfaces that lack any depth.

In trying to depict depth, there are several restrictions on the techniques that an artist can use. First, most visual texts, like paintings, drawings, illustrations, and photographs, are two-dimensional. There is no actual depth in the artwork so one must understand, at least intuitively, what information is in the environment that allow us to perceive depth. These sources of information are commonly called depth or distance cues.

A consequence of the two-dimensional nature of painting and pictures is that we lose all the depth information that comes from the fact that we have two eyes. These binocular, or two-eye, depth cues require true depth and thus we will not discuss them in context with conventional visual texts. For example, there is the binocular depth cue called disparity. Disparity arises from the fact that our two eyes have a slightly different view of the world. To allow you to see disparity requires either real depth or two images developed as if from different positions like our eyes.

The artist, in trying to paint or draw, is, therefore, limited to depth cues that (a) need no more than one eye to work, and (b) do not require a moving world. Fortunately there are a collection of such depth cues, a subset of monocular cues called pictorial cues by some authors (Goldstein, 1989).

Interposition
Space
Size
Colour
Lighting
Textural gradient
Time
Perspective

1. Interposition

The first depth cue to be discussed here is interposition which is the partial blocking of a more distant object by a nearer object. Note how the the building is blocked by the girls. In fact, if you notice the kid behind the girls on your right is partially blocking the building too. But, it is the girls who land up blocking him too. Thus creating an illusion as to what is in the background and what is in the front. It is the interposition, overlap, that causes the sense of depth to arise. Usually the impression of depth caused by interposition alone is not very strong.

Notice the foreground figures of two girls with partially blocked figures of other two taking a piggy ride, which are all that are important for our present purposes. Here relative size and even relative height play little role in giving the depth order of the various figures (all the figures are roughly the same level and same size). Shadowing plays an important role in giving each of the figures their sense of three-dimensionality, but to tell who is in what position relative to another, the principle cue is interposition.

2. Space

Space is the frame in which an image is located. With a natural scene, the space depends on how close you are to the subject. Standing in an open field gives the feeling of a large amount of space and enhances the feeling of depth. If an object is close to the eyes, depth perception is limited.
Distance is related to space and helps in our perception of depth.

There is a lot of space behind the girls suggesting they are far from the buildings. The water is in the background and the wet girls suggest they had been in the water previously.

3. Size

Size can help create the illusion of the depth perception if the viewer is aware of the object’s actual size. A jumbo jet seen from a distance is a small bird sized object. If someone has no idea what the jumbo jets are, then the viewer does not react to this depth cue. Likewise, in this photograph we can guess average size (both height and size) and average size of two storied building in the backdrop we become aware of the depth (both in terms of space and distance) between the girls (foreground) and the building (background).

Size, consequently, is closely related to our ability to determine an object’s distance. Distance is related to space and helps in our perception of depth.

Size also is related to scale and mental attention. Without knowing an object’s size, we have to view it next to an object of known size in order to determine its size.

4. Colour

Correct interpretation of colour, and especially lighting cues, allows the beholder to determine the shape of objects, and thus their arrangement in space.

The colour of distant objects is also shifted towards the blue end of the spectrum. (e.g. distant mountains.) Painters, notably Cezanne, employ "warm" pigments (red, yellow and orange) to bring features forward towards the viewer, and "cool" ones (blue, violet, and blue-green) to indicate the part of a form that curves away from the picture plane.

High contrast pictures with great differences between light and dark tones seem closer than objects with more neutral tones colour.

5. Lighting

The exact shape and description of the shadows changes depending on the direction of the light. There are certain general rules about shadows.

First, in a place with only one source of light, e.g. outside, the shadows from all the objects in the area all go in the same direction. As a corollary of this rule, it is certainly true for all natural lights, and for most artificial lights, that the light comes from above to some degree. We do not usually experience getting illuminated from the floor.

Second, for a solid object sticking up the side of the object in shadow is the side away from the light but for a hole in the ground, the shadow is on the side near the light.

Shadow can play a very powerful role in defining form by giving the object a three-dimensional feel as in the title to this page. In addition, artists can take good advantage of shadow to define form by highlighting how different portions of an object are at different depths and therefore the object closer to the light will cast a shadow on the more distant object.

Shadow can play a broader role in defining depth between objects since objects that are in shadow must be farther from the light than objects that are not in shadow.

Differences in light intensities can communicate depth. Carefully crafted lighting design provides subject’s separation from background. If brightness level of the back light is slightly higher than the lights in front then this separation is more distinct. However, no backlight has been used in this photograph. Yet, the prevalence of shadows (largely in mid-space of the picture plane and the shows of the subject indicate subject’s volume and provides the viewer with reasonable illusion of depth perspective.

