<?xml version='1.0' encoding='UTF-8'?><?xml-stylesheet href="http://www.blogger.com/styles/atom.css" type="text/css"?><feed xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom' xmlns:openSearch='http://a9.com/-/spec/opensearchrss/1.0/' xmlns:blogger='http://schemas.google.com/blogger/2008' xmlns:georss='http://www.georss.org/georss' xmlns:gd="http://schemas.google.com/g/2005" xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3824907278627072174</id><updated>2026-08-11T11:04:15.986+02:00</updated><category term="BTS audiovisuel"/><category term="Sony F5/F55"/><category term="Blackmagic Design"/><category term="4K"/><category term="Canon EOS"/><category term="Réforme BTS Audiovisuel"/><category term="Canon EOS C-500"/><category term="HD"/><category term="HDSLR"/><category term="Canon EOS C-300"/><category term="Panasonic"/><category term="5DMK2"/><category term="David Bordwell"/><category term="H.264 ; ITU-T ; codecs"/><category term="RAW"/><category 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Sawyer"/><category term="Robert Redford"/><category term="Rodrigo Prieto"/><category term="Roger Deakins"/><category term="Ronben"/><category term="Réforme"/><category term="S-Gamut"/><category term="S-Log2"/><category term="SATIS 2013"/><category term="SIEC"/><category term="SMPTE"/><category term="SSD"/><category term="Samourai Blade"/><category term="Samsung"/><category term="Samsung NX1"/><category term="Sanxay 2015"/><category term="Schumpeter"/><category term="Scratch"/><category term="Serge Daney"/><category term="Sigfried Giedion"/><category term="Sociologie de l&#39;Art"/><category term="Sociologie du Travail"/><category term="Sony A7s"/><category term="Sony Alpha"/><category term="Sony Media Player 4K"/><category term="Sony PMW-200"/><category term="Sony PMW-300"/><category term="Sony PMW-400"/><category term="Sony PXW-X160"/><category term="Sony PXW-X180"/><category term="Sony Pictures"/><category term="Sony Q67"/><category term="Sony RAW Viewer"/><category term="Sound Devices"/><category term="Spiderman"/><category term="Spike Jonze"/><category term="Stanley Cavell"/><category term="Steve Jobs"/><category term="TAP Poitiers"/><category term="TC-80N3"/><category term="Targa"/><category term="Technicolor"/><category term="Tektronix"/><category term="Tokina"/><category term="Ton Gunning"/><category term="Truevision"/><category term="Turandot"/><category term="UHDTV"/><category term="UltraStudio SDI"/><category term="VFX Solidarity International"/><category term="Valse avec Bachir"/><category term="Varicam HS"/><category term="Videokalos"/><category term="Vidéo"/><category term="Vincent Maraval"/><category term="Vizrt"/><category term="Waveform"/><category term="Web"/><category term="Web sémantique"/><category term="William Thompson"/><category term="XDCAM"/><category term="Yann Darré"/><category term="Yannick Dahan"/><category term="Yasmina Khadra"/><category term="Zeiss"/><category term="Zeiss Compact zoom"/><category term="Ziad Doueiri"/><category term="anthropomorphisme"/><category term="archéologie"/><category term="artéfacts"/><category term="ave"/><category term="broadband"/><category term="caméras S35"/><category term="cinéma subaquatique"/><category term="combination recording"/><category term="culture matérielle"/><category term="destruction créatrice"/><category term="enseignement audiovisuel"/><category term="found footage"/><category term="lumière"/><category term="médiation culturelle"/><category term="océanographie"/><category term="patrimoine"/><category term="photographie sous-marine"/><category term="prise de vue"/><category term="progrès technique"/><category term="revues.org"/><category term="réseau social"/><category term="social network"/><category term="société du spectacle"/><category term="streaming"/><category term="studio virtuel"/><category term="virtual set"/><title type='text'>La figure et le fond</title><subtitle type='html'>Technique et culture</subtitle><link rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#feed' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/feeds/posts/default'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default?redirect=false'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/'/><link rel='hub' href='http://pubsubhubbub.appspot.com/'/><link rel='next' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default?start-index=26&amp;max-results=25&amp;redirect=false'/><author><name>Gestalt</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10962207802973660346</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFQRD6kaQLUr1OUFCHOR0VqUEPA0--dKvSXYzAg5UJQ0jQol9BgkX2GLgvMoTGRhoojVNzRfbkL-xTjTcSsJ4EzhOxXCrqqMJAg2A-bKdz9_mG632d3cuenkDsDa043g/s220/vertov.jpg'/></author><generator version='7.00' uri='http://www.blogger.com'>Blogger</generator><openSearch:totalResults>307</openSearch:totalResults><openSearch:startIndex>1</openSearch:startIndex><openSearch:itemsPerPage>25</openSearch:itemsPerPage><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3824907278627072174.post-4018215212823205393</id><published>2024-11-25T09:54:00.007+01:00</published><updated>2024-12-14T11:52:19.841+01:00</updated><title type='text'>Steve Zissou et &quot;La Vie Aquatique&quot; de Wes Anderson (2004)</title><content type='html'>&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2Jubc7sqobIgTimNhChinegk8nP1F7Ra-UJ8rJHa5JrJL3UOHEX0EZLjWTvfu7zW2Izl5ytbakztiwgYF459t1CLI57uuZ9G-WW0MlfQoyThegDq-7FlluXAhGRKH7zloecG-vPcgM4ZKMXy_HaDTRBieCV08FeGgY3sxBnrK6uwJsxyIwisV9qHiHrbC/s1733/16975247_1300x1733.jpg&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1733&quot; data-original-width=&quot;1300&quot; height=&quot;640&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2Jubc7sqobIgTimNhChinegk8nP1F7Ra-UJ8rJHa5JrJL3UOHEX0EZLjWTvfu7zW2Izl5ytbakztiwgYF459t1CLI57uuZ9G-WW0MlfQoyThegDq-7FlluXAhGRKH7zloecG-vPcgM4ZKMXy_HaDTRBieCV08FeGgY3sxBnrK6uwJsxyIwisV9qHiHrbC/w480-h640/16975247_1300x1733.jpg&quot; width=&quot;480&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: times; font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;Pourquoi écrire encore sur ce film de Wes Anderson, arrivé sur les écrans il y a une bonne vingtaine d&#39;années ? Peut-être parce qu&#39;un certain nombre de travaux consacrés au milieu marin, à ses habitants et à ses explorateurs, sont venus étoffer l&#39;ensemble des connaissances qu&#39;on pouvait avoir sur cet univers. Peut-être aussi parce que, depuis plusieurs années maintenant, les préoccupations environnementales se concentrent sur les océans, et que de nombreux fillms et séries TV ont comme sujet ce monde sous-marin, ses explorateurs et les animaux marins. Et puis, il faut bien reconnaitre que la personnalité de certains des cinéastes les plus connus du monde sous-marin ont accompagné les années de jeunesse de bien des auteurs et des chercheurs ayant écrit et documenté ce monde, depuis au moins une cinquantaine d&#39;années... Le film de Wes Anderson apparait d&#39;ailleurs comme une mise en abyme de cette recherche, celle effectuée par le plus célèbre des explorateurs&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: times;&quot;&gt;(ou l&#39;un des plus célèbres...)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: times;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;: Jacques-Yves Cousteau.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;Le film de Wes Anderson, dédié à ‘Jacques Cousteau’ (on l’apprend
dans le générique de fin), est sans aucun doute une parodie de la vie et de
l’action du célèbre «&amp;nbsp;explorateur&amp;nbsp;». Il se présente comme une
reconstruction du récit mythologique&amp;nbsp;: la quête initiatique du héros, son
départ pour une odyssée incertaine et enfin le retour avec, peut-être, la
délivrance que procure la réussite dans la recherche… Ce récit, dont l’objet
consiste à poursuivre un animal dont l’existence n’est pas certaine (Zissou est
le seul à l’avoir vu et n’a pas été en mesure de le filmer…) commence avec la
relation d’un drame dans un film. On s’aperçoit ensuite que ce film a été
projeté dans la salle d’un festival dont Steve Zissou est l’invité, et qu’il est&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;ensuite&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;appelé à commenter sur scène.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; font-size: x-large;&quot;&gt;Cette recherche, dont la construction emprunte à la fois à
l’Odyssée et à Moby Dick (Herman Melville, 1851) est aussi une transformation. Ainsi
que le souligne Carol Colatrella, elle débute avec la relation de la
confrontation avec le ‘Jaguar-shark’&amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;blockquote style=&quot;border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;«&amp;nbsp;Anderson uses adaptation and
allusion – standard mechanisms of pop culture dissemination – to transform the
story of Ahab’s monomaniacal revenge from a prose Shakespearean tragedy into a
hip, visual comedy about a neurotic oceanographic filmmaker’s scheme to kill a
large, deadly fish.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/1THESE2024_Hilaire-P%C3%A9rez/TEXTES/The%20Life%20Aquatic/Steve%20Zissou%20et%20Life%20Aquatic.docx#_ftn1&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref1&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn1;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;La
rencontre violente avec Moby Dick est mise en parallèle avec la manière dont
Zissou parvient de justesse à échapper au requin-jaguar, dans la toute première
séquence de ce film, tourné par l’équipe de Zissou .&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;Cet épisode est vécu comme un traumatisme violent, d’abord parce
que Zissou perd son meilleur ami, Esteban du Plantier, mais aussi parce qu’il
ne dispose d’aucune image permettant de corroborer son récit. En effet, il
avoue avoir perdu sa caméra devant le public de la salle du festival de
Loquasto, ce qui déclenche l’hilarité générale et jette un doute sur la
véracité de cet épisode.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;Ce sentiment de deuil, ainsi qu’une haine vengeresse qui habite
Zissou, l’entrainent dans une poursuite interminable, semble-t-il, dans
laquelle il implique aussi bien son équipage que sa propre épouse. Cependant,
en dépit de ces prolégomènes a priori tragiques, le film apparait comme une
version comique de la plupart des fictions maritimes tournées jusqu’alors –
avec quelques exceptions notables comme certains films de pirates à partir des
années 1980 – 1990. Les références ne manquent pas, en effet&amp;nbsp;: une
autorité contestée, des conditions de vie à bord qui encouragent les
mutineries, des animaux mythiques, avec toujours, à la chute, un effet comique
qui apparait comme un pied de nez aux prétentions scientifiques de l’équipe et
au sentiment tragique qui émane des grands récits maritimes.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;Bien entendu, le film brouille la frontière entre fiction et
expérience vécue en incorporant des détails tirés de la vie et du travail de
Cousteau&amp;nbsp;: les références visuelles (les bonnets rouges), les personnages
qui rappellent parfois ceux ayant existé (Eléanor – Simone ou Ned – Philippe…) l’obsession
du détail technique, peut-être plus que de la technologie elle-même,
l’impression d’assister à un bricolage un peu prétentieux… Le film ironise sur
les prétentions scientifiques de Zissou et de son équipage d’explorateurs
amateurs qui se piquent d’océanographie, en dépit d’un manque évident de
formation&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/1THESE2024_Hilaire-P%C3%A9rez/TEXTES/The%20Life%20Aquatic/Steve%20Zissou%20et%20Life%20Aquatic.docx#_ftn2&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref2&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn2;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. C’est
ainsi que, comme dans les films et les livres de Cousteau, les membres de
l’équipage sont décrits par des plans individualisés et des rappels de leur
histoire personnelle et de leur spécialité. Anderson insère cette séquence dans
son film par le biais d’un documentaire, avec en off la voix de Zissou.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;Les références à d’autres films sont nombreuses, par exemple
lorsqu’il s’agit de montrer les frustrations d’un réalisateur lorsqu’un
tournage ne se passe pas comme il le voudrait&amp;nbsp;: on pense ici à 8½ de Fellini.
Cependant, Zissou est plus que cela et sa trajectoire brouille les frontières
entre l’explorateur et le cinéaste. On pourrait penser à une réflexion sur la
condition de ces explorateurs qui s’improvisent cinéastes, mais on peut tenter
d’élargir la critique en filigrane de Wes Anderson&amp;nbsp;: si, en effet, ces
réalisateurs de films d’exploration maritime des années de l’immédiat
après-guerre sont loin des productions sophistiquées des studios, ils n’en
reste pas moins que leurs films ont été, au cours de la première moitié du XX&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt;
siècle, à l’origine d’un genre particulier du film animalier, ayant pris ses
distances avec le film de science proprement dit en créant un mode de narration
original dans lequel le cinéaste et l’explorateur sont parties prenantes dans leur
représentation du monde naturel&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/1THESE2024_Hilaire-P%C3%A9rez/TEXTES/The%20Life%20Aquatic/Steve%20Zissou%20et%20Life%20Aquatic.docx#_ftn3&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref3&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn3;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;Moby Dick&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt; et &lt;i&gt;The Life Aquatic&lt;/i&gt; ont tous deux pour objet la chasse,
mais pas n’importe laquelle, puisqu’il est question de la poursuite d’un animal
dangereux, aux caractéristiques physiques hors norme et que peu nombreux sont
ceux qui ont survécu après l’avoir rencontré. En ce sens, tous les éléments
sont réunis pour faire de ces récits une tragédie et pourtant on reste au bord
du chemin chez Anderson. En effet, contrairement à Ahab dans ses relations avec
son équipage, il y a beaucoup d’affect dans les relations entre les différents
protagonistes chez Anderson. Le tragique est vu avec distance&amp;nbsp;: on évite
les larmes et on ne se prive pas d’un effet comique, au tout début, avec la
relation filmée de la mort d’Esteban. Les bonnets rouges eux-mêmes,
omniprésents dans l’image, participent à cette distanciation&amp;nbsp;: ils
rappellent un des signes distinctifs de l’Equipe Cousteau. Mais leur défilé en
groupe dans le palais des festivals de Loquasto est arrêté par l’interpellation
dont Zissou fait l’objet et qui dégénère en un incident peu glorieux. Le choix
de la représentation du requin (un artefact gonflable, en plus d’être
grossièrement tacheté) n’est pas étranger&amp;nbsp;non plus à cette ambivalence :
le pauvre Esteban a été oublié lorsque l’équipage, rassemblé derrière Zissou,
est rendu muet et émerveillé devant le spectacle de l’animal qui défile devant
leur soucoupe plongeante.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;On pourrait encore s’intéresser à certaines relations entre les
personnages, la plus développée étant certainement celle qui relie Zissou à Ned
Plimpton, son «&amp;nbsp;would be unknown son&amp;nbsp;». De la révélation de sa
paternité, au début du film, et jusqu’à la mort du personnage incarné par Owen
Wilson, c’est un jeu de relations complexes qui se met en place entre
eux&amp;nbsp;: après la reconnaissance par Zissou, ce sera plus tard la rivalité
autour d’une journaliste (incarnée par Cate Blanchett) et finalement la mort de
Ned, dans le crash d’un hélicoptère, un rappel de celle du propre fils de
Cousteau en 1979. Ce drame n’empêche pas cependant l’équipe de poursuivre la
traque, mais peut-être a-t-il influencé la décision de Zissou de ne pas
chercher à tuer l’animal. Et la chasse se transforme donc en une vision
édénique de la Nature, ce qui là encore correspond, en raccourci, à la propre
trajectoire de Cousteau…&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;R. E.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;mso-element: footnote-list;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;hr align=&quot;left&quot; size=&quot;1&quot; width=&quot;33%&quot; /&gt;

&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn1&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/1THESE2024_Hilaire-P%C3%A9rez/TEXTES/The%20Life%20Aquatic/Steve%20Zissou%20et%20Life%20Aquatic.docx#_ftnref1&quot; name=&quot;_ftn1&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn1;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&amp;quot;citationID&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;LT1Zeqzr&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;properties&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;formattedCitation&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Carol
Colatrella, \\uc0\\u171{}\\uc0\\u160{}The Life Aquatic of Melville, Cousteau,
and Zissou: {\\i{}Narrative at Sea}\\uc0\\u160{}\\uc0\\u187{}, {\\i{}Leviathan}
11, n\\super o\\nosupersub{} 3 (octobre 2009): 79\\uc0\\u8209{}90,
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-1849.2009.01210.x.&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;plainCitation&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Carol
Colatrella, «&amp;nbsp;The Life Aquatic of Melville, Cousteau, and Zissou:
Narrative at Sea&amp;nbsp;», Leviathan 11, no 3 (octobre 2009): 79&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Cambria Math&quot;,serif;mso-bidi-font-family:&quot;Cambria Math&quot;&#39;&gt;‑&lt;/span&gt;90,
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-1849.2009.01210.x.&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;noteIndex&amp;quot;:1},&amp;quot;citationItems&amp;quot;:[{&amp;quot;id&amp;quot;:1983,&amp;quot;uris&amp;quot;:[&amp;quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/J7X6JTXX&amp;quot;],&amp;quot;itemData&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;id&amp;quot;:1983,&amp;quot;type&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;article-journal&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;container-title&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Leviathan&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;DOI&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;10.1111/j.1750-1849.2009.01210.x&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;ISSN&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;15256995,
17501849&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;issue&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;3&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;language&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;en&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;page&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;79-90&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;source&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;DOI.org
(Crossref)&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;title&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;The Life Aquatic of Melville,
Cousteau, and Zissou: &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;Narrative at
Sea&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;title-short&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;The Life Aquatic of Melville,
Cousteau, and
Zissou&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;volume&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;11&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;author&amp;quot;:[{&amp;quot;family&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Colatrella&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;given&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Carol&amp;quot;}],&amp;quot;issued&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;date-parts&amp;quot;:[[&amp;quot;2009&amp;quot;,10]]}}}],&amp;quot;schema&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json&amp;quot;}
&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-separator&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Carol Colatrella,
«&amp;nbsp;The Life Aquatic of Melville, Cousteau, and Zissou: &lt;i&gt;Narrative at Sea&lt;/i&gt;&amp;nbsp;»,
&lt;i&gt;Leviathan&lt;/i&gt; 11, n&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; 3 (octobre 2009): 79‑90,
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-1849.2009.01210.x.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-element:field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn2&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/1THESE2024_Hilaire-P%C3%A9rez/TEXTES/The%20Life%20Aquatic/Steve%20Zissou%20et%20Life%20Aquatic.docx#_ftnref2&quot; name=&quot;_ftn2&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn2;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; On peut
penser ici à la réflexion de &lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:
field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM
CSL_CITATION
{&amp;quot;citationID&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;YyaYzi3P&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;properties&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;formattedCitation&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Myriam
Marcil-Bergeron, \\uc0\\u171{}\\uc0\\u160{}Asphyxier l\\uc0\\u8217{}oc\\uc0\\u233{}an
une conqu\\uc0\\u234{}te \\uc0\\u224{} la fois\\uc0\\u8239{}:
l\\uc0\\u8217{}exploration sous-marine chez Philippe Diol\\uc0\\u233{} et
Philippe Tailliez\\uc0\\u160{}\\uc0\\u187{}, {\\i{}Tangence}, n\\super
o\\nosupersub{} 125\\uc0\\u8209{}126 (12 novembre 2021): 29\\uc0\\u8209{}42,
https://doi.org/10.7202/1083861ar.&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;plainCitation&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Myriam
Marcil-Bergeron, «&amp;nbsp;Asphyxier l’océan une conquête à la fois :
l’exploration sous-marine chez Philippe Diolé et Philippe Tailliez&amp;nbsp;»,
Tangence, no 125&lt;span style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Cambria Math&quot;,serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
&quot;Cambria Math&quot;&#39;&gt;‑&lt;/span&gt;126 (12 novembre 2021): 29&lt;span style=&#39;font-family:
&quot;Cambria Math&quot;,serif;mso-bidi-font-family:&quot;Cambria Math&quot;&#39;&gt;‑&lt;/span&gt;42,
https://doi.org/10.7202/1083861ar.&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;noteIndex&amp;quot;:2},&amp;quot;citationItems&amp;quot;:[{&amp;quot;id&amp;quot;:2153,&amp;quot;uris&amp;quot;:[&amp;quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/8TIFKWPK&amp;quot;],&amp;quot;itemData&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;id&amp;quot;:2153,&amp;quot;type&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;article-journal&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;abstract&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Corriger
les &lt;span style=&#39;mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri;mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri;
mso-bidi-font-family:Calibri&#39;&gt;«&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;erreurs&lt;span style=&#39;mso-ascii-font-family:
Calibri;mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri;mso-bidi-font-family:Calibri&#39;&gt;&amp;nbsp;»&lt;/span&gt;
de\n&lt;span style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;              &lt;/span&gt;Vingt mille lieues sous
les mers\n&lt;span style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;              &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri;mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri;mso-bidi-font-family:
Calibri&#39;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;: telle est la devise des auteurs ayant raconté leurs
premières plongées en scaphandre autonome dans les années 1950. Pourtant, la
promotion d’un discours scientifique neutre, purgé des invraisemblances
associées au roman de Jules Verne, bute contre le recours inévitable au langage
et à des effets littéraires pour exprimer l’ivresse des profondeurs et la
métamorphose du plongeur. À partir de\n&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;              &lt;/span&gt;Plongées sans câble\n&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;              &lt;/span&gt;(1954) de Philippe
Tailliez,\n&lt;span style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;              &lt;/span&gt;L’aventure
sous-marine\n&lt;span style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;              &lt;/span&gt;(1951) et\n &lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;             &lt;/span&gt;Les portes de la mer\n&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;              &lt;/span&gt;(1953) de Philippe Diolé, entre
autres, cet article analyse d’abord la manière dont la surface de l’eau
symbolise une frontière étanche sous laquelle l’océan demeure mystérieux et
inépuisable. Il examine ensuite le rapport politique violent qui s’exprime à
travers un ensemble d’hyperboles promouvant la conquête de la mer non seulement
dans ces récits parus il y a plus de soixante ans, mais dans le discours
océanographique contemporain.\n&lt;span style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;           
&lt;/span&gt;\n&lt;span style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;        &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;, \n&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;            &lt;/span&gt;\n&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;              &lt;/span&gt;To correct the “errors” in\n&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;              &lt;/span&gt;Twenty Thousand Leagues under the
Sea\n&lt;span style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;              &lt;/span&gt;: this was the slogan
of the authors when recounting their first diving explorations in the 1950s.
However, the promotion of a neutral scientific discourse, purged of the
improbabilities associated with Jules Verne’s novel, runs up against the
inevitable recourse to language and literary effects to express the euphoria of
the ocean depths and the metamorphosis of the diver. Inspired by\n&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;              &lt;/span&gt;Plongées sans câbles\n&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;              &lt;/span&gt;(Diving without Cables) (1954) by
Philippe Tailliez as well as\n&lt;span style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;             
&lt;/span&gt;L’aventure sous-marine\n&lt;span style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;             
&lt;/span&gt;(The Undersea Adventure) (1951) and\n&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;              &lt;/span&gt;Les portes de la mer\n&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;              &lt;/span&gt;(The Gates of the Sea) (1953) by
Philippe Diolé, among others, this article begins by analyzing the way the
water’s surface symbolizes a hermetic border sealing off a mysterious and
inexhaustible ocean. It next examines the violent political relationship
expressed through a set of hyperboles promoting the conquest of the sea not
only in these accounts published over sixty years ago, but also in contemporary
discourse on the
ocean.&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;container-title&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Tangence&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;DOI&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;10.7202/1083861ar&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;ISSN&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;1710-0305,
1189-4563&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;issue&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;125-126&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;journalAbbreviation&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;tce&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;page&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;29-42&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;source&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;DOI.org
(Crossref)&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;title&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Asphyxier l’océan une conquête à la
fois : l’exploration sous-marine chez Philippe Diolé et Philippe
Tailliez&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;title-short&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Asphyxier l’océan une conquête à
la
fois&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;author&amp;quot;:[{&amp;quot;family&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Marcil-Bergeron&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;given&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Myriam&amp;quot;}],&amp;quot;issued&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;date-parts&amp;quot;:[[&amp;quot;2021&amp;quot;,11,12]]}}}],&amp;quot;schema&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json&amp;quot;}
&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-separator&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Myriam
Marcil-Bergeron, «&amp;nbsp;Asphyxier l’océan une conquête à la fois :
l’exploration sous-marine chez Philippe Diolé et Philippe Tailliez&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i&gt;Tangence&lt;/i&gt;,
n&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; 125‑126 (12 novembre 2021): 29‑42,
https://doi.org/10.7202/1083861ar.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-element:field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn3&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/1THESE2024_Hilaire-P%C3%A9rez/TEXTES/The%20Life%20Aquatic/Steve%20Zissou%20et%20Life%20Aquatic.docx#_ftnref3&quot; name=&quot;_ftn3&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn3;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&amp;quot;citationID&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;5ulmbTbN&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;properties&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;formattedCitation&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Gregg
Mitman, {\\i{}Reel nature: America\\uc0\\u8217{}s romance with wildlife on
films} (Cambridge, Mass., Etats-Unis d\\uc0\\u8217{}Am\\uc0\\u233{}rique:
Harvard University Press, 1999).&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;plainCitation&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Gregg
Mitman, Reel nature: America’s romance with wildlife on films (Cambridge,
Mass., Etats-Unis d’Amérique: Harvard University Press,
1999).&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;noteIndex&amp;quot;:3},&amp;quot;citationItems&amp;quot;:[{&amp;quot;id&amp;quot;:1260,&amp;quot;uris&amp;quot;:[&amp;quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/JGJ4FFWN&amp;quot;],&amp;quot;itemData&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;id&amp;quot;:1260,&amp;quot;type&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;book&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;event-place&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Cambridge,
Mass., Etats-Unis
d&#39;Amérique&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;ISBN&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;978-0-674-71571-4&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;language&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;anglais&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;number-of-pages&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;viii+263&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;publisher&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Harvard
University Press&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;publisher-place&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Cambridge, Mass.,
Etats-Unis d&#39;Amérique&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;source&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Library Catalog -
www.sudoc.abes.fr&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;title&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Reel nature: America&#39;s romance
with wildlife on films&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;title-short&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Reel
nature&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;author&amp;quot;:[{&amp;quot;family&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Mitman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;given&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Gregg&amp;quot;}],&amp;quot;issued&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;date-parts&amp;quot;:[[&amp;quot;1999&amp;quot;]]}}}],&amp;quot;schema&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json&amp;quot;}
&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-separator&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Gregg Mitman, &lt;i&gt;Reel
nature: America’s romance with wildlife on films&lt;/i&gt; (Cambridge, Mass.,
Etats-Unis d’Amérique: Harvard University Press, 1999).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-element:field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt; Voir Chap.2, p.26-35&amp;nbsp;: &lt;i&gt;Science
versus showmanship on the silent screen&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/feeds/4018215212823205393/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2024/11/steve-zissou-et-la-vie-aquatique-de-wes.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/4018215212823205393'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/4018215212823205393'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2024/11/steve-zissou-et-la-vie-aquatique-de-wes.html' title='Steve Zissou et &quot;La Vie Aquatique&quot; de Wes Anderson (2004)'/><author><name>Gestalt</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10962207802973660346</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFQRD6kaQLUr1OUFCHOR0VqUEPA0--dKvSXYzAg5UJQ0jQol9BgkX2GLgvMoTGRhoojVNzRfbkL-xTjTcSsJ4EzhOxXCrqqMJAg2A-bKdz9_mG632d3cuenkDsDa043g/s220/vertov.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2Jubc7sqobIgTimNhChinegk8nP1F7Ra-UJ8rJHa5JrJL3UOHEX0EZLjWTvfu7zW2Izl5ytbakztiwgYF459t1CLI57uuZ9G-WW0MlfQoyThegDq-7FlluXAhGRKH7zloecG-vPcgM4ZKMXy_HaDTRBieCV08FeGgY3sxBnrK6uwJsxyIwisV9qHiHrbC/s72-w480-h640-c/16975247_1300x1733.jpg" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3824907278627072174.post-8358291645067576547</id><published>2024-11-21T15:44:00.004+01:00</published><updated>2025-03-27T12:03:08.399+01:00</updated><title type='text'>The Underwater Eye, par Margaret Cohen</title><content type='html'>&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhRwW2q5hj2qHgWOOsG8sb3NKFG0KHzLb_EHvNAn9D6i0mY6OiJ_jl2huRkM5G8ErcdFEYB2ceOoUwU1qtxABstQe4muAiBgnnsXu4piVC9qOHTPpIGdjki1NgLpzEKG4vDBRxu0piMtEOUVRbKftiXPfIVc8eY5sVBQviInsIhELcsKKKPMFkc9xACD1o/s1300/Aquaflex.png&quot; style=&quot;clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1298&quot; data-original-width=&quot;1300&quot; height=&quot;640&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhRwW2q5hj2qHgWOOsG8sb3NKFG0KHzLb_EHvNAn9D6i0mY6OiJ_jl2huRkM5G8ErcdFEYB2ceOoUwU1qtxABstQe4muAiBgnnsXu4piVC9qOHTPpIGdjki1NgLpzEKG4vDBRxu0piMtEOUVRbKftiXPfIVc8eY5sVBQviInsIhELcsKKKPMFkc9xACD1o/w640-h640/Aquaflex.png&quot; width=&quot;640&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;Le livre de Margaret Cohen, &lt;i&gt;The Underwater Eye&lt;/i&gt; (2022) se
présente comme une histoire de l’image sous-marine racontée à partir de l’expérience
de ses principaux protagonistes, dont les actions et les films au cours du
XXème siècle ont été à l’origine d’un genre cinématographique à part entière.
Les origines culturelles du cinéma sous la mer sont recherchées dans des
travaux qui, depuis plusieurs années ont contribué à former un ensemble
théorique robuste qu’on a pu désigner comme étant des &lt;/span&gt;&lt;i style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;blue humanities&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;.
Margaret Cohen cite, entre autres, les travaux de Nicole Starosielski&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Ramy/Desktop/The_Underwater_Eye.docx#_ftn1&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref1&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;, Franziska
Torma&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Ramy/Desktop/The_Underwater_Eye.docx#_ftn2&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref2&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt; et
Jonathan Crylen parmi les contributions importantes dans ce domaine de
recherche. On notera en particulier le travail fondateur de Jonathan Crylen, dont
la dissertation de PhD intitulée &lt;/span&gt;&lt;i style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;The Cinematic Aquarium&amp;nbsp;: A History of
Undersea Film&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt; (2015), met en avant un dialogue entre technologie,
esthétique et environnement.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;À partir du moment où le cinéma a
pénétré le monde liquide de l’environnement subaquatique, il s’est trouvé
confronté à la problématique d’une vision modifiée, aux problèmes posés par
l’adaptation des équipements à des conditions extrêmes (la question de la
pression barométrique, l’usure des matériaux) et peut-être plus encore par les
conditions particulièrement éprouvantes rencontrées par les humains lors de
séjours prolongés dans les profondeurs.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;Cependant, les questions relatives
aux difficultés de la plongée sous-marine et les problèmes concernant la mise
au point d’équipements de tournage sous la mer ne semblent pas avoir été au centre des
travaux de Margaret Cohen. En effet, comme elle le mentionne, «&amp;nbsp;a
technological history of the revolution in dive and underwater cameras is
outside the scope of this book&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Ramy/Desktop/The_Underwater_Eye.docx#_ftn3&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref3&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Le
programme de Margaret Cohen apparait en fait dès 2019, dans un article de la
revue &lt;i&gt;English Language Notes&lt;/i&gt;, dans lequel elle remarque, à propos des
nouvelles technologies de la photographie et du cinématographe ayant, dès le
XIXème siècle, transformé le regard du public sur les environnements
subaquatiques&amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;blockquote style=&quot;border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both;&quot;&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;«&amp;nbsp;(…) in the new cultural configurations enabling the
public to view the undersea, photography and film played an outsized role,
given the authority of these media as documentation of reality in the twentieth
century.&amp;nbsp;The contributions extended beyond transmitting new views of the
undersea to shaping actively the public perception of a remote and forbidding
planetary environment that few could experience »&lt;a href=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Ramy/Desktop/The_Underwater_Eye.docx#_ftn4&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref4&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[4]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both;&quot;&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;Car ce
qui lui parait central dans ce regard porté sur un univers largement inconnu
jusque vers la fin du siècle, ce ne sont pas tant les développements des
nouvelles sciences de la mer, permis par les nouvelles technologies de l’époque,
que l’imaginaire qui les accompagne ou, comme l’écrit l’océanographe Helen
Rozwadowski&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;Imagination may, in fact, play a larger role in our
perception of the ocean, especially its third dimension, than modern
science.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Ramy/Desktop/The_Underwater_Eye.docx#_ftn5&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref5&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[5]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;Il n’était pas possible, cependant,
de passer sous silence les principales inventions et les technologies ayant
permis cette aventure, plus spécialement le scaphandre autonome et la caméra de
cinéma portable, ainsi que le rôle des sciences physiques et biologiques ayant
permis cette aventure. Des développements concernant l’introduction de l’&lt;i&gt;Aquaflex&lt;/i&gt;
prennent place dans la première partie, intitulée &lt;i&gt;Vision Immersed (1840 –
1953)&lt;/i&gt;. Est mentionnée, en particulier, l’utilisation d’objectifs
anamorphiques qui produisent des images spectaculaires, comme dans cette
citation d’un article du &lt;i&gt;New York Times&lt;/i&gt; de 1953&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;(…)
everything looks both large and fearful down there beneath the watery
blue-green sea.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Ramy/Desktop/The_Underwater_Eye.docx#_ftn6&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref6&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[6]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;On notera cependant que les noms des
inventeurs de l’appareil ne sont jamais mentionnés&amp;nbsp;: il s’agit d’André
Coutant et de Jacques Mathot, qui furent récompensés par un Oscar technique en
1950 pour le &lt;i&gt;Caméflex&lt;/i&gt; (l’&lt;i&gt;Aquaflex&lt;/i&gt; est une adaptation en version
sous-marine du Caméflex)&lt;a href=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Ramy/Desktop/The_Underwater_Eye.docx#_ftn7&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref7&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[7]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;Comme nous le verrons plus loin,
c’est avant tout l’aventure &lt;i&gt;esthétique&lt;/i&gt; du cinéma sous-marin qui est au
centre de l’ouvrage, c’est-à-dire les hommes et les technologies lorsqu’elles
sont mises en œuvre pour offrir des images d’un monde autrefois hors de portée,
et dont les caractéristiques produisent une perception modifiée, qui n’est pas
seulement celle de la vue mais celle du corps tout entier. Se pose alors la
question de l’adaptation à ce milieu &lt;i&gt;étrange&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;Avant d’aller plus loin dans les
questions relatives à la vision et à la perception sous l’eau, il est important
de situer l’ouvrage et d’en décrire la structure.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;Le livre est organisé en trois
parties, qui délimitent chacune une période correspondant à un état des
sciences, des technologies et des représentations de l’époque. &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;La première partie développe, tout
d’abord, les différents types de représentations effectuées au cours du XIXème
siècle, à une époque où la plongée sous-marine était de l’ordre de l’exploit et
réservée à des spécialistes. Ceci permet en fait d’aborder le rôle des
aquariums, les seuls dispositifs permettant d’observer les habitants du monde
sous-marin dans leur élément. Les aquariums montrent le mouvement et permettent
d’observer le comportement des animaux marins, mais ils ne permettent pas de
rendre compte de l’effet de la pression exercée par un milieu où l’atmosphère
est huit cent fois plus dense qu’à l’air libre. Ce sont en fait les expériences
de Louis Boutan et les premières photographies qu’il prend au cours de ses
plongées, près de Banyuls, qui vont permettre de réaliser les difficultés
représentées par l’image sous-marine, et ce qu’on voit réellement lorsqu’on est
plongé sous l’eau.&lt;a href=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Ramy/Desktop/The_Underwater_Eye.docx#_ftn8&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref8&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[8]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
Cette question de la visibilité sous l’eau apparait alors clairement et toutes
les recherches au cours du siècle suivant tourneront en fait autour de deux
questions&amp;nbsp;: comment construire des équipements capables de résister aux
pressions qui s’exercent à des profondeurs de plusieurs dizaines de mètres et
comment repousser les limites de la visibilité à ces profondeurs.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;Boutan opérait à partir d’une
installation classique composée d’un scaphandre «&amp;nbsp;pieds lourds&amp;nbsp;»,
relié à la surface. Il ne pouvait être question de se déplacer au-delà de
quelques mètres et l’appareil photographique (une chambre en fait) lui-même
était très difficile à déplacer. Cette configuration ne changera pas au cours
d’une bonne partie du siècle suivant, jusqu’à l’invention du scaphandre
autonome.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;La première partie du livre de
Margaret Cohen est consacrée pour l’essentiel à la relation des débuts de
l’image sous-marine et des premières réalisations cinématographiques avant
l’entrée en scène – pourrait-on dire – du scaphandre autonome. La question
principale posée tout au long de cette période sera&amp;nbsp;: comment faire pour
se déplacer dans le monde sous-marin en toute liberté et en ramener des images
de cinéma&amp;nbsp;? La question va très vite se ramener à la possibilité de mettre
au point un dispositif permettant de résoudre ce problème.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;Dès l’introduction en effet (p.2),
on voit une photographie montrant la figure tutélaire de Jacques-Yves Cousteau
en train d’allumer une cigarette devant une illustration dans le fond. Cette
illustration de 1784 montre la machine &lt;i&gt;hydrostatergatique&lt;/i&gt; de Fréminet.
Dans ce plan tiré du &lt;i&gt;Monde du Silence&lt;/i&gt;, Cousteau choisit de mettre en
avant cette réalisation d’un obscur prédécesseur car cette machine, à l’inverse
des expériences qui avaient lieu à l’époque, comportait une partie séparée
susceptible de recevoir un réservoir d’air et elle pouvait être considérée
comme une préfiguration du scaphandre autonome. &amp;nbsp;Il reste que, pour l’essentiel la question du
développement de la plongée et des appareils et dispositifs qui vont la
permettre n’est pas au centre de l’exposé. C’est la question de la vision sous
l’eau et sa relation aux différentes formes d’expérience sensible du paysage
qui est traitée, et la perspective aquatique qui en résulte est nommée en tant
que ‘&lt;i&gt;forme symbolique’&lt;/i&gt;. Le programme est annoncé au début de cette
partie&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;(…) how underwater optics diverge from viewer
expectations, showing the problems they pose to Western pictorial conventions
for depicting landscape.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Ramy/Desktop/The_Underwater_Eye.docx#_ftn9&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref9&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[9]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; La
question de la vision sous l’eau, plus encore celle de l’apparence des couleurs,
deviendront plus tard un élément central dans les recherches cinématographiques
portant sur les possibilités d’obtenir un rendu fidèle des ambiances colorées
des profondeurs. &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;Ce que Margaret Cohen nomme, dans
une deuxième partie&lt;i&gt;, The Wet Camera (1951 – 1961)&lt;/i&gt; correspond en fait à
une période au cours de laquelle certains films et leurs auteurs deviennent des
éléments marquants de la relation qui est en train de s’établir entre le monde
de la plongée sous-marine et le cinéma. L’auteur développe ici une histoire de
l’image sous-marine au cours de cette période autour de trois éléments&amp;nbsp;:
deux films en particulier, &lt;i&gt;20000 Lieues sous les mers &lt;/i&gt;(Richard
Fleischer, 1954) et &lt;i&gt;Le Monde du Silence&lt;/i&gt; (Cousteau – Malle, 1956) sont
analysés. Un troisième personnage apparait, dont les contributions
cinématographiques sont importantes&amp;nbsp;: l’autrichien Hans Hass, plus connu
dans le monde germanique, et dont l’épouse Lotte est surnommée la
«&amp;nbsp;Marilyn Monroe des profondeurs&amp;nbsp;». On comprend assez facilement le
rôle qu’ont pu jouer certaines femmes dans les représentations véhiculées à
l’époque, ce que Margaret Cohen ne manque pas de mentionner, tout en remarquant
l’importance qu’a eu ici le scaphandre autonome comme dispositif ayant permis
l’entrée des femmes dans le monde sous-marin :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;blockquote style=&quot;border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both;&quot;&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;«&amp;nbsp;the scuba revolution
featured women participation from its early history. While helmet divers needed
sheer strength to support their heavy gear, strong swimmers excelled at scuba
diving (…) Marine biology was one of the areas of science that was the most
accessible to women throughout the twentieth century, and women took up the new
technology of scuba to further their research.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Ramy/Desktop/The_Underwater_Eye.docx#_ftn10&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref10&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[10]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;Au final, c’est la description d’un
paysage romantique, exploré par des aventuriers d’un nouveau style qui
apparait, et c’est probablement l’image qu’ont pu en avoir les spectateurs et
les téléspectateurs de l’époque. Une période, dans les premières décennies de
l’après-guerre, qui est celle de la reconstruction pour l’Europe, du
développement hégémonique pour les États-Unis, et surtout celle d’une foi
renouvelée dans le pouvoir de la technologie. Les nouveaux explorateurs du
monde sous-marin sont en effet convaincus par les possibilités offertes par les
équipements dont ils disposent, et il semble alors que rien ne peut arrêter la
conquête des profondeurs. A ce stade, le romantisme et l’esprit de conquête,
tels qu’ils se manifestaient dans les réalisations de l’époque, auraient pu mener
à une inflexion dans le récit. Il aurait pu sembler judicieux de s’interroger
sur les représentations véhiculées par les films de ces
«&amp;nbsp;pionniers&amp;nbsp;». Là où le sens esthétique et le ravissement ont pu
constituer parfois l’horizon de toute critique cinématographique, il a sans
doute manqué la liaison avec une perspective historique, celle qui, au moment
du grand débat autour de la pérennité des structures coloniales dans
l’après-guerre, devait nécessairement permettre de replacer ces films dans le
contexte politique de l’époque. Comme le souligne Franziska Torma, les
aventures et les expéditions océanographiques de l’époque ont permis de
redéfinir&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;blockquote style=&quot;border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both;&quot;&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;«&amp;nbsp;les tropiques comme un nouvel espace à la fois pour la science
et l’imagination (…) De ce point de vue, Hans Hass et Jacques-Yves Cousteau
peuvent être considérés comme des figures liminaires qui, par leurs biographies
et expéditions, incarnent diverses approches des océans tropicaux. Ils peuvent
être reconsidérés comme des figures de transition de l’âge colonial à l’âge
postcolonial (…) Ils n&#39;étaient pas seulement des pionniers de la plongée
sous-marine&amp;nbsp;; ils avaient rendu visible le monde sous-marin et l’avaient
rendu intellectuellement accessible aux sociétés occidentales. »&lt;a href=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Ramy/Desktop/The_Underwater_Eye.docx#_ftn11&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref11&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[11]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;La télévision va cependant jouer un
rôle central dans l’histoire de ce cinéma du monde marin. En effet, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;au
cours des décennies de l’immédiat après-guerre, l’introduction de la télévision
dans les foyers des classes moyennes entraine un nouveau rapport à l’image en
mouvement et à la temporalité induite par le nouveau média&amp;nbsp;: désormais il
n’est plus besoin de se déplacer pour profiter d’un spectacle gratuit, du moins
dans les premiers temps. À partir de cette époque, le rôle de la télévision
devient central pour la diffusion des connaissances concernant le monde marin.
De nombreuses productions sont dédiées à la représentation de la mer et des
espèces marines mais, plus encore, la télévision fait apparaitre un nouveau
type de médiation, grâce à des rendez-vous réguliers avec des personnages qui
s’invitent dans le salon familial. Le média électronique, par sa présence
quotidienne au sein des foyers, va cristalliser une représentation du monde
sous-marin conforme à l’imaginaire postcolonial de l’époque et façonner la
figure de l’explorateur aux prises avec la Nature.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;À une époque
où la réalité de la vie dans l’océan était inconnue du plus grand nombre et où
la plongée sous-marine était encore de l’ordre de l’exploit, l’idée de la
représentation d’une lutte, d’une sorte de conflit territorial opposant l’homme
et les habitants du monde sous-marin, contenait les éléments de tension
nécessaires&amp;nbsp;à l’élaboration d’un tel spectacle :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;blockquote style=&quot;border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both;&quot;&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;«&amp;nbsp;Ocean exploitation
films featured a kind of territorial struggle&amp;nbsp;: conflict between man and
aquatic creatures. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN-US&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;Hunting was a significant narrative trope in the
documentary films of both Cousteau and Hass. Following the cultural conception
of the ocean in this period, these films depicted the sea as a vast terrain of
resources. (…) Regardless of their subject, the language of battle and hunting pervaded
the reception of almost all underwater documentaries. (…) To effectively
publicize &lt;i&gt;The Silent World &lt;/i&gt;(1956), marketers used ads such as
«&amp;nbsp;Adventurers battle blood-mad monsters&amp;nbsp;» and «&amp;nbsp;SEE bare-skinned
divers fight man-eating sharks in the Indian Ocean&amp;nbsp;»&amp;nbsp;»&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Ramy/Desktop/The_Underwater_Eye.docx#_ftn12&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref12&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;[12]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN-US&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;. &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;La ‘chasse’
sous-marine était très présente dans de nombreux films de l’époque. Les
chasseurs étaient ces nouveaux aventuriers venus du monde occidental,
maitrisant des technologies qui leur donnaient l’avantage sur les pêcheurs
autochtones. Dans la plupart de ces films, le requin apparait comme l’archétype
de l’adversaire impitoyable qu’il faut aller combattre dans son élément. Si les
premiers films, ceux de John-Ernest Williamson en particulier, insistent sur
cet aspect de bête dangereuse et malfaisante, on trouve encore chez Cousteau
les mêmes considérations sur le requin, décrit comme un monstre redouté et
détesté par tous les marins&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Ramy/Desktop/The_Underwater_Eye.docx#_ftn13&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref13&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;[13]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;Le cinéma introduisit cependant, avec les
premières adaptations du roman de Jules Verne, dans lequel le monstre était
cette fois un calmar géant, une variation que l’on retrouvera dans d’autres
films&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Ramy/Desktop/The_Underwater_Eye.docx#_ftn14&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref14&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;[14]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;. Le monstre pouvait aussi apparaitre
comme relevant d’une aberration de la nature, une survivance d’une époque
antérieure, rappelée du cœur de l’océan par les expériences humaines les plus
destructrices (&lt;i&gt;Godzilla&lt;/i&gt;) ou parce que des humains, des savants ou des
aventuriers, ont envahi son territoire (&lt;i&gt;L’étrange créature du Lac Noir&lt;/i&gt;).
La figure du monstre, inquiétante par son étrangeté et le danger qu’elle
pouvait représenter pour l’espèce humaine, était porteuse d’une sorte
d’altérité radicale, alors qu’à l’écran on pouvait voir un personnage oscillant
entre la terreur qu’il inspire et une apparence grotesque. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN-US&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;Patrick
Gonder, cité par N. Starosielski, décrit &lt;i&gt;L’étrange créature du Lac Noir &lt;/i&gt;(Jack
Arnold, 1954) de la manière suivante: «&amp;nbsp;the Creature is a symbol of
miscegeneration, a tragic mutation who does not fit into either world; his
oversize lips are meant to be fish-like, but they also match the racist
stereotype of African-American physiognomy.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Ramy/Desktop/The_Underwater_Eye.docx#_ftn15&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref15&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;[15]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;Une mutation tragique sans doute mais
qui, au-delà du stéréotype, nous renvoie à la possibilité troublante d’une
hybridité, d’une parenté possible avec un être qui ne serait pas seulement un
vestige, mais représenterait «&amp;nbsp;l’émergence d’une pseudo-figure humaine
depuis une déviation zoologique antécédente: les poissons&amp;nbsp;»&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Ramy/Desktop/The_Underwater_Eye.docx#_ftn16&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref16&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;[16]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;. Trouble manifeste devant un être
ouvertement sexué et faisant le choix de s’approprier une femelle humaine
(comme le faisait d’ailleurs, vingt ans auparavant, le grand singe de Cooper et
Schoedsack).&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;L’animal marin
est un élément central dans le narratif de la mer au cinéma. Qu’il soit
hostile, amical ou simple ressource, on le rencontre dans la plupart des films
tournés sous la mer. Comment ces représentations peuvent-elles nous renseigner
sur la réalité du monde naturel&amp;nbsp;? Quelles interprétations peut-on en
tirer&amp;nbsp;? Qu’il s’agisse d’animaux réels (la baleine, le requin) ou
imaginaires (le Kraken, Godzilla…) il est possible de montrer dans quelle
mesure la réalité et le mythe se croisent, à travers les codes du film de
genre, d’un certain type de documentaire animalier et leur réinterprétation des
données de la science.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;Importe-t-il
que ces interactions se soient réellement produites ou bien qu’elles aient eu
lieu dans le cadre d’évènements imaginaires et de constructions
fictionnelles&amp;nbsp;? Il faut considérer que la rencontre avec les ‘monstres
marins’, puisque tel était leur qualificatif jusqu’à une époque récente, a été
racontée au moins depuis le haut Moyen-Âge. Les &lt;i&gt;mappaemundi&lt;/i&gt; les plus
importantes contiennent des illustrations de créatures et de monstres marins&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Ramy/Desktop/The_Underwater_Eye.docx#_ftn17&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref17&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;[17]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;La littérature
du Moyen-Âge et de la Renaissance sur les voyages et les explorations est
importante. La représentation des animaux dans des bestiaires&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Ramy/Desktop/The_Underwater_Eye.docx#_ftn18&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref18&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;[18]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;, sur des fresques ou des cartes
marines a généré une partie importante de l’iconographie. &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;Dans les documents médiévaux, en effet, les
animaux tiennent une place de choix.&amp;nbsp;
Quel que soit le type de document, «&amp;nbsp;textes et images, bien sûr,
mais aussi matériaux archéologiques, rituels et codes sociaux, héraldique,
toponymie et anthroponymie, folklore, proverbes, chansons, jurons&amp;nbsp;: quel
que soit le terrain documentaire sur lequel il s’aventure, l’historien
médiéviste ne peut pas ne pas rencontrer l’animal.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Ramy/Desktop/The_Underwater_Eye.docx#_ftn19&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref19&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;[19]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;Entre fictions
et documentaires animaliers, la représentation des animaux marins au cinéma
balance entre la vision d’un monde dans lequel, tour à tour, l’animal peut
sembler proche et amical ou lointain et menaçant.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;C’est dans la
troisième partie du livre que Margaret Cohen s’intéresse plus précisément à la
place et au rôle que jouent les animaux marins dans ce cinéma des profondeurs.
Elle le fait au travers de développements concernant les relations imaginaires
entre des humains et des animaux marins parmi les plus emblématiques&amp;nbsp;: un
dauphin, dans &lt;i&gt;Le Grand Bleu&lt;/i&gt; de Luc Besson et un étrange requin géant,
sorte d’animal mythologique pourchassé par Steve Zissou, dans le film de Wes
Anderson. On reste cependant dans le programme général du livre, situé assez
loin d’une analyse du film animalier et de sa place aux côtés du film
scientifique proprement dit.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;Que signifient
ces représentations pour le chercheur en sciences sociales&amp;nbsp;? Que
peuvent-elles nous dire sur notre rapport aux animaux marins&amp;nbsp;? D’une
manière ou d’une autre nous les consommons, et pour la majorité des humains il
ne peut être question de renoncer à un mode de vie qui, pour certaines raisons
morales, implique la négation de l’existence d’une conscience animale. Par
ailleurs, on a vu évoluer les représentations au cinéma des relations entre
humains et animaux marins. Une question, en effet, revient dans la plupart de
ces films&amp;nbsp;: elle concerne la possibilité d’établir un jour une
communication. Ce monde n’est-il pas, cependant, le lieu d’une altérité
radicale&amp;nbsp;? Ou bien des voies de communication sont-elles possibles à
mesure que les recherches sur le comportement animal progressent&amp;nbsp;? Le
cinéma, dans ses variantes documentaire et fiction, s’est attaché à explorer
ces questions et les représentations ambivalentes qu’il en donne méritent
d’être interrogées.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;Des travaux importants sur le cinéma
animalier&lt;a href=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Ramy/Desktop/The_Underwater_Eye.docx#_ftn20&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref20&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[20]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
et le cinéma de genre mettant en scène des animaux marins&lt;a href=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Ramy/Desktop/The_Underwater_Eye.docx#_ftn21&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref21&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[21]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; paraitront
à partir des années 1990, mais ils sont surtout publiés dans le monde
anglo-saxon. Il semble pourtant qu’il s’agisse là d’un développement essentiel
pour l’étude du cinéma du monde sous-marin, tel qu’il est produit à l’heure
actuelle, et quels que puissent en être le contexte et les techniques de
production et de diffusion.&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;R. E.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