6.Textural gradient

Related in a sense to relative size but a depth cue in its own right is what has been termed texture gradient. Most surfaces, such as walls and roads and a field of flowers in bloom, have a texture. As the surface gets farther away from us this texture gets finer and appears smoother (Gibson, 1950).

A surface or field that recedes in depth has a texture that gets finer. That is very different from a wall where the surface is approximately the same distance from a person at all points. For example, imagine yourself standing and staring at a brick wall which, instead of receding in depth like a cobblestone road, rises up in front of you. Here the texture, in this case the brick alternating with the mortar, will have about the same roughness all over the surface and provide a clue that the surface does not recede in depth. In addition, texture may play a role in helping us determine the size of an object. Regardless of how far an object is away from us, it covers roughly the same amount of surface, and thus texture, which can help us determine the actual size of an object (Gibson, 1950).

7. Time

Time and space are intricately related concepts that find expression in visual messages. In one sense, time as a depth cue refers to the first element a viewer sees in a frame. That picture will be in the foreground of the viewer’s mind, with other images seen later in the background.

8. Perspective

It is a complex depth perception cue due to cultural factor which comes into play each time we try to interpret depth. However, Perspective, in the context of vision and visual perception, is the way in which objects appear to the eye based on their spatial attributes, or their dimensions and the position of the eye relative to the objects.

As objects become more distant, they appear smaller, because their angular diameter (visual angle) decreases. Perspective is also seen in the way the parallel lines of how railway tracks appear to be meeting at a distant point (the vanishing point) on the horizon. When used in this sense, the 'horizon' is always at the level of the viewer's eye. Because the Earth is round, the true horizon (the line dividing the surface and the sky) is lower than this level. The difference is imperceptibly small when standing on the surface, but noticeable from great height (a person standing on a mountain can see further than someone at ground level).

According to Evelyn Hatcher, there are three major forms of perspective which she details in her book Visual Metaphors: A Methodological Study in Visual Communication. These are as follows:
Illusionary Perspective: An illusionary perspective can be achieved through size, colour, lighting, interposition, and linear perspective. When you stand on a railroad track and look down the ties, the steel rails seem to converge into a single area, or vanishing point, in the distance. This trait of parallel lines when seen at a distance is called linear perspective. This aspect of illusionary perspective that provides the illusion of three dimensional depth in a painting or a photograph is what artists were trying to duplicate with the aid of Leonardo box and camera obscura.

Geometrical Perspective: In geometrical perspective the artist shows near figures in the lower portion of the picture and objects farther away higher in the frame on a vertical line above the near object. This type of perspective is common among traditional Japanese and Mayan artwork. Children often exhibit this type of perspective in their drawings.

Conceptual Perspective: Conceptual perspective is compositional trait that relies on a more symbolic definition of depth perception than the other types of perspective. It can be divided into two types: multi-view and social. With the multi-view perspective, a viewer can see many different sides of an object at the same time. The picture is often an X-ray, or transparent, view of the object. Near objects overlap far objects only by the outside edges or lines that make up their shapes. Pablo Picasso liked to use this type of perspective. In social perspective the most important person in a group picture, a government or corporate leader, is larger in size than other, less important people. A viewer often assumes power relationships because of social perspective. In a picture of a couple the man’s dominance over the woman often is signified by the man being nearer and larger in the frame with his hand resting on or arm wrapped around the woman’s shoulder. Over the past three decades, the feminist movement has made advertisers and others more sensitive to nonverbal negative stereotypes such as these.

Depth

‘8’ Depth cues

1. Interposition
2. Space
3. Size
4. Colour
5. Lighting
6. Textural gradient
7. Time
8. Perspective

Many representational visual texts give a very strong feeling of depth despite the fact that they are painted on flat surfaces that lack any depth.

The first depth cue to be discussed here is interposition which is the partial blocking of a more distant object by a nearer object. Note how the the building is blocked by the girls. Infact, if you notice the kid behind the girls on your right is partially blocking the building too. But, it is the girls who land up blocking him too. Thus creating an illusion as to what is in the background and what is in the front. It is the interposition, overlap, that causes the sense of depth to arise. Usually the impression of depth caused by interposition alone is not very strong.

There is a lot of space behind the girls suggesting they are far from the buildings. The water is in the background and the wet girls suggest they had been in the water previously.

Movement

•The girls have moved fro near the water to the position they are in now.

Where was the picture made? What do u think was its purpose?

The picture seems to be clicked in some Afro-American suburb.
It could have been taken to accompany a feature article on the summer heat.

Personal Perspective

What do I think of the visual?
Omniphasism “All in Balance”
Rick Williams philosopher, photographer & educator at the University of Oregon
Theory that combines the rational and intuitive aspects of the mind.