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Frontier&amp;nbsp;», Environmental History 17, no 3 (1 juillet 2012): 578&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Cambria Math&quot;,serif;mso-bidi-font-family:&quot;Cambria Math&quot;&#39;&gt;‑&lt;/span&gt;602,
https://doi.org/10.1093/envhis/ems046.&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;noteIndex&amp;quot;:5},&amp;quot;citationItems&amp;quot;:[{&amp;quot;id&amp;quot;:2349,&amp;quot;uris&amp;quot;:[&amp;quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/ZN29TLQB&amp;quot;],&amp;quot;itemData&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;id&amp;quot;:2349,&amp;quot;type&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;article-journal&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;container-title&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Environmental
History&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;DOI&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;10.1093/envhis/ems046&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;ISSN&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;1084-5453,
1930-8892&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;issue&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;3&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;journalAbbreviation&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Environmental
History&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;language&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;en&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;page&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;578-602&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;source&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;DOI.org
(Crossref)&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;title&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Arthur C. Clarke and the Limitations
of the Ocean as a Frontier&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;volume&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;17&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;author&amp;quot;:[{&amp;quot;family&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Rozwadowski&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;given&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Helen
M.&amp;quot;}],&amp;quot;issued&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;date-parts&amp;quot;:[[&amp;quot;2012&amp;quot;,7,1]]}}}],&amp;quot;schema&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json&amp;quot;}
&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-separator&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;Helen M.
Rozwadowski, «&amp;nbsp;Arthur C. Clarke and the Limitations of the Ocean as a
Frontier&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i&gt;Environmental History&lt;/i&gt; 17, n&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; 3 (1 juillet
2012): 578‑602, https://doi.org/10.1093/envhis/ems046.&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-element:field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn6&quot;&gt;

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style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&amp;quot;citationID&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;WYyrT664&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;properties&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;formattedCitation&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Cohen,
{\\i{}The underwater eye}, 82.&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;plainCitation&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Cohen, The
underwater eye,
82.&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;noteIndex&amp;quot;:6},&amp;quot;citationItems&amp;quot;:[{&amp;quot;id&amp;quot;:1998,&amp;quot;uris&amp;quot;:[&amp;quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/8XMFGWQP&amp;quot;],&amp;quot;itemData&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;id&amp;quot;:1998,&amp;quot;type&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;book&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;abstract&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;In
The Underwater Eye, Margaret Cohen tells the fascinating story of how the
development of modern diving equipment and movie camera technology has allowed
documentary and narrative filmmakers to take human vision into the depths,
creating new imagery of the seas and the underwater realm, and expanding the
scope of popular imagination. Innovating on the most challenging film set on
earth, filmmakers have tapped the emotional power of the underwater environment
to forge new visions of horror, tragedy, adventure, beauty, and surrealism,
entertaining the public and shaping its perception of ocean reality. Examining
works by filmmakers ranging from J. E. Williamson, inventor of the first undersea
film technology in 1914, to Wes Anderson, who filmed the underwater scenes of
his 2004 The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou entirely in a pool, The Underwater
Eye traces how the radically alien qualities of underwater optics have shaped
liquid fantasies for more than a century. Richly illustrated, the book explores
documentaries by Jacques Cousteau, Louis Malle, and Hans Hass, art films by Man
Ray and Jean Vigo, and popular movies and television shows such as 20,000
Leagues Under the Sea, Creature from the Black Lagoon, Sea Hunt, the Bond
films, Jaws, The Abyss, and Titanic. In exploring the cultural impact of
underwater filmmaking, the book also asks compelling questions about the role
film plays in engaging the public with the remote ocean, a frontline of climate
change&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;call-number&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;TR893.8 .C64
2022&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;event-place&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Princeton, New
Jersey&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;ISBN&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;978-0-691-19797-5&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;note&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;OCLC:
on1289270343&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;number-of-pages&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;303&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;publisher&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Princeton
University Press&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;publisher-place&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Princeton, New
Jersey&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;source&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Library of Congress
ISBN&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;title&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;The underwater eye: how the movie camera
opened the depths and unleashed new realms of
fantasy&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;title-short&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;The underwater
eye&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;author&amp;quot;:[{&amp;quot;family&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Cohen&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;given&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Margaret&amp;quot;}],&amp;quot;issued&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;date-parts&amp;quot;:[[&amp;quot;2022&amp;quot;]]}},&amp;quot;locator&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;82&amp;quot;}],&amp;quot;schema&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json&amp;quot;}
&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-separator&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;Cohen, &lt;i&gt;The
underwater eye&lt;/i&gt;, 82.&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:
field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn7&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Ramy/Desktop/The_Underwater_Eye.docx#_ftnref7&quot; name=&quot;_ftn7&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[7]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&amp;quot;citationID&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;OwPh6sdJ&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;properties&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;formattedCitation&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Cohen,
80.&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;plainCitation&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Cohen, 80.&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;noteIndex&amp;quot;:7},&amp;quot;citationItems&amp;quot;:[{&amp;quot;id&amp;quot;:1998,&amp;quot;uris&amp;quot;:[&amp;quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/8XMFGWQP&amp;quot;],&amp;quot;itemData&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;id&amp;quot;:1998,&amp;quot;type&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;book&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;abstract&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;In
The Underwater Eye, Margaret Cohen tells the fascinating story of how the
development of modern diving equipment and movie camera technology has allowed
documentary and narrative filmmakers to take human vision into the depths,
creating new imagery of the seas and the underwater realm, and expanding the
scope of popular imagination. Innovating on the most challenging film set on
earth, filmmakers have tapped the emotional power of the underwater environment
to forge new visions of horror, tragedy, adventure, beauty, and surrealism,
entertaining the public and shaping its perception of ocean reality. Examining
works by filmmakers ranging from J. E. Williamson, inventor of the first
undersea film technology in 1914, to Wes Anderson, who filmed the underwater
scenes of his 2004 The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou entirely in a pool, The
Underwater Eye traces how the radically alien qualities of underwater optics
have shaped liquid fantasies for more than a century. Richly illustrated, the
book explores documentaries by Jacques Cousteau, Louis Malle, and Hans Hass,
art films by Man Ray and Jean Vigo, and popular movies and television shows
such as 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea, Creature from the Black Lagoon, Sea Hunt,
the Bond films, Jaws, The Abyss, and Titanic. In exploring the cultural impact
of underwater filmmaking, the book also asks compelling questions about the
role film plays in engaging the public with the remote ocean, a frontline of
climate change&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;call-number&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;TR893.8 .C64
2022&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;event-place&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Princeton, New
Jersey&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;ISBN&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;978-0-691-19797-5&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;note&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;OCLC:
on1289270343&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;number-of-pages&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;303&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;publisher&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Princeton
University Press&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;publisher-place&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Princeton, New
Jersey&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;source&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Library of Congress
ISBN&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;title&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;The underwater eye: how the movie camera
opened the depths and unleashed new realms of
fantasy&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;title-short&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;The underwater
eye&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;author&amp;quot;:[{&amp;quot;family&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Cohen&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;given&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Margaret&amp;quot;}],&amp;quot;issued&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;date-parts&amp;quot;:[[&amp;quot;2022&amp;quot;]]}},&amp;quot;locator&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;80&amp;quot;}],&amp;quot;schema&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json&amp;quot;}
&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-separator&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;Cohen, 80.&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;
Voir aussi &lt;i&gt;Science et Vie&lt;/i&gt;, juin 1950&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;Une vraie caméra mais
submersible&amp;nbsp;», p.363-367.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn8&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Ramy/Desktop/The_Underwater_Eye.docx#_ftnref8&quot; name=&quot;_ftn8&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[8]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&amp;quot;citationID&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;9mDdoF15&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;properties&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;formattedCitation&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Alejandro
Mart\\uc0\\u237{}nez et Alejandro Mart\\uc0\\u237{}nez, \\uc0\\u171{}\\uc0\\u160{}\\uc0\\u8220{}A
souvenir of undersea landscapes\\uc0\\u8221{}: underwater photography and the
limits of photographic visibility, 1890-1910\\uc0\\u160{}\\uc0\\u187{},
{\\i{}Hist\\uc0\\u243{}ria, Ci\\uc0\\u234{}ncias, Sa\\uc0\\u250{}de-Manguinhos}
21, n\\super o\\nosupersub{} 3 (septembre 2014): 1029\\uc0\\u8209{}47,
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-59702014000300013.&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;plainCitation&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Alejandro
Martínez et Alejandro Martínez, «&amp;nbsp;“A souvenir of undersea landscapes”:
underwater photography and the limits of photographic visibility,
1890-1910&amp;nbsp;», História, Ciências, Saúde-Manguinhos 21, no 3 (septembre
2014): 1029&lt;span style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Cambria Math&quot;,serif;mso-bidi-font-family:
&quot;Cambria Math&quot;&#39;&gt;‑&lt;/span&gt;47,
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-59702014000300013.&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;noteIndex&amp;quot;:8},&amp;quot;citationItems&amp;quot;:[{&amp;quot;id&amp;quot;:1200,&amp;quot;uris&amp;quot;:[&amp;quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/2UPL3F3A&amp;quot;],&amp;quot;itemData&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;id&amp;quot;:1200,&amp;quot;type&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;article-journal&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;abstract&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;The
first known attempts to take photographs below the surface of the water were
carried out shortly after the appearance of the daguerreotype in 1839. The
earliest records date from the 1850s. Towards the end of that century, in order
to help advance scientific study of marine life, what are considered to be the
first underwater photographs were taken. In these attempts, photography was
valued as producing evidence, while at the same time the limits of its range of
visibility were debated. Here we compare some European and American
experiments, particularly those of biologists Louis Boutan and Jacob Reighard
in their studies of marine fauna from 1890 to 1910.Key words: underwater
photography; photographic visibility; Louis Boutan; Jacob Reighard; Henrique
Boiteux&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;container-title&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;História, Ciências,
Saúde-Manguinhos&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;DOI&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;10.1590/S0104-59702014000300013&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;ISSN&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;0104-5970&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;issue&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;3&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;page&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;1029-1047&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;source&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;SciELO&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;title&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;“A
souvenir of undersea landscapes”: underwater photography and the limits of
photographic visibility, 1890-1910&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;title-short&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;“A
souvenir of undersea
landscapes”&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;volume&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;21&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;author&amp;quot;:[{&amp;quot;family&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Martínez&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;given&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Alejandro&amp;quot;},{&amp;quot;family&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Martínez&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;given&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Alejandro&amp;quot;}],&amp;quot;issued&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;date-parts&amp;quot;:[[&amp;quot;2014&amp;quot;,9]]}}}],&amp;quot;schema&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json&amp;quot;}
&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-separator&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;Alejandro Martínez
et Alejandro Martínez, «&amp;nbsp;“A souvenir of undersea landscapes”: underwater
photography and the limits of photographic visibility, 1890-1910&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i&gt;História,
Ciências, Saúde-Manguinhos&lt;/i&gt; 21, n&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; 3 (septembre 2014): 1029‑47,
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-59702014000300013.&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-element:field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn9&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Ramy/Desktop/The_Underwater_Eye.docx#_ftnref9&quot; name=&quot;_ftn9&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[9]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&amp;quot;citationID&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;zuqmL6J2&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;properties&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;formattedCitation&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Cohen,
{\\i{}The underwater eye}, 37.&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;plainCitation&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Cohen, The
underwater eye,
37.&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;noteIndex&amp;quot;:9},&amp;quot;citationItems&amp;quot;:[{&amp;quot;id&amp;quot;:1998,&amp;quot;uris&amp;quot;:[&amp;quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/8XMFGWQP&amp;quot;],&amp;quot;itemData&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;id&amp;quot;:1998,&amp;quot;type&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;book&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;abstract&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;In
The Underwater Eye, Margaret Cohen tells the fascinating story of how the
development of modern diving equipment and movie camera technology has allowed
documentary and narrative filmmakers to take human vision into the depths,
creating new imagery of the seas and the underwater realm, and expanding the
scope of popular imagination. Innovating on the most challenging film set on
earth, filmmakers have tapped the emotional power of the underwater environment
to forge new visions of horror, tragedy, adventure, beauty, and surrealism,
entertaining the public and shaping its perception of ocean reality. Examining
works by filmmakers ranging from J. E. Williamson, inventor of the first undersea
film technology in 1914, to Wes Anderson, who filmed the underwater scenes of
his 2004 The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou entirely in a pool, The Underwater
Eye traces how the radically alien qualities of underwater optics have shaped
liquid fantasies for more than a century. Richly illustrated, the book explores
documentaries by Jacques Cousteau, Louis Malle, and Hans Hass, art films by Man
Ray and Jean Vigo, and popular movies and television shows such as 20,000
Leagues Under the Sea, Creature from the Black Lagoon, Sea Hunt, the Bond
films, Jaws, The Abyss, and Titanic. In exploring the cultural impact of
underwater filmmaking, the book also asks compelling questions about the role
film plays in engaging the public with the remote ocean, a frontline of climate
change&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;call-number&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;TR893.8 .C64
2022&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;event-place&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Princeton, New
Jersey&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;ISBN&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;978-0-691-19797-5&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;note&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;OCLC:
on1289270343&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;number-of-pages&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;303&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;publisher&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Princeton
University Press&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;publisher-place&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Princeton, New
Jersey&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;source&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Library of Congress
ISBN&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;title&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;The underwater eye: how the movie camera
opened the depths and unleashed new realms of
fantasy&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;title-short&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;The underwater
eye&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;author&amp;quot;:[{&amp;quot;family&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Cohen&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;given&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Margaret&amp;quot;}],&amp;quot;issued&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;date-parts&amp;quot;:[[&amp;quot;2022&amp;quot;]]}},&amp;quot;locator&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;37&amp;quot;}],&amp;quot;schema&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json&amp;quot;}
&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-separator&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;Cohen, &lt;i&gt;The
underwater eye&lt;/i&gt;, 37.&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:
field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

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&lt;div id=&quot;ftn10&quot;&gt;

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documentary and narrative filmmakers to take human vision into the depths,
creating new imagery of the seas and the underwater realm, and expanding the
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&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn12&quot;&gt;

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&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn13&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Ramy/Desktop/The_Underwater_Eye.docx#_ftnref13&quot; name=&quot;_ftn13&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[13]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; Voir &lt;i&gt;Le
Monde du Silence&lt;/i&gt; (1956).&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn14&quot;&gt;

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and practice&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;ISBN&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;978-0-415-89943-7&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;language&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;anglais&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;page&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;149-168&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;publisher&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Routledge&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;title&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Beyond
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Water&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;title-short&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;Beyond
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&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-separator&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN-US&quot;&gt;Patrick Gonder, «&amp;nbsp;Race, Gender and Terror: The Primitive in 1950s
Horror Films&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i&gt;Genders&lt;/i&gt;, n&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; 40 (1 décembre 2004),
https://www.colorado.edu/gendersarchive1998-2013/2004/12/01/race-gender-and-terror-primitive-1950s-horror-films;
Nicole Starosielsky, «&amp;nbsp;Beyond Fluidity: A Cultural History of Cinema under
Water&amp;nbsp;», in &lt;i&gt;Ecocinema theory and practice&lt;/i&gt; (Routledge, 2013), 158.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-element:field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN-US&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

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&lt;div id=&quot;ftn17&quot;&gt;

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dragons and serpents to many-armed beasts that preyed on ships and sailors
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&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/feeds/8358291645067576547/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2024/11/the-underwater-eye-par-margaret-cohen.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/8358291645067576547'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/8358291645067576547'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2024/11/the-underwater-eye-par-margaret-cohen.html' title='The Underwater Eye, par Margaret Cohen'/><author><name>Gestalt</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10962207802973660346</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFQRD6kaQLUr1OUFCHOR0VqUEPA0--dKvSXYzAg5UJQ0jQol9BgkX2GLgvMoTGRhoojVNzRfbkL-xTjTcSsJ4EzhOxXCrqqMJAg2A-bKdz9_mG632d3cuenkDsDa043g/s220/vertov.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhRwW2q5hj2qHgWOOsG8sb3NKFG0KHzLb_EHvNAn9D6i0mY6OiJ_jl2huRkM5G8ErcdFEYB2ceOoUwU1qtxABstQe4muAiBgnnsXu4piVC9qOHTPpIGdjki1NgLpzEKG4vDBRxu0piMtEOUVRbKftiXPfIVc8eY5sVBQviInsIhELcsKKKPMFkc9xACD1o/s72-w640-h640-c/Aquaflex.png" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3824907278627072174.post-5391589611093911584</id><published>2024-04-24T14:19:00.006+02:00</published><updated>2024-04-30T11:09:46.106+02:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="anthropomorphisme"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Etienne-Jules Marey"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Félix Guattari"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Hans Hass"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Jacques Perrin"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Jacques-Yves Cousteau"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Jaws"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Jean Painlevé"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="John Ernest Williamson"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Jules Verne"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Louis Boutan"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Peter Singer"/><title type='text'>Imagination scientifique et représentations des animaux marins au cinéma (2ème partie)</title><content type='html'>&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if gte mso 9]&gt;&lt;xml&gt;
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  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;39&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;toc 7&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;39&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;toc 8&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;39&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;toc 9&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Normal Indent&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;footnote text&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;annotation text&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;header&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;footer&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;index heading&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;35&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;caption&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;table of figures&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;envelope address&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;envelope return&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;footnote reference&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;annotation reference&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;line number&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;page number&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;endnote reference&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;endnote text&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;table of authorities&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;macro&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;toa heading&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;List&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;List Bullet&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;List Number&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;List 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;List 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;List 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;List 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;List Bullet 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;List Bullet 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;List Bullet 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;List Bullet 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;List Number 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;List Number 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;List Number 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;List Number 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;10&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Title&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Closing&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Signature&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;1&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Default Paragraph Font&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Body Text&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Body Text Indent&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;List Continue&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;List Continue 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;List Continue 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;List Continue 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;List Continue 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Message Header&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;11&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Subtitle&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Salutation&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Date&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Body Text First Indent&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Body Text First Indent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Note Heading&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Body Text 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Body Text 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Body Text Indent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Body Text Indent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Block Text&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Hyperlink&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;FollowedHyperlink&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;22&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Strong&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;20&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Emphasis&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Document Map&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Plain Text&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;E-mail Signature&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;HTML Top of Form&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;HTML Bottom of Form&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Normal (Web)&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;HTML Acronym&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;HTML Address&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;HTML Cite&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;HTML Code&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;HTML Definition&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;HTML Keyboard&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;HTML Preformatted&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;HTML Sample&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;HTML Typewriter&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;HTML Variable&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Normal Table&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;annotation subject&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;No List&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Outline List 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Outline List 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Outline List 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Simple 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Simple 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Simple 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Classic 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Classic 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Classic 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Classic 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Colorful 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Colorful 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Colorful 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Columns 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Columns 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Columns 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Columns 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Columns 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Grid 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Grid 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Grid 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Grid 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Grid 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Grid 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Grid 7&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Grid 8&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table List 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table List 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table List 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table List 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table List 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table List 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table List 7&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table List 8&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table 3D effects 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table 3D effects 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table 3D effects 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Contemporary&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Elegant&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Professional&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Subtle 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Subtle 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Web 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Web 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Web 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Balloon Text&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;39&quot; Name=&quot;Table Grid&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Theme&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Placeholder Text&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;1&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;No Spacing&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; Name=&quot;Light List&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Revision&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;34&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;List Paragraph&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;29&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Quote&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;30&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Intense Quote&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;19&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Subtle Emphasis&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;21&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Intense Emphasis&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;31&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Subtle Reference&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;32&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Intense Reference&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;33&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Book Title&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;37&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Bibliography&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;39&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;TOC Heading&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;41&quot; Name=&quot;Plain Table 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;42&quot; Name=&quot;Plain Table 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;43&quot; Name=&quot;Plain Table 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;44&quot; Name=&quot;Plain Table 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;45&quot; Name=&quot;Plain Table 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;40&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table Light&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;46&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 1 Light&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;47&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;48&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;49&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;50&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 5 Dark&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;51&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 6 Colorful&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;52&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 7 Colorful&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;46&quot;
   Name=&quot;Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;47&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 2 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;48&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 3 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;49&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 4 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;50&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;51&quot;
   Name=&quot;Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;52&quot;
   Name=&quot;Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;46&quot;
   Name=&quot;Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;47&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 2 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;48&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 3 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;49&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 4 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;50&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;51&quot;
   Name=&quot;Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;52&quot;
   Name=&quot;Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;46&quot;
   Name=&quot;Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;47&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 2 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;48&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 3 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;49&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 4 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;50&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;51&quot;
   Name=&quot;Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;52&quot;
   Name=&quot;Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;46&quot;
   Name=&quot;Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;47&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 2 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;48&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 3 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;49&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 4 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;50&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;51&quot;
   Name=&quot;Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;52&quot;
   Name=&quot;Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;46&quot;
   Name=&quot;Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;47&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 2 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;48&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 3 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;49&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 4 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;50&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;51&quot;
   Name=&quot;Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;52&quot;
   Name=&quot;Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;46&quot;
   Name=&quot;Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;47&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 2 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;48&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 3 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;49&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 4 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;50&quot; Name=&quot;Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;51&quot;
   Name=&quot;Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;52&quot;
   Name=&quot;Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;46&quot; Name=&quot;List Table 1 Light&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;47&quot; Name=&quot;List Table 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;48&quot; Name=&quot;List Table 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;49&quot; Name=&quot;List Table 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;50&quot; Name=&quot;List Table 5 Dark&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;51&quot; Name=&quot;List Table 6 Colorful&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;52&quot; Name=&quot;List Table 7 Colorful&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;46&quot;
   Name=&quot;List Table 1 Light Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;47&quot; Name=&quot;List Table 2 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;48&quot; Name=&quot;List Table 3 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;49&quot; Name=&quot;List Table 4 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;50&quot; Name=&quot;List Table 5 Dark Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;51&quot;
   Name=&quot;List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;52&quot;
   Name=&quot;List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;46&quot;
   Name=&quot;List Table 1 Light Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;47&quot; Name=&quot;List Table 2 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;48&quot; Name=&quot;List Table 3 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;49&quot; Name=&quot;List Table 4 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;50&quot; Name=&quot;List Table 5 Dark Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;51&quot;
   Name=&quot;List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;52&quot;
   Name=&quot;List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;46&quot;
   Name=&quot;List Table 1 Light Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;47&quot; Name=&quot;List Table 2 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;48&quot; Name=&quot;List Table 3 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;49&quot; Name=&quot;List Table 4 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;50&quot; Name=&quot;List Table 5 Dark Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;51&quot;
   Name=&quot;List Table 6 Colorful Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;52&quot;
   Name=&quot;List Table 7 Colorful Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;46&quot;
   Name=&quot;List Table 1 Light Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;47&quot; Name=&quot;List Table 2 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;48&quot; Name=&quot;List Table 3 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;49&quot; Name=&quot;List Table 4 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
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&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraph&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEizp8Cg8AH30TGfMxyplHEmAcbPl2SljCA9fXnCVax-wY6d5pEF4O6Edt5HCUEf9Av8w_zSer3vI6rg9sBAyRKSEy1OF9gLLHrbtygUDqD8UYTohUpyM1itp9DbSatw_fzaDWmBlDCYZV5O4FZfIOhT3_fbormWLcIuLTMk_soZ0hyphenhyphenmbkw8khQO0MHoovNw/s720/Jaws1975.jpg&quot; style=&quot;clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;720&quot; data-original-width=&quot;509&quot; height=&quot;400&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEizp8Cg8AH30TGfMxyplHEmAcbPl2SljCA9fXnCVax-wY6d5pEF4O6Edt5HCUEf9Av8w_zSer3vI6rg9sBAyRKSEy1OF9gLLHrbtygUDqD8UYTohUpyM1itp9DbSatw_fzaDWmBlDCYZV5O4FZfIOhT3_fbormWLcIuLTMk_soZ0hyphenhyphenmbkw8khQO0MHoovNw/w283-h400/Jaws1975.jpg&quot; width=&quot;283&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;(Quelques éléments pour une histoire qui reste à faire)&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/i&gt;5.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span dir=&quot;LTR&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Médias, écologie et représentations des animaux marins&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La question de la relation aux animaux, et
singulièrement aux espèces marines, est à mettre en rapport avec l’importance
que prend, vers la fin du 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle, la réflexion sur la
dimension morale des rapports de l’homme avec la nature&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn1&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref1&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. A partir des années 1970,
on assiste en effet au développement d’une recherche universitaire menée
principalement par des chercheurs anglophones.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’idée
que la nature est dotée d’une valeur intrinsèque «&amp;nbsp;a conduit à critiquer,
sous le nom d’anthropocentrisme, les positions morales traditionnelles, selon
lesquelles seuls les humains relèvent de la considération morale.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn2&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref2&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le
point de départ de ce courant philosophique peut se situer en 1973, avec la
publication de trois articles par Peter Singer&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn3&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref3&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, Arne Naess&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn4&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref4&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[4]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; et Richard Routley&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn5&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref5&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[5]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Ces trois articles
marquent chacun le point de départ d’un courant de réflexion&amp;nbsp;: éthiques
animales, &lt;i&gt;deep ecology&lt;/i&gt; et éthiques environnementales. C’est la question
de la relation aux espèces animales, à travers le développement du courant
antispéciste, qui nous intéressera.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les
films animaliers proposent une construction imaginaire de la nature et
certaines espèces animales semblent plus à même d’être représentées que
d’autres. Les pingouins sont ainsi des animaux dont le comportement et le mode
de vie provoquent indéniablement l’intérêt des cinéastes&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;Through
the portrayal and consumption of penguins, filmmakers and audiences are
positioned to reflect on a range of concerns, including the curiosities of
nature and evolution, sex and reproduction, issues of morality, human-animal
relations, and the destruction of habitat.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn6&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref6&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[6]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 10pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Une écophilosophie de
l’image animée prend forme ; d’après Adrian Ivakhiv, le cinéma est une machine
à produire et à découvrir des mondes&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn7&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref7&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[7]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; selon trois
registres&amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span dir=&quot;LTR&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Anthropomorphique&amp;nbsp;:
sujet-monde&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span dir=&quot;LTR&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Géomorphique&amp;nbsp;:
monde-objet&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpLast&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span dir=&quot;LTR&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Biomorphique&amp;nbsp;:
monde vivant&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On mettra ces trois registres en relation avec les &lt;u&gt;3
écologies&lt;/u&gt; de Félix Guattari.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Construction
d’une ontologie relationnelle du monde&amp;nbsp;: le social, le matériel et le
mental (ou le perceptif). C’est ce que Guattari nomme &lt;i&gt;écosophie&lt;/i&gt;, c’est à
dire «&amp;nbsp;une articulation éthico-politique entre les trois registres
écologiques, celui de l’environnement, celui des rapports sociaux et celui de
la subjectivité humaine qui serait susceptible d’éclairer convenablement ces
questions.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn8&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref8&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[8]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 10pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Toujours selon Ivakhiv, le
modèle du cinéma environnemental (ou &lt;i&gt;wildlife&lt;/i&gt;
film, ou film animalier&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn9&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref9&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[9]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;) est articulé selon les
termes d’une relation triadique&amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span dir=&quot;LTR&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le monde du film&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span dir=&quot;LTR&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’expérience du
film&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpLast&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span dir=&quot;LTR&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La relation
film-terre (film-environnement)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ce cadre permettrait de construire un modèle qui se
prête au développement d’une théorie écologique des images de cinéma, laquelle
prendrait en compte la relation à l’environnement au sens large. Dans ce cadre,
la relation aux animaux marins apparait à travers un narratif dans lequel
l’explorateur a cédé la place à un type d’aventurier/cinéaste, soucieux de la
protection de la nature au sens large, et qui n’hésite pas à se mettre en
scène. La très large diffusion de ces films porteurs d’un message écologique,
mais qui restent dépendants d’un mode de «&amp;nbsp;spectacularisation&amp;nbsp;» du
monde naturel, interroge cependant sur les modalités de leur réception par un
public habitué désormais à ces représentations. On pourra évaluer la teneur du
discours scientifique dans ce narratif, dans lequel la réception par le public
au sens large implique une simplification assumée par les producteurs&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn10&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref10&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[10]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Quel
lien peut-il y avoir entre les films de Jean Comandon, puis plus tard ceux de
Jean Painlevé, et les séries à gros budget qui inondent les plateformes de
diffusion&amp;nbsp;? Il est possible, en effet, de s’interroger sur la place d’un
tel cinéma dans la formation de l’imaginaire contemporain des mondes océaniques
et sur sa contribution à une meilleure compréhension du rapport aux animaux
marins.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il
s’agira de voir comment ces problématiques peuvent se rattacher aux évolutions
qui ont eu lieu dans la relation aux espèces marines, et la manière dont ces mêmes
évolutions ont infusé et transformé, d’une façon ou d’une autre, les
représentations filmiques de ces animaux.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 10pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On pourra analyser
certains films animaliers emblématiques des années 2000&amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l0 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span dir=&quot;LTR&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Océans&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;,
film réalisé en 2009 par Jacques Perrin et Jacques Cluzaud&amp;nbsp;;
production&amp;nbsp;: Galatée Films&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l0 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span dir=&quot;LTR&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La Marche de
l’Empereur&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;, film réalisé en 2004 par Luc Jacquet&amp;nbsp;;
production&amp;nbsp;: Bonne Pioche et National Geographic Films&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpLast&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l0 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span dir=&quot;LTR&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Shark Week&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;,
série américaine diffusée sur Discovery Channel, qui donne aussi son nom au
festival ‘&lt;i&gt;Paris Shark Week&lt;/i&gt;’&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ces films mettent en scène des animaux marins et, sous
l’angle de propositions filmiques qui dramatisent le récit, s’inscrivent dans
une histoire du documentaire animalier évoluant aux frontières de la fiction et
du film à grand spectacle, porté par un narratif qui personnalise les
intervenants humains et/ou les animaux marins.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;NOTES ET DEVELOPPEMENTS PARTIELS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La science moderne et l’invention des
profondeurs (Partie 1)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Au 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle, l’émergence de
l’océanographie et des œuvres littéraires, dont la mer est le sujet, sont les
éléments qui suscitent un intérêt croissant pour les abysses et la possibilité
de la vie dans les profondeurs marines&amp;nbsp;: c’est l’époque de la croisière du
&lt;i&gt;Challenger&lt;/i&gt; et des premiers câbles sous-marins dans un contexte
géopolitique où la science s’inscrit dans le récit expansionniste des grandes
puissances maritimes&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn11&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref11&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[11]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;Un
des objets de l’expédition du &lt;i&gt;Challenger&lt;/i&gt; est de réfuter définitivement
la théorie azoïque de l’impossibilité de vie dans les profondeurs. Lorsque le
navire appareille de Portsmouth, en décembre 1872, il est impossible de prédire
quels résultats produira cette exploration des profondeurs des océans. Selon
Margaret Deacon, l’expédition du &lt;i&gt;Challenger&lt;/i&gt;, si elle prolonge la
tradition des grands voyages d’exploration scientifique, représente aussi une
innovation d’importance en déplaçant le centre d’intérêt de ces voyages&amp;nbsp;: «
au lieu des visées géographiques et scientifiques plus vastes des voyages
antérieurs, l’attention a été dirigée vers l’étude de la mer elle-même et de
cette partie considérable de la terre qu’elle dissimule. »&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn12&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref12&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[12]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La question de l’imaginaire des
profondeurs, est à mettre en relation avec la représentation des animaux
marins…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Jules Verne, avec &lt;i&gt;‘20000 lieues
sous les mers’&lt;/i&gt; crée une œuvre emblématique de la littérature populaire du
19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle, représentative d’une certaine vulgarisation
scientifique incorporée dans le roman. Cette œuvre livre en effet une
interprétation de la vie sous-marine, imprégnée de l’imaginaire
techno-scientifique de l’époque.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Vers la fin du siècle, on obtient les
premières représentations photographiques et pré-cinématographiques de ce
monde. Elles sont pour l’essentiel l’œuvre de scientifiques. Etienne-Jules
Marey tient ici une place spécifique en raison des études chronophotographiques
effectuées sur des animaux marins, à Posillipo, près de Naples, en particulier&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn13&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref13&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[13]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’arrivée du cinématographe permet
aux premiers cinéastes de réaliser des interprétations imaginaires de ce monde&amp;nbsp;:
Georges Méliès réalise une adaptation de &lt;i&gt;20000 Lieues&lt;/i&gt; &lt;i&gt;sous les mers&lt;/i&gt;
en 1907. Le film est peuplé de créatures fantastiques, n’ayant qu’un rapport
lointain avec la réalité. Il s’agit cependant d’une première interprétation
cinématographique de la vie sous-marine…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La
machine cinéma dans le jardin de Neptune (Partie 2)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On réalise dans cette partie une première
histoire des dispositifs de prise de vues sous-marines&amp;nbsp;: depuis l’appareil
photographique sous-marin de Louis Boutan, la chronophotographie de Marey et
jusqu’au caisson de prises de vues sous-marines de Jean Painlevé, qui sera
utilisé avec le scaphandre autonome de Yves Le Prieur (mais jamais en plongée).
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On verra aussi les contributions de
John Ernest Williamson&amp;nbsp;: les dispositifs inventés et réalisés par ce
cinéaste (et son père) vont donner les premières images du cinéma sous la mer
et permettre de mettre en scène, d’une certaine manière, les premières
interactions filmées entre humains et animaux marins, en l’occurrence des
requins&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn14&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref14&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[14]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il faut noter qu’à l’époque les
requins ont déjà acquis une certaine notoriété en raison d’attaques ayant eu lieu
sur la côte atlantique de Etats-Unis en 1916. Voir texte par Amy J.
Lantinga&amp;nbsp;: &lt;i&gt;Lessons from Jaws 1916-2020&lt;/i&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn15&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref15&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[15]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Quel est le sens des explorations et
des inventions de Williamson&amp;nbsp;? Tout d’abord&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;chasseur
d’images&amp;nbsp;», selon la définition de Susan Sontag&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn16&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref16&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[16]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;«&amp;nbsp;that mentality which looks at
the world as the set for potential photographs&amp;nbsp;» (citation p.6)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Mais Williamson est autant
réalisateur (filmeur, pourrait-on dire) que plongeur et chasseur. Des
films&amp;nbsp;: &lt;i&gt;Thirty Leagues under the Sea&lt;/i&gt; (1914), &lt;i&gt;Twenty Thousand
Leagues under the sea&lt;/i&gt; (avec Stuart Paton, 1916) en particulier, mais aussi
des films de rencontres avec les requins…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Des écrits&amp;nbsp;: &lt;i&gt;Vingt Ans sous
les Mers&lt;/i&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn17&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref17&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[17]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Par la suite, au cours des années
1920, l’exploration des abysses, réalisée à l’aide de bathyscaphes (William
Beebe et Otis Barton) ne permet pas cependant de filmer en toute liberté sous
l’eau. On est pourtant à un moment, dans l’entre-deux guerres, où l’imaginaire
des profondeurs acquiert un nouveau statut grâce à la littérature et au cinéma
des studios. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Deux contributions importantes à
l’époque&amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span dir=&quot;LTR&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Hollywood met en
scène les évolutions nautiques (et sous-marines) d’Annette Kellermann, celle
qu’on surnomme &lt;i&gt;million dollar mermaid&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span dir=&quot;LTR&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Jean Painlevé
réalise des films, qu’on appellera plus tard des films de vulgarisation
scientifique, dont l’objet sera la description des modes de vie de certains
animaux marins (la pieuvre, l’hippocampe…)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’œuvre
de Jean Painlevé&amp;nbsp;occupe une place particulière : des films comme &lt;i&gt;La
Pieuvre&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;L’œuf d’épinoche&lt;/i&gt;, doivent être analysés afin de montrer son
approche originale dans la relation de la science aux animaux marins et à
travers un cinéma animalier qui puise certaines de ses influences auprès du
surréalisme et même de Lautréamont…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il
convient de montrer aussi l’importance de sa relation avec Yves Le Prieur (inventeur
du scaphandre autonome) et le choix du tournage en aquarium plutôt qu’en milieu
naturel (utilisation de dispositifs tels que la microcinématographie, etc.).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Archives&amp;nbsp;:
Brigitte Berg et les Documents Cinématographiques, Paris.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;(Partie 3) Cinéma et
aventures marines&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;: Au cours des années 1940 sont
tournés les premiers films réellement subaquatiques. A partir de la mise au
point du scaphandre autonome, commence la véritable histoire du cinéma sous la
mer&amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span dir=&quot;LTR&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ce sont à la fois
des explorateurs et des plongeurs qui deviendront des cinéastes et qui seront,
au tournant des années 1950, les principaux diffuseurs d’un mode de
représentation du monde sous-marin qui implique l’immersion prolongée, grâce à
des équipements spécialisés permettant l’évolution sous-marine et le tournage
pendant un temps assez long.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span dir=&quot;LTR&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Yves Le Prieur et
Georges Commeinhes sont à l’origine de l’invention du scaphandre autonome.
Celui-ci sera perfectionné et connaitra un véritable développement grâce aux
perfectionnements apportés par le duo Cousteau – Gagnan. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span dir=&quot;LTR&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Hans Hass réalise
des films dont les sujets sont l’exploration et la chasse sous-marine, avant
d’opérer le même tournant écologique que Cousteau. D’autres «&amp;nbsp;chasseurs
sous-marins&amp;nbsp;» sont à l’œuvre au cours des années 1940 – 1950&amp;nbsp;: Folco
Quilici, Bernard Gorsky et ses compagnons de l’expédition Moana, l’anglais F.
A. Mitchell-Hedges, Valérie Taylor à ses débuts…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le
corpus&amp;nbsp;: les films et les écrits de Hans Hass, Jacques-Yves Cousteau et
Louis Malle, Bernard Gorsky…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Des
archives&amp;nbsp;: Hans Hass Archiv à Merzig-Weiler (RFA), Cousteau Society
(Paris), La Cinémathèque (Paris)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Que signifie, au cours de la première
moitié du 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle, cette attirance pour l’exploration
sous-marine ayant saisi nombre de marins et de scientifiques du monde
occidental&amp;nbsp;?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;C’est
d’abord la perception même du monde océanique qui change&amp;nbsp;: d’un univers
mystérieux, menaçant, la mer devient une nouvelle frontière à mesure que des
possibilités d’exploration sont permises par les avancées
technologiques&amp;nbsp;et le travail de biologistes et d’océanographes. Ces
travaux, à l’instar de ceux réalisés &lt;i&gt;in situ&lt;/i&gt; par Eugenie Clark, modifient
le regard porté sur les espèces sous-marines. En 1952, elle publie un livre, &lt;i&gt;Lady
with a Spear&lt;/i&gt;, qui va permettre de porter un nouveau regard sur
l’océan&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;It was a kinder and gentler ocean&amp;nbsp;; full of beauty,
wonder, and domestic wholesomeness, it was an ocean that americans could
experience for themselves with increased access to recently developped diving
equipment. Just as American frontiers became popular spots for outdoor
excursions among America’s elite in the nineteenth century, so too did Clark
help to create an ocean that could be similarly enjoyed and explored by the lay
public.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn18&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref18&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[18]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpLast&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’apport
de Cousteau, Hass et quelques autres, s’inscrit quant à lui dans une culture
technologique qui médiatise la relation entre les humains et l’océan&amp;nbsp;:
«&amp;nbsp;More than providing a window to undersea life, Cousteau’s books,
articles, films, and television series highlight an ocean populated by
scuba-equipped man-fish, underwater scooters, underwater flying saucers, and
housing units (…) As Cousteau the explorer turned into Cousteau the
environmentalist in the 1970s, he continued to look to the scientific and
technological advances that would ameliorate the ocean’s environmental
problems.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn19&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref19&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[19]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 36pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La
question de la chasse sous-marine&amp;nbsp;: l’homme sous la mer est d’abord et avant
tout un chasseur. Le rapport à l’animal marin est celui d’un prédateur envers
sa proie. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span dir=&quot;LTR&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il n’y a dans un
premier temps aucune considération morale, aucune interrogation concernant
l’existence sensible de l’animal. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span dir=&quot;LTR&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Qu’est-ce qui
motive alors le changement dans le rapport à la mer de Cousteau et de Hans Hass
en particulier&amp;nbsp;?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span dir=&quot;LTR&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Une prise de
conscience de la raréfaction des ressources halieutiques&amp;nbsp;?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span dir=&quot;LTR&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La vision de la
destruction des fonds marins, des paysages et de la faune sous-marine
elle-même&amp;nbsp;?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’exploration
sous-marine, qui se développe avec les nouveaux équipements dont disposent les
plongeurs à partir des années 1940, change progressivement le rapport de
ceux-ci avec les habitants du monde subaquatique. De pêcheurs ils deviennent
chasseurs. Et, cependant, côtoyer des poissons et des cétacés, en nageant
parfois à leurs côtés, en les observant dans leur milieu naturel, ne peut se
faire sans que, progressivement naisse le désir de les connaitre autrement que
comme des proies.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpLast&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Hans
Hass qui fut d’abord un «&amp;nbsp;chasseur&amp;nbsp;» comme tant d’autres, évoluera
dans sa pratique de l’exploration sous-marine, à mesure aussi que le travail de
la caméra prendra le pas sur les activités cynégétiques. On le verra ainsi
passer de la relation de ses prouesses de chasseur&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn20&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref20&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[20]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
à une vision plus écologique et endosser le rôle de protecteur de la faune
sous-marine.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;La
question de la préservation des ressources halieutiques apparaitra par la suite.
Elle reste assez largement en dehors du cadre de ce travail.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Qu’est-ce qui différencie
la chasse de la pêche intensive, telle qu’elle se développe au 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt;
siècle&amp;nbsp;? La chasse impliquait un contact quasi-physique avec l’animal.
Elle pouvait être dangereuse pour le pêcheur/chasseur… Ce sera le cas des premiers
baleiniers amenés à poursuivre leurs proies sur des longues barques en guise de
baleinières&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn21&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref21&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[21]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;…
À l’inverse, la pêche industrielle, les canons sur les baleiniers, les filets
remorqués ont interrompu ce contact&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn22&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref22&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[22]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’animal marin demeure
une proie, pour l’essentiel. La perspective est celle d’une exploitation
méthodique des océans (la pêche industrielle, la poursuite de la pêche
baleinière). Des voix cependant commencent à se faire entendre pour réclamer un
autre regard sur ce monde sous-marin et la sauvegarde des espèces qui
l’habitent&amp;nbsp;: Rachel Carson et Anita Conti, plus tard Eugenie Clark et
Sylvia Earle, feront entendre les voix d’océanographes préoccupées par la
préservation de la vie sous-marine et des animaux marins en particulier.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Face à la violence des
luttes économiques et politiques entre nations maritimes, on voit apparaitre
dans les milieux scientifiques des interrogations concernant la nécessité d’une
prise en compte de la vie des animaux marins et des inquiétudes face à la
surpêche&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn23&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref23&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[23]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La &lt;i&gt;réification&lt;/i&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn24&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref24&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[24]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; de l’animal marin, induite
par la pêche industrielle et représentée dans les films consacrés à la pêche «&amp;nbsp;sportive&amp;nbsp;»
et aux chasseurs/pêcheurs, est l’élément central que vont s’attacher à démonter
les différents penseurs de l’écologie marine de la fin du 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt;
siècle… Il faut montrer cependant comment sont représentés ces animaux dans les
premiers films relatant leur rencontre (réelle ou dans une fiction) avec des
humains. John Ernest Williamson s’était illustré en filmant depuis sa &lt;i&gt;Photosphere&lt;/i&gt;
le combat des indigènes des Bahamas contre des requins supposés dangereux.
Lui-même n’hésita pas à payer de sa personne en allant affronter sous l’eau un
squale, en ayant pour toute arme un poignard effilé. Ceci faisait bien entendu
partie de la légende du personnage, tant il est vrai que l’époque voyait dans
l’explorateur un aventurier capable de s’illustrer dans les situations les plus
périlleuses.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le cinéma sous-marin,
c’est-à-dire des films tournés sous la mer, avec des équipements spécifiques,
doit son développement, à partir des années 1950, aux expéditions filmées de
Hans Hass et de l’équipe du commandant Cousteau. C’est donc un genre particulier
du film documentaire qui émerge, dont l’ambition est de montrer la vie dans les
fonds marins, et avec une vision qui n’est pas encore conservationniste mais
qui va le devenir.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On remarque, là aussi, une
prise de conscience, tardive peut-être mais réelle, du caractère fragile de la
faune sous-marine, menacée de disparition en raison de la chasse et de la pêche
industrielle… Hass est au départ un «&amp;nbsp;chasseur&amp;nbsp;» tout comme Gorsky et
bien d’autres. Cousteau n’a pas beaucoup d’intérêt pour les animaux marins.
Leur conversion progressive à l’écologie, dans une optique &lt;i&gt;préservationniste&lt;/i&gt;,
va les amener à s’intéresser aux animaux marins, à leur comportement et à leur
mode de vie, sans aller plus loin cependant – ce qui sera l’objet de recherches
plus récentes.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;table cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;tr-caption-container&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDbnadPLQqJd3ffzT-6jghEsCUIY56rdTOSyZ1pzSR10uiGCd_ZJnfCE20y5dVI-mBZpFMasbW6T-bTNl-7Wc3eMHyvgiSqerYVEVDuMYbDh01TyYGCqOQn03ZGArIVy9-fxeXQVa_9TkUbICqA25X7lqy7gE4sfV-pfGdFeZOpyKwkRmRNfLdRhg7dvx7/s1124/jaws_life2.png&quot; style=&quot;clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;690&quot; data-original-width=&quot;1124&quot; height=&quot;392&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDbnadPLQqJd3ffzT-6jghEsCUIY56rdTOSyZ1pzSR10uiGCd_ZJnfCE20y5dVI-mBZpFMasbW6T-bTNl-7Wc3eMHyvgiSqerYVEVDuMYbDh01TyYGCqOQn03ZGArIVy9-fxeXQVa_9TkUbICqA25X7lqy7gE4sfV-pfGdFeZOpyKwkRmRNfLdRhg7dvx7/w640-h392/jaws_life2.png&quot; width=&quot;640&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;tr-caption&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Tournage de Jaws (1975)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; Photo:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;© Life Magazine 2020&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;(Partie 4) La rencontre avec les animaux marins&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Cette partie peut être organisée
autour de trois axes&amp;nbsp;: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;1.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Quel
est le statut de l’animal&amp;nbsp;? Définitions pour la philosophie de l’époque
moderne&amp;nbsp;: de Descartes à Leibniz, en passant par Gassendi, More, Margaret
Cavendish et Spinoza.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les controverses&amp;nbsp;: les animaux
sont-ils des êtres en mesure d’avoir un comportement rationnel&amp;nbsp;?
Peuvent-ils utiliser un langage ou ce qui y ressemble&amp;nbsp;? D’un point de vue
moral est-il acceptable de chasser et de tuer des animaux&amp;nbsp;? De les
manger&amp;nbsp;? De les utiliser pour effectuer des expériences
scientifiques&amp;nbsp;?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;(Voir le texte de Justin
Begley&amp;nbsp;: &lt;i&gt;Animals in early modern thought&lt;/i&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn25&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref25&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[25]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ensuite, on passera brièvement en
revue des textes contemporains&amp;nbsp;: Peter Singer, Elisabeth de Fontenay,
Jean-Luc Guichet (pour une revue générale sur les problématiques animales),
etc…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;2.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La
figure du monstre au cinéma&amp;nbsp;: que représente cette figure du monstre, du
monstre marin en particulier, d’un point de vue historique en prenant appui sur
certains mythes et leur traduction dans des œuvres littéraires&amp;nbsp;?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On évaluera la permanence de la
présence des monstres dans le cinéma contemporain et comment ces
représentations viennent nourrir (ou parasiter) un certain genre de cinéma
documentaire consacré aux grands animaux marins (le requin, dans ses variantes
‘Grand blanc’ ou ‘Mégalodon’, étant l’animal totalisant le plus grand nombre de
séries TV, de documentaires et de fictions à ce jour).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Pourquoi la présence des monstres, et
singulièrement des monstres marins, est-elle si importante dans l’imaginaire
contemporain&amp;nbsp;? La terreur et en même temps la fascination qu’inspire le
monde sous-marin expliquent en partie l’inépuisable réservoir d’histoires
attestant de rencontres avec de tels animaux depuis le Moyen-Age et même à des
époques antérieures. On remarque l’importance de la présence d’êtres monstrueux
dans les légendes rapportées dans les bestiaires et les relations d’expéditions
lointaines, tel le voyage du moine Saint-Brendan&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn26&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref26&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[26]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. De &lt;i&gt;L’étrange créature
du&lt;/i&gt; &lt;i&gt;Lac Noir&lt;/i&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn27&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref27&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[27]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; à &lt;i&gt;Godzilla&lt;/i&gt;, cette
attirance pour certaines figures hybrides de la monstruosité ne faiblit pas.
Elle prend cependant une autre tournure avec les requins, en raison en partie
du réalisme actuel des représentations qui parachève l’idée de l’absence de
toute possibilité de rapprochement : le monstre devient alors une figure de
l’altérité radicale de la vie animale, mais également une sorte de machine à
tuer, parfaitement efficace, illustrant la conception de l’animalité selon
Descartes…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;3.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le
cinéma d’horreur et les animaux&amp;nbsp;: &lt;i&gt;JAWS&lt;/i&gt;, de Steven Spielberg est
produit et projeté dans les salles en 1975. Une littérature conséquente concernant
les requins apparait, avant et après ce film…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Son rapport au cinéma d’horreur en
général&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn28&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref28&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[28]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ce que ce film a fait aux requins
(espèce) et à la manière dont on regarde les espèces marines (représentations)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le requin est sans doute l’animal
marin capable de générer le plus de représentations liées à sa puissance, à sa
qualité de prédateur ultime et à la terreur qu’il suscite parmi les
populations, qu’il s’agisse de pêcheurs, de navigateurs ou de simples
baigneurs.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpLast&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les films de requins nous montrent ainsi
régulièrement la manière dont ce prédateur se joue des capacités physiques singulièrement
limitées des humains&amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;«&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;The shark is an optimal ocean-borne
source of&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;anxiety, seeming to answer with
dark and silent confidence many of our&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;physical incapacities: whereas
water renders us sluggishly limited in speed&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;and movement, sharks are astonishingly speedy
and whippily maneuverable….Indeed,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpLast&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;standard for the shark film (especially
post-Jaws) are shots of humans from below as they bob on the ocean surface,
unaware of what lurks beneath them, kicking feebly without traction and bereft
of sudden evasive options&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn29&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref29&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[29]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On peut considérer (même si ce n’est pas tout à fait
exact sur le plan chronologique) que c’est à &lt;i&gt;Jaws&lt;/i&gt; (Spielberg, 1975)
qu’il revient d’avoir été le film ayant imposé une vision du requin et de la
relation avec cet animal qui est prépondérante aujourd’hui&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn30&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref30&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[30]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Les différentes
franchises ayant succédé à l’original n’ayant fait que renforcer cette
position.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La
période inaugurée par &lt;i&gt;Jaws&lt;/i&gt;, le film de Steven Spielberg, est celle d’une
réévaluation du rôle du blockbuster, au sein du système de production
hollywoodien et l’ouverture d’une nouvelle période (concomitante, d’ailleurs,
avec le surgissement de la saga &lt;i&gt;Star Wars&lt;/i&gt;). &lt;i&gt;Jaws&lt;/i&gt; a pu alors être
qualifié de «&amp;nbsp;mythe patriarcal et écocide&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn31&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref31&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[31]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, mais aussi comme le film
ayant participé à la liquidation du ‘&lt;i&gt;New Hollywood&lt;/i&gt;’ de l’ère Nixon et
démarré la période postclassique des blockbusters familiaux qui ont dominé
l’industrie à partir des années 1980&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn32&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref32&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[32]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Cette période a pu alors
être considérée comme centrale dans l’évaluation des changements
technologiques, industriels et thématiques qui se sont produits dans le système
de production américain vers le milieu des années 1970&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn33&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref33&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[33]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On
ne peut cependant s’intéresser à &lt;i&gt;Jaws&lt;/i&gt;, et à une certaine forme du cinéma
«&amp;nbsp;d’horreur animale&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn34&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref34&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[34]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, sans essayer de
comprendre pourquoi certains animaux, et plus particulièrement les requins, ont
eu la capacité de hanter l’imaginaire contemporain, à travers ce genre
particulier du film de requins, décliné dans ses diverses variantes narratives.
A l’autre bout du spectre (mais pas si loin), on trouve un certain genre du &lt;i&gt;wildlife
film&lt;/i&gt;, tel qu’on peut le voir avec &lt;i&gt;Shark Week&lt;/i&gt;, la série documentaire
de &lt;i&gt;Discovery Channel&lt;/i&gt;, et à travers de nombreuses autres productions du
même type. Leur audience dépend souvent de l’actualité et de la fréquence des
attaques, ce qui leur assure alors un succès appréciable&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn35&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref35&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[35]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le requin, ce prédateur ultime (&lt;i&gt;apex
predator&lt;/i&gt;), a fait l’objet de nombre de films et de séries documentaires
depuis plusieurs décennies mais, c’est incontestablement le film de Steven
Spielberg qui a contribué à en changer la perception et a conduit à un intérêt
renouvelé pour les animaux marins et leur représentation au cinéma.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il existe désormais une littérature
universitaire conséquente sur la thématique du requin et de sa représentation
au cinéma. Sans surprise, une bonne partie de cette littérature prend appui sur
&lt;i&gt;Jaws&lt;/i&gt; pour évaluer les éléments épistémologiques et esthétiques de
l’irruption du requin dans le cinéma américain&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn36&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref36&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[36]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn37&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref37&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[37]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, et la constitution d’un
sous-genre du cinéma de l’horreur maritime, ou de l’horreur animale selon les
auteurs&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn38&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref38&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[38]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpLast&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;hr align=&quot;left&quot; size=&quot;1&quot; width=&quot;33%&quot; /&gt;