Omniphasism was thought of by Rick Williams, a philosopher, photographer, and educator at the University of Oregon develop the theory Omniphasism. It’s a theory that attempts to combine the rational and intuitive aspects of the mind into a balanced whole. William uses 8 steps for analyzing a visual message, using his Omniphasism tech called a “personal Impact Assessment”

What is my first emotional response to the visual? Do I like it? Dislike it? How do I feel about the image?

Its a picture of teenage girls who have just played in
water. It’s pleasant to look at.

Personal Impact Assessment

“Part of the idea of going from primary words to associative words to significant words is to move away from Literal interpretation of the photo to a symbolic understanding of it." ~ Rich Williams

Personal Impact Assessment

8 Steps:

1. Take time with the image
2. List Primary Words
3. List associative words
4. Select the most important associative words
5. Pair primary and associative words
6. Relate each pair to yourself
7. Review your inner symbolism
8. Write a story

Take time with the Image

Does the story Stimulate or Alienate?

Its an isolated moment that rests on composition.

What is the story or message?

Some girls played in the water to beat the heat.

List Primary Words

Visual Cues
Objects
Feelings

Primary words

Group of 4 girls
Water
Sun
Old buildings
Light shade clothes

List Associative Words

Observe each primary word and link it to your thought.

One must write down all words that come to ones mind on reading each of the primary words.

Associative words

Group of 4 girls : happy, wet, Afro American
Water: Hose pipe, Fire hydrant
Sun: Summer, heat, daytime
Old buildings: poor neighbourhood
Happy : cool, relaxed

Select the most important associative words

Among the associative words one word would be closest to its primary word underline or select that word. This is the most important associative word.

Choose one word out of the associative words for each primary
word.

Pair Primary and Associative words

Write the primary and most important associative word together.

Group of 4 girls : Afro American
Water: Fire hydrant
Sun: Summer-heat
Old buildings: poor neighbourhood
Happy : cool

Relate each pair to Yourself

Make note of the thoughts that come to your mind on viewing each pair of words.

What does each pair suggest?

Group of 4 girls : Afro american poor
Water: Fire hydrant wet, sultry
Sun: Summer-heat scorcher
Old buildings: poor neighborhood unaffordability of luxury
Happy : cool relief

Review your Inner Symbolism

See if the conclusions drawn from the pairs link to any conflict, event, emotion, value or feeling.

List inner conflicts, emotions, values or feelings

The summer heat is hard to bear . Water is natures boon
to mankind

Write a story

Add up all your thoughts and write a summary or a story. What is the story in the image?

A group of Afro-American girls decide to cool of in the
summer heat by playing with some water from a fire hydrant.

Historical Perspective

When do you think was the image made?

In the 1980’s or after.

Is there a specific style that the image imitates?

The historical perspective helps to understand current trends in terms of their roots in technology and philosophies of the past. Where did the image come from? What was the setup at that time? What is the background of the image? these questions help us to infer meanings.

Technical Perspective

One can evaluate the production techniques. Has the producer used the technology at hand to its best in generating the message? Has it aided in delivering the message as intended effectively.

What medium has been used?

film

What techniques were employed?

A street shot clicked without the subject noticing it
been taken

How was it produced?

With an SLR camera

Is it of good quality?

yes (look at grain size, gama, composition, content, shutter speed etc.)

Ethical Perspective

This is the moral and ethical analysis of the visual. It applies to both the viewer and the producer of the visual.

Categorical Imperative

Immanuel Kant, German philosopher from the east principality of KÖnisberg 18th Century
Categorical (unconditional / without exception)
“Right is Right”
Do your duty

The right thing must be done under even the most extreme conditions. Once a rule is established for a proposed action or idea, behavior and actions must be consistently applied and always in accordance with it. One does his/ her duty.

In the ethics of the 18th-century German philosopher Immanuel Kant, founder of critical philosophy, a moral law that is unconditional or absolute for all agents, the validity or claim of which does not depend on any ulterior motive or end. “Thou shalt not steal,” for example, is categorical as distinct from the hypothetical imperatives associated with desire, such as “Do not steal if you want to be popular.” For Kant there was only one such categorical imperative, which he formulated in various ways. “Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law” is a purely formal or logical statement and expresses the condition of the rationality of conduct rather than that of its morality, which is expressed in another Kantian formula: “So act as to treat humanity, whether in your own person or in another, always as an end, and never as only a means.”