&lt;div id=&quot;ftn1&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref1&quot; name=&quot;_ftn1&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Guillaume Blanc, Élise Demeulenaere, et
Wolf Feuerhahn, &lt;i&gt;Humanités environnementales : enquêtes et contre-enquêtes&lt;/i&gt;,
Homme et société 02 (Paris : Publications de la Sorbonne, 2017).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn2&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref2&quot; name=&quot;_ftn2&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Blanc, Demeulenaere, et Feuerhahn, 98.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn3&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref3&quot; name=&quot;_ftn3&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Peter Singer, «&amp;nbsp;Animal
Liberation&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i&gt;New York Review&lt;/i&gt;, 5 avril 1973,
https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1973/04/05/animal-liberation/.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn4&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref4&quot; name=&quot;_ftn4&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[4]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Arne Naess, «&amp;nbsp;The Shallow and the
Deep, Long‐range Ecology Movement. A Summary∗&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i&gt;Inquiry&lt;/i&gt; 16, n&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;
1‑4 (janvier 1973): 95‑100, https://doi.org/10.1080/00201747308601682.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn5&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref5&quot; name=&quot;_ftn5&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[5]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; Inclus
dans &lt;span&gt;Robin Attfield, éd., &lt;i&gt;The Ethics of the
Environment&lt;/i&gt; (Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, Taylor &amp;amp; Francis Group, 2016).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn6&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref6&quot; name=&quot;_ftn6&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[6]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;VIVANCO, Luis, «&amp;nbsp;Penguins are good
to think with : wildlife ilms, the imaginary shaping of nature, and
environmental politics&amp;nbsp;», in &lt;i&gt;Ecocinema Theory and Practice&lt;/i&gt;, AFI
film readers series (Routledge, 2013), 110.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn7&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref7&quot; name=&quot;_ftn7&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[7]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Adrian Ivakhiv, «&amp;nbsp;An ecophilosophy
of the moving image: cinema as anthrobiogeomorphic machine&amp;nbsp;», in &lt;i&gt;Ecocinema
Theory and Practice&lt;/i&gt;, AFI film readers series (Routledge, Taylor &amp;amp;
Francis Group, 2013), 87‑105.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn8&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref8&quot; name=&quot;_ftn8&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[8]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Félix Guattari, &lt;i&gt;Les trois écologies&lt;/i&gt;,
Collection L’Espace critique (Paris: Galilée, 2008), 12.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn9&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref9&quot; name=&quot;_ftn9&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[9]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; Je me
réfère ici principalement à la littérature anglo-saxonne&amp;nbsp;: Derek Bousé (&lt;i&gt;Wildlife films&lt;/i&gt;), Cynthia Chris (&lt;i&gt;Watching wildlife&lt;/i&gt;), Jonathan Burt (&lt;i&gt;Animals in film&lt;/i&gt;) et bien d’autres.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn10&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref10&quot; name=&quot;_ftn10&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[10]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; On
connait ‘&lt;i&gt;Shark Week&lt;/i&gt;’ sur Discovery Channel ou encore les rendez-vous mensuels
de &lt;i&gt;Thalassa&lt;/i&gt; depuis 1975.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn11&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref11&quot; name=&quot;_ftn11&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[11]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Helen M. Rozwadowski, «&amp;nbsp;Fathoming
the Ocean — Helen M. Rozwadowski | Harvard University Press&amp;nbsp;», 2005.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn12&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref12&quot; name=&quot;_ftn12&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[12]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
Margaret Deacon, &lt;i&gt;Vers les profondeurs de l’Océan&amp;nbsp;: le voyage du
Challenger (1872 – 1876)&lt;/i&gt;, in &lt;span&gt;Christian Buchet, éd., &lt;i&gt;Sous la mer: le
sixième continent : actes du colloque international tenu à l’Institut
catholique de Paris (8-10 décembre 1999)&lt;/i&gt; (Paris, France: Presses de
l’Université de Paris-Sorbonne, 2001), 165.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn13&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref13&quot; name=&quot;_ftn13&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[13]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Hanna Rose Shell, «&amp;nbsp;Hanna Rose Shell
: Things Under Water&amp;nbsp;», 6 janvier 2018,
http://web.mit.edu/~hrshell/www/water.html.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn14&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref14&quot; name=&quot;_ftn14&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[14]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;John Ernest Williamson et Yves Aubry, &lt;i&gt;Vingt
ans sous les mers&lt;/i&gt; (Paris, France: J.-M. Place, 1996).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn15&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref15&quot; name=&quot;_ftn15&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[15]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Kathy Merlock Jackson et Philip L.
Simpson, éd., &lt;i&gt;«&amp;nbsp;This shark, swallow you whole&amp;nbsp;»: essays on the
cultural influence of Jaws&lt;/i&gt; (Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland &amp;amp;
Company, Inc., Publishers, 2023), 86.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn16&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref16&quot; name=&quot;_ftn16&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[16]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Ann Elias, &lt;i&gt;Coral empire: underwater
oceans, colonial tropics, visual modernity&lt;/i&gt; (Durham: Duke University Press,
2019), 6.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn17&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref17&quot; name=&quot;_ftn17&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[17]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Williamson et Aubry, &lt;i&gt;Vingt ans sous
les mers&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn18&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref18&quot; name=&quot;_ftn18&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[18]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Gary Kroll, &lt;i&gt;America’s Ocean Wilderness&lt;/i&gt;,
University Press of Kansas, 2008, 6.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn19&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref19&quot; name=&quot;_ftn19&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[19]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Kroll, 7.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn20&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref20&quot; name=&quot;_ftn20&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[20]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
«&amp;nbsp;Mes chasses sous-marines&amp;nbsp;» (Payot, 1950), «&amp;nbsp;Trois chasseurs
sous la mer&amp;nbsp;» (Arthaud, 1956)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn21&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref21&quot; name=&quot;_ftn21&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[21]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
Développement à partir des films de John Huston (1956) et de Ron Howard (2015),
de Chris Marker et Mario Ruspoli (1956)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn22&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref22&quot; name=&quot;_ftn22&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[22]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Anita Conti, &lt;i&gt;L’océan, les bêtes et
l’homme ou l’ivresse du risque&lt;/i&gt; (Paris: Payot et Rivages, 2002), 195.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn23&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref23&quot; name=&quot;_ftn23&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[23]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Conti, 197.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn24&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref24&quot; name=&quot;_ftn24&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[24]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Jonathan Palumbo (et Gustave Flaubert), &lt;i&gt;Après
la nuit animale : essai&lt;/i&gt; (Paris: Marest éditeur, 2018), 21.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn25&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref25&quot; name=&quot;_ftn25&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[25]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Justin Begley, «&amp;nbsp;Animals in Early
Modern Thought&amp;nbsp;», in &lt;i&gt;Encyclopedia of Early Modern Philosophy and the
Sciences&lt;/i&gt;, éd. par Dana Jalobeanu et Charles T. Wolfe (Cham: Springer
International Publishing, 2021), 1‑14,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-20791-9_628-1.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn26&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref26&quot; name=&quot;_ftn26&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[26]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Benedeit, Ian Short, et Brian S.
Merrilees, &lt;i&gt;Le voyage de Saint Brendan&lt;/i&gt;, Champion classiques 19 (Paris: H.
Champion, 2006).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn27&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref27&quot; name=&quot;_ftn27&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[27]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Durafour, &lt;i&gt;L’étrange créature du lac
noir de Jack Arnold&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn28&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref28&quot; name=&quot;_ftn28&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[28]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Noël Carroll, &lt;i&gt;The philosophy of
horror, or, Paradoxes of the heart&lt;/i&gt; (New York: Routledge, 1990).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn29&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref29&quot; name=&quot;_ftn29&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[29]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Dominic Lennard, &lt;i&gt;Brute force: animal
horror movies&lt;/i&gt;, SUNY series horizons of cinema (Albany, New York: State
University of New York, 2019), 43.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn30&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref30&quot; name=&quot;_ftn30&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[30]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Francis, «&amp;nbsp;BEFORE AND AFTER
“JAWS”&amp;nbsp;».&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn31&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref31&quot; name=&quot;_ftn31&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[31]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Jackson et Simpson, &lt;i&gt;This shark,
swallow you whole&lt;/i&gt;, 9.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn32&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref32&quot; name=&quot;_ftn32&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[32]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;I. Q. Hunter et Matthew Melia, éd., &lt;i&gt;The
Jaws book: new perspectives on the classic summer blockbuster&lt;/i&gt; (New York:
Bloomsbury Academic, 2020), 79.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn33&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref33&quot; name=&quot;_ftn33&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[33]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Hunter et Melia, &lt;i&gt;The Jaws book&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/span&gt; Peter Krämer, ‘She was the
first’&amp;nbsp;: The place of &lt;i&gt;Jaw&lt;/i&gt;s in American film history, p.19.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn34&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref34&quot; name=&quot;_ftn34&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[34]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Lennard, &lt;i&gt;Brute force&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn35&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref35&quot; name=&quot;_ftn35&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[35]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; On
notera les multiples séries d’un genre inépuisable sur &lt;i&gt;National Geographic
Channel&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;Disney+&lt;/i&gt; et bien d’autres canaux de distribution…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn36&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref36&quot; name=&quot;_ftn36&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[36]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Jackson et Simpson, &lt;i&gt;This shark,
swallow you whole&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn37&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref37&quot; name=&quot;_ftn37&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[37]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Hunter et Melia, &lt;i&gt;The Jaws book&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn38&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref38&quot; name=&quot;_ftn38&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;, sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[38]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span&gt;Lennard, &lt;i&gt;Brute force&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/feeds/5391589611093911584/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2024/04/imagination-scientifique-et_24.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/5391589611093911584'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/5391589611093911584'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2024/04/imagination-scientifique-et_24.html' title='Imagination scientifique et représentations des animaux marins au cinéma (2ème partie)'/><author><name>Gestalt</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10962207802973660346</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFQRD6kaQLUr1OUFCHOR0VqUEPA0--dKvSXYzAg5UJQ0jQol9BgkX2GLgvMoTGRhoojVNzRfbkL-xTjTcSsJ4EzhOxXCrqqMJAg2A-bKdz9_mG632d3cuenkDsDa043g/s220/vertov.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEizp8Cg8AH30TGfMxyplHEmAcbPl2SljCA9fXnCVax-wY6d5pEF4O6Edt5HCUEf9Av8w_zSer3vI6rg9sBAyRKSEy1OF9gLLHrbtygUDqD8UYTohUpyM1itp9DbSatw_fzaDWmBlDCYZV5O4FZfIOhT3_fbormWLcIuLTMk_soZ0hyphenhyphenmbkw8khQO0MHoovNw/s72-w283-h400-c/Jaws1975.jpg" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3824907278627072174.post-3074305235223848468</id><published>2024-04-17T09:39:00.010+02:00</published><updated>2024-04-30T11:23:18.468+02:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Hans Hass"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Jack Arnold"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Jacques-Yves Cousteau"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Jean Painlevé"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="John Ernest Williamson"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Jules Michelet"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Victor Hugo"/><title type='text'>Imagination scientifique et représentations des animaux marins au cinéma (1ère partie)</title><content type='html'>&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;!--[if gte mso 9]&gt;&lt;xml&gt;
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   Name=&quot;E-mail Signature&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;HTML Top of Form&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;HTML Bottom of Form&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Normal (Web)&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;HTML Acronym&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;HTML Address&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;HTML Cite&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;HTML Code&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;HTML Definition&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;HTML Keyboard&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;HTML Preformatted&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;HTML Sample&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;HTML Typewriter&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;HTML Variable&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Normal Table&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;annotation subject&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;No List&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Outline List 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Outline List 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Outline List 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Simple 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Simple 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Simple 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Classic 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Classic 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Classic 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Classic 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Colorful 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Colorful 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Colorful 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Columns 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Columns 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Columns 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Columns 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Columns 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Grid 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Grid 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Grid 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Grid 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Grid 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Grid 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Grid 7&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Grid 8&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table List 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table List 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table List 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table List 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table List 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table List 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table List 7&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table List 8&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table 3D effects 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table 3D effects 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table 3D effects 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Contemporary&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Elegant&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Professional&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Subtle 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Subtle 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Web 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Web 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Web 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Balloon Text&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;39&quot; Name=&quot;Table Grid&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Table Theme&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Placeholder Text&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;1&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;No Spacing&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; Name=&quot;Light List&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Revision&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;34&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;List Paragraph&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;29&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Quote&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;30&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot;
   Name=&quot;Intense Quote&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
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&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;(Quelques éléments pour une histoire qui reste à faire)&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;&lt;table cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;tr-caption-container&quot; style=&quot;float: left; font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhqysfsGJqM1HwkFeaU2YDQbaX1o3zCZdecoIsLAGw-OqUgaSpwlN40Pk2ls48myM4B4NfkSrjtw4cZnuD6dRZEDGFVHmTTBYncC2k5G5rm_ugNsxxid0_p2qdtgrG9UUA-34SvEbJ8qv_oFwTM3E-CeKUlNyIb42kuhDHSVVtQFETh8nmzESFArC7yehd/s1623/Jaws_Life.jpg&quot; style=&quot;clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1623&quot; data-original-width=&quot;1196&quot; height=&quot;640&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhqysfsGJqM1HwkFeaU2YDQbaX1o3zCZdecoIsLAGw-OqUgaSpwlN40Pk2ls48myM4B4NfkSrjtw4cZnuD6dRZEDGFVHmTTBYncC2k5G5rm_ugNsxxid0_p2qdtgrG9UUA-34SvEbJ8qv_oFwTM3E-CeKUlNyIb42kuhDHSVVtQFETh8nmzESFArC7yehd/w472-h640/Jaws_Life.jpg&quot; title=&quot;© Life Magazine 2020&quot; width=&quot;472&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;tr-caption&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;© Life Magazine 2020&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-size: medium; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 27.6px; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;line-height: 27.6px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large; line-height: 27.6px; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: times;&quot;&gt;Il est généralement admis qu’une histoire des représentations du
monde sous-marin au cinéma reste à faire&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: times; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt; Depuis quelques années, différents
travaux ont mis l’accent, cependant, sur tel ou tel aspect spécifique qu’il
s’agisse d’exploration, de pêche ou d’aventures sous-marines. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;Au chapitre des explorateurs, on connait bien sûr les aventures du
Commandant Cousteau et de ses épigones, celles de Hans Hass aussi, moins connu
en France mais très populaire dans le monde germanique… une littérature
abondante existe qui, par sa variété a contribué à circonscrire et décrire le
genre du cinéma sous la mer, mélange de récits d’aventures, d’exploration et de
vulgarisation scientifique dans le meilleur des cas.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;La télévision et de nombreuses innovations concernant les
techniques de plongée et de prise de vues sous-marines ont contribué à
installer les représentations du monde sous-marin parmi le public. Ces films
ont d’abord été appréciés pour leurs qualités documentaires, bien que fictions
et adaptations d’œuvres littéraires aient été tournées dès les débuts du
cinéma. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;Bien qu’opérant dans des registres différents, on a toujours
assisté à une dramatisation du récit documentaire, cela depuis les premières
aventures sous-marines de John-Ernest Williamson et jusqu’aux expéditions de
Hans Hass et Cousteau.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Alors
que certains thèmes et certaines techniques narratives se rejoignent, le film documentaire
met toujours en avant un principe de réalité dont la fiction s’éloigne avec
plus de facilité. Au cours des années 1960 – 1970, cependant, émerge une
demande de la part des producteurs et des diffuseurs pour un cinéma
documentaire à l’intérieur duquel seront intégrés les codes de la
fiction&amp;nbsp;: en d’autres termes rendre plus acceptable, et plus à la portée
des classes moyennes, une interprétation du monde naturel qui ne relève plus de
la seule démonstration scientifique. On voit alors se développer des
productions qui consistent en un mélange de science et de storytelling, le
discours à coloration scientifique servant de caution aux cinéastes et à leurs
producteurs.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ce
monde, dont la proximité avec la nature semblait évidente pour le voyageur
occidental et dont les habitants humains étaient la figure racialisée de
l’étranger dans l’imaginaire colonial, s’est avéré être un pourvoyeur
inépuisable de spectacle et de sensations. Le personnage de l’explorateur, ce
nouvel aventurier, s’est imposé, dès les débuts de l’ère industrielle, dans les
récits de voyage puis dans les premiers films du début du 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt;
siècle. Il permet de dessiner les contours d’un nouveau rapport à la nature&amp;nbsp;:
«&amp;nbsp;L’aventurier du deuxième tiers du 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle élabore une
éthique de la nature (…) Dans un espace dans lequel le récit d’aventures du
milieu du siècle révèle le souci de lutter à armes égales avec la nature, deux
comportements typiques se dessinent&amp;nbsp;: l’aventure conquérante, qui exprime une
activité rationnelle finalisée (…) l’aventure hédoniste, pendant laquelle il
oublie momentanément le terme lointain de son projet et savoure au présent
l’ambivalence de ses sentiments. Dans le premier cas, la quête de l’exploit
l’emporte. Dans le second, c’est l’expérience sensible qui prévaut.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn1&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref1&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn1;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Dans
les séries et les films documentaires qui sont produits dès le milieu des
années 1940, la représentation de l’océan se fait toujours à partir de
l’expérience de ces nouveaux explorateurs, ayant eux-mêmes souvent mis en scène
leurs aventures marines. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Au
cours des décennies de l’immédiat après-guerre, l’introduction de la télévision
dans les foyers des classes moyennes entraine un nouveau rapport à l’image en
mouvement et à la temporalité induite par le nouveau média&amp;nbsp;: désormais il
n’est plus besoin de se déplacer pour profiter d’un spectacle à domicile, qui
plus est gratuit. A partir de cette époque, et progressivement, le rôle de la
télévision va devenir central pour la diffusion des connaissances concernant le
monde marin. De nombreuses productions sont dédiées à la représentation de la
mer et des espèces marines mais, plus encore, la télévision fait apparaitre un
nouveau type de médiation, grâce à des rendez-vous réguliers avec des
personnages qui s’invitent dans le salon familial. Le média électronique, par
son ubiquité et sa présence quotidienne au sein des foyers, va cristalliser une
représentation du monde sous-marin conforme à l’imaginaire post-colonial de
l’époque et façonner la figure de l’explorateur aux prises avec la Nature. Ce
personnage, apparu au mitan du 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle, est un fidèle
représentant des empires coloniaux en formation et de la suprématie culturelle
de l’Occident. Au tournant des années 1950, il va quitter la saharienne et le
casque colonial pour revêtir la combinaison de plongée et se munir de la
désormais incontournable caméra sous-marine. Cette dernière devient l’instrument
indispensable de la mise en scène de ses aventures et elle va lui permettre de
raconter &lt;i&gt;une histoire des profondeurs&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Pour
rendre cette histoire vraisemblable, il fallait donc qu’apparaissent de
nouveaux personnages et que leurs aventures, racontées en épisodes, puissent permettre
ce moment d’évasion devant le poste de télévision. Dans ce monde où la réalité
de la vie dans l’océan était inconnue du plus grand nombre et où la plongée
sous-marine était encore de l’ordre de l’exploit, l’idée de la représentation
d’une lutte, d’une sorte de conflit territorial opposant l’homme et les
habitants du monde sous-marin, contenait les éléments de tension
nécessaires&amp;nbsp;à l’élaboration d’un tel spectacle : «&amp;nbsp;Ocean exploitation
films featured a kind of territorial struggle&amp;nbsp;: conflict between man and
aquatic creatures. Hunting was a significant narrative trope in the documentary
films of&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;both Cousteau and Hass. Following
the cultural conception of the ocean in this period, these films depicted the
sea as a vast terrain of resources. (…)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Regardless
of their subject, the language of battle and hunting pervaded the reception of
almost all underwater documentaries. (…) To effectively publicize &lt;i&gt;The Silent
World &lt;/i&gt;(1956), marketers used ads such as «&amp;nbsp;Adventurers battle
blood-mad monsters&amp;nbsp;» and «&amp;nbsp;SEE bare-skinned divers fight man-eating
sharks in the Indian Ocean&amp;nbsp;»&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn2&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref2&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn2;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La
‘chasse’ sous-marine pouvait constituer l’élément central dans les films de
fiction de l’époque. Le monstre pouvait alors apparaitre comme relevant d’une
aberration de la nature, une survivance d’une époque antérieure, rappelée du
cœur de l’océan par les expériences humaines les plus destructrices (&lt;i&gt;Godzilla&lt;/i&gt;)
ou parce que des humains, des savants ou des aventuriers, ont envahi son
territoire (&lt;i&gt;L’étrange créature du Lac Noir&lt;/i&gt;). La figure du monstre, inquiétante
par son étrangeté et le danger qu’elle pouvait représenter pour l’ordre établi
par l’espèce humaine, était porteuse d’une sorte d’altérité radicale, alors
qu’à l’écran on pouvait voir un personnage oscillant entre la terreur qu’il
inspire et une apparence grotesque. Patrick Gonder, cité par N. Starosielski,
décrit &lt;i&gt;L’étrange créature du Lac Noir &lt;/i&gt;(Jack Arnold, 1954) de la manière
suivante&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;the Creature is a symbol of miscegeneration, a tragic
mutation who does not fit into either world&amp;nbsp;; his oversize lips are meant
to be fish-like, but they also match the racist stereotype of African-American
physiognomy.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn3&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref3&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn3;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Une
mutation tragique, sans doute, mais qui au-delà du stéréotype nous renvoie à la
possibilité troublante d’une hybridité, d’une parenté possible avec un être qui
n’est pas seulement un vestige, mais représenterait «&amp;nbsp;l’émergence d’une
pseudo-figure humaine depuis une déviation zoologique antécédente&amp;nbsp;: les
poissons&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn4&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref4&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn4;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[4]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
Trouble manifeste devant un être ouvertement sexué et faisant le choix de
s’approprier une femelle humaine (comme le faisait d’ailleurs, vingt ans
auparavant, le grand singe de Cooper et Schoedsack).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;Je voudrais avancer l’idée suivant laquelle
une histoire des explorations maritimes à l’époque contemporaine, telle que
peut la raconter le cinéma, ne peut se faire sans y intégrer aussi une histoire,
même partielle et nécessairement incomplète, des relations entre humains et
animaux marins. De manière plus spécifique, il s’agit de montrer comment ont pu
évoluer les représentations des grands animaux marins à l’écran. De quelle
façon ces représentations témoignent d’une certaine réalité du monde naturel
d’une part, et sont inscrites dans une vision mythologisée du monde animal
d’autre part. Qu’il s’agisse d’animaux réels (la baleine, le requin) ou
imaginaires (le Kraken, Godzilla…) il convient de montrer dans quelle mesure la
réalité et le mythe se croisent ou se rencontrent, à travers les codes du film
de genre, d’un certain type de documentaire animalier, et leur réinterprétation
des données de la Science.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Dans
un cas comme dans l’autre, c’est à travers le prisme de la rencontre entre
humains et animaux marins qu’une telle histoire peut être envisagée, dont l’une
des composantes serait les conséquences qu’une telle rencontre a pu avoir sur
la manière dont sont perçus, approchés ou seulement imaginés les grands animaux
marins. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Importe-t-il
que de telles rencontres aient eu lieu réellement ou seulement dans le cadre de
constructions fictionnelles&amp;nbsp;? Il faut considérer que la rencontre avec les
‘monstres marins’, puisque tel était leur qualificatif jusqu’à une époque
relativement récente, a été racontée au moins depuis le haut moyen-âge. Les &lt;i&gt;mappaemundi&lt;/i&gt;
les plus importantes comprennent des illustrations de créatures et de monstres
marins&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn5&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref5&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn5;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[5]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La
littérature du Moyen-Âge et de la Renaissance concernant voyages, explorations
et rencontres avec des animaux est importante. Leur représentation dans des
bestiaires&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn6&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref6&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn6;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[6]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, sur des fresques ou des
cartes marines a généré une partie importante de l’iconographie. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;Dans les documents médiévaux, en effet, les
animaux tiennent une place de choix.&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;Quel que soit le type de document, «&amp;nbsp;textes et images, bien sûr,
mais aussi matériaux archéologiques, rituels et codes sociaux, héraldique,
toponymie et anthroponymie, folklore, proverbes, chansons, jurons&amp;nbsp;: quel
que soit le terrain documentaire sur lequel il s’aventure, l’historien
médiéviste ne peut pas ne pas rencontrer l’animal.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn7&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref7&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn7;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[7]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’homme
occidental part de loin dans son rapport à la mer&amp;nbsp;:&amp;nbsp;«&amp;nbsp;sa culture
maritime est quasi inexistante et il baigne dans un imaginaire spirituel peu
engageant vis-à-vis des océans.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn8&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref8&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn8;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[8]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les
bestiaires médiévaux sont peuplés de monstres marins qui peuvent, comme dans la
mythologie germanique, prendre l’apparence de Jörmungandr, le serpent marin qui
entoure la terre et qui déclenche un raz de marée général lors du jugement
dernier. «&amp;nbsp;Il n’est cependant qu’un des nombreux exemples du monstrueux
qui envahit les rêveries ou cauchemars médiévaux. Les baleines, les rorquals
sont les monstres par excellence, avalant Jonas, se présentant sous les traits
du Léviathan, et qui parsèment à qui mieux mieux les cartes du Moyen-Age comme
de la Renaissance.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn9&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref9&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn9;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[9]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il
n’est donc pas étonnant que, durant des siècles, des mythes tenaces aient
enveloppé le monde des profondeurs et, singulièrement ses habitants les plus
impressionnants, qu’il s’agisse ou non de prédateurs. Cette peur était tout à
fait réelle lorsque les premiers navigateurs rencontraient baleines et
cachalots. Leur taille explique sans doute la défiance à leur égard et les
mythes véhiculés au cours des siècles, alors que plus tard, lorsque le besoin
de certaines ressources apparait, cette taille ne leur sera d’aucun secours
face à l’acharnement des campagnes baleinières&lt;i&gt;… &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La
pêche baleinière est centrale pour le développement économique de certaines
régions côtières de l’Atlantique au 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle. La chasse à la
baleine a pu apparaitre alors comme un ferment de cohésion sociale et
d’identité des communautés de pêcheurs de la côte Est des Etats-Unis, ou chez
ceux des Açores.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le cachalot et la lutte des hommes pour leur survie
dans leur confrontation avec cet animal deviennent un archétype de la relation
à l’océan des sociétés du 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle, au moment où la pêche
s’industrialise et où le statut même des pêcheurs est en train de changer. Des
transformations du mode de production, avec l’utilisation du pétrole qui rend
obsolète celle de «&amp;nbsp;l’huile de baleine&amp;nbsp;», vont signer la fin
progressive des baleiniers nord-américains, alors que des innovations
technologiques, comme celle du canon lance-harpon, marquent au contraire le
début des grandes campagnes baleinières en Mer du Nord&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn10&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref10&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn10;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[10]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Cette importance économique et sa représentation en
littérature ne donnent cependant que peu de films qui lui seront
consacrés&amp;nbsp;: documentaires, pour la plupart, et les deux versions de &lt;i&gt;Moby
Dick&lt;/i&gt;. Celle, éponyme, de John Huston et celle de Ron Howard, centrée sur
l’aventure (malheureuse) du baleinier &lt;i&gt;Essex&lt;/i&gt; et sa rencontre avec la
baleine blanche.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Entre
fictions et documentaires animaliers, la représentation des animaux marins au
cinéma balance entre la vision d’un monde dans lequel tour à tour l’animal peut
sembler proche et amical ou lointain et menaçant.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Que
signifient ces représentations pour le chercheur en sciences sociales&amp;nbsp;?
Que peuvent-elles nous dire sur notre rapport aux animaux marins&amp;nbsp;?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;D’une
manière ou d’une autre nous les consommons, et pour la majorité des humains il
ne peut être question de renoncer à un mode de vie qui, pour certaines raisons
morales, implique la négation de l’existence d’une conscience animale. Par
ailleurs, on a vu évoluer les représentations au cinéma des relations entre
humains et animaux marins. Une question semble en effet revenir dans la plupart
de ces films&amp;nbsp;: elle concerne la possibilité d’établir un jour une
communication avec eux. Altérité radicale de ce monde&amp;nbsp;? Des voies de
communication sont-elles possibles à mesure que les recherches en éthologie
progressent&amp;nbsp;? Le cinéma, dans ses variantes documentaire et fiction, s’est
attaché à explorer ces questions et les représentations ambivalentes qu’il en donne
méritent d’être interrogées.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 10pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 10.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’exposé sera organisé en
5 parties, allant du développement du narratif de la science de la mer au 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt;
siècle, de la représentation des animaux marins par les scientifiques de
l’époque, aux incarnations actuelles dans les productions à grand spectacle
permises par les technologies du cinéma et de l’informatique. On interrogera
également les représentations changeantes de la relation des humains aux
animaux marins et ce que pourrait être sa place dans un cinéma animalier qui ne
se contenterait plus de montrer une nature sauvage idéalisée.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;1.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Science, récits d’aventures et culture océanique&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
au 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle et au début du 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle&amp;nbsp;: une
science des profondeurs sous-marines et des environnements marins prend forme. C’est
l’époque des voyages de circumnavigation et des tentatives de sonder les fonds
marins&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn11&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref11&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn11;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[11]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Jules
Michelet, Victor Hugo, produisent des œuvres dans lesquelles la mer est au
centre du récit, tant du point de vue historique que pour ce qui est des
rapports des humains au monde marin… De nombreuses représentations, dans
lesquelles des géants des mers peuplent les profondeurs, se retrouvent dans la
presse populaire.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Cependant,
cette époque est aussi celle de l’apparition d’une science de la mer, plus tard
de la biologie marine. Un public féru de science visite les premiers grands
aquariums. La littérature n’est pas en reste&amp;nbsp;: la science a sa place dans
les récits de Jules Verne et une forme de vulgarisation scientifique apparait dans
de nombreuses publications (Arthur Mangin, Armand Landrin, etc.). Une
représentation scientifique de l’univers sous-marin et de ses habitants prend
forme. La science prend le pas sur le mythe.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Cette
période, pré-cinématographique, est celle d’une découverte des populations
marines dans les premiers aquariums&amp;nbsp;: le zoo de Londres, en 1853,
l’Exposition Universelle à Paris, en 1867, permettent de découvrir de
véritables créatures marines mises en scène dans ce qui ressemble à leur
environnement naturel&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;Curators starting with Gosse arranged aquariums
with one eye on keeping animals alive and the other on attraction, drawing
inspiration notably from the decorative arts. In containing real marine creatures
arranged to tempt the imagination,the aquarium is an exhibition form at&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;the threshold where biology meets fantasy,
and in this way, it belongs to the same lineage as underwater cinema which…
also troubles the documentary/imaginative divide.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn12&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref12&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn12;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[12]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les
représentations graphiques des espèces sous-marines et de la vie dans les
abysses apparaissent dans de nombreuses publications : c’est le cas des reproductions
réalisées par Ernst Haeckel à la suite de l’expédition du &lt;i&gt;Challenger &lt;/i&gt;(1872
– 1876)&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn13&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref13&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn13;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[13]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Cette
époque voit aussi les premières photographies sous-marines, réalisées par des
plongeurs en scaphandre ‘pieds lourds’. Le biologiste Louis Boutan fait figure
de pionnier avec son appareil de photographie sous-marine et les premières
‘vues’ réalisées dans les fonds marins non loin de la station marine de
Banyuls-sur-mer&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn14&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref14&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn14;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[14]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;2.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le film scientifique et l’animal marin&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;:
film de science ou récit d’aventures&amp;nbsp;?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’animal marin entre deux
perspectives&amp;nbsp;: de l’animal mythique à l’animal vu par la science. Le film
scientifique et, avant lui, les expériences de Marey sur la représentation du
mouvement animal&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn15&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref15&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn15;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[15]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;,
particulièrement celui des animaux marins, servent de matrice à partir de
laquelle émerge un cinéma consacré à la représentation des espèces sous-marines.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Jean Painlevé occupera une place
centrale dans l’émergence d’un cinéma dans lequel les sujets filmés ne sont
plus seulement considérés comme insérés dans une série d’expériences
reproductibles et enregistrées par la caméra, mais comme des acteurs à part
entière. Comme le souligne Roxane Hamery, c’est le moment où «&amp;nbsp;des
vedettes aquatiques envahissent les salles obscures&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn16&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref16&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn16;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[16]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Jean Painlevé occupe une place
particulière dans l’avènement du cinéma animalier. Filmant presque toujours en
aquarium, malgré ses liens avec Yves Le Prieur, «&amp;nbsp;il rassemble toute une
faune d’êtres à l’aspect inquiétant, à la réputation douteuse et aux mœurs
obscures&amp;nbsp;: la pieuvre molle et gluante, la minuscule daphnie
parthénogénétique ou les oursins dont l’apparence simple et primitive dissimule
une structure extrêmement complexe.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn17&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref17&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn17;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[17]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La proximité de Painlevé avec les
avant-gardes de l’époque, les surréalistes en particulier, a certainement
influencé son style et ses constructions narratives bien que, tout au long de
sa carrière il insiste sur l’importance du cinéma scientifique dont les thèmes
et les perspectives rejoignent les questions d’éducation et de vulgarisation
scientifique et donc de progrès social&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn18&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref18&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn18;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[18]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;3.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Explorateurs et cinéastes&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;:
les premiers aventuriers d’un genre nouveau, l’exploration sous-marine, vont
rapidement réaliser les possibilités offertes par le cinéma. Ce nouvel outil va
permettre de documenter un monde encore largement inconnu pour le public des
classes moyennes du monde occidental. Les premiers cinéastes et plongeurs
restent cependant tributaires des présupposés culturels du monde occidental et
des relations de pouvoir existant entre eux et les habitants des rivages au
large desquels se déroulent leurs premières aventures. Ils ne manquent pas de se
mettre en scène, de rejouer leur confrontation avec les monstres marins, tout
en ignorant les réalités culturelles et sociales des populations humaines
rencontrées.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le
cinéma devient alors un élément essentiel pour raconter des aventures d’un
genre nouveau, qui demeure cependant tributaire d’une culture et de
représentations coloniales&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn19&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref19&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn19;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[19]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les
animaux marins sont les objets de la chasse et de la pêche&amp;nbsp;: les
explorations sous-marines de Hans Hass sont d’abord celles d’un «&amp;nbsp;chasseur
sous-marin&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn20&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref20&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn20;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[20]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Il est rejoint en cela
par Bernard Gorsky et ses compagnons de l’expédition Moana&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn21&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref21&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn21;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[21]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Cousteau et son équipage
n’ont eux-mêmes que peu de considérations pour les animaux marins qu’ils
croisent. Certaines scènes du &lt;i&gt;Monde du Silence&lt;/i&gt; sont édifiantes&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn22&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref22&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn22;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[22]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpLast&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La
chasse et la confrontation avec des «&amp;nbsp;monstres marins&amp;nbsp;» demeurent,
jusqu’au début des années 1970, les vecteurs les plus susceptibles de susciter
l’intérêt des spectateurs de cinéma et des téléspectateurs pour le spectacle
sous-marin. La caméra est alors devenue l’œil sous-marin par excellence, celui
capable de transporter virtuellement dans un monde étranger à nos sens et dans
lequel évoluent des créatures à la fois merveilleuses et dangereuses.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 35.4pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; margin: 0cm 0cm 0cm 35.4pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Les
objectifs affichés des expéditions de Cousteau et de bien d’autres
«&amp;nbsp;explorateurs&amp;nbsp;» évoluent&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;dans
un contexte où émerge l’appétit des classes moyennes occidentales pour un
certain type de loisirs télévisuels, à mi-chemin de la vulgarisation
scientifique et du reportage à sensation&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;It
was probably inevitable that as wildlife films began to carve out a larger slice
of the television pie in the 1980s and 1990s they began to attract the attention
of those eager to expose their contradictions.While academicians averted their
gaze, critics and journalists began to look closely at wildlife films—so too
did environmentalists, broadcast industry watchers, and investors. What they
saw were films balanced precariously on a tightrope between two poles: science
and storytelling. Wildlife films often included accurate scientific
information, but were nevertheless highly cinematic in their treatment of it,
in their use of techniques of classical narrative cinema that did not so much
illustrate facts as to dramatize them.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn23&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref23&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn23;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;&quot;&gt;[23]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;C’est
à cette époque cependant que s’effectue le tournant écologique pour les deux
représentants les plus connus de ce courant cinématographique, Hans Hass et
Cousteau. Abandon par conséquent de la chasse et des aventures sous-marines. La
conscience écologique et la nécessité de protéger des écosystèmes marins en
voie de destruction deviennent le leitmotiv et l’objet de leurs actions. Ces
actions sont au centre de séries de films produits par l’équipe de Cousteau et
diffusés aux Etats-Unis et au Royaume-Uni de 1968 à 1976.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Que
représentent les actions de ces personnages, alors convertis à l’écologie, dans
l’espace médiatique au début des années 1970&amp;nbsp;? Selon Janine Marchessault,
les films de Cousteau, à commencer par le &lt;i&gt;Monde du Silence &lt;/i&gt;(1956),
«&amp;nbsp;helped to introduce a technological humanism and an environmental ethos
that, while pointing toward the future of the planet, revealed the earth’s
previously undisturbed and unseen depths in ways both utopian and
imperial.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn24&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref24&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn24;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[24]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les
explorations de Hass et de Cousteau ont permis de multiples innovations
technologiques dans le domaine du cinéma sous-marin, avant même d’accéder à une
meilleure compréhension de la vie des espèces marines. Ces recherches n’étaient
pas désintéressées et, au moins pour Cousteau, elles avaient été financées à
leurs débuts par des entreprises telles que la British Petroleum (BP) et la
National Geographic Society. Il faut dire aussi que la famille de Simone
Cousteau, née Melchior, avait beaucoup aidé au début et particulièrement au
moment de l’achat de la &lt;i&gt;Calypso&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;De
fait, les aventures très médiatisées de ces nouveaux explorateurs s’inscrivent
à la fois dans des environnements manufacturés, à haute densité technologique –
les appareils de plongée, les caméras, les instruments de navigation – et dans
des environnements organiques – l’océan, la terre, les étoiles. Comment ces
environnements interagissent et quelles sont les conséquences de leur action
sur les écosystèmes marins&amp;nbsp;? Ce sont des questions qui apparaissent à
mesure que les études sur les représentations du monde sous-marin sont plus
nombreuses, et il faudra tenter d’y répondre en prenant en compte leur
inscription dans le champ des sciences sociales et des études
cinématographiques.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Avec
le développement des loisirs télévisuels, l’appétit pour des récits mettant en
scène la rencontre (réelle ou imaginée) entre humains et animaux marins donne ainsi
naissance à un genre particulier, à mi-chemin du documentaire et de la fiction,
dont les techniques narratives et la sophistication des équipements utilisés
interroge désormais les modalités d’une rencontre entre humains et animaux
marins. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;4.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;En parallèle se développe un cinéma de fiction&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;,
qui consiste, au début, à adapter certains «&amp;nbsp;classiques&amp;nbsp;» de la
littérature de la mer avant de commencer à explorer des thématiques qui lui
sont propres&amp;nbsp;: &lt;i&gt;Moby Dick&lt;/i&gt; et &lt;i&gt;Vingt Mille Lieues sous les Mers&lt;/i&gt;
sont des exemples emblématiques de telles adaptations. En ce sens, le cinéma de
genre permet de définir (entre autres) la place que tient la représentation de
l’animal marin dans la culture populaire du divertissement cinématographique.
Un cinéma de fiction ayant pour sujet la rencontre des humains avec les animaux
marins apparait de manière concomitante avec le développement des travaux
scientifiques.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les
craintes, réelles ou fantasmées, que représentent les grands animaux marins, à
une époque où se développent les loisirs maritimes, sont profondément ancrées
dans la conscience des populations qui accèdent en masse aux rivages à partir
du milieu du 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle. Dès lors, le cinéma de fiction évolue
rapidement vers un genre dans lequel certains animaux marins sont clairement
désignés comme dangereux pour les humains…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Quels
sont alors les thèmes de ce cinéma et comment ont-ils évolué à mesure que se
développe un intérêt des sociétés occidentales pour l’océan et les loisirs des
séjours marins&amp;nbsp;? Cet appétit pour la mer s’accompagne pourtant d’une
appréhension des dangers, réels ou supposés, de la rencontre avec les grands
animaux marins.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpLast&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le
requin occupe une place centrale dans ces représentations&amp;nbsp;: le cinéma et
la télévision ont popularisé ces rencontres (interactions&amp;nbsp;?) avec l’un des
plus grands prédateurs marins. Le cinéma de genre lui réserve une place de
choix dans la galerie de monstres marins qui ont envahi les salles obscures. Ce
narratif, à rebours d’une connaissance véritable, a contribué à l’apparition
d’un genre documentaire à part entière&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn25&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref25&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn25;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[25]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Il n’est pas indifférent
non plus que le premier grand «&amp;nbsp;blockbuster&amp;nbsp;» des années 1970 met en
scène les attaques d’un grand requin blanc sur des baigneurs à proximité de
rivages devenus les lieux de rendez-vous préférés de la ‘&lt;i&gt;leisure class&lt;/i&gt;’
occidentale&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn26&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref26&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn26;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,serif; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[26]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;mso-element: footnote-list;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;hr align=&quot;left&quot; size=&quot;1&quot; width=&quot;33%&quot; /&gt;



&lt;div id=&quot;ftn1&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref1&quot; name=&quot;_ftn1&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn1;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Jean Griffet, &lt;i&gt;Aventures marines:
images et pratiques&lt;/i&gt; (Paris, France: L’Harmattan, 1995), 20‑21.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn2&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref2&quot; name=&quot;_ftn2&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn2;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Nicole Starosielsky, «&amp;nbsp;Beyond
Fluidity: A Cultural History of Cinema under Water&amp;nbsp;», in &lt;i&gt;Ecocinema
theory and practice&lt;/i&gt; (Routledge, 2013), 149‑68.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn3&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref3&quot; name=&quot;_ftn3&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn3;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Starosielsky, 158.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn4&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref4&quot; name=&quot;_ftn4&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn4;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[4]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Jean-Michel Durafour, &lt;i&gt;L’étrange
créature du lac noir de Jack Arnold: aubades pour une zoologie des images&lt;/i&gt;,
Collection «&amp;nbsp;Débords&amp;nbsp;» (Aix-en-Provence: Rouge profond, 2017), 85.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn5&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref5&quot; name=&quot;_ftn5&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn5;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[5]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Chet Van Duzer, &lt;i&gt;Sea Monsters on
Medieval and Renaissance Maps&lt;/i&gt;, Nouvelle éd. (London: The British Library,
2014).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn6&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref6&quot; name=&quot;_ftn6&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn6;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[6]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Gaston Duchet-Suchaux et Michel
Pastoureau, &lt;i&gt;Le bestiaire médiéval: dictionnaire historique et
bibliographique&lt;/i&gt; (Paris: Léopard d’or, 2002).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn7&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref7&quot; name=&quot;_ftn7&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn7;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[7]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Duchet-Suchaux et Pastoureau, 6.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn8&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref8&quot; name=&quot;_ftn8&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn8;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[8]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Cyrille P. Coutansais, &lt;i&gt;Les hommes et
la mer&lt;/i&gt; (Paris: CNRS éditions, 2017), 142.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn9&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref9&quot; name=&quot;_ftn9&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn9;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[9]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Coutansais, 144.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn10&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref10&quot; name=&quot;_ftn10&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn10;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[10]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Eric Jay Dolin, &lt;i&gt;Leviathan: the history
of whaling in America&lt;/i&gt;, 1st ed (New York: W.W. Norton &amp;amp; Company, 2007),
353.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn11&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref11&quot; name=&quot;_ftn11&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn11;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[11]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Helen M. Rozwadowski, «&amp;nbsp;Fathoming
the Ocean — Helen M. Rozwadowski | Harvard University Press&amp;nbsp;», 2005.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn12&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref12&quot; name=&quot;_ftn12&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn12;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[12]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Margaret Cohen, &lt;i&gt;The underwater eye:
how the movie camera opened the depths and unleashed new realms of fantasy&lt;/i&gt;
(Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2022), 26.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn13&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref13&quot; name=&quot;_ftn13&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn13;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[13]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Peter J. leB&amp;nbsp;Williams et al., &lt;i&gt;Ernst
Haeckel: art forms from the abyss: images from the HMS Challenger expedition&lt;/i&gt;
(Munich ; New York: Prestel, 2015).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn14&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref14&quot; name=&quot;_ftn14&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn14;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[14]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Louis (1859-1934) Boutan, &lt;i&gt;La
photographie sous-marine et les progrès de la photographie / par Louis
Boutan,...&lt;/i&gt;, 1900, http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k10250505.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn15&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref15&quot; name=&quot;_ftn15&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn15;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[15]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Étienne-Jules Marey, &lt;i&gt;Le Mouvement, par
É.-J. Marey,...&lt;/i&gt; (Paris: G. Masson, 1894),
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8626089q.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn16&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref16&quot; name=&quot;_ftn16&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn16;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[16]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Roxane Hamery, &lt;i&gt;Jean Painlevé: le
cinéma au coeur de la vie&lt;/i&gt; (Rennes, France: Presses Universitaires de
Rennes, 2008), 64.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn17&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref17&quot; name=&quot;_ftn17&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn17;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[17]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Hamery, 68.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn18&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref18&quot; name=&quot;_ftn18&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn18;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[18]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Hamery, 123.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn19&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref19&quot; name=&quot;_ftn19&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn19;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[19]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; Voir &lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Starosielsky, «&amp;nbsp;&lt;i&gt;Beyond
Fluidity&amp;nbsp;&lt;/i&gt;», p.150.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn20&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref20&quot; name=&quot;_ftn20&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn20;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[20]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Hans Hass, &lt;i&gt;Mes chasses sous-marines:
parmi les coraux et les requins dans la mer des Caraïbes&lt;/i&gt;, trad. par Colonel
Pinaud (Paris, France: Éditions Ditis (Étampes, Impr. la Semeuse), 1962); Hans
Hass, &lt;i&gt;Trois chasseurs sous la mer: [Drei Jäger auf dem Meeresgrund&lt;/i&gt;,
trad. par H. Daussy (Paris, France: Arthaud, 1956).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn21&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref21&quot; name=&quot;_ftn21&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn21;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[21]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Bernard Gorsky, &lt;i&gt;Le Tour du monde de la
chasse sous-marine sur un voilier: Livre 1er. Caraïbes-Polynésie&lt;/i&gt; (Paris,
Éditions de la Pensée moderne (impr. de G. Rochat), 1956, France, 1956).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn22&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref22&quot; name=&quot;_ftn22&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn22;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[22]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Henry Samuel, «&amp;nbsp;Row Erupts in France
over Famed Sea Explorer Jacques Cousteau’s “disgusting” Abuse of Marine
Life&amp;nbsp;», 8 juillet 2015, sect. World,
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/11726747/Row-erupts-in-France-over-famed-sea-explorer-Jacques-Cousteaus-disgusting-abuse-of-marine-life.html.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn23&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref23&quot; name=&quot;_ftn23&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn23;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[23]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Derek Bousé, &lt;i&gt;Wildlife films&lt;/i&gt;
(Philadelphia, Etats-Unis d’Amérique: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000),
84.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn24&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref24&quot; name=&quot;_ftn24&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn24;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[24]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Janine Marchessault, &lt;i&gt;Ecstatic worlds:
media, utopias, ecologies&lt;/i&gt; (Cambridge, Massachusetts, Etats-Unis d’Amérique:
The MIT Press, 2017), 55.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn25&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref25&quot; name=&quot;_ftn25&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn25;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[25]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Kathryn Ferguson, «&amp;nbsp;Submerged
realities: shark documentaries at depth&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i&gt;Atenea&lt;/i&gt; XXVI (juin 2006):
115‑29.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn26&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref26&quot; name=&quot;_ftn26&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn26;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[26]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Beryl Francis, «&amp;nbsp;BEFORE AND AFTER
“JAWS”: CHANGING REPRESENTATIONS OF SHARK ATTACKS&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i&gt;The Great Circle&lt;/i&gt;
34, n&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; 2 (2012): 44‑64.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/feeds/3074305235223848468/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2024/04/imagination-scientifique-et.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/3074305235223848468'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/3074305235223848468'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2024/04/imagination-scientifique-et.html' title='Imagination scientifique et représentations des animaux marins au cinéma (1ère partie)'/><author><name>Gestalt</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10962207802973660346</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFQRD6kaQLUr1OUFCHOR0VqUEPA0--dKvSXYzAg5UJQ0jQol9BgkX2GLgvMoTGRhoojVNzRfbkL-xTjTcSsJ4EzhOxXCrqqMJAg2A-bKdz9_mG632d3cuenkDsDa043g/s220/vertov.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhqysfsGJqM1HwkFeaU2YDQbaX1o3zCZdecoIsLAGw-OqUgaSpwlN40Pk2ls48myM4B4NfkSrjtw4cZnuD6dRZEDGFVHmTTBYncC2k5G5rm_ugNsxxid0_p2qdtgrG9UUA-34SvEbJ8qv_oFwTM3E-CeKUlNyIb42kuhDHSVVtQFETh8nmzESFArC7yehd/s72-w472-h640-c/Jaws_Life.jpg" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3824907278627072174.post-4448975476734141193</id><published>2023-05-11T10:32:00.005+02:00</published><updated>2023-05-13T08:27:18.486+02:00</updated><title type='text'>L&#39;Oeil du Photographe, par John Szarkowski (1966)</title><content type='html'>&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisKpuxVUqicWxE2HSG_3c9RROugwyIwuRex_epyHhhVEB0CvX7lLhrgVn_Lx2SZtHE03sLSrz9AgiWaPwjitl-O6eJESmAJgem06WsytDzowCZtoeM-oJApeR2Q8b6nbGV0Ho_n7DEkdxVUXEAcOCF8ceti48Ppvy63AML0RyeNNQ95piXzuCMw7n2sQ/s2369/E.Weston.storm_arizona1941.bmp&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1885&quot; data-original-width=&quot;2369&quot; height=&quot;510&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisKpuxVUqicWxE2HSG_3c9RROugwyIwuRex_epyHhhVEB0CvX7lLhrgVn_Lx2SZtHE03sLSrz9AgiWaPwjitl-O6eJESmAJgem06WsytDzowCZtoeM-oJApeR2Q8b6nbGV0Ho_n7DEkdxVUXEAcOCF8ceti48Ppvy63AML0RyeNNQ95piXzuCMw7n2sQ/w640-h510/E.Weston.storm_arizona1941.bmp&quot; width=&quot;640&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDb8zyxLoJV9Jq0YcsH2LsWbmqQ3661nEDJNmZPT2dkCrMC7AaZQjlhjr-2ggBRnYGqiuGyX1xxSE3RuOrNoczL0zVf9B0EMzDMpr8RiaAeKoiE82nKYYByIjV4ndneGVRH8iSFnqIok4j8l7oM2WLz9d3msktPiBKVnv4_9gU5jVetzuaAjAqMHkyZQ/s2308/R.Fenton_Valley_shadow_death1855.bmp&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1709&quot; data-original-width=&quot;2308&quot; height=&quot;474&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDb8zyxLoJV9Jq0YcsH2LsWbmqQ3661nEDJNmZPT2dkCrMC7AaZQjlhjr-2ggBRnYGqiuGyX1xxSE3RuOrNoczL0zVf9B0EMzDMpr8RiaAeKoiE82nKYYByIjV4ndneGVRH8iSFnqIok4j8l7oM2WLz9d3msktPiBKVnv4_9gU5jVetzuaAjAqMHkyZQ/w640-h474/R.Fenton_Valley_shadow_death1855.bmp&quot; width=&quot;640&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;span&gt;&quot;Once he left his studio, it was impossible for the photographer to copy the painters&#39; schemata. He could not stage-manage the battle, like Uccello or Velasquez, bringing together elements which had been separate in space and time, nor could he rearrange the parts of the picture to construct a design that pleased him better.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span&gt;From the reality before him he could only choose that part that seemed relevant and consistent, and that would fill his plate. If he could not show the battle, explain its purpose and its strategy, or distinguish its heroes from its villains, he could show what was too ordinary to paint : the empty road scattered with cannon balls, the mud encrusted on the caisson&#39;s wheels, the anonymous faces, the single broken figure by the wall.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span&gt;Intuitively, he sought and the significant detail. His work, incapable of narrative, turned toward symbol.&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;(p.42) &lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;John Szarkowski a écrit &lt;i&gt;The Photographer&#39;s Eye&lt;/i&gt;, à la suite de l&#39;exposition de 1964, au MOMA&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;Le livre a été publié en 1966, puis réedité en 1980 et en 2007.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;Les deux photographies proviennent de cette dernière édition : la première est d&#39;EDWARD WESTON: Storm, Arizona, 1941&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;La deuxième a été réalisée par ROGER FENTON: The Valley of the Shadow of Death, Crimea, 1855. Science Museum, London.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEip-jsS1wqilbu5P_8amnyZhfG6-hAU9u0YZ8AsKyJyPb0NzWbMFRuxMGoa-KvhOPuFmumka0ORViXmEfjL189wUmZaDHvEI4Qxs0ee3wl8EZRDTQ471aocA4Id5S-HXhfJPGB_qjIIRjDRZ2nkbP7quKMwJC-y9Pn8SvavKUDqrbHDYymO_84Rli4mLg/s4648/The%20photographers%20eye%20by%20John%20Szarkowski%20(z-lib.bmp&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;2279&quot; data-original-width=&quot;4648&quot; height=&quot;314&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEip-jsS1wqilbu5P_8amnyZhfG6-hAU9u0YZ8AsKyJyPb0NzWbMFRuxMGoa-KvhOPuFmumka0ORViXmEfjL189wUmZaDHvEI4Qxs0ee3wl8EZRDTQ471aocA4Id5S-HXhfJPGB_qjIIRjDRZ2nkbP7quKMwJC-y9Pn8SvavKUDqrbHDYymO_84Rli4mLg/w640-h314/The%20photographers%20eye%20by%20John%20Szarkowski%20(z-lib.bmp&quot; width=&quot;640&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmGLCiQRneHvT2aSCsID24cdXDRGq_DBe2TTp4TxbNrqK1ZLeIDF6BcyUnrmcUBKBpgGMDPMVuHvBcZR8ONgu9Y53DY232SNU0RY0UkxsM7tOyBLwdRkEolj6mfVLoFxMJfCydvMyxdX_fNZ_Z7_CGJlHsvbCFPQTUg5vfmfLecjR3AzyZMi2RLdngJw/s2356/The%20photographers%20eye%20by%20John%20Szarkowski-2.bmp&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1561&quot; data-original-width=&quot;2356&quot; height=&quot;424&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmGLCiQRneHvT2aSCsID24cdXDRGq_DBe2TTp4TxbNrqK1ZLeIDF6BcyUnrmcUBKBpgGMDPMVuHvBcZR8ONgu9Y53DY232SNU0RY0UkxsM7tOyBLwdRkEolj6mfVLoFxMJfCydvMyxdX_fNZ_Z7_CGJlHsvbCFPQTUg5vfmfLecjR3AzyZMi2RLdngJw/w640-h424/The%20photographers%20eye%20by%20John%20Szarkowski-2.bmp&quot; width=&quot;640&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&quot;MORE CONVINCINGLY than any other kind of picture, a photograph vokes the tan­gible presence of reality. Its most fundamental use and its broadest acceptance has been as a substitute for the subject itself - a simpler, more permanent, more clearly visible version of the plain fact.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;Our faith in the truth of a photograph rests on our belief that the lens is impartial, and will draw the subject as it is, neither nobler nor meaner. This faith may be naive and illusory (for though the lens draws th ub­ject, the photographer defines it), but it persists. The photographer&#39;s vision con­vinces us to the degree that the photographer hides his hand.&quot;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;(p. 12)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;La première photographie : photographe inconnu ; intérieur de chambre à coucher, c. 1910. The State Historical Society of Wisconsin.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;La deuxième photographie : LEE FRIEDLANDER: Untitled, 1962&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/feeds/4448975476734141193/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2023/05/loeil-du-photographe-par-john.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/4448975476734141193'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/4448975476734141193'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2023/05/loeil-du-photographe-par-john.html' title='L&#39;Oeil du Photographe, par John Szarkowski (1966)'/><author><name>Gestalt</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10962207802973660346</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFQRD6kaQLUr1OUFCHOR0VqUEPA0--dKvSXYzAg5UJQ0jQol9BgkX2GLgvMoTGRhoojVNzRfbkL-xTjTcSsJ4EzhOxXCrqqMJAg2A-bKdz9_mG632d3cuenkDsDa043g/s220/vertov.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisKpuxVUqicWxE2HSG_3c9RROugwyIwuRex_epyHhhVEB0CvX7lLhrgVn_Lx2SZtHE03sLSrz9AgiWaPwjitl-O6eJESmAJgem06WsytDzowCZtoeM-oJApeR2Q8b6nbGV0Ho_n7DEkdxVUXEAcOCF8ceti48Ppvy63AML0RyeNNQ95piXzuCMw7n2sQ/s72-w640-h510-c/E.Weston.storm_arizona1941.bmp" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3824907278627072174.post-4781511688038006624</id><published>2022-12-18T11:28:00.000+01:00</published><updated>2022-12-18T11:28:48.397+01:00</updated><title type='text'>Midjourney, Luminar et la question de l&#39;identité artistique</title><content type='html'>&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;Je reproduis (une fois n&#39;est pas coutume) un texte de Lev Manovich qui aborde quelques unes des questions posées par le développement de ces nouvea&lt;span&gt;ux outils de création qui ont la particularité d&#39;utiliser les évolutions les plus récentes des systèmes experts (deep learning, en particulier) plus communément désignés sous le nom d&#39;&quot;Intelligence Artificielle&quot; (AI)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span&gt;Nul doute que ces questions seront au centre de la création d&#39;images numériques au cours des prochaines années, ce qui posera bien évidemment la question de l&#39;identité de l&#39;artiste et du caractère &quot;original&quot;, et non simplement &quot;reproductible&quot; de l&#39;oeuvre d&#39;art.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;(notes on #midjourney, #stablediffusion, #dalle, #GPT3)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;13. AI image synthesis and the question of artistic identity&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Synthetic media (art, design, music, writing, etc. synthesized by neural networks) challenges our ideas and art and creativity in more ways than one. In this note I will briefly discuss one such challenge. Traditionally artists, writers, composers, photographers, filmmakers, choreographers, and other creators we consider to be very successful are identified by their unique &quot;styles.&quot; Or, if you don&#39;t like this term, you can use instead&amp;nbsp; &quot;artistic language&quot; or simply &quot;form&quot; (vs. &quot;content&quot;).&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Of course, some variation within a single style/idiom was allowed -&amp;nbsp; as long as the creator&#39;s works still separated her/him from others. The creator could also change their style over time multiple time (e.g. Picasso) - but also only long as each style was unique in relation to others working in a given artistic field.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Synthetic media challenges this fundamental assumption. Tools and models such as Midjourney, Stable Diffusion, gpt-3, Jasper AI and dozens of others allow us to equally easily generate media in hundreds of styles. With AI image synthesis tools, you simply include phrases ‘in the style of X” or “by X.” The attached images show selected examples of names of well-known artists, illustrators, designers, architects, fashion designers which you can use as such “X.” AI writing tools can similarly simulate writing styles of numerous well-known writers.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;This challenges our fundamental assumption that an artist needs to have her unique style / aesthetics / artistic language. I can use a single prompt in Midjourney and generate the image with the same content in numerous different styles. And I can also create new styles by mixing various names, references to different media, and by adding other terms to my prompts.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Given this, why do I need to choose a single style / aesthetics / form and stick to it? In my artistic daily experiments with Midjourney for the last six months, I used a number of very different styles. I like them, and I don’t want to force myself to choose only one.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;If a creator does not need to develop her unique style anymore, how would she separate herself from other creators? You maybe tempted to say: art is not just about style / style / aesthetics / artistic language, it is about ideas and concepts. This is certainly true - but at least historically, successful creators combined particular content and particular “form” - and in fact, form often was more important. Imagine if Bosh painted his “content” in a common style of his contemporaries. He would be much less interesting.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;If we look at the histories of human culture, the diversity of styles was much larger than the diversity of content. Classical European art of 17th-18th centuries is a perfect example here. A small number of content “templates” (i.e. genres) such as scenes from the Bible, a portrait, a still-life, and a few types of landscapes and a few others are repeated endless. Most of famous artists did not introduce some new content types. Instead they worked in existing genres and innovated stylistically. Modernist revolution (1870-1930) followed similar pattern. Paul Cézanne does not invent new genres of art. His subjects are very commonplace - a still-life, a portrait, a landscape. What he does invent is a new way of seeing such subjects.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;So what will creators do now? Will they use synthetic media tools in the same way as all previous creative tools? I.e., despite endless possibilities for style variation available, they would choose particular ones and only use them? Or will our understanding of uniqueness and creative identity change in some fundamental ways?&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;***&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;From my response to a comment below: What about post-modern ? How does this relates to my argument? &quot;Note that famous post-modern artists still often had consistent styles. For example, Warhol famous prints have similar compositions and visual aesthetics. But some artists did became famous not via a style of conjecture but a procedure (e.g, Cindy Sherman and other “picture” appropriation artists of her generation.)&amp;nbsp; So maybe we will see more use of such ew &quot;procedures&quot; in the future - although it’s not easy to invent new ones.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;***&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;From my other later comment below - &quot;Can computer really learn somebody artistic language so easily? I often say no, because in best human art form and content cant be separated. So for example, van Gogh does not have a &quot;style&quot; which can be used as a filter on any new content. His brushstrokes change depending on what he is painting. But it can be only a matter of time before this is also simulated.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;***&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Examples of styles Midjourney can generate:&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://ckovalev.com/midjourney-ai/about&quot;&gt;https://ckovalev.com/midjourney-ai/about&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/feeds/4781511688038006624/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2022/12/midjourney-luminar-et-la-question-de.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/4781511688038006624'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/4781511688038006624'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2022/12/midjourney-luminar-et-la-question-de.html' title='Midjourney, Luminar et la question de l&#39;identité artistique'/><author><name>Gestalt</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10962207802973660346</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFQRD6kaQLUr1OUFCHOR0VqUEPA0--dKvSXYzAg5UJQ0jQol9BgkX2GLgvMoTGRhoojVNzRfbkL-xTjTcSsJ4EzhOxXCrqqMJAg2A-bKdz9_mG632d3cuenkDsDa043g/s220/vertov.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3824907278627072174.post-7689750683669248868</id><published>2021-01-22T11:49:00.009+01:00</published><updated>2021-01-29T11:43:30.118+01:00</updated><title type='text'>A propos du miroir de Claude</title><content type='html'>&lt;p style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if gte mso 9]&gt;&lt;xml&gt;
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&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: georgia;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;Intéressons-nous
d’abord à quelques éléments de définition de cet objet, le miroir noir, appelé
aussi «&amp;nbsp;miroir de Claude&amp;nbsp;», en référence au peintre le plus connu
pour l’avoir utilisé, Claude Gelée dit «&amp;nbsp;le Lorrain&amp;nbsp;». Dans son
livre, &lt;i&gt;Le Miroir noir&lt;/i&gt;, Arnaud Maillet
en donne d’abord une définition minimale qui est, pour lui, le plus petit
dénominateur commun aux miroirs de Claude&amp;nbsp;: &lt;i&gt;miroir convexe teinté&lt;/i&gt;. Le noir est la couleur la plus commune du
miroir de Claude. Cependant, entre le miroir blanc et le miroir noir, «&amp;nbsp;il
existe toute une gamme de couleurs et de valeurs possibles, y compris la
couleur argent – de valeur variable… Ces différents tains ou couleurs, selon la
technique de fabrication du miroir, servaient à obtenir des effets variés&lt;span&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;selon le temps… Mais quel que soit le miroir
de Claude retenu, la valeur de sa couleur tend toujours vers le sombre&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn1&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref1&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: georgia;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;table align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;tr-caption-container&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZsUb8wR0sIO8sFq4bdjABxNCfocpczqitfqZJtu3smjThoeTLdi6inF6fNpJpknqJpy4rbp91AQFCEdkOzQ7GQiFN4GK8cYKPuByQa6ls1bAUXIMabZzz3H51SddudVVpp-JI1-Sd97E/s900/miroir_noir_le_lorrain_12_le_compendium.gif&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;704&quot; data-original-width=&quot;900&quot; height=&quot;501&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZsUb8wR0sIO8sFq4bdjABxNCfocpczqitfqZJtu3smjThoeTLdi6inF6fNpJpknqJpy4rbp91AQFCEdkOzQ7GQiFN4GK8cYKPuByQa6ls1bAUXIMabZzz3H51SddudVVpp-JI1-Sd97E/w640-h501/miroir_noir_le_lorrain_12_le_compendium.gif&quot; width=&quot;640&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;tr-caption&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Miroir noir, dit &quot;miroir de Claude&quot; (image reprise du site &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.lecompendium.com/dossier_optique_128_miroir_de_lorrain/miroir_de_lorrain.htm&quot;&gt;Le Compendium&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;L’autre
caractéristique du miroir de Claude est sa convexité. Elle va jouer un rôle
important dans la perception de l’espace et le rendu de la perspective. Cette
convexité est très peu prononcée, afin de permettre d’y voir aussi les objets
distants et de petite taille. Enfin, Arnaud Maillet note que les formes de ces
miroirs varient elles aussi. Ainsi, «&amp;nbsp;Le Science Museum de Londres possède
quatre types de miroirs de Claude&amp;nbsp;: carré, rectangulaire, circulaire et
ovale… Mais dans l’esprit des gens de lettres du XVIIIe siècle, le miroir de
Claude reste le plus souvent circulaire… De façon générale, si ces miroirs
étaient plutôt circulaires au XVIIIe siècle, ils seront davantage
rectangulaires au XIXe siècle.»&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn2&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref2&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: georgia;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: georgia;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;Il
reste que, selon l’auteur, il est devenu difficile de trouver aujourd’hui des
exemplaires bien conservés de ces objets qui, s’ils n’ont pas été donnés à des
brocanteurs, sont le plus souvent conservés chez des particuliers. En réalité,
ajoute Arnaud Maillet, «&amp;nbsp;j’ai bien du mal à croire que les grandes
institutions n’en détiennent pas dans leurs réserves. Ils doivent être au fond
des collections, oubliés à cause des vicissitudes de l’histoire, des modes de
conservation, des goûts historiques personnels des conservateurs mais aussi
maintenus là simplement par une totale ignorance de cet instrument.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn3&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref3&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: georgia;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Intéressons-nous
cependant à un autre aspect de l’utilisation de succédanés et de miroirs de
Claude, cette fois en photographie. En effet, l’utilisation d’un miroir noir,
ou d’un dispositif qui y ressemble, ne sert plus à modifier un éclairage
naturel afin de créer une «&amp;nbsp;lumière vespérale, mais à retrouver le
contraste d’une lumière naturelle déformée par l’éclairage artificiel d’un&lt;span&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;intérieur…&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftn1&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref1&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[4]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; On
peut donc considérer que l’utilisation de verres de contraste par les chefs
opérateurs de cinéma a longtemps permis d’éviter les surprises désagréables au
moment du tirage en laboratoire.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;mso-element: footnote-list; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: georgia; font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;Dans
le livre d’Arnaud Maillet, &lt;i&gt;Le Miroir noir&lt;/i&gt;,
on trouve ainsi deux photographies montrant l’une le cinéaste Jean-Marie Straub
regardant à travers un verre de contraste, et l’autre le chef opérateur William
Lubtchansky observant un reflet dans son verre de contraste. D’après Arnaud
Maillet, «&amp;nbsp;Ce verre donne une &lt;i&gt;idée&lt;/i&gt;
(selon Danièle Huillet, épouse de Jean-Marie Straub, qui insiste sur ce mot) de
ce que sera le contraste sur la pellicule une fois impressionnée. Car si l’œil
ne cesse de corriger les variations lumineuses et les contrastes, la pellicule,
elle, ne le fait pas, comme me l’a précisé le chef-opérateur Renato Berta. Pour
les pellicules noir et blanc, un verre jaune tirant légèrement sur le marron
est utilisé. Il en existe d’autres pour les pellicules couleur, comme le verre
bleuté. Pour chaque sensibilité de pellicule on a créé un verre de contraste
correspondant. Il ne s’agit donc pas d’un filtre coloré, comme les verres de
Claude, qui modifie les couleurs, mais d’un verre qui donne une idée des
contrastes, à la manière du miroir de Claude. Du reste, l’opérateur Claude
Renoir se servait de ce verre non pas en regardant à travers cet instrument,
mais comme d’un miroir en le collant parfois très près de son œil, sur son nez
afin d’y voir un reflet très net dont la teinte et surtout le ton soient
identiques à ceux observables sur un bon miroir de Claude&amp;nbsp;» (&lt;i&gt;Le Miroir noir&lt;/i&gt;, p. 106)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;hr size=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; width=&quot;33%&quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;ftn1&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref1&quot; name=&quot;_ftn1&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn1;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Arnaud MAILLET, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le Miroir noir&lt;/i&gt;, Ed. Kargo, Paris, 2005,
p.13.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn2&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref2&quot; name=&quot;_ftn2&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn2;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Op.cit. p. 16.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;ftn3&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#_ftnref3&quot; name=&quot;_ftn3&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn3;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Ibid. p. 26.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;