Utilitarianism

Jeremy Bentham & John Stuart Mill (British Philosophers)
Belief: “The greatest good for the greatest number of people”
Analysis of the consequence : Outcome must do good to most people

In ethics, a tradition stemming from the late 18th- and 19th-century English philosophers and economists Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill that an action is right if it tends to promote happiness and wrong if it tends to produce the reverse of happiness—not just the happiness of the performer of the action but also that of everyone affected by it. Utilitarianism is an effort to provide an answer to the practical question “What ought a man to do?” Its answer is that he ought to act so as to produce the best consequences possible. Eg: A gruesome image must be published or printed only if it would evoke a positive reaction in maximum of the viewers.

Hedonism

Hedonism is the philosophy that pleasure is of ultimate importance, the most important pursuit. The name derives from the Greek word for "delight".

A student of Socrates, Aristippus founded this ethical philosophy on the basis of pleasure.
Aristippus believed that people should “act to maximize pleasure” now and not worry about the future.
He referred to intellectual pleasure not physical.
Pleasures of the mind
“I Possess I am not Possessed”
Aesthetic pleasure that we get out of a picture

Golden Mean (Finding a compromise b/w the two extreme points of an action or view.

In philosophy, especially that of Aristotle, the golden mean is the desirable middle between two extremes, one of excess and the other of deficiency.

To the Greek mentality, it was an attribute of beauty. Both ancients and moderns realized that "there is a close association in mathematics between beauty and truth". The poet John Keats, in his Ode on a Grecian Urn, put it this way:

Beauty is truth, truth beauty, that is all
Ye know on earth, and all ye need
to know.

The Greeks believed there to be three concomitants of beauty: symmetry, proportion, and harmony. This triad of principles infused their life. They were very much attuned to beauty as an object of love and something that was to be imitated and reproduced in their lives, architecture, Paideia and politics. They judged life by this mentality.

Golden Rule

“Love your neighbor as yourself”
Be humane do not harm others by your actions

The Golden Rule which stems from ethic of reciprocity is a fundamental moral value which "refers to the balance in an interactive system such that each party has both rights and duties, and the subordinate norm of complementarity states that one's rights are the other's obligation." In essence, it is an ethical code that states one has a right to just treatment, and a responsibility to ensure justice for others. Reciprocity is arguably the most essential basis for the modern concept of human rights, though it is not without its critics.

Many assign the imperative commandment of Golden Rule as instruction for a positive only form of reciprocity. A key element of the golden rule is that a person attempting to live by this rule treats all people, not just members of his or her in-group with consideration. The golden rule, with roots in a wide range of world cultures, is well suited to be a standard to which different cultures could appeal in resolving conflicts. Principal philosophers and religious figures have stated it in different ways.

Veil of Ignorance

John Rawls (1971) “Put the shoe on the other foot.

All people are equal
Eliminating all prejudice and discrimination

The original position is a hypothetical situation developed by American philosopher John Rawls as a thought experiment to replace the imagery of a savage state of nature of prior political philosophers like Thomas Hobbes. In social contract theory, persons in the state of nature agree to the provisions of a contract that defines the basic rights and duties of citizens in a civil society. In Rawls's theory, Justice as Fairness, the original position plays the role that the state of nature does in the classical social contract tradition of Thomas Hobbes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and John Locke.

The original position figures prominently in his book, A Theory of Justice, and it is one of the most influential ideas in twentieth-century philosophy. It has influenced a variety of thinkers from a broad spectrum of philosophical orientations. As a thought experiment, the original position is a hypothetical designed to accurately reflect what principles of justice would be manifest in a society premised on free and fair cooperation between citizens, including respect for liberty, and an interest in reciprocity.

Questions to be asked while analysing a visual from Ethical / Moral Perspective... as per Dr Demi Elliot Poynter Jamison, chair, Media Ethics & Press Policy at the University of South Florida at St. Petersberg.

1. Does the taking and displaying of the picture fit the social responsibility of the professional involved?

2. Has any ones rights been violated in taking and displaying the picture?

3. Does the display of the image meet the needs of the viewer?

4. Is the picture aesthetically appealing?

5. Does the picture choice reflect moderation?

6. Does the professional choice reflect empathy for the subjects experience?

7. Could a professional justify the choice if he/she didn’t know which of the parties (subject, shooter or viewer) he/ she would turn out to be?

8. Does the visual Image cause unjustified harm

Cultural Perspective

Identify the Symbols used, and
Determine their Meaning for the society as a whole.
What is the story and the symbolism involved with the elements in the visual message?
What do they say about current cultural values?

(It is related to the semiotic process) The story revolves around the Afro-American people in the United States of America. Historically, the country has been dominated by a settler society of religiously and ethnically diverse Whites. The heaviest burdens of racism in the country have fallen upon Native Americans, Asian Americans, African Americans, Latin Americans and some other immigrant groups and their descendants.