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&lt;p class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/#_ftnref1&quot; name=&quot;_ftn1&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn1;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[4]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Op. cit. p. 105.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

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&lt;![endif]--&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoCaption&quot;&gt;Figure 1&lt;span style=&quot;mso-no-proof: yes;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; William
Lubtchansky observant un reflet dans son verre de contraste&lt;/p&gt;

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&lt;/xml&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;!--[if gte mso 9]&gt;&lt;xml&gt;
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&lt;p class=&quot;MsoCaption&quot;&gt;Figure &lt;span style=&quot;mso-no-proof: yes;&quot;&gt;2&lt;/span&gt; Jean-Marie
Straub regardant à travers un verre de contraste&lt;/p&gt;

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&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: georgia;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;Bibliographie&amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: georgia;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: georgia;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;En
dehors de ce livre, &lt;i&gt;Le Miroir noir&lt;/i&gt;,
paru aux éditions Kargo – l’Eclat en 2005, on retiendra la parution prochaine
aux Presses du Réel de la thèse de doctorat&amp;nbsp;d’Arnaud Maillet&amp;nbsp;:
«&amp;nbsp;&lt;i&gt;Les peintres et les instruments
d’optique (1750 – 1850)&lt;/i&gt;&amp;nbsp;»&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: georgia;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: georgia;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;Une
autre référence intéressante (bien qu’il n’y soit jamais question du miroir
noir du Lorrain)&amp;nbsp;:&lt;span&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;Le Miroir&lt;/i&gt;, par Jurgis Baltrusaïtis,
Elmayan – Le Seuil, Paris, 1978.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: georgia;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;D&lt;span&gt;ans
une autre perspective, illusionniste cette fois, l’utilisation de miroirs par
des artistes contemporains renvoie (entre autres) aux
installations, réelles ou imaginaires, du père jésuite Athanasius Kircher (1602
– 1680), décrites dans son ouvrage, &lt;i&gt;Ars
magna lucis et umbrae&lt;/i&gt; (Le grand art de la lumière et de l’ombre) ainsi qu&#39;aux diverses théories et réalisations concernant les miroirs paraboliques et les miroirs ardents depuis l&#39;antiquité. On pourra
voir, par exemple, les installations de Markus Raetz et de Felice Varini au
Château d’Oiron dans les Deux-Sèvres ou les anamorphoses photographiées par
Georges Rousse…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: georgia;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;table cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;tr-caption-container&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhoRRJVdsuysML5tKuvTTNUN4BunQxeCcXI1mIvhtRkohWlSV-MD2wKpMrzDE1WOtxycWlzCD43xEFh_iJ7393bPU6g3KIawjPts5ESkkKxY1mtHt7F1lzlCSTUMqK4vyVpGDZQSY4z1mpT/s2048/Silhouette_Markus-Retz.jpg&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1365&quot; data-original-width=&quot;2048&quot; height=&quot;426&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhoRRJVdsuysML5tKuvTTNUN4BunQxeCcXI1mIvhtRkohWlSV-MD2wKpMrzDE1WOtxycWlzCD43xEFh_iJ7393bPU6g3KIawjPts5ESkkKxY1mtHt7F1lzlCSTUMqK4vyVpGDZQSY4z1mpT/w640-h426/Silhouette_Markus-Retz.jpg&quot; width=&quot;640&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;tr-caption&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;table cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;tr-caption-container&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1365&quot; data-original-width=&quot;2048&quot; height=&quot;426&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnG6FsV1VIe5_68hIH7EVi0PimDJmnFHGt2j4seSRIt3UZGV9uc29b4Ha28EhD9IC_DcNlGWLYSyA6OsPS7gCaRljpMbwZkLQ24MbZ07iWiI-oaSGcLzNFp68X3kbx88mk16Wp5urfHpvj/w640-h426/Silhouette_Markus-Retz%25282%2529.jpg&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot; width=&quot;640&quot; /&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;tr-caption&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Figures 3 et 4 : &lt;i&gt;Silhouette&lt;/i&gt;, par Markus Raetz, Oiron (1992)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;tr-caption&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpFirst&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: georgia;&quot;&gt;Un
autre thème récurrent, celui de la traversée du miroir, se retrouve dans la littérature
(&lt;i&gt;Alice…&lt;/i&gt;) et au cinéma (&lt;i&gt;Le Sang d’un poète&lt;/i&gt;, Jean Cocteau, 1930).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: georgia;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: georgia;&quot;&gt;On
peut encore décliner de différentes manières le thème des silhouettes et du
miroir ou des silhouettes dans le miroir (photo prise à l’intérieur du château
d’Oiron)&amp;nbsp;:&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: georgia;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiw2fGmiWqDliCHZ5ysb8M77V7MxJObofUaXm5SWIUWpaMTqNA3-kAR_8sxpN53GmRLTLpmrK1rdKXY_PNFiMr-s6y0hrWVByZN-6sS_OcA30NJon0qbW_-_5JYzZzJNwZEUNBjfexuFiQ/s2048/Silhouettes%25282%2529.jpg&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;2048&quot; data-original-width=&quot;2047&quot; height=&quot;640&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiw2fGmiWqDliCHZ5ysb8M77V7MxJObofUaXm5SWIUWpaMTqNA3-kAR_8sxpN53GmRLTLpmrK1rdKXY_PNFiMr-s6y0hrWVByZN-6sS_OcA30NJon0qbW_-_5JYzZzJNwZEUNBjfexuFiQ/w640-h640/Silhouettes%25282%2529.jpg&quot; width=&quot;640&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

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</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/feeds/7689750683669248868/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2021/01/a-propos-du-miroir-de-claude.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/7689750683669248868'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/7689750683669248868'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2021/01/a-propos-du-miroir-de-claude.html' title='A propos du miroir de Claude'/><author><name>Gestalt</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10962207802973660346</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFQRD6kaQLUr1OUFCHOR0VqUEPA0--dKvSXYzAg5UJQ0jQol9BgkX2GLgvMoTGRhoojVNzRfbkL-xTjTcSsJ4EzhOxXCrqqMJAg2A-bKdz9_mG632d3cuenkDsDa043g/s220/vertov.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZsUb8wR0sIO8sFq4bdjABxNCfocpczqitfqZJtu3smjThoeTLdi6inF6fNpJpknqJpy4rbp91AQFCEdkOzQ7GQiFN4GK8cYKPuByQa6ls1bAUXIMabZzz3H51SddudVVpp-JI1-Sd97E/s72-w640-h501-c/miroir_noir_le_lorrain_12_le_compendium.gif" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3824907278627072174.post-7353422859011039041</id><published>2020-09-23T14:47:00.006+02:00</published><updated>2020-09-24T11:27:57.019+02:00</updated><title type='text'>Vertigineuses symétries</title><content type='html'>&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;J&#39;ai découvert un livre par Anthony Zee ayant pour titre : &quot;Vertigineuses symétries : la recherche de la beauté en physique contemporaine.&quot; (première édition en 1986). Ce qui m&#39;a très vite interpellé dans ce livre, c&#39;est la reproduction d&#39;un tableau par Pieter De Hooch, un peintre hollandais du XVIIème siècle, contemporain de Vermeer, et intitulé : &quot;Cour intérieure d&#39;une maison à Delft&quot;.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWMUP39cEzd-DrYlOfHMuRoa3FZvx6kfoXu5QwqIkL4P4-VcVPzrG43yFnPlVS9ZnMijPY1SaluV6HPCqIldYh7krrrTqqqDyEmxw6CpHCzYA4yduqyk21UUPY7Hxmkw8lgBUGEl8zH65q/s2048/Pieter_de_Hooch_-_The_Courtyard_of_a_House_in_Delft.jpg&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;2048&quot; data-original-width=&quot;1717&quot; height=&quot;640&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWMUP39cEzd-DrYlOfHMuRoa3FZvx6kfoXu5QwqIkL4P4-VcVPzrG43yFnPlVS9ZnMijPY1SaluV6HPCqIldYh7krrrTqqqDyEmxw6CpHCzYA4yduqyk21UUPY7Hxmkw8lgBUGEl8zH65q/w536-h640/Pieter_de_Hooch_-_The_Courtyard_of_a_House_in_Delft.jpg&quot; width=&quot;536&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Quel rapport avec la symétrie ? Voici ce qu&#39;écrit A. Zee à ce propos : &quot;This painting reminds me of the CP (charge conjugation and parity) operation. The woman on the right faces us while the woman&lt;br /&gt;on the left shows us her back. The lighted figure of the woman on the right is emerging from a dark background while the dark mass of the woman on the left is going into a lighted background.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;Ces motifs sont d&#39;ailleurs récurents chez Pieter De Hooch (division du 
cadre montrant un premier plan et un arrière-plan, jeu avec la 
profondeur, et parfois des actions ou des attitudes opposées chez des 
personnages situés dans une partie du plan...)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Quand au processus de conjugaison de charges, il est explicité par cette figure&lt;span&gt; :&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgr8Xb1VxiGqMiwd7IJUy9wYTECMcAR8W1Sqzn3eyj-RUyLbRStFbM0uZ_YeFSD0RY-DleP7Wq5VWUoHTv_uudLbWU8HFndObPC-Yu88cNeji-C7ntbtJx41e17UOC8XaE343cUaUmi_XlX/s547/Zee%252C+A+-+Fearful+symmetry.bmp&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;547&quot; data-original-width=&quot;477&quot; height=&quot;640&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgr8Xb1VxiGqMiwd7IJUy9wYTECMcAR8W1Sqzn3eyj-RUyLbRStFbM0uZ_YeFSD0RY-DleP7Wq5VWUoHTv_uudLbWU8HFndObPC-Yu88cNeji-C7ntbtJx41e17UOC8XaE343cUaUmi_XlX/w558-h640/Zee%252C+A+-+Fearful+symmetry.bmp&quot; width=&quot;558&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;p&gt;A. Zee l&#39;explique de la manière suivante : &quot;(A) A pictorial representation of a physical process in which two particles (the larger circles) collide and are transformed into two other particles (the smaller circles.)&lt;br /&gt;(B) The charge-conjugated process of the process in Figure A: Given a particle, the artist represents the antiparticle by reversing the black-and-white pattern carried by the particle. Charge conjugation invariance states that the processes in Figure A and Figure B occur with the same probability. This states precisely the notion that our world cannot be distinguished from the antiworld.&quot;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/feeds/7353422859011039041/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2020/09/vertigineuses-symmetries.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/7353422859011039041'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/7353422859011039041'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2020/09/vertigineuses-symmetries.html' title='Vertigineuses symétries'/><author><name>Gestalt</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10962207802973660346</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFQRD6kaQLUr1OUFCHOR0VqUEPA0--dKvSXYzAg5UJQ0jQol9BgkX2GLgvMoTGRhoojVNzRfbkL-xTjTcSsJ4EzhOxXCrqqMJAg2A-bKdz9_mG632d3cuenkDsDa043g/s220/vertov.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWMUP39cEzd-DrYlOfHMuRoa3FZvx6kfoXu5QwqIkL4P4-VcVPzrG43yFnPlVS9ZnMijPY1SaluV6HPCqIldYh7krrrTqqqDyEmxw6CpHCzYA4yduqyk21UUPY7Hxmkw8lgBUGEl8zH65q/s72-w536-h640-c/Pieter_de_Hooch_-_The_Courtyard_of_a_House_in_Delft.jpg" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3824907278627072174.post-2643998073674838239</id><published>2020-02-11T09:48:00.006+01:00</published><updated>2021-10-25T09:48:54.527+02:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Auguste et Louis Lumière"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Colorisation"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="La Ciotat"/><title type='text'>L&#39;arrivée du train en gare de La Ciotat (1896)</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
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&lt;br /&gt;9 février 2020 :&lt;div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;auto&quot; style=&quot;background-color: white; color: #050505; font-family: &amp;quot;Segoe UI Historic&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;Segoe UI&amp;quot;, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;4K60fps et coloriage. Bon, bien évidemment tout le monde ne va pas apprécier... On peut s’interroger sur ces pratiques qui consistent à ajouter de la couleur à des bandes tournées en noir et blanc. Cependant, le nombre d’archives cinématographiques recyclées de la sorte ne cesse de croître à mesure que la puissance des systèmes numériques augmente. On peut refuser de telles pratiques car peu conformes avec l’idée que l’on se fait de l’intégrité d’une œuvre. Il devient difficile pourtant d’éviter une discussion autour de cette notion même d’œuvre cinématographique au contour et à la forme intangibles. La réalité du numérique a déjà posé la question de l’avenir de la salle de projection comme le lieu unique dans lequel se déroule le spectacle cinématographique. La question suivante est celle de la pérennité de l’œuvre,confrontée à la multiplication des possibilités de ses modes de consommation et, par la suite à sa banalisation. Il y aurait à mon sens deux attitudes possibles en face de ces transformations : l’une « passéiste », qui consisterait à tenter de défendre le cinéma dans sa forme et ses modes de consommation actuels, l’autre plus « dynamique » qui plaiderait plutôt pour une adaptation et une évolution jugées nécessaires. D’une manière ou d’une autre, on ne peut éviter de constater que les films de cinéma sont désormais autant et sans doute plus regardés sur un smartphone que dans une salle dédiée. On peut tracer ici une trajectoire qui irait de Benjamin à Warhol, mais on peut difficilement en déduire une conclusion concernant l’avenir de la forme classique du cinéma... Quel rapport avec la colorisation de ces films des débuts du cinématographe ? C&#39;est toujours pareil : vous touchez à une &quot;oeuvre&quot; qui, dans tous les sens du terme devrait demeurer vierge de toute transformation ultérieure tant et si bien qu&#39;on pourrait dire qu&#39;à l&#39;instar d&#39;une gravure de Dürer ou d&#39;un tableau de Rembrandt, ce qui  a été fixé sur la pellicule l&#39;a été pour l&#39;éternité. Mais est-ce bien le cas ? sommes-nous absolument certains que les fresques murales de la grotte Chauvet, par exemple, sont visibles aujourd&quot;hui telles qu&#39;elles l&#39;ont été au moment de leur création ? C&#39;est à dire dans les mêmes conditions que pour ceux qui les ont peintes. Les transformations d&#39;une émulsion dans le temps, le mouvement des particules magnétiques à la surface d&#39;un disque magnétoptique ne nous garantissent pas de pouvoir regarder un film aujourdhui comme à l&#39;époque où il fut tourné et ce sont les couleurs qui en sont d&#39;abord affectées (un internaute, apparemment amateur de chemins de fer, remarque d&#39;ailleurs sur YouTube que le rendu de la locomotive est erroné car, à l&#39;époque, leur couleur était d&#39;un vert clair qui n&#39;a rien à voir avec la vidéo...) . Le processus de restauration des tableaux anciens procède lui-même à partir de l&#39;état de nos connaissances et avec les outils dont disposent les restaurateurs aujourd&#39;hui. Pour en revenir à la photographie et au cinéma, on sait que les films anciens dérivent vers le bleu, pour les Ektachrome ou vers le magenta pour Agfa. D&#39;une manière générale on sait qu&#39;un film Kodak a un rendu plus &quot;chaud&quot; qu&#39;un Agfa. Le processus de restauration en tient compte, mais on reste dans l&#39;analogie, c&#39;est à dire qu&#39;on estime qu&#39;il y a 40 ou 50 ans le film aurait eu le rendu qu&#39;on va tenter de restituer. On remarquera aussi que ces processus de restauration de films se font entièrement en numérique. Et qui dit numérique dit codage et quantification (sur 10 ou 12 bits, peut-ête 14 bits) et il reste une marge d&#39;erreur possible due justement à la profondeur de quantification. Cette marge qui peut être encore, en dehors du résultat des approximations de la machine, celle du restaurateur lui-même. D&#39;ailleurs, comment procède-t-on en étalonnage numérique aujourd&#39;hui ? Malgré la précision des logiciels et la puissance de traitement des machines, le processus reste entièrement contrôlé par ceux qui ont en charge l&#39;étalonnage ou la restauration du film : l&#39;étalonneur lui-même, mais aussi le directeur de la photographie et le réalisateur (lorsque c&#39;est possible). On est donc loin d&#39;un processus uniforme d&#39;où serait bannie toute subjectivité.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;auto&quot; style=&quot;background-color: white; color: #050505; font-family: &amp;quot;Segoe UI Historic&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;Segoe UI&amp;quot;, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;Une autre version de la vidéo, celle postée par le Huffington Post &lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div&gt;
1&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: arial;&quot;&gt;1 février 2020 : Voici donc une tentative de plus pour tenter de retrouver les couleurs d’une
époque lointaine. Elle s’inscrit toutefois dans une tendance actuelle qui fait
que les producteurs, des cinéastes, cherchent par le biais de techniques
numériques à coloriser des archives cinématographiques. Bien évidemment, on&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: #1c1e21;&quot;&gt; peut s’interroger sur ces pratiques qui
consistent à ajouter de la couleur à des bandes tournées en noir et blanc.
Cependant, le nombre d’archives cinématographiques recyclées de la sorte ne
cesse de croître à mesure que la puissance des systèmes numériques augmente. On
peut refuser de telles pratiques car peu conformes avec l’idée que l’on se fait
de l’intégrité d’une œuvre. Il devient difficile pourtant d’éviter une
discussion autour de cette notion même d’œuvre cinématographique au contour et
à la forme intangibles. La réalité du numérique a déjà posé la question de
l’avenir de la salle de projection comme le lieu unique dans lequel se déroule
le spectacle cinématographique. La question suivante est celle de la pérennité
de l’œuvre, confrontée à la multiplication des possibilités de ses modes de
consommation et, par la suite à sa banalisation. Il y aurait à mon sens deux
attitudes possibles en face de ces transformations : l’une « passéiste », qui
consisterait à tenter de défendre le cinéma dans sa forme et ses modes de
consommation actuels, l’autre plus « dynamique » qui plaiderait plutôt pour une
adaptation et une évolution jugées nécessaires. D’une manière ou d’une autre,
on ne peut éviter de constater que les films de cinéma sont désormais autant et
sans doute plus regardés sur un smartphone que dans une salle dédiée. On peut
tracer ici une trajectoire qui irait de Benjamin à Warhol, mais on peut
difficilement en déduire une conclusion concernant l’avenir de la forme
classique du cinéma... Quel rapport avec la colorisation de ces films des
débuts du cinématographe ? C&#39;est toujours pareil : vous touchez à une &quot;œuvre&quot;
qui, dans tous les sens du terme devrait demeurer vierge de toute
transformation ultérieure tant et si bien qu&#39;on pourrait dire qu&#39;à l&#39;instar
d&#39;une gravure de Dürer ou d&#39;un tableau de Rembrandt, ce qui&amp;nbsp; a été fixé
sur la pellicule l&#39;a été pour l&#39;éternité. Mais est-ce bien le cas ? Sommes-nous
absolument certains que les fresques murales de la grotte Chauvet, par exemple,
sont visibles aujourd’hui telles qu&#39;elles l&#39;ont été au moment de leur création
? C&#39;est à dire avec les yeux de ceux qui les ont peintes. Les transformations
d&#39;une émulsion dans le temps, le mouvement des particules magnétiques à la
surface d&#39;un disque magnéto-optique ne nous garantissent pas de pouvoir
regarder un film aujourd’hui dans les mêmes conditions qu&#39;à l&#39;époque où il fut
tourné et les couleurs en sont affectée&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn1&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref1&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn1;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: #1c1e21; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;s. Le
processus de restauration des tableaux anciens procède lui-même à partir de
l&#39;état de nos connaissances et avec les outils dont disposent les restaurateurs
aujourd&#39;hui. Pour en revenir à la photographie et au cinéma, on sait que les
films anciens dérivent vers le bleu, pour les Ektachrome ou vers le magenta pour
Agfa. Plus généralement, on sait qu&#39;un film Kodak a un rendu plus
&quot;chaud&quot; qu&#39;un Agfa. Le processus de restauration en tient compte,
mais on reste dans l&#39;analogie, c&#39;est à dire qu&#39;on estime qu&#39;il y a 40 ou 50 ans
le film aurait eu le rendu qu&#39;on va tenter de restituer. On remarquera aussi
que ces processus de restauration de films se font entièrement en numérique. Et
qui dit numérique dit codage et quantification (sur 10 ou 12 bits, peut-ête 14
bits) et il reste une marge d&#39;erreur possible due justement à la profondeur de
quantification. cette marge qui peut être encore, en dehors du résultat des
approximations de la machine, celle du restaurateur lui-même. D&#39;ailleurs,
comment procède-t-on en étalonnage numérique aujourd&#39;hui ? Malgré la précision
des logiciels et la puissance de traitement des machines, le processus reste
entièrement contrôlé par ceux qui ont en charge l&#39;étalonnage ou la restauration
du film : l&#39;étalonneur lui-même, mais aussi le directeur de la photographie et
le réalisateur (lorsque c&#39;est possible). On est donc loin d&#39;un processus
uniforme d&#39;où serait bannie toute subjectivité.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;mso-element: footnote-list;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: arial;&quot;&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;hr align=&quot;left&quot; size=&quot;1&quot; width=&quot;33%&quot; /&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn1&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: arial;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref1&quot; name=&quot;_ftn1&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn1;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span&gt; Un internaute, apparemment
amateur de chemins de fer, remarque d’ailleurs sur YouTube que le rendu de la
locomotive est erroné car, à l’époque, leur couleur était d’un vert clair ce
qui n’a rien à voir avec la vidéo…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/feeds/2643998073674838239/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2020/02/larrivee-du-train-en-gare-de-la-ciotat.html#comment-form' title='2 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/2643998073674838239'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/2643998073674838239'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2020/02/larrivee-du-train-en-gare-de-la-ciotat.html' title='L&#39;arrivée du train en gare de La Ciotat (1896)'/><author><name>Gestalt</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10962207802973660346</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFQRD6kaQLUr1OUFCHOR0VqUEPA0--dKvSXYzAg5UJQ0jQol9BgkX2GLgvMoTGRhoojVNzRfbkL-xTjTcSsJ4EzhOxXCrqqMJAg2A-bKdz9_mG632d3cuenkDsDa043g/s220/vertov.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://img.youtube.com/vi/EqbOhqXHL7E/default.jpg" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>2</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3824907278627072174.post-7041665909180416500</id><published>2019-12-26T10:11:00.001+01:00</published><updated>2019-12-26T10:11:10.411+01:00</updated><title type='text'>Brian Taves (1959 - 2019)</title><content type='html'>&lt;span style=&quot;-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #1c1e21; display: inline !important; float: none; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;&quot;&gt;Brian Taves est décédé la semaine dernière. Il avait longtemps travaillé à la &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/9615/sea.html&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;Librairie du Congrès&lt;/a&gt; et on lui doit, en particulier, la restauration d&#39;un film de John Ernest Williamson : &quot;With Williamson Beneath the Sea&quot; (1932). Un extrait de ce film peut être regardé sur la page vimeo du &lt;a href=&quot;https://vimeo.com/73568829&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;Borneo Eco Film Festival&lt;/a&gt;. Il a par ailleurs travaillé sur les adaptations des romans de Jules Verne au cinéma, et il a écrit le seul ouvrage sur le sujet disponible à ma connaissance : &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.kentuckypress.com/9780813161129/hollywood-presents-jules-verne/&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;Hollywood presents Jules Verne&lt;/a&gt; (University Press of Kentucky, 2015)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #1c1e21; display: inline !important; float: none; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;&quot;&gt;Il a aussi écrit sur un cinéaste américain méconnu,Thomas Ince, et &quot;last but not least&quot;, sur Robert Florey à propos duquel il était intarissable.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br style=&quot;-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #1c1e21; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;&quot; /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #1c1e21; display: inline !important; float: none; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;&quot;&gt;Il a toujours répondu avec la plus grande courtoisie à mes questions, en particulier lorsque je cherchais à localiser les archives de la famille Williamson.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br style=&quot;-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #1c1e21; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;&quot; /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #1c1e21; display: inline !important; float: none; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;&quot;&gt;Ses travaux de recherche gagnent à être connus et on peut regretter qu&#39;il n&#39;aient jamais été traduits en français.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi6fPjI5rzrMNEI1A_PvVWFxT8QipF2QxGp_gIpm0O4OVqK9ENdTsXI0kBdKzXASSCJi1oGctKu_ONfgd3nXAhnQUhJITX5hwTR_12tpPLR82ZaZFw4qMH6m1j7slysvBBTaaIYZYmLUykU/s1600/55aec12130927.image.jpg&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;831&quot; data-original-width=&quot;923&quot; height=&quot;576&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi6fPjI5rzrMNEI1A_PvVWFxT8QipF2QxGp_gIpm0O4OVqK9ENdTsXI0kBdKzXASSCJi1oGctKu_ONfgd3nXAhnQUhJITX5hwTR_12tpPLR82ZaZFw4qMH6m1j7slysvBBTaaIYZYmLUykU/s640/55aec12130927.image.jpg&quot; width=&quot;640&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;tr-caption&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Brian Taves aux Bahamas, devant la Photosphere de J.E. Williamson conservée au Musée National, à Nassau (AMMC)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
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</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/feeds/7041665909180416500/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2019/12/brian-taves-1959-2019.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/7041665909180416500'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/7041665909180416500'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2019/12/brian-taves-1959-2019.html' title='Brian Taves (1959 - 2019)'/><author><name>Gestalt</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10962207802973660346</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFQRD6kaQLUr1OUFCHOR0VqUEPA0--dKvSXYzAg5UJQ0jQol9BgkX2GLgvMoTGRhoojVNzRfbkL-xTjTcSsJ4EzhOxXCrqqMJAg2A-bKdz9_mG632d3cuenkDsDa043g/s220/vertov.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi6fPjI5rzrMNEI1A_PvVWFxT8QipF2QxGp_gIpm0O4OVqK9ENdTsXI0kBdKzXASSCJi1oGctKu_ONfgd3nXAhnQUhJITX5hwTR_12tpPLR82ZaZFw4qMH6m1j7slysvBBTaaIYZYmLUykU/s72-c/55aec12130927.image.jpg" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3824907278627072174.post-6490481614194558055</id><published>2019-12-15T14:26:00.000+01:00</published><updated>2019-12-15T14:26:08.517+01:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="cinéma subaquatique"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Etienne-Jules Marey"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Francis Ward"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Hans Hass"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Jacques-Yves Cousteau"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Jean Painlevé"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="John Ernest Williamson"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Louis Boutan"/><title type='text'>Film de science ou récit d&#39;aventures ? Les origines du cinéma sous la mer</title><content type='html'>&lt;!--[if !mso]&gt;
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&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;RESUME&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;:
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La
constitution d’une science de la mer a lieu alors que se développent de
nouvelles techniques d’exploration du monde sous-marin. Ces techniques ne
parviendront à maturité que vers le milieu du 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle. Il
conviendra d’en montrer le développement et d’expliciter leur relation avec les
représentations du milieu marin.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le cinéma, art
du 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle mais dont la conception et la mise au point ont lieu
au siècle précédent, devient le véhicule d’un «&amp;nbsp;imaginaire des
profondeurs&amp;nbsp;» qui se délivre progressivement du lien avec la recherche
scientifique pour constituer un genre populaire dans lequel se mêlent
vulgarisation scientifique et fiction. Les films de Jean Painlevé, dans les
années 1930, annoncent déjà ce cinéma à travers la place qu’y occupent les
animaux marins, préfigurant ainsi le genre actuel du film animalier.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’invention du
scaphandre autonome et sa mise au point, au début des années 1940, clôt cette
période et annonce l’émergence d’un cinéma ayant pour sujet l’exploration du
monde sous-marin et arrivant à maturité avec le perfectionnement des conditions
techniques qui permettent sa réalisation.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEht6L-F0eiJP56Cz3xX6ttxY6heMR4nU5fPVOotY2cpajr3KCSc-PqVdI9nIUP5CfQ62sEtuEB76Anh0ebQelpb5ue30h7kx4iQzsTq3VwHKKvTX314D8AdN4AbDX846RItSZlD1-DVXVNd/s1600/Capture1.JPG&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;667&quot; data-original-width=&quot;867&quot; height=&quot;491&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEht6L-F0eiJP56Cz3xX6ttxY6heMR4nU5fPVOotY2cpajr3KCSc-PqVdI9nIUP5CfQ62sEtuEB76Anh0ebQelpb5ue30h7kx4iQzsTq3VwHKKvTX314D8AdN4AbDX846RItSZlD1-DVXVNd/s640/Capture1.JPG&quot; width=&quot;640&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;INTRODUCTION&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ce texte se
propose d’étudier les conditions matérielles ayant permis l’apparition du
cinéma subaquatique. Le cinéma subaquatique peut être défini comme l’ensemble
des films ayant pour sujet l’environnement marin et ses habitants et qui, pour
les représenter, ont recours aux techniques de la plongée sous-marine et à
l’utilisation d’équipements submersibles. Cette définition trop large pourrait
être restreinte, dans un premier temps, au film scientifique animalier, en
mettant en avant les expériences de chronophotographies d’animaux marins
réalisées par Etienne-Jules Marey, vers la fin du 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle, et de
nombreux films de Jean Painlevé, tels &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La
Pieuvre&lt;/i&gt; et &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;L’Hippocampe&lt;/i&gt;. En
suivant Frédérique Calcagno-Tristant, on pourra remarquer que ce genre
s’inscrit dans une construction sociale de la science dont les modes d’expressions
empruntent aux trois courants de l’histoire du cinéma&amp;nbsp;: il peut jouer
«&amp;nbsp;sur la part proprement documentaire illustrée par Lumière&amp;nbsp;; il peut
aussi profiter de tout ce qu’apportent à la science les techniques de prise de
son et d’images dans la lignée de Muybridge et Duncan&amp;nbsp;; enfin, le film
scientifique animalier peut séduire en utilisant les codes du spectacle dans la
lignée de Méliès.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn1&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref1&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn1;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; On