Major racially structured institutions include slavery, Indian reservations, segregation, residential schools (for Native Americans), and internment camps. Racial stratification has occurred in employment, housing, education and government. Formal racial discrimination was largely banned in the mid-20th century, and it came to be perceived as socially unacceptable and/or morally repugnant as well, yet racial politics remain a major phenomenon as witnessed during the 44th Presidential Elections.

Racist attitudes, or prejudice, are still held by moderate portions of the U.S population. Members of every American ethnic group have perceived racism in their dealings with other groups.

Critical Perspective

An analysis of a visual to arrive at a 'Rational', 'Objective' and 'Thoughtful' Conclusion.

What is my final opinion about the picture?

How does my current view differ from the previous?

Conclusion

“Analysis is ego-driven. The main thing is that it always reveals the person making the analysis -- not really the piece itself˝ ~ David Lodge

It’s a cyclic process.

You will find below four images. You may undertake a visual analysis, based on what you have learnt so far:

The Post-Production ProcessEditing… “Invisible Art”

2008-11-16T22:50:00.027-05:00

Editing is an art of structuring (at times re-structuring, i.e. re-directing) a narrative for the purpose of seemless flow of a convincing story. Editing is executed by connecting two or more shots together to form a sequence, and the subsequent connecting of sequences to form an entire movie / television program. This process is the only art that is unique to cinema / television, and which separates film & Television making from all other art forms that preceded it (such as photography, theatre, dance, writing, and directing. However there exists close parallels to the editing process in other art forms such as poetry or novel writing. It is often referred to as the "invisible art," since the idea, under most cicumstances, is to have the viewer engaged with the narrative that he or she becomes unaware of the work of the editor.

Since, almost every motion picture, television show, and TV commercial is a single camera shoot (per take), each single shot is separated from the other by time and space. On its most fundamental level, video editing is the art, technique, and practice of assembling these shots into a coherent whole. However, the job of an editor isn’t merely to mechanically put pieces of a film together, nor is it to just cut off the film or video slates, nor is it merely to edit dialogue scenes. A film editor works with the layers of images, the story, the music, the rhythm, the pace, shapes the actors' performances, "re-directing" and often re-writing the film or video during the editing process, honing the infinite possibilities of the juxtaposition of small snippets of clips into a creative, coherent, cohesive whole.

Please note, if anybody is under illusion that this is only true for fiction genre and not applicable to documentary and other features including cutting for news format is wrong.

1.Cut. Sudden change of shot from one viewpoint or location to another. On television cuts occur on average about every 5 or 6 seconds. Cutting may:
•change the scene;
•compress time;
•vary the point of view; or
•build up an image or idea.

Editing cuts

Match Cut (Description): Combining two shots of differing angle and composition so that the action continues from one to the other in the same time and place.

This shows seamless progression of action, focus on detail of action, provide a different view enhancing three- dimensionality, and add energy and increase pacing. The shot above could be followed by a close up of the hands.

Jump Cut: Combining two shots (see both b&w images) above that are similar so that the subject jumps from one part of the screen to another. It attracts attention and speeds up time.

Cutaway: it shows the subject, close up detail or person observing action (see above). Subject is not seen in shots edited before or after cutaway. This is done to cover jump cuts, provide reaction of others to main action, focus attention on subject.

Editing Transitions & Effects

Fade from and to Black: the image gradually appears from a black screen. Fade to black: image gradually disappears to a black screen.the purpose is to begin and end a video, it could be a transition between segments or scenes, or signify major change in time or location.

Dip to Black: A quick fade to black and then back to video. To go to or from a commercial break, quick transition between segments or scenes, or transition between footage and full screen graphics.

Dissolve: A transition between shots where one image is gradually mixed with another until the second image is full screen. To enhance emotions, soften changes between shots, accentuate rhythm of pacing, enhance artistry of action, and smooth jump cuts.

Wipe: A transition between shots that uses movement across the screen. Traditional wipes include changing the image with a move from right or left, up or down, or diagonally. Effects wipes include spins, flips, and animated moves. To show obvious transition between scenes, segments or graphics; add energy and action and increase pacing.

Super: Mixing two images together to show two views of subject at the same time, suggesting that main subject is thinking about the other.

Freeze: A single frame of video that is frozen on the screen to end action, accentuate moment or character, background for graphics, lengthen short shot.

Editing - Graphics & Titles

Lower Third Title: Text appearing in the bottom third of the screen. It identifies the name and title of interview subject, provide caption for image.

Full Screen Graphicit’s a combination of text, background or artwork that fills the screen. For titles in the beginning of a video or a segment, key points or summations, charts and graphs, transition between segments or to or from commercials.

Some Terms often used by Editors

B-roll: It refers to footage that covers an interview or narration audio. It is done to Illustrate what's discussed in audio, add energy and increase pace, cover audio track edits. For example -someone talks, scenes relating to what the person is saying is shown.

Establishing the scene: It’s a wide shot showing setting, to introduce the location for scene, provide sense of 3D space where action occurs, introduce characters. Example -All the shots are wide showing people doing things

Changing the scene/segment: It is a Visual or audio cue that a new scene or segment has begun. It moves the story along, add variety to story, indicate passage of time or change in location. for example an establishment shot (with people talking). Followed by the main person talking.

Visual Sequence: it features a series of shots showing the subject or a process in action. To focus attention on action or process, show details of, show progression of action, engage viewer with subject and to facilitate comprehension. Example -a person applying make-up

Montage Sequence: A series of images, usually set to music, that quickly show various aspects of the story. It shows passage of time, provide a glimpse of actions or events not covered in detail, capture viewer interest at beginning of video, sum up story at end, provide a change of pace, add energy.

Natural Sound: It includes ambient sounds of subjects overheard during recording. To enhance sense of reality, capture spontaneous speech of subject in the natural situation, establish the setting or situation, show transition between scenes or locations, provide background sound to narration.

Reference: All material is assembled from the following sites.

A Giant Step For Mankind!

2008-11-05T19:10:00.000-05:00

Audacity of Hope

The world’s largest democracy has spoken and the President Elect, Mr. Barack Hussain Obama, shall be inaugurated on January 20th, 2009. The American people, for the 44th commander-in-chief, have elected an Afro-American to the White House. The World went into frenzy… The Social Desirability Bias (aka Bradley Effect) factor was dismissed as the feverish imagination of the deprived. The media went into a spin that how history had been made in God blessed land of Equality, Opportunity, Hope, and The bastion of Free World. Indeed, Obama himself was proclaiming that ‘this can only happen in America’. Senator McCain in his concession speech referred to the President Elect having lived ‘an all American Dream’.

The world is convinced that this could have only happened in the United States of America while the American media tom tom-ed the historic event vindicating the stance that a member of the 13% minority which served as slaves and shoeshine, butlers at best, could be elected to the highest office by the people only in the land of the Custodians of all Free World Values and how race played a small role at the hustings’08. In fact, the British Broadcasting Corporation has cheekily hinted that the Great Britain, eternal ally and life-long buddy of the United States of America, is not ready for its black chief executive.

Let us understand that this race to the White House was ugly and highly polarised on the issues of black and white, as it was on anti-Muslim, anti-Socialism and anti-liberalism. The statistics are astounding! The Bible Belt of America and WASPs, voted over-whelmingly for John Sidney McCain III, 72 year old Senator from Arizona, and the white presidential nominee of the Republican Party. Exit polls indicate that at a national level a mere 43% of whites rallied behind Barack Obama. The truth is that this figure looks slightly respectable because 54% of the white youth (aged 18-29 years), constituting 12% of the electorate, stood rock solid behind Obama. Nearly 95% of the Afro-American populace, comprising less than 13% of the electorate voted on colour lines. In fact, a meagre 41% votes were polled from the Whites aged 30 years and above. They constitute 53% of the electorate. Latinos, Asians, and Others - who constitute 8%, 2% and 3% respectively of the total electorate size, rallied with 66%, 61%, and 65% votes. A quick ground reality check reveals that despite high electoral votes bagged by the President Elect, Obama secured 52% of the popular vote!

Looking back it seems that the nation cast its lot with the coloured son of a black-Muslim father from Kenya. But, it is note worthy that at no time during the over 21 months of tough campaigning did Obama once refer to himself as a black candidate. He presented himself as a saner alternative to the Republican policies. However, all opponents of Mr. Obama, right from the incumbent Hilary Diane Rodham Clinton, 61 year old junior Senator from New York, the First Lady of the United States from 1993 to 2001, to Senator John McCain and Sarah Louise Heath Palin, the 44 year old governor of Alaska and McCain’s sometime Roman Catholic sometime Pentecostal but conservative "Bible-believing Christian" and largely an ignorant “hockey-mom” with “lipstick” running mate constantly fanned conspiracy theories. Obama a “secret Muslim” issue, ‘latent terrorist’ issue, Reverend Jeremiah Wright controversy, Controversy surrounding Obama & Reverend Rick Warren (pastor of the Saddleback Church in Orange County and author of the mega-seller The Purpose-Driven Life), Invasion of Pakistan Controversy, negotiation with Al Qaeda & Iran controversy, “Spread the Wealth” Socialist controversy, ABC’s “Obama Dropped Flag Pin in War Statement” controversy, Iraq War Controversy, The Barack Obama Stock Controversy, Rashid Khalidi controversy, “Palling around with terrorists” controversy and Obama & 1960s radical William Ayers controversy.