remarquera cependant que ni Marey, ni Painlevé, n’ont tourné de films sous la
mer, et les premiers dispositifs de prise de vues sous-marines réellement
aboutis ont été l’œuvre d’un autre savant, le naturaliste Louis Boutan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On déborde
cependant très rapidement le cadre de la recherche scientifique et de la
vulgarisation&amp;nbsp;: le premier film qui comporte des séquences tournées
réellement sous la mer est probablement un documentaire réalisé par l’américain
John Ernest Williamson, intitulé &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Thirty
Leagues under the Sea &lt;/i&gt;(1914). Ce film de 13 minutes montre quelques vues
tournées sous l’océan et, en particulier, Williamson lui-même qui tue un requin
à l’aide d’un poignard. Ces images sont réalisées depuis l’intérieur d’une
cabine submersible appelée &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Photosphère&lt;/i&gt;,
une invention dont l’origine remonte aux travaux de Williamson père.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;En quoi
cependant une telle aventure a-t-elle un intérêt pour l’historien&amp;nbsp;? Il
faut, dans un premier temps, considérer que jusqu’au début du 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt;
siècle ce monde des profondeurs était largement inconnu des populations du
monde occidental et demeurait, en fait, un élément susceptible d’inspirer la
terreur et, en tous cas impossible à approcher pour la plupart des habitants du
rivage. Selon Helen Rozwadowski, «&amp;nbsp;les historiens avaient cependant
identifié les environnements ‘extrêmes’ comme une catégorie à part qui faisait
des lieux les plus lointains et les moins accessibles, tels que l’Antarctique,
l’espace intersidéral et les profondeurs océaniques, des éléments pouvant faire
l’objet d’une analyse historique. Les environnements extrêmes ne peuvent être
approchés qu’avec l’aide de technologies adéquates mais leur histoire fait
partie des traditions culturelles et scientifiques qu’on retrouve dans tous les
voyages d’exploration partis depuis le monde occidental… Technologie et culture
sont en effet des catégories essentielles pour une histoire du monde
sous-marin.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn2&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref2&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn2;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;D’autre part, si
pour Alain Corbin les historiens de la mer sont avant tout des historiens de la
navigation et de ses techniques, il est possible aussi d’adopter une autre
perspective et de «&amp;nbsp;considérer la mer comme un élément en soi et tenter
d’en repérer les représentations élaborées au cours des siècles&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn3&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref3&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn3;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
Ceci nous invite, pour la période étudiée dans ce texte, à nous pencher plus
précisément sur cette seconde moitié du 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle, qui est aussi
le temps à partir duquel on assiste à une accélération du rythme des
découvertes. C’est la croisière du Challenger (1872-1876) qui inaugure
réellement cette «&amp;nbsp;révélation des profondeurs&amp;nbsp;» comme l’écrit encore
Alain Corbin, qui remarque que «&amp;nbsp;dans le même temps, celles-ci fascinent
plus que jamais les écrivains et les artistes, intensément stimulés par le
progrès scientifique.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn4&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref4&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn4;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[4]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il est évident,
cependant, que le rapport à la mer et à la troisième dimension de l’océan
acquiert un autre statut à partir du moment où existent des moyens d’explorer
les profondeurs et d’en faire les premières représentations réalistes. C’est ce
passage de la mythologie à la science, permis pour l’essentiel par le
développement de nouvelles techniques d’exploration des fonds marins et par la
«&amp;nbsp;photographie animée&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn5&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref5&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn5;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[5]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;,
qui change le rapport des sociétés humaines à la mer. Ce qui n’était que
fiction devient rapidement réalité, et les premiers films tournés réellement
sous la mer apparaissent au moment où le cinéma devient un art à part entière.
Il n’est d’ailleurs pas indifférent que ce soit une version de &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Vingt Mille Lieues sous les Mers &lt;/i&gt;(1916),
que l’on doit aux américains Stuart Paton et John Ernest Williamson, qui
inaugure pratiquement cette période, plaçant ainsi d’emblée ce genre
cinématographique dans le monde du spectacle. Le cinéma subaquatique jouera
ainsi, tout au long du siècle, une partition thématique qui le placera à
l’intersection du film d’exploration, du film de vulgarisation scientifique et
de la fiction.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il semble donc
possible d’étudier l’apparition et le développement de cette forme particulière
de cinéma sous des angles différents, ayant un lien avec l’histoire des idées
et l’historiographie du cinéma&amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Une histoire des représentations du
monde sous-marin, avec l’émergence de la nouvelle science de la mer au 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt;
siècle et les publications de vulgarisation scientifique de l’époque&amp;nbsp;;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Une histoire du cinéma, considérée sous
l’angle des origines de la cinématographie scientifique&amp;nbsp;;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’histoire des techniques, avec le
développement de la cinématographie sous-marine et l’invention du scaphandre
autonome&amp;nbsp;;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpLast&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’histoire des relations de ce cinéma
avec différentes formes d’expérience du voyage et de l’aventure&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraph&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;1.&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les
origines d’une aventure humaine et ses rapports avec l’histoire technique et
scientifique de son temps&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’intérêt pour la
représentation visuelle du monde marin doit sans doute beaucoup aux recherches
qui, à travers l’étude des productions de la nature, veulent contribuer à
l’établissement d’une &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;morphologie&lt;/i&gt;,
considérée comme une description et une classification des formes naturelles.
Dans ce mouvement, caractéristique d’un siècle dans lequel apparait un intérêt
pour la structure et l’organisation des formes, on peut citer les travaux de
D’Arcy W. Thompson, mais peut-être surtout les planches du naturaliste Ernst
Haeckel, rassemblées dans un ouvrage&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;, Les
formes artistiques de la nature (Kunstformen der Natur)&lt;/i&gt;, publié en 1904, dont
le succès montre bien la fascination qu’éprouvent ses contemporains pour des
êtres vivants que l’on apprend à connaitre à mesure que la biologie marine
distille ses découvertes. Haeckel y ajoute la dimension esthétique, que l’on
retrouve dans des planches, lithographiées avec soin et qui, selon René
Huyghes, apparaissent plus comme une idéalisation de ses idées sur la régularité
et la perfection des structures que le résultat d’observations rigoureuses&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn6&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref6&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn6;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[6]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
Cependant, ce goût de l’image et des représentations minutieuses est
caractéristique du besoin de montrer avec une précision inédite les éléments
d’un monde dont l’exploration ne fait que commencer et dont la science, dans
son besoin d’objectivité rationnelle, cherche à garantir l’apparence formelle.
On ne peut en effet rapprocher les lithographies de radiolaires effectuées par
Haeckel des illustrations de Neuville et Riou pour les &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Voyages Extraordinaires&lt;/i&gt; de Jules Verne, même si ces derniers
cherchent, autant que possible, à donner à leurs dessins l’apparence du
réalisme sérieux obtenu d’après une documentation scientifique.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’invention de la
photographie, réalisée sans doute à la même époque, quoique dans des
circonstances différentes par Nièpce (1765-1833), Daguerre (1787-1851) et Henry
Fox Talbot (1800-1877), marque cependant le début de ce que l’on peut
considérer comme la visualisation scientifique moderne. La photographie est le
gage de la représentation parfaite de la réalité. Si le panorama, inventé à la
fin du 18&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle, annonce déjà «&amp;nbsp;le rêve du spectacle
intégral, du «&amp;nbsp;cinéma total&amp;nbsp;» que des pionniers tenteront de réaliser
au début du 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn7&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref7&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn7;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[7]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;,
il n’apporte pas cependant ce gage de réalisme absolu et de fidélité parfaite,
de preuve irréfutable de l’existence du phénomène observé que semble garantir
la photographie. Aussi, le panorama et son successeur le diorama vont céder la
place, progressivement, à la photographie dans la multiplication des tentatives
pour trouver une solution à la «&amp;nbsp;question vitale&amp;nbsp;» qui consiste à
inventer un «&amp;nbsp;nouveau principe capable de montrer des figures en mouvement
avec toutes les apparences de la vie et de la réalité.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn8&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref8&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn8;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[8]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La photographie, comme
technique de reproduction automatique de la réalité sensible, s’impose comme un
important outil de documentation qui sera très vite adopté par les voyageurs de
l’époque et sous l’impulsion de François Arago, qui se fera le chantre de son
utilisation dans le monde scientifique. Les interventions effectuées par Arago,
à l’Académie des Sciences et à la Chambre des députés en 1839, seront décisives
pour la diffusion de cette découverte. Elles permettent, en effet, la
reconnaissance de la légitimité de la photographie en tant qu’invention aux
conséquences économiques et sociales profondes, et ouvrent la voie à son
utilisation dans un contexte scientifique. C’est ainsi que vont se mettre en
place les fondements d’une «&amp;nbsp;confiance dans les images&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn9&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref9&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn9;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[9]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, laquelle
aura pour conséquence de permettre l’utilisation de la photographie aussi bien
dans le champ scientifique que pour documenter le réel.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Quels seront
ensuite les progrès techniques et les avancées scientifiques qui seront à
l’origine de l’émergence du cinéma subaquatique&amp;nbsp;? On pourra, pour
simplifier, distinguer deux périodes caractéristiques de l’évolution des
représentations photographiques et filmiques du monde sous-marin&amp;nbsp;: celle
qui précède l’adoption universelle du scaphandre autonome et celle qui, au
milieu des années 1940, marque le début véritable de l’aventure du cinéma
sous-marin et sa constitution comme genre&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;
hybride&lt;/i&gt; du cinéma scientifique et animalier&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn10&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref10&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn10;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[10]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
et en tant que réceptacle contemporain de l’imaginaire des profondeurs des
siècles précédents.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On utilisera
pour cela différentes sources, avec tout d’abord les films et les photographies
réalisés par les pionniers de l’exploration sous-marine, mais aussi la
littérature technique concernant la plongée sous-marine, son histoire et ses
développements. A la fin du 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle, puis dans les premières
décennies du siècle suivant, c’est un mouvement général dans les sciences de la
nature qui impose l’image photographique et cinématographique comme auxiliaires
de la recherche. On retiendra ici les figures d’Etienne-Jules Marey et de Jean
Painlevé car tous deux, à leur manière, ont travaillé à la représentation du
monde animal et,&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;plus particulièrement
des animaux marins. Par la suite, ce sont les plongées profondes en
bathyscaphe, puis les évolutions en liberté permises par le scaphandre
autonome, qui permettront les développements ultérieurs de l’image du monde
sous-marin.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Cependant, il ne
faut pas s’y tromper&amp;nbsp;: le cinéma sous-marin doit peut-être autant aux
expériences menés par des scientifiques, à la fin du 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle,
qu’aux explorations permises par la plongée en scaphandre autonome et les
progrès des équipements de prise de vues.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Cette histoire
commence donc, en réalité, avec les premières images réalisées par des savants,
engagés dans des recherches situées parfois en marge des préoccupations de leur
discipline. La personnalité d’Etienne-Jules Marey émerge durant cette première
période, pré-cinématographique&amp;nbsp;: alors qu’il est encore impossible de
représenter les habitants du monde sous-marin dans leur environnement naturel,
pour Marey il ne s’agit que d’étudier plus précisément le mouvement des
animaux, en utilisant la chronophotographie dont il est l’un des inventeurs.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le travail de
Marey reste cependant en marge d’une étude concernant les rapports du cinéma
avec les sciences de la mer, mais il constitue un élément pouvant permettre de
répondre à la question principale&amp;nbsp;: comment l’exploration des profondeurs
océaniques et la représentation des animaux marins sont-ils devenus des sujets
à part entière pour le cinéma&amp;nbsp;? &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Cette question
en amène une autre&amp;nbsp;: dans quelles conditions a-t-on assisté à l’émergence
du genre du film d’aventures et d’exploration en marge du film de vulgarisation
scientifique&amp;nbsp;? On peut penser en effet que, dans une certaine mesure, le
mode d’exploitation du cinéma et la constitution d’un public de classes
moyennes dans le monde occidental, ont permis la production de films dont les
représentations demeuraient conformes à l’imaginaire colonial de l’époque&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn11&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref11&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn11;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[11]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’océanographie,
jusqu’à une époque récente que l’on peut situer vers la fin des années 1920,
n’avait jamais connu de développements importants en relation avec l’image
cinématographique. Cependant, la mise au point du scaphandre autonome et
l’invention d’équipements de prise de vues adaptés à cet environnement ont
apporté de nouveaux moyens à la connaissance du monde sous-marin.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’observation et
la recherche scientifique dans les profondeurs sous-marines connaitront par
conséquent, à partir des années 1950, un véritable développement grâce au
perfectionnement des moyens mis en œuvre par les plongeurs et la mise au point d’équipements
de propulsion. Pourtant, une question demeure&amp;nbsp;: pourquoi voit-on s’écouler
une période aussi longue entre la première invention du scaphandre autonome
(1865) et sa mise en pratique réelle qui marque aussi les débuts véritables du
cinéma sous-marin (1943)&amp;nbsp;? Ce décalage dans le temps de la diffusion d’une
invention peut être vu, pour partie, comme une conséquence du contexte
économique et politique de l’époque. L’expansion des puissances coloniales et
leur affrontement, qui semble inéluctable au début du 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle,
ont pu favoriser le développement et la construction d’autres équipements au
sein des Marines nationales des différents pays.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Cependant, au lendemain
du conflit de 1914-1918, le monde occidental connait une transformation rapide
des conditions sociales et des modes de vie qui favorisent l’apparition d’une
nouvelle sorte d’aventuriers-explorateurs. A la suite des découvertes réalisées
par l’océanographie et l’utilisation à grande échelle des submersibles, la mer
et les profondeurs océaniques n’apparaissent plus comme un monde dangereux et
inaccessible, mais comme une partie de la nature sauvage à laquelle il devient
possible d’accéder. Progressivement, la mer en vient à représenter, selon Jean
Griffet, «&amp;nbsp;une des réalités quotidiennes les plus intensément vécues du
milieu du 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle. Une telle émotion est occasionnée par
l’expansion d’une forme de vie – l’aventure – dans un espace qui lui offre tant
de possibilités de se déployer.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn12&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref12&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn12;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[12]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Considérer cette
aventure du point de vue de l’histoire des techniques nous conduit à y voir, en
premier lieu, une histoire des inventions qui ont conduit à l’émergence, puis
au développement de l’exploration sous-marine et, par la suite, du cinéma
sous-marin. Il y a cependant un danger, comme le souligne Jean-Yves Château, à
rendre compte du développement des techniques à partir de l’invention, car
alors «&amp;nbsp;on peut craindre de s’y trouver enfermé et de ne pouvoir rendre
compte de l’ensemble des aspects humains qu’une véritable histoire prend en
charge, c’est-à-dire des aspects humains collectifs, politiques, sociaux,
économiques.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn13&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref13&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn13;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[13]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
Château cite, pour appuyer son raisonnement, Lucien Febvre qui, appelant à
fonder une «&amp;nbsp;histoire technique de la technique&amp;nbsp;», affirme que
«&amp;nbsp;l’activité technique ne saurait s’isoler des autres activités
humaines&amp;nbsp;» et que, en suivant cela, «&amp;nbsp;chaque époque a sa technique,
et cette technique a le style d’une époque.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn14&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref14&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn14;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[14]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On peut alors
estimer que ces différents aspects de l’entreprise, avec des problématiques
environnementales qui prennent forme à partir des années 1960, peuvent trouver
leur place dans une histoire de l’exploration et de la représentation du monde
sous-marin.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’invention
demeure cependant le moteur de l’histoire des techniques, et la dichotomie
établie par Gilbert Simondon entre invention et innovation permet sans doute de
mieux comprendre les débats autour de l’invention du cinéma et ceux concernant
la primauté de la mise en œuvre véritable du scaphandre autonome. Ce dernier
point a son importance, puisqu’il est admis que le cinéma sous la mer, tel que
nous le connaissons, a été permis par la possibilité pour des plongeurs de se
déplacer librement sous l’eau et d’y rester assez longtemps pour impressionner
des centaines de mètres de pellicule.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Trois facteurs
peuvent caractériser la dynamique de l’évolution du système technique constitué
par le cinéma sous-marin et ont contribué à son essor&amp;nbsp;: tout d’abord la
science océanographique, dont l’émergence au 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle a entrainé
le développement de plusieurs technologies et méthodes d’investigation des
profondeurs, telles que&amp;nbsp;: sondage, dragage, microscopie, mesure des
températures, analyse chimique et expériences de laboratoire. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Toutes ces
techniques ont permis d’accéder à une description plus complète du monde
sous-marin. Jusqu’à cette époque, en effet, l’essentiel des connaissances de la
mer provenait des navigateurs, des pêcheurs et des baleiniers qui sillonnaient
les océans. En réalité, ces mêmes baleiniers demeuraient à l’avant-garde de la
recherche océanique en raison de leur propension à poursuivre leurs proies en
dehors des voies de navigation suivies par la plupart des marins&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn15&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref15&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn15;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[15]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
Les baleiniers avaient observé, au cours de leurs navigations, que les baleines
évitaient certaines zones de l’Atlantique Nord et remarqué, dans le même temps,
que ces eaux avaient une couleur et une température différente. Comme ils
conservaient des relevés détaillés indiquant l’emplacement de leurs zones de
pêche, cette connaissance a permis par la suite de reconnaitre l’existence du
Gulf Stream et d’établir des cartes de navigation le prenant en compte&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn16&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref16&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn16;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[16]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’exploration
des fonds marins a constitué le deuxième élément, dont les développements
doivent autant à une meilleure connaissance de la physiologie humaine, qu’à des
innovations ayant conduit à l’invention de dispositifs mécaniques permettant de
respirer sous l’eau. Les recherches de Paul Bert sur la physiologie humaine,
dans des conditions de forte variation de la pression atmosphérique, avaient
aussi pour objectif&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;de trouver le moyen
de faire face aux problèmes posés par les variations de la pression
barométrique en plongée. Les tables de décompression calculées par John Scott
Haldane seront un élément essentiel dans la compréhension, puis dans la
résolution des problèmes posés par la plongée en scaphandre.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le troisième
élément est constitué par l’apparition des «&amp;nbsp;photographies animées&amp;nbsp;»
qui, selon Marey, «&amp;nbsp;ont fixé pour toujours des mouvements essentiellement
fugitifs [et qui] permettent de voir et de revoir indéfiniment des phénomènes
parfois difficiles à reproduire.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn17&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref17&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn17;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[17]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
A l’époque où il écrit ces lignes (1899), Marey est cependant convaincu que la
«&amp;nbsp;chronophotographie&amp;nbsp;» doit renoncer à la représentation réaliste des
phénomènes pour pouvoir en permettre l’analyse scientifique. Elle doit aussi se
détourner du spectacle du monde et revenir à ce qui lui semble être sa
véritable vocation, à savoir la recherche scientifique.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpLast&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraph&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;2.&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Aux
origines du cinéma sous la mer&amp;nbsp;: invention et imagination scientifique&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les prémisses du cinéma
subaquatique apparaissent au cours des dernières années du 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt;
siècle. L’invention des premiers dispositifs de prise de vues photographiques
conçus à cet effet témoigne de l’intérêt des scientifiques pour l’exploration
sous-marine et la connaissance du milieu marin. Il faudra pourtant attendre le
siècle suivant et, surtout, les années 1940 pour que soient tournés des films
sous la mer par des scaphandriers libérés de toute attache avec la surface.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Cependant, au
cours des deux dernières décennies du 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle et au début du
siècle suivant, des expériences menées par des savants utilisent la
photographie pour représenter des animaux marins. On les doit en particulier à
Francis Ward, un naturaliste anglais et à son homologue français Louis Boutan,
qui travaillera à la station marine de Banyuls-sur-Mer.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Francis Ward fait
aménager dans sa propriété d’Ipswich, en 1911, un atelier de photographie
subaquatique qui sera décrit par Ernest Coustet, dans un article publié dans &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La Nature&amp;nbsp;&lt;/i&gt;: «&amp;nbsp;C’est une
chambre souterraine, creusée au bord de l’eau, dont elle est séparée par un mur,
au milieu duquel s’ouvre une baie vitrée. L’opérateur se voit ainsi transporté
au fond de la mer&amp;nbsp;; il en distingue les moindres détails, tandis que les
sujets en expérience ne sauraient l’apercevoir, dans son &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;studio&lt;/i&gt; où règne l’obscurité. Il a donc toute facilité pour les
observer à loisir, sans éveiller leur attention, et déclencher son obturateur
au moment le plus favorable. Le docteur Ward a ainsi photographié, non
seulement des poissons, des crustacées et autres créatures exclusivement
aquatiques, mais aussi des amphibies (phoques, loutres, etc.) et des oiseaux
plongeurs (mouettes, pingouins et cormorans), dont il a étudié les curieux
procédés de pêche.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn18&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref18&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn18;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[18]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La Nature&lt;/i&gt; nous apprend, en outre, que le
docteur Ward «&amp;nbsp;a utilisé aussi le cinématographe, et ses films lui ont
permis de faire de très intéressantes constatations sur diverses particularités
de la locomotion dans l’eau.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn19&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref19&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn19;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[19]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Toutefois, les
expériences de Ward sont menées en dehors du milieu marin proprement dit. Louis
Boutan, qui est aussi photographe par intérêt, se rend en 1884 au Laboratoire
Arago de Banyuls-sur-Mer, où il a été invité par le professeur Henri de
Lacaze-Duthiers. Il va étudier sur place, pendant six étés, la biologie marine,
et en profite pour apprendre à plonger en scaphandre «&amp;nbsp;pieds lourds&amp;nbsp;».
Il effectue alors ses premières plongées et il est impressionné par le monde
qu’il découvre et frappé par l’impossibilité de le décrire par des mots ou en
dessinant, ainsi qu’en témoigne la relation qu’il en fait : «&amp;nbsp;L’étrangeté
de ces paysages sous-marins m’avait causé une très vive impression et il me
paraissait regrettable de ne pouvoir la traduire que par une description plus
ou moins exacte, mais forcément incomplète.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;J’aurais voulu
rapporter de ces explorations sous-marines un souvenir plus tangible&amp;nbsp;;
mais il n’est guère possible, quelque bon scaphandrier que l’on soit, de faire
un dessin, voire même un croquis, au fond de l’eau.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn20&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref20&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn20;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[20]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’utilisation de
la photographie pour ramener des vues précises de cet environnement lui semble
une évidence&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;Je résolus alors d’essayer la photographie&amp;nbsp;;
puisqu’on arrive à prendre sans difficulté un paysage en plein air, pourquoi,
me disais-je, ne parviendrait-on pas à faire une photographie au fond de la
mer&amp;nbsp;?&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn21&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref21&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn21;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[21]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;Il lui faut pour cela mettre au point un appareil
capable de photographier sous l’eau, aux profondeurs permises par l’utilisation
d’un scaphandre. En 1893, il fait construire, avec l’aide de son frère Auguste
et du mécanicien du laboratoire David, un boitier étanche pour un appareil de
type &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Détective&lt;/i&gt; à 6 plaques de 9cm x
12cm. Pour Boutan, le principe de ce premier appareil peut se résumer
ainsi&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;Utiliser l’appareil photographique ordinaire en le plaçant
dans des conditions telles que le fait de son immersion dans l’eau ne change
pas sensiblement son mode habituel de fonctionnement, et que l’objectif ne
puisse être altéré par son contact avec le nouveau milieu.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn22&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref22&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn22;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[22]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ce premier appareil
doit présenter, selon Louis Boutan, certaines caractéristiques qui puissent
permettre sa manipulation sous l’eau. Ce genre d’appareil, précise-t-il,
«&amp;nbsp;permet de faire arriver l’image des objets sur la plaque sensible sans
une mise au point préalable, à condition qu’on opère sur des objets distants de
l’objectif de plus de 3 à 4 mètres.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn23&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref23&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn23;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[23]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;D’autre part, un
mécanisme automatique permettant le remplacement de la plaque impressionnée par
une plaque neuve lui permet d’utiliser un magasin et de prendre plusieurs vues
successives sans être obligé de remonter à la surface. Ce premier appareil est
cependant d’un maniement peu pratique&amp;nbsp;: pour le manœuvrer, il faut
effectuer de longs séjours sous l’eau et, pour pouvoir impressionner les
plaques de manière à obtenir des images d’une qualité satisfaisante, il faut
des temps de pose d’au moins dix minutes et, certaines photographies, selon
Boutan, ont même demandé une demi-heure de temps de pose. Dans ces conditions,
on imagine bien tous les problèmes posés par les mouvements de la faune et de
la flore sous-marine.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les premiers résultats
ne sont guère satisfaisants, et Louis Boutan met en cause le manque de
profondeur de champ permise par l’appareil. Il lui parait alors indispensable
de pouvoir disposer de la possibilité de régler la mise au point avec
exactitude.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
 
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
 
 

 
 
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;Un deuxième appareil, construit en 1896, et
dans lequel les objectifs sont immergés au contact direct de l’eau, ne donne
pas de résultats satisfaisants lui non plus. Les problèmes rencontrés par la
réalisation d’images suffisamment nettes sous l’eau amènent Boutan à en faire
réaliser un troisième, un appareil pour plaques 18mm x 24mm, construit au
laboratoire Arago par le mécanicien David, et dont le principe est reproduit
sur le dessin publié dans son ouvrage principal.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Comme le premier
dispositif, cet appareil est constitué par une boite étanche, qui renferme à la
fois l’objectif et la plaque sensible, qui se trouvent ainsi tous les deux dans
le même environnement. Tout se ramène donc, selon Boutan, à perfectionner
l’objectif qui doit transmettre l’image à la plaque sensible.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les essais
effectués dans la Baie du Troc, aux environs de Banyuls, puis à Port-Vendres,
et utilisant cet appareil seront concluants. Toutefois, les dimensions et le
poids de l’appareil ne permettront jamais de réaliser une documentation précise
de la faune et de la flore sous-marines. Le travail de Louis Boutan demeure
celui d’un expérimentateur, pionnier de la construction de divers procédés de
prise de vues sous-marines, sans toutefois réussir à les utiliser pleinement
dans ses travaux scientifiques. On notera aussi que Louis Boutan a sans doute
été le premier à mettre au point et à utiliser des dispositifs d’éclairage
électrique pour les prises de vues sous-marines, en utilisant d’abord des
lampes au magnésium, puis des projecteurs à arc, enfermés dans des enveloppes
hermétiques et munies de systèmes optiques, et alimentés par des batteries
d’accumulateurs transportées par un navire en surface.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les expériences
en plongée de Louis Boutan prendront fin en 1900, sans que la question de
l’utilisation du cinématographe dans l’environnement sous-marin soit posée. La
difficulté d’emporter des équipements aussi lourds et difficiles à manipuler
représentait sans doute une contrainte insurmontable pour un scaphandrier
limité dans ses mouvements.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;A l’époque
cependant, l’image animée était déjà très largement utilisée dans un contexte
scientifique&amp;nbsp;: Jules Janssen, dès 1874, part au Japon à la tête d’une
mission scientifique afin d’observer une éclipse totale du soleil du fait de
l’alignement de Vénus avec la Terre et l’astre solaire. Il emporte dans ses
bagages le &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;revolver astronomique&lt;/i&gt;
qu’il vient d’inventer et qui doit lui permettre d’enregistrer automatiquement
le passage de Vénus, le 8 décembre. Selon Monique Sicard, «&amp;nbsp;les enjeux du
revolver de Jules Janssen, bien au-delà de la réalisation d’une série
photographique chronologique, sont à la fois scientifiques, internationaux mais
aussi métaphysiques.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn24&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref24&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn24;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[24]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
Les savants de l’époque espéraient peut-être obtenir de la sorte un début de
réponse à la question de la place des humains dans l’univers… Les
daguerréotypes de Janssen n’ont pas permis de répondre à cette question mais,
ajoute Monique Sicard, «&amp;nbsp;du moins ont-ils contribué à jeter les bases d’un
nouveau regard, presque d’une nouvelle écriture&amp;nbsp;: celle qui rendrait
compte d’un univers mouvant, découpé en tranches de 72 secondes, celle qui,
décomposant les phénomènes, ne les percevrait que par intermittence, comme par
effet stroboscopique, dans leur ordonnancement chronologique.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn25&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref25&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn25;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[25]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Marey sait
d’ailleurs reconnaitre ce qu’il lui doit&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;c’est donc à lui,
écrit-il, que revient l’honneur d’avoir inauguré ce que l’on appelle
aujourd’hui la &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Chronophotographie sur
plaque mobile&lt;/i&gt;.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn26&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref26&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn26;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[26]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Marey est né à
Beaune en 1830. Il étudie la physiologie et la médecine à Paris, à partir de
1848, et il réalise des études sur le cœur humain à l’aide d’un dispositif
qu’il adapte, le sphygmographe, pour mesurer la pression artérielle. Cet
appareil inscrit les résultats avec une aiguille sur une bande de papier
enroulé autour d’un cylindre. Marey produit ainsi des cardiogrammes au cours
des années 1860, manifestant dès cette époque son intérêt pour le mouvement
périodique et le rythme. A l’instar de ses contemporains Claude Bernard et
Louis Pasteur, Marey était imprégné du positivisme épistémologique de l’époque
et par le débat entre conceptions vitalistes et mécanistes. Ceci peut sans
doute expliquer son intérêt pour l’étude du mouvement animal. Selon Peter
Soppelsa, son ouvrage de 1873, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La Machine
animale&lt;/i&gt;, trace une analogie heuristique entre machines et organismes, en
insistant sur le fait que biologistes et mécaniciens pourraient tirer un
bénéfice mutuel de la combinaison de leurs méthodes de recherche&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn27&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref27&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn27;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[27]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Laurent Mannoni
considère que les bandes de Marey, tout comme celles de son collègue et ami
George Demenÿ, constituent en fait des films au sens que nous donnons au
cinéma. François Dagognet, de son côté, estime que ses recherches ont produit
des effets aux conséquences incalculables, allant de l’industrie aux arts
technologiques – il donne comme exemple l’influence des recherches de Marey sur
le vol des oiseaux dans le développement de l’aviation&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn28&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref28&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn28;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[28]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Selon Laurent
Mannoni&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn29&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref29&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn29;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[29]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;,
c’est en 1890 qu’Etienne-Jules Marey a réalisé les premières séries de
photographies successives sur une pellicule en celluloïd, à l’aide de sa
«&amp;nbsp;caméra chronophotographique&amp;nbsp;» à pellicule celluloïd mobile. Marey,
dont le fusil photographique réalisé en 1882 s’inspirait du revolver
photographique de l’astronome Jules Janssen, a mis au point une machine dont le
principe consiste à entrainer au foyer d’une optique photographique une bande
sensible, dont les arrêts successifs correspondent à l’ouverture d’un
obturateur qui laisse passer ainsi une certaine quantité de lumière. Il décrit
de la façon suivante sa caméra «&amp;nbsp;photochronographique&amp;nbsp;» à
pellicule&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;Cet appareil est disposé pour recevoir des images
successives sur une bande de pellicule sensible. Cette pellicule est montée sur
des bobines à couvertures&amp;nbsp;; elle défile rapidement au foyer de l’objectif
et s’arrête pendant les temps de pose.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn30&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref30&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn30;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[30]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
C’est le principe même des caméras de cinéma qui seront employées jusqu’à nos
jours.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;En janvier 1890
Marey, qui réside plusieurs mois par an dans une villa achetée au Posillipo,
près de Naples, étudie les particularités du mouvement des animaux aquatiques
en utilisant la chambre chronophotographique à bande mobile qu’il vient de
mettre au point. Il n’est cependant pas certain que les bandes recouvertes de
gélatino-bromure d’argent qu’il utilise soient du papier négatif ou le tout
nouveau support en celluloïd, breveté par Eastman.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le Professeur
allemand Anton Dohrn, fondateur de la Station Zoologique de Naples, va lui
fournir une aide pour se procurer les animaux vivants&amp;nbsp;: poissons, étoiles
de mer, poulpes et autres habitants des profondeurs proches des côtes
napolitaines.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La rencontre
avec Anton Dorhn, à la Station zoologique, représentera pour Marey une nouvelle
étape dans l’étude du mouvement animal. Naples était, au 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt;
siècle, un lieu important où se croisaient et se rencontraient artistes et
hommes de science. Anton Dorhn était convaincu que la biologie, et tout
particulièrement l’étude des animaux marins, étaient des thèmes fondamentaux
pour la science de son temps. Selon lui, la création d’une station biologique à
Naples allait servir de point d’appui pour démontrer la validité des théories
de Charles Darwin. La Station devient alors un lieu de rencontres pour des
savants venus du monde entier et près d’un millier de scientifiques de
différentes nationalités y ont travaillé au cours de la période pendant
laquelle Anton Dorhn a géré la Station. Il fait venir aussi des professeurs de
l’Académie des Beaux-Arts et des artistes, lesquels vont reproduire en dessins
les animaux marins que les scientifiques étudient. Cette collaboration
instituée entre dessinateurs et savants a eu, selon Ricardo de Sanctis&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn31&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref31&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn31;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[31]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;,
une influence sur Marey, qui comprend alors que l’on peut récupérer et traiter
de nombreuses données à partir de ces images. Dorhn met à la disposition de
Marey l’aquarium de la Station zoologique et l’aide à se procurer les animaux
marins dont il va fixer les mouvements à l’aide du tout nouveau dispositif de
chronophotographie sur bandes de pellicule souple photosensible. Le dispositif
qu’il installe à Naples lui permettra de fixer les mouvements de divers
animaux, mais aussi de sortir photographier le littoral.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’installation
qu’il met au point consiste à fixer un réservoir d’eau en verre transparent,
sorte d’aquarium mobile, sur le mur extérieur de son laboratoire, avec l’océan
à l’arrière-plan. La lumière du jour éclaire alors le dispositif en contrejour
et les animaux apparaissent en silhouette. Sa caméra chronophotographique est
disposée de manière à pouvoir enregistrer des séries d’images des poissons que
lui procurent Dorhn et les pêcheurs locaux. Marey était tout particulièrement
intéressé par les pieuvres, et il se montrait fasciné par ces animaux, dont il
avouait «&amp;nbsp;être amoureux&amp;nbsp;». Son travail consiste alors à enregistrer
les mouvements de chaque animal sur une seule bande. Ces expériences sont
relatées dans &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le Mouvement&lt;/i&gt;, son
ouvrage de 1894. Ces bandes restent cependant parmi les rares qu’il tourne
ailleurs qu’à la Station physiologique du Bois de Boulogne. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Marey n’était
pas véritablement intéressé par l’invention du cinématographe. Pour lui, les
appareils qu’il utilisait, sphygmographe ou chambre photographique, restaient
des instruments d’étude du mouvement et les phénomènes relatifs à la synthèse
du mouvement étaient en quelque sorte des effets secondaires qui ne devaient
pas infléchir le sens de sa démarche. On peut noter que d’autres
«&amp;nbsp;inventeurs&amp;nbsp;» du cinéma, les frères Lumière, ont tenu à peu près le
même raisonnement, mettant en doute pour leur part la viabilité commerciale du
dispositif. Il reste que Marey, au même titre que Boutan, a sans doute réalisé
les premières vues photographiques du monde subaquatique, en leur ajoutant en
prime le mouvement.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les frères
Lumière, inspirés sans doute par ces images, vont produire un film, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;L’Aquarium&lt;/i&gt;, mettant en scène des
anguilles, des poissons et des grenouilles. Les recherches de Marey sont à
l’origine des études sur le mouvement des corps dans l’eau, études qui se
poursuivent jusqu’à nos jours&amp;nbsp;: on peut citer, en particulier, les travaux
du Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, réalisés par l’équipe de Gaël Clément
et Laurent Ballesta pour le ‘Projet cœlacanthe’ lors de l’expédition Gombessa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn32&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref32&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn32;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[32]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;,
en 2013.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpLast&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraph&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;3.&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La
nouvelle science des profondeurs et les débuts de l’exploration sous-marine&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les premiers
films sous-marins sont tournés lorsque le cinématographe arrive à maturité et
prend son essor comme industrie de divertissement. Il s’agit alors de séquences
réalisées à partir des hublots de cloches de plongée et des premiers
bathyscaphes. C’est la mise au point du scaphandre autonome qui permettra aux
plongeurs de se libérer de tout lien avec la surface et de se mouvoir sous
l’eau, en toute liberté, avec les équipements de prise de vues. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Si le
développement du cinéma sous-marin est permis par l’invention du scaphandre
autonome, il l’est tout autant par la disponibilité d’équipements de prise de
vues plus légers, susceptibles d’être mis en œuvre par un seul opérateur en
plongée. D’autre part, l’arrivée sur le marché d’émulsions photographiques très
sensibles, en tous cas bien plus que celles existant jusqu’au début des années
1930, sera un progrès déterminant, pour la photographie et le cinéma. Ce manque
de sensibilité des émulsions avait cependant conduit photographes et cinéastes
à développer très tôt des systèmes d’éclairage susceptibles de fonctionner aux
profondeurs dans lesquelles avaient lieu les prises de vues. Ces éclairages
permettront aussi d’équilibrer les couleurs sur les films, dans un
environnement au sein duquel la lumière perçue devient très rapidement
monochrome, avec une dominante bleue.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt;
siècle voit apparaitre un véritable imaginaire des profondeurs porté par la
littérature et le développement de la vulgarisation scientifique. C’est aussi
l’époque de l’expansion des puissances occidentales&amp;nbsp;: les expéditions
scientifiques de circumnavigation et l’établissement des premières lignes de
communications télégraphiques transatlantiques sont des manifestations de
l’intérêt à la fois économique et géostratégique représenté par les océans.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’importance de
l’exploration sous-marine apparait lorsque les premiers engins submersibles
sont mis au point, dans un contexte de militarisation technologique des espaces
marins, et alors que des travaux scientifiques permettent de mieux comprendre
les effets de la pression de l’eau sur l’organisme. Ces travaux on les devra à
Paul Bert&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn33&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref33&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn33;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[33]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
et à John Scott Haldane&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn34&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref34&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn34;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[34]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Paul
Bert, en particulier, a élucidé le problème des accidents qui surviennent lors
de la remontée rapide des scaphandriers. Dans ce cas, en effet, l’azote de
l’air dissous dans l’organisme se libère sous forme de bulles dans le sang et
peut provoquer des embolies, parfois mortelles. Le physiologiste recommande
donc de remonter lentement et graduellement, et dans le cas où un accident
surviendrait, il préconise d&#39;enfermer immédiatement le plongeur dans un caisson
et de recommencer le processus de décompression&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn35&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref35&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn35;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[35]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
De son côté, John-Scott Haldane mettra au point la première table de
décompression par paliers et, à partir de 1907, la plupart des marines
militaires adopteront ces tables qui marquent, en quelque sorte, les débuts de
la plongée moderne&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn36&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref36&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn36;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[36]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Durant presque tout le
19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle, et malgré l’existence de la photographie, technologie
déjà arrivée à maturité au cours du dernier tiers du siècle, il n’est pas
possible de se représenter le fond des mers autrement qu’à travers les dessins
et les lithographies des artistes et des savants. Les œuvres réalisées par
Ernst Haeckel&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn37&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref37&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn37;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[37]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
et Philip Henry Gosse&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn38&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref38&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn38;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[38]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
s’inscrivent dans cette tradition de représentation artistique de la vie dans
les fonds marins. La représentation des fonds marins, au-delà de vingt mètres,
ne peut se faire de manière réaliste.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;D’autre part, la
plongée elle-même est un procédé long et compliqué, réalisé par des équipes
entières comprenant, en plus du plongeur, des hommes qui manœuvrent une pompe
sur le pont d’un navire pour lui fournir de l’air en continu. Le plongeur est
donc relié à la surface par un câble d’arrivée d’air et, en outre, son
équipement personnel est lourd et encombrant, ne permettant de se déplacer que
très lentement, dans un périmètre circonscrit. Le scaphandrier lui-même est
maintenu au fond grâce à des chaussures lestées de plomb, d’où l’appellation de
«&amp;nbsp;scaphandre pieds lourds&amp;nbsp;». &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Tout au long du
19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle, les seuls progrès significatifs en matière de plongée
individuelle seront le fait des français Benoît Rouqueyrol, ingénieur des
mines, et Auguste Denayrouse, lieutenant de vaisseau. Ils avaient ouvert la
voie en brevetant un dispositif qui préfigurait déjà le scaphandre autonome du
siècle suivant. Dans un contexte différent de celui des technologies maritimes,
Rouqueyrol avait mis au point un appareil respiratoire pour les mineurs qui se
déplaçaient dans des galeries contenant des gaz dangereux. L’appareil contenait
de l’air comprimé dans un réservoir métallique, et comportait deux tuyaux pour
l’inspiration et l’expiration. Il fallait ensuite «&amp;nbsp;détendre&amp;nbsp;» l’air
contenu dans le réservoir avant qu’il puisse être inspiré. Une membrane
commandait alors l’ouverture et la fermeture du clapet permettant l’arrivée
d’air, que le mineur régulait lui-même par sa respiration. C’était déjà le
principe du «&amp;nbsp;détendeur à la demande&amp;nbsp;» qui équipe aujourd’hui les
appareils de plongée autonome. Pour Benoit Rouqueyrol, l’adaptation de cet
appareil à la plongée sous-marine consiste seulement à inventer un système de
régulateur «&amp;nbsp;qui fournisse de l’air à une pression variable avec les
mouvements du plongeur, mais toujours égale à la pression ambiante.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn39&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref39&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn39;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[39]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
Au final, la mise au point de l’appareil résout le problème posé, consistant à
fournir la quantité d’air nécessaire à la respiration et toujours à la même
pression que celle qui s’exerce sur le plongeur. Denayrouse indique toutefois
que cet appareil «&amp;nbsp;renferme en même temps une idée aussi nouvelle
qu’importante dans la pratique&amp;nbsp;: &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;l’utilisation
d’une force vitale pour déterminer un mouvement alternatif&lt;/i&gt;.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn40&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref40&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn40;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[40]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
Et il ajoute&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;C’est, je crois, la première fois qu’on a eu l’idée
d’employer un organe aussi délicat que le poumon à produire, sans aucun effet
nuisible pour la respiration, un travail utile… Cet appareil constitue donc un &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;véritable tiroir&lt;/i&gt; de distribution d’air
mis en mouvement par le poumon, et fonctionnant par suite avec la régularité de
l’organe qui préside à la vie de l’homme.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn41&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref41&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn41;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[41]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le dispositif
mis au point par les deux inventeurs n’avait cependant pas supprimé le besoin de
faire arriver l’air comprimé de la surface, pour le stocker dans un réservoir
métallique de huit litres que le plongeur portait sur le dos. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Pourquoi cet
appareil n’a pas connu le succès espéré par ses inventeurs à l’époque&amp;nbsp;?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On peut penser
que le système technique en vigueur dans le monde européo-centré&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;de la deuxième moitié du 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt;
siècle, et la configuration de ce que nous appellerions aujourd’hui le complexe
militaro-industriel, étaient concentrés sur la possibilité d’une guerre avec
les autres puissances impérialistes. Dès lors, la préférence était donnée au
développement de «&amp;nbsp;grands systèmes techniques&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn42&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref42&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn42;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[42]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;,
tels que les sous-marins, les cuirassés ou l’artillerie lourde, qui connaitront
leur apogée à l’orée de la Grande Guerre. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Si, à l’époque,
l’invention du cinématographe s’inscrit dans la continuité du système
sociotechnique constitué par la photographie et ses applications, il n’en va
pas de même pour la plongée sous-marine, dont le système consiste en une
hybridation de techniques encore mal maitrisées. D’autre part, une descente
dans les profondeurs de l’océan provoque chez l’individu des troubles dus à la
pression, bien plus importants à mesure qu’on descend plus bas. Ce problème de
la pression barométrique et ses conséquences pour l’organisme humain
représente, aujourd’hui encore, le principal danger auquel sont confrontés les
plongeurs.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il reste une question
récurrente aujourd’hui, dans un débat qui, de temps à autre fait remonter à la
surface des questions relatives à la primauté d’une invention&amp;nbsp;: à qui
revient en effet l’invention élémentaire celle qui, selon Gilbert
Simondon,&amp;nbsp; induit une transformation majeure et une discontinuité ? A Yves
Le Prieur, à Georges Commeinhes ou bien au duo Cousteau-Gagnan&amp;nbsp;? S’il
revient à ces derniers d’avoir mis au point la version définitive du scaphandre
qui allait équiper les plongeurs du monde entier, on ne saurait sous-estimer
l’apport des deux premiers, celui de Commeinhes en particulier, à qui on doit
sans doute le premier équipement de plongée autonome avec régulateur à la
demande, qui sera breveté sous l’appellation «&amp;nbsp;G.C.42&amp;nbsp;».&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraph&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;4.&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’imagination
scientifique de Jean Painlevé&amp;nbsp;: comment le cinéma raconte la science&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Jean Painlevé
(1902-1989) a réalisé une vingtaine de courts métrages sur des sujets
animaliers et de nombreuses contributions filmées qui ont servi aux travaux des
savants dans les principales disciplines scientifiques&amp;nbsp;: médecine,
biologie, physique… Son œuvre de vulgarisateur dans des domaines réputés
obscurs (les mathématiques…) s’est appuyée sur sa propre formation de
scientifique et ses liens avec l’avant-garde cinématographique et artistique de
son époque. D’autre part, ses activités institutionnelles, autant peut-être que
ses documentaires, avaient fait beaucoup pour la promotion du cinéma
scientifique en France, après la Libération. Jean Painlevé a occupé brièvement
la fonction de Directeur général du cinéma en 1944, puis qu’il fut Président de
la Fédération française des ciné-clubs, mais aussi le fondateur, en 1931, de
l’Institut de cinématographie scientifique (ICS), ou encore, en 1933, de
l’Association pour la documentation photographique et cinématographique dans
les sciences. Dans l’ensemble, cependant, on trouve peu d’études de fond
consacrées à sa production filmique. En France, l’ouvrage de Roxane Haméry&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn43&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref43&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn43;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[43]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;,&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;demeure la principale source biographique. On
peut citer aussi, en anglais, l’ouvrage collectif coordonné par Andy Masaki
Bellows, Marina McDougall et Brigitte Berg&amp;nbsp;: &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Science is Fiction. The Films of Jean Painlevé&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ces ouvrages
s’accordent cependant pour reconnaitre l’importance de la cinématographie de
Painlevé dans la construction d’une forme de représentation du discours
scientifique qui met en relation l’imagination du cinéaste et la rigueur du
discours de l’homme de science. L’utopie du cinématographe, au tournant du 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt;
siècle, est celle d’un instrument en mesure de témoigner de toutes les facettes
du réel. C’est aussi celle d’un œil mécanique, au pouvoir de vérité absolu, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;kino glaz&lt;/i&gt; ou &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;kino pravda&lt;/i&gt;, selon les termes popularisés par Dziga Vertov,
Elizaveta Svilova et Mikhail Kaufman. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Cependant Jean
Painlevé, biologiste de formation mais aussi artiste proche des milieux de
l’avant-garde littéraire et artistique de l’époque, voyait dans le cinéma
«&amp;nbsp;[un] nouvel instrument de la pensée, de la connaissance et de
l’art.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn44&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref44&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn44;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[44]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
La caméra permet de découvrir un monde insoupçonné à l’œil nu, dans lequel
agissent, se transforment et se mélangent sans cesse microbes, végétaux,
cristaux et animaux marins. Le cinéma pourrait être alors une prothèse,
permettant d’augmenter les capacités visuelles de l’observateur, et un outil
d’analyse dans le prolongement des recherches de Marey et Muybridge au siècle
précédent. Pour Germaine Dulac, influente cinéaste et théoricienne de
l’avant-garde cinématographique en France, ce révélateur du récit de la nature
doit rester dans un rapport de stricte observation de l’objet étudié&amp;nbsp;:
«&amp;nbsp;La vérité est vis-à-vis de l’instrument, dans le mouvement et son objet.
L’œuvre de l’artiste sera d’abord, en dehors de toute déformation, de se saisir
de cette vérité et de la rendre émouvante, à un degré quelconque&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn45&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref45&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn45;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[45]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&amp;nbsp;Le
cinéma scientifique, en permettant de représenter ce que l’œil nu ne peut voir,
réalise un cinéma pur, c’est-à-dire débarrassé des artifices du théâtre et de
la mise en scène.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Germaine Dulac a eu une
influence considérable sur les jeunes cinéastes de l’avant-garde des années
1920-1930. Cependant, pour Jean Painlevé, confronté très vite au scepticisme et
aux réticences de certains savants quant à l’utilisation du cinématographe, il
faut aller plus loin et élaborer une méthodologie qui prenne en compte les
besoins de rigueur de la recherche et les capacités créatives de la caméra. Il
faut en réalité dépasser le cadre de la prétendue objectivité de l’appareil,
instrument qui se contenterait d’observer le monde en témoin impartial et neutre.
L’influence de l’outil d’observation sur le milieu étudié est, précise-t-il, inévitable.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Dès les premiers films,
consacrés à des habitants des fonds marins, parmi lesquels &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La Pieuvre &lt;/i&gt;(1929), &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La Daphnie&lt;/i&gt;
(1929) ou &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le Bernard l’ermite&lt;/i&gt; (1931),
Jean Painlevé, qui filme en aquarium pour des raisons de facilité, est
confronté à la réalité de conditions de tournage qui ne peuvent manquer
d’influer sur les comportements animaux. L’éclairage artificiel, en
particulier, indispensable à l’époque en raison de la trop faible sensibilité
des émulsions utilisées au cinéma (de l’ordre de 25 à 50 ISO), utilisait des
lampes à arc ou bien des lampes à vapeur de mercure et par la suite, au début
des années 1930, des lampes au tungstène. Dans un cas comme dans l’autre, la
chaleur dégagée par ces projecteurs était très importante, sans parler de la
luminosité bien plus grande que dans les conditions de vie réelles des animaux
observés, ce que note Jean Painlevé lui-même&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;Il arrive pour
chaque animal des complications particulières&amp;nbsp;: (…) Les &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Bernard l’ermite &lt;/i&gt;qui rentrent dans leur
coquille dès qu’on illumine, se livrent à des facéties inter-coquillères
aussitôt rendus à l’obscurité. Certaines bêtes continuent&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;leurs gestes en sens contraire quand on varie
la lumière&amp;nbsp;; par exemple se mettent à descendre alors qu’elles montaient,
si on augmente ou si on diminue la lumière à laquelle elles s’étaient
habituées…&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn46&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref46&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn46;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[46]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’idée même de la
neutralité de l’observateur, de l’absence d’interaction entre l’observateur et
la chose ou le phénomène observé est alors mise en doute, comme le souligne
cette interrogation de Paul Werrie, dans un entretien avec Jean Painlevé pour &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le Vingtième Siècle&lt;/i&gt; (1932)&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;Sommes-nous
sûrs que l’œil de la pieuvre qui ne s’ouvre que dans l’obscurité, disiez-vous,
et que vous nous avez rendu visible, grâce à des lumières évidemment,
sommes-nous sûrs que ce soit bien l’œil tel qu’il est dans
l’obscurité&amp;nbsp;?&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn47&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref47&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn47;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[47]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Pour pallier aux
difficultés d’observation dans un milieu – l’aquarium – où les conditions de
vie animale, d’une part, et la visibilité permise par ce dispositif, d’autre
part, sont très différentes de l’environnement naturel, Painlevé devra
construire et utiliser une variété de dispositifs pour lui permettre de
s’adapter à ce type d’observation. En effet, tourner à travers les vitres d’un
aquarium comporte des exigences spécifiques. La caméra qui se trouve à
l’extérieur (la plupart du temps, mais on verra que Painlevé finit par
l’introduire dans l’eau) doit enregistrer des images d’un milieu dont l’indice
de réfraction est différent. Un poisson vu à travers les vitres d’un aquarium
n’est évidemment pas le même que s’il est observé hors de l’eau. Il faut donc
prendre ces distorsions en compte lorsqu’on calibre une optique de caméra. A
ces problèmes d’optique viennent s’ajouter des problèmes d’éclairage dus à
l’absorption inégale des longueurs d’ondes de la lumière dans les différents
milieux. Paul De Roubaix l’explique de la manière suivante : «&amp;nbsp;Dans l’eau
et par ciel clair, les pertes d’éclairement liées à la réflexion peuvent
atteindre des valeurs élevées lorsque les rayons lumineux frappent la surface
de l’eau sous un angle très oblique… [En prises de vues sous-marines] la
répartition spectrale de l’absorption est très inégale suivant les longueurs
d’onde de la lumière. Dans la gamme du visible, les grandes longueurs d’onde
(675 à 575 millimicrons) – autrement dit les couleurs «&amp;nbsp;chaudes&amp;nbsp;» - le
rouge, l’orangé et le jaune disparaissent pratiquement pour l’œil et les
émulsions photographiques classiques vers 10/15 m d’épaisseur d’eau (verticale
ou horizontale). Les plus courtes (le bleu, par exemple, 475 millimicrons)
pénètrent plus profondément ainsi que l’ultraviolet (325 millimicrons) qui se
situe en dehors du visible…&amp;nbsp;». Par ailleurs, continue De Roubaix, &amp;nbsp;«&amp;nbsp;L’intensité
lumineuse mesurée à 10 m de profondeur n’est plus que de 14% de celle de la
surface, de 4% à 25 m, de 0,7% à 50 m et de 0,17% à 90 m.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn48&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref48&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn48;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[48]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
De telles conditions expliquent alors, selon lui, que pour les chercheurs et
les cinéastes des premiers temps du cinéma subaquatique il ait été
incomparablement plus facile de filmer derrière les vitres d’un aquarium, ce
qui permettait de tourner sans avoir à apporter des modifications importantes
au matériel utilisé. On a vu, cependant, que le dispositif permettant de filmer
à travers les vitres d’un aquarium ne permet pas une reproduction fiable des
conditions de vie des animaux évoluant habituellement en pleine mer ou dans des
rivières. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Pour Painlevé
toutefois, la question n’est pas celle d’une reproduction «&amp;nbsp;naturaliste&amp;nbsp;»
des conditions de la vie animale, à la manière d’une caméra cachée. S’il faut
bien éviter les écarts générateurs d’erreurs dans l’interprétation des
phénomènes observés, il reste cependant un espace important qui, une fois le
regard du scientifique assuré, peut permettre de réaliser un authentique acte
de création à travers la représentation d’un phénomène. Certains de ces
phénomènes, d’ailleurs, ne deviennent «&amp;nbsp;visibles&amp;nbsp;» qu’à partir du
moment où la technique cinématographique elle-même a pu en proposer une autre
possibilité d’observation. Painlevé l’explique de la manière suivante :
«&amp;nbsp;On peut faire apparaitre ou disparaitre, rendre important ou nul, tout
ou partie d’un phénomène. A vingt-quatre images par seconde, aucun changement
dans une culture de tissu&amp;nbsp;; à une image par seconde la culture croît avec
des cellules qui ont tendance à se diviser et des inclusions s’agglomèrent puis
se désagrègent&amp;nbsp;; à une image par quinze secondes, la culture croît très
vite en emportant hors du champ d’observation des cellules passant nettement
par toutes les phases de la division et dont les inclusions sont agitées d’un
va et vient si rapide qu’on a la sensation d’un accordéon de matière vivante. A
une image par trente secondes on ne perçoit plus qu’un bouillonnement général
des cellules mais on assiste à l’élaboration d’un nouveau tissu, etc.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn49&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref49&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn49;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[49]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ce cinéma qui va
tenter, grâce à la technique, d’élaborer un discours original sur la
transmission des sciences de la nature, est aussi dans l’esprit de Painlevé un
cinéma tout entier orienté vers l’élaboration d’un acte créatif. C’est alors
que, comme l’écrit Roxane Hamery, «&amp;nbsp;des vedettes aquatiques envahissent
les salles obscures&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn50&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref50&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn50;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[50]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Il
ne s’agit plus simplement de documenter la vie de tel ou tel céphalopode,
mollusque ou crustacé. Les animaux observés deviendront eux-mêmes des acteurs,
grâce à une stratégie de récit et des décors reconstitués dans des aquariums où
il faudra se rapprocher le plus possible des conditions de vie réelles des
animaux. La machine de prise de vues est devenue l’instrument minutieux qui va
découper le réel et permettre à l’observateur d’accéder à la dimension
«&amp;nbsp;surréelle&amp;nbsp;» du monde, au sens où Breton, sans doute, l’aurait
entendue. Pour Jean Painlevé, il est devenu évident que «&amp;nbsp;le mouvement,
spécifique du cinéma, ajoute une grâce ou une puissance étonnante aux formes. Si
la comatule, sorte d’étoile de mer aux bras très déliés, est déjà ravissante à
voir au repos, sa grâce se développe lorsqu’elle se livre à la danse sur les
pointes. L’inhospitalière carapace de l’oursin avec tous ses piquants devient
majestueuse et inquiétante lorsqu’on y applique le grossissement du microscope.
Les piquants se transforment en colonnes doriques plus ou moins penchées et au
milieu de ces temples croulants on voit s’agiter des serpents, les
pédicellaires, petits organes formés par l’oursin comme les ongles sont formés
par notre substance.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn51&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref51&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn51;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[51]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Jean Painlevé n’hésite
pas à utiliser l’analogie anthropomorphique lorsqu’il situe d’emblée une partie
du décor de son film &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La Pieuvre&lt;/i&gt;
(1927) dans une maison et un lit occupés par le céphalopode.
L’anthropomorphisme, dans ce jeu de juxtaposition entre la beauté, l’étonnement
et le grotesque est ce qui va permettre de dépasser le cadre documentaire pour
montrer plus que le contenu manifeste, et transformer une observation
scientifique en poème cinématographique. En réalité, Painlevé était fasciné par
les pieuvres. Il semble que cet intérêt existait chez lui depuis l’enfance, et
était resté présent jusqu’au début de sa carrière de cinéaste. Il était
manifestement sensible à l’intelligence de l’animal et, même s’il n’est pas
tout à fait certain qu’il ait trouvé, pour une part, son inspiration dans les
descriptions qu’en fait Lautréamont dans &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Les
Chants de Maldoror &lt;/i&gt;(1869), sa proximité avec le mouvement surréaliste peut
expliquer la place qu’il donne à cet animal dans sa filmographie, puisqu’il lui
consacre deux films, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La Pieuvre&lt;/i&gt; et &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Les Amours de la Pieuvre.&lt;/i&gt; Le premier
film, qui nous montre l’animal glissant sur le rebord d’une fenêtre puis
atterrissant dans un lit, et ensuite glissant sur un arbre, puis s’enroulant
autour d’une tête de squelette sous l’eau est clairement construit à la manière
d’une séquence de film surréaliste, où la juxtaposition des formes et des
mouvements donne un sens nouveau à un contenu manifeste, ou encore fait surgir
une inquiétante étrangeté au-delà de la contingence culturelle de l’observation
scientifique. L’animal, qui est aussi le symbole le plus complet du mystère
primitif caché au fond de l’Océan, nous est montré plus loin étendu, endormi
semble-t-il, dans un recoin rocheux sous la mer. Un plan rapproché s’attarde
alors sur un œil fermé. Le corps de l’animal se soulève et retombe comme sous
l’effet d’une respiration puissante. Et puis, lentement, la pieuvre s’éveille,
ouvre un œil brièvement et retourne à sa somnolente léthargie. Un intertitre
nous apprend alors que cet œil ressemble à un œil humain. Ce moment, contenu
entre réveil et sommeil, laisse ressentir cependant toutes les forces à l’œuvre
dans le corps de l’animal&amp;nbsp;:&amp;nbsp;«&amp;nbsp;Sa respiration donne l’impression
de suivre une chorégraphie convulsive&amp;nbsp;: sa peau est recouverte
d’ondulations rythmées entre tensions et détentes, comme si ce corps tout
entier était l’instrument d’un musicien inconnu. Malgré l’absence de musique,
les oreilles semblent vibrer comme si elles entendaient un vrombissement puissant
– un spectacle digne du Dieu Poséidon lui-même.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn52&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref52&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn52;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[52]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
Cette chose – la pieuvre – décrite comme un être monstrueux, par la forme,
complètement inhumain, par ses organes, reste tout de même très proche de
l’humain «&amp;nbsp;par la tactilité même de sa surface organique.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn53&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref53&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn53;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[53]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;De fait, si
l’anthropomorphisme, manifeste dans ce film comme dans d’autres films de
Painlevé, est propre à la nature humaine, il devient selon Florence Riou
«&amp;nbsp;légitime, à ses yeux, d’en jouer clairement pour communiquer avec le
public.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn54&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref54&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn54;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[54]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
Et, au moment où, dans les années 1930, la société est déjà entrée de plein
pied dans une culture des images en mouvement, il est presque naturel qu’un
cinéaste qui cherche à rendre accessible au plus grand nombre les réalités du
monde animal utilise cette tendance propre à l’homme, qui est d’attribuer des
caractères humains à des formes et des comportements existant dans le règne
animal. Les commentaires sur la bande son viendront bientôt accompagner les
images et accentuer par un humour décalé cet aspect anthropomorphique&amp;nbsp;: un
Bernard l’ermite coiffé d’une anémone de mer est comparé à un pot de fleurs, le
pantopode est comparé à «&amp;nbsp;un paysan cultivant sa terre, vue de dos&amp;nbsp;»,
l’hippocampe, étrange poisson vertical est rapproché de la posture humaine…
Selon Ralph Rugoff, «&amp;nbsp;l’utilisation ludique d’images hybrides par Painlevé
va bien au-delà de l’ironie de cet anthropomorphisme. Son film sur le &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Pantopode&lt;/i&gt; amène le spectateur à se
demander si ces créatures à huit membres sont des crustacés ou des
araignées.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn55&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref55&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn55;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[55]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
Alors que, célébration ultime de l’hermaphrodite, dans &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Acéra ou le bal des sorcières&lt;/i&gt; on voit des scènes d’accouplements en
chaine de mollusques. Dans ces séquences, les créatures se trouvant au centre
sont identifiées à la fois comme mâle et femelle.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On remarque
aussi que, si de tels moments fonctionnent dans les films comme d’amusants
interludes venant interrompre la sécheresse des descriptions de la physiologie
animale, ils réussissent aussi à créer un effet d’étrangeté en mettant en
rapport l’apparence des animaux marins et le comportement humain. C’est ainsi
que, toujours selon Rugoff, «&amp;nbsp;les films de Painlevé se déroulent selon une
alternance de séquences séduction-répulsion et la mise en exergue d’un
caractère particulier auquel nous sommes invités à nous identifier, pour
aussitôt après montrer le caractère monstrueux et radicalement différent de
cette autre forme de vie.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn56&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref56&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn56;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[56]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’aquarium a été
pour Painlevé un lieu privilégié pour observer et enregistrer des images de la
faune sous-marine. L’originalité de son œuvre cinématographique dépasse le
cadre du film scientifique, et ce caractère a été reconnu en France par des
critiques de cinéma et des théoriciens de l’art tels qu’André Bazin, Ado Kyrou
et Henri Agel. Curieusement, comme le remarque Paul De Roubaix, Jean Painlevé
n’a réalisé pratiquement aucun film en plongée. Il en connaissait pourtant les
techniques, bien avant le commandant Cousteau, grâce en particulier au
scaphandre autonome inventé par le capitaine de Corvette Yves Le Prieur,
breveté en 1926. Il avait même fondé en juillet 1935, toujours avec Le Prieur,
le «&amp;nbsp;Club des scaphandres et de la vie sous l’eau&amp;nbsp;», plus connu sous
le nom de «&amp;nbsp;Club des sous-l’eau&amp;nbsp;», et ils firent des démonstrations
dans une cuve au Salon nautique du Cours-de-la-Reine en avril 1935, puis à
l’aquarium du Trocadéro. En 1937, un des clous de l’Exposition universelle sera
«&amp;nbsp;l’Aquarium humain&amp;nbsp;» du Trocadéro, une vaste cuve circulaire où
évoluent les scaphandriers à casque de Rouqeyrol et Denayrouze &lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;et les plongeurs autonomes de Le Prieur&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn57&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref57&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn57;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[57]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
D’autre part, Le Prieur avait même construit un caisson étanche pour caméra
35mm, et une photographie célèbre montre d’ailleurs Painlevé muni d’une
bouteille de plongée et portant la caméra dans son caisson étanche. Williamson
demeure donc, à l’époque, le seul véritable précurseur du cinéma subaquatique.
Une situation qui va changer avec la 2&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; Guerre Mondiale et le
développement stratégique des unités de nageurs de combat et, dans le même
temps, les premières expériences de plongée en scaphandre autonome du duo
Cousteau et Gagnan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraph&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 53.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;5.&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les
débuts du cinéma sous la mer&amp;nbsp;: une aventure technologique &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’invention du
cinématographe ouvre de nouvelles perspectives en permettant au public
d’assister au spectacle du monde. La vision du réel tel qu’il apparait aux
spectateurs n’est plus la représentation imaginée des panoramas et des
dioramas. Elle apporte en plus l’image du monde dans la salle de spectacle,
«&amp;nbsp;une image sur laquelle ne pèserait pas l’hypothèque de la liberté
d’interprétation de l’artiste&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn58&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref58&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn58;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[58]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;,
et elle efface les représentations fantasmagoriques qui avaient encore cours au
début du siècle. L’effet de réel est la conséquence de la perception du
mouvement induite par la projection de 18 ou 24 photogrammes à la seconde.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’ouverture du
dispositif cinématographique au public montre qu’il ne s’agit plus seulement
d’une machine permettant l’étude de certains phénomènes par le monde
scientifique. Cette nouvelle manière de reproduire le réel permet au cinéma de
devenir très rapidement le rapporteur des explorations d’une nouvelle sorte
d’aventuriers. Le cinéma sous la mer apparait, dès ses origines, comme une
nouvelle manière de documenter les fonds marins et aussi comme le cadre à
l’intérieur duquel on raconte des histoires d’un autre temps, hors du monde
civilisé et de la réalité historique.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les équipements
utilisés, inventés pour les prises de vues et la plongée en scaphandre autonome
procèdent autant de la démarche d’inventeurs isolés ou travaillant en petits
groupes, que des applications de la recherche institutionnelle. Cette dualité
accompagne toute l’histoire moderne de la plongée et du cinéma subaquatique. Les
inventions ne sont, la plupart du temps, rien d’autre que des innovations,
c’est-à-dire des perfectionnements, parfois importants mais qui ne constituent
pas une rupture par rapport à l’invention originale.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;De John Ernest
Williamson à Jacques-Yves Cousteau, la représentation filmique du monde
sous-marin traverse plusieurs phases&amp;nbsp;: elle passe de la ‘cloche du
plongeur’ revisitée par Williamson au scaphandre autonome et à la caméra
mobile, encastrée dans un caisson étanche, de Cousteau – Hans Hass utilisera
rapidement les mêmes équipements que Cousteau, et Dimitri Rebikoff leur
apportera des perfectionnements et inventera, en particulier, des machines
permettant de se déplacer au fond des mers&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn59&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref59&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn59;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[59]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les séquences et les
photographies prises sous la mer, à travers les hublots de bathyscaphes, comme
le feront William Beebe et Otis Barton lors de leurs&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;plongées avec la &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Bathysphère&lt;/i&gt;, servaient plus de témoignages qu’à la réalisation de
films documentaires. Les caméras utilisées étaient donc, de manière relative, à
l’abri de l’eau, tout comme ce fut le cas d’ailleurs pour celles de John Ernest
Williamson dans sa &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Photosphère&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les caméras utilisées à
l’époque nécessiteraient à elles seules des développements qui dépassent assez
largement le cadre de cet exposé. Cependant, l’intérêt du public pour les
récits mêlant l’exotisme à l’aventure, une constante au début du siècle, commandait
la recherche de nouveaux sujets qui ne soient plus seulement des fictions
tournées en studio. A partir des années 1920, les documentaires tournés en
pleine nature étaient devenus un genre en vogue et les équipements utilisés
dans les studios apparaissaient, de manière évidente, peu adaptés à un tel
travail. Ici émerge la figure de Carl E. Akeley, conservateur de l’American
Museum of Natural History, qui en plus d’être un naturaliste de renom était
aussi un inventeur. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Akeley était parti en
Afrique pour tourner des films montrant des animaux sauvages en pleine nature.
Malgré le fait qu’il emmenait avec lui les meilleurs équipements disponibles
sur le marché, le résultat ne fut pas à la hauteur de ses espérances. De retour
aux Etats-Unis, il s’attelle à la conception d’une caméra aux caractéristiques
révolutionnaires pour l’époque. Celle-ci, simplement dénommée ‘Akeley’, est
entièrement métallique et recouverte d’émail cristallin noir. Elle emporte deux
magasins de 65 mètres, avec un pignon dans chaque magasin, ce qui rend leur
chargement très facile. Il est possible alors de changer de magasin en dix
secondes, ce qui est impossible avec n’importe quelle autre caméra. Chaque
viseur est généralement apparié avec son objectif et l’ensemble, magasin et
trépied compris ne pèse que 20 kilos, un record pour l’époque&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn60&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref60&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn60;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[60]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La caméra d’Akeley
devint très rapidement l’équipement standard pour tourner des films en pleine
nature et, par la suite, on vit apparaitre sur le marché d’autres caméras, plus
légères et maniables, telle l’&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Eyemo&lt;/i&gt;
de Bell &amp;amp; Howell. Cette dernière comportait une bobine fixe de 30 mètres,
rechargeable en plein jour. Le ressort était remonté par un moteur électrique,
son poids total n’excédait pas 3,5 kilogrammes (sans l’objectif) ce qui en
faisait une des premières caméras portables à pellicule 35mm. Une variante de
cette caméra pouvait filmer à 12, 16 ou 24 images par seconde. Compte tenu de
sa maniabilité, elle sera adaptée et utilisée enfermée dans un caisson PVC pour
le tournage du &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Monde du Silence&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Dès les années 1930, en
effet, avaient lieu des expériences pour adapter des équipements de prise de
vues à la plongée sous-marine. Yves Le Prieur avait réussi à installer une
caméra dans un caisson étanche, sans qu’il soit possible, cependant, de
commander les principales opérations de mise au point ou de diaphragme. De son
côté, la Marine américaine s’était attaquée au problème et leur Centre de
cinématographie réussit, en 1949, à tourner des films jusqu’à une profondeur de
dix-sept mètres environ au moyen d’une caméra enfermée dans un caisson blindé,
relié par des câbles à un navire en surface. Mais, là encore, aucune commande
de réglage n’était accessible à l’opérateur, et toutes les commandes étaient
effectuées depuis la surface&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;une fois sa visée opérée, le
plongeur signalait, en tirant sur un cordage, qu’il y avait lieu de mettre le
moteur en marche. Un autre signal commandait d’interrompre le déroulement du
film. Une sorte de grue permettait, à la rigueur, des effets de travellings
d’ailleurs exclusivement verticaux.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn61&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref61&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn61;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[61]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;A la même époque, en
France, André Coutant et Jacques Mathot mettaient au point une version
submersible de leur Caméflex 16-35mm qu’ils baptisaient &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Aquaflex. &lt;/i&gt;Cette caméra était constituée par un caisson étanche
comprenant deux parties&amp;nbsp;: l’une, à l’avant, renfermant la caméra avec ses
commandes et les accumulateurs&amp;nbsp;; l’autre, à l’arrière, qui enveloppe le
chargeur automatique. Elle comportait en outre un stabilisateur de 1,20 m
d’envergure et une dérive, ce qui lui donnait le profil assez caractéristique
d’un petit avion. La caméra était dotée d’une visée reflex, et les commandes de
l’objectif étaient accessibles à l’opérateur grâce à des boutons et une manette
de marche/arrêt se trouvant à proximité de la poignée de maintien de l’appareil.
Reste la question de la pression barométrique. André Coutant décrit de la
manière suivante la solution apportée&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;Pour contrebalancer la
pression de l’eau sans risques de fuites, une bouteille d’air comprimé, chargée
à 150 kg/cm² et reliée à un détendeur, assure automatiquement une pression
intérieure qui excède de 150 g environ la pression ambiante, quelle que soit la
profondeur d’utilisation. L’équilibre des pressions, lors de la remontée, se
rétablit automatiquement grâce à une soupape de décompression.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn62&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref62&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn62;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[62]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Cette caméra fut
utilisée pour la première fois pour réaliser les séquences sous-marines de &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;L’Epave&lt;/i&gt; (1949), réalisé par Willy
Rozier, l’un des tous premiers films de «&amp;nbsp;fiction sous-marine&amp;nbsp;».&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpLast&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;6.&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le
cinéma sous la mer et son temps&amp;nbsp;: la recherche de la nouvelle frontière et
l’aventure comme style de vie&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le cinéma sous
la mer n’est pas un genre à part. Il s’inscrit en fait dans la vogue
croissante, depuis le début du siècle, des films de nature et d’exploration, un
genre hybride qui cherche à s’émanciper du cadre savant pour des raisons
commerciales, esthétiques ou de style de vie&amp;nbsp;; un style qui s’apparente
aussi à une esthétisation du personnage de l’explorateur qui représente, d’une
certaine manière, le rejet des conventions de la vie bourgeoise autant que le
désir de repousser les frontières d’un monde devenu trop étroit. C’est un
cinéma qui veut représenter l’aventure et qui trouve dans la nature un
réservoir inépuisable d’histoires. Mais c’est surtout une manière de se
raconter soi-même, ce qui apparait tant dans les premiers films de John Ernest
Williamson que dans ceux, plus tard, de Hass et Cousteau. Tout ceci participe,
en somme, à la création d’une utopie maritime au 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle&amp;nbsp;:
celle qui conduit aventuriers et savants vers la quête du nouveau monde des
profondeurs.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il faut sans doute
revenir à la manière dont s’est constitué le petit groupe de plongeurs, qui
avec le concours de la figure tutélaire de Cousteau a pu produire cette
histoire des «&amp;nbsp;nouveaux explorateurs&amp;nbsp;» du monde des abysses. Il est
certain que Cousteau lui-même a bénéficié, ou à su s’emparer, d’une idée encore
très présente à l’époque, qui voit selon George Basalla, cité par David&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;Edgerton, émerger «&amp;nbsp;l’inventeur comme
héros, et particulièrement comme héros national.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn63&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref63&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn63;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[63]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
Cet «&amp;nbsp;inventeur héroïque&amp;nbsp;», dont le personnage s’inscrit dans la
conscience moderne depuis le milieu du siècle précédent, a joué un rôle non
négligeable dans la diffusion des innovations liées à l’exploration puis à la
représentation du monde sous-marin.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ce n’est certainement
pas le seul élément à prendre en compte dans le développement de
l’extraordinaire popularité que vont connaitre «&amp;nbsp;Le Commandant&amp;nbsp;» et
ses compagnons de la première heure.&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;Il
y a aussi, tout autant, l’attrait de l’époque pour les récits d’aventure, les
voyages et les débuts du tourisme de masse, avec en particulier la création des
premiers clubs de plongée&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn64&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref64&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn64;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[64]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;C’est aussi l’histoire
d’une époque&amp;nbsp;: les représentations de l’indigène habitant les rivages
marins et de ses rapports avec la mer, sont tributaires de l’épopée coloniale
des puissances occidentales. Au 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle, les expéditions
océanographiques ont popularisé auprès du public européen l’idée d’un monde
sous-marin imaginé comme espace intemporel, vierge de tout contact avec les
humains et la civilisation, ouvert à la colonisation sans que cela suscite une
opposition. Cette vision prend place dans une conception plus générale des
tropiques, définies comme une invention européenne ayant produit un système de
significations englobant imaginaire