In one controversy, ‘they’ even tried to fix his birth certificate. Then there was The Jesse Jackson versus Barack Obama Controversy much to the delight of anti-Obama mainstream media. In fact, the list seems endless.

Obama was nearly held to ransom by the magical teardrop from Hilary, as he was by Joe the Plumber and the incendiary remarks of his former pastor. Attacks on Obama were never subtle; rather they were blatant and vicious. A satirical New Yorker magazine cover flaunted the Democratic presidential candidate dressed as a Muslim and his wife as a terrorist.

Interestingly, no one questioned the sanity and ability of Sarah Palin, the potential commander-in-chief, in case the septuagenarian with a history of skin cancer kicked the bucket in the White House. The media as well as the people chose to overlook footage posted on YouTube showing Republican running mate, who sees a resurgent Red Russia from her window, indulging in witchcraft.

I think, white democrat Americans who voted for Obama voted not for a black candidate, as several panelist and invitees seemed to suggest in one of the BBC sponsored debates in the Middle East, to make history but for a candidate who came across as mature, stable & reliable and incidentally happened to be a black intellectual entity with poise and grace. Yes, they did vote because Obama represented a window of Hope, of Positive Possibilities to reclaim the nation from the quagmire that the outgoing President seemed to have left America in. These are the voters, who represent the changing face of young and dynamic America, the intelligentsia, who need all their wits and unity to pull America through troubled times. In them I see a hope of the United States of America emerging as a world leader once again and hopefully also address issues of the Planet in Peril.

Using Reflected-Light Meters

2008-10-31T01:24:00.044-04:00

Once you have set the proper film or camera speed or sensitivity (this is characterised by a numerical value followed alphabets ‘ISO’. To further understand ‘The Photographic Process and Film Sensitivity’ students may visit Perry Sprawls at his website) by on your camera or meter, you are ready to make the exposure-meter reading. With a reflected-light meter (in camera or handheld), point the camera or meter at the subject. The meter will measure the average brightness of the light reflected from the various parts of the scene. With an in-camera meter, a needle or diode display in the viewfinder or an LCD display on top of the camera will tell you when you have achieved the proper combination of lens and shutter-speed settings. If the camera is fully manual, you will have to set both the aperture and shutter speed. Automatic cameras may set both shutter speed and aperture; or they may set just one of the controls, leaving you to set the other.

A reflected-light meter reading is influenced by both how much light there is in the scene and how reflective the subject is. The meter will indicate less exposure for a subject that reflects little light, even if the two subject are in the same scene and in the same light. Because reflected-light meters are designed to make all subjects appear average in brightness, the brightness equivalent to medium gray, they suggest camera settings that will overexpose (make too light) very dark subjects and underexpose (make too dark) very light subjects.

Please remember that since reflected metering reads the intensity of light reflecting off of the subject, they are easily fooled by variances in tonality, colour, contrast, background brightness, surface textures and shape. What you see is often not at all what you get. Reflected meters do a good job of reading the amount of light bouncing off of a subject the trouble is they don't take into account any other factors in the scene. They are merciless in recording all things as a medium tone. Reflected measurements of any single tone area, for instance, will result in a neutral grey rendition of that object. Subjects that appears lighter than grey will reflect excess light and cause them to record darker than they appear. Subjects that are darker than grey will reflect less light and result in an exposure that renders it lighter.

Selective Meter Readings

To determine the correct exposure for higher contrast scenes with large areas that are much darker or much lighter than the principle subject, take a selective meter reading of only the subject itself. How do you do this? Move the meter or camera close to the subject. Exclude unimportant dark or light areas that will give misleading readings. In making close-up readings, also be careful not to measure your own shadow or the meter's shadow.

Landscapes and other scenes with large areas of open sky can also fool the meter (See picture on the left, originally posted to Flickr as Rays of sunlight by Spiralz). The sky is usually much brighter than other parts of the scene, so an unadjusted meter reading will indicate too little exposure for the darker parts of the picture. One way to adjust for this bias without having to move in close is to tilt your lens or meter down to exclude the sky while taking your meter reading. The sky will probably end up slightly overexposed, but the alternative would be to find a different shooting position excluding most or all of the sky. There are also graduated neutral density floaters that work well in such situations. A neutral density filter absorbs all colours of visible light evenly, and you can position a graduated filter so that the darker portion is at the top of the image where it will darken the sky without affecting the ground below. Incidentally, some built-in meters are bottom-weighted to automatically compensate for situations like this, so check your manual.

Substitute Readings

What if you can't walk up to your subject to take a meter reading? For instance, suppose that you're trying to photograph a deer in sunlight at the edge of a wood. If the background is dark, a meter reading of the overall scene will give you an incorrect exposure for the deer. Obviously, if you try to take a close-up reading of the deer, you're going to lose your subject before you ever get the picture. One answer is to make a substitute reading off the palm of your hand, providing that your hand is illuminated by the same light as your subject, then use a lens opening 1 stop larger than the meter indicates. For example, if the reading off your hand is f/16, open up one stop to f/11 to get the correct exposure. The exposure increase is necessary because the meter overreacts to the brightness of your palm which is about twice as bright as an average subject. When you take the reading, be sure that the lighting on your palm is the same as on the subject. Don't shade your palm.

Another subject from which you can take more accurate and more consistent meter readings is a KODAK Grey Card, sold by photo dealers. These sturdy cards are manufactured specifically for photographic use. They are neutral grey on one side and white on the other. The grey side reflects 18% of the light falling on it (similar to that of an average scene), and the white side reflects 90%. You can use a gray card for both black-and-white and colour balance. Complete instructions are included in the package with the cards.

Handling High Contrast

But what if the very light and very dark areas are the same size and they are equally important to the scene? One solution is to take selective meter readings from each of the areas and use a f-number that is midway between the two indicated readings. For instance, if your meter indicates an exposure of 1/125 second at f/22 for brightest area and 1/125 second at f/2.8 for the darkest area--a range of six stops--set your camera 1/125 second f/8. This is a compromise solution, but sometimes it is your only choice short of coming back another day or changing your viewpoint, and the composition of the picture, to eliminate the contrast problem.

Using Spot Meters

Perhaps the best solution when you need a selective meter reading is offered by the spot meter. Handheld averaging meters generally cover about 30º, while handheld spot meters typically read a 1º angle The angle of spot meters built into the camera are usually wider, about 3 to 12º. The biggest advantage of a spot meter is that is allows you to measure the brightness of small areas in a scene form the camera position without walking in to make a close-up reading. Since a spot meter measures only the specific area you point it at, the reading is not influenced by large light or dark surroundings. This makes a spot meter especially useful when the principal subject is a relatively small part of the overall scene and the background is either much lighter or darker than the subject. Spot meters are also helpful for determining the scene brightness range. See picure on the left by Joseph Dickerson (the image has all rights reseved: Photos © 2004, Joseph A. Dickerson)

Using Incident-Light Meters

a. Set ISO/ASA of film being used.
b. Hold light meter in front of scene with the sphere pointed at the camera.
c. Depress centre button.
d. Needle will move to a reading.
e. The reading is measured on the foot-candle scale.

Depending on the lighting conditions, there are two settings that can be utilized - the Red Arrow setting (when the High Slide is inserted in the slot below the sphere) is used outdoors in bright light and the Black Arrow setting (High Slide is removed) is used in lower light circumstances.

f. Move dial to Black Arrow setting when High Slide is not used so the number lines up with the corresponding number on scale.

g. Move dial to Red Arrow setting when High Slide is used so the number lines up with the corresponding number on scale.
h. Shutter speed scale
i. Aperture scale

Please note that above image and text has been taken from http://paulturounetforum.com/2007/09/24/nature-of-light-and-artificial-light/. I have tried not to tamper with this text nor the image. In fact you may want to visit the above website.

Moving on, to use an incident-light meter, hold it at or near the subject and aim the meter's light-sensitive cell back toward the camera. The meter reads the amount of light illuminating the subject, not light reflected from the subject, so the meter ignores the subject and background characteristics. As with a reflected reading, an incident reading provides exposure information for rendering average subjects correctly, making incident readings most accurate when the subject is not extremely bright or dark.

Actual measuring

In order to get an accurate reading the meter needs to be placed immediately in front of the subject facing the light source to be measured. The easiest way to take the key, fill, and back light measurements is to do them one at a time, with the other two lights turned off. Start with just the key light on, position the meter in front of the area of the subject struck by the key light. Aim the meter at the key light and note the number of foot candles. For example, if it reads 100 foot candles. Then next, turn on just the fill light and take another reading facing the fill light. If our intended lighting ratio is 2:1, then the fill light should read about 50 foot candles.

Now, turn on just the back light and take its reading. The back light should be somewhere between 50 and 150 foot candles, depending on the effect desired. The final step is to re-measure the key, fill, and back light positions with all the lights on. This is important since where the illumination from the lights overlaps the intensity increases. Adjust the intensity of the lights as needed to maintain the desired lighting ratio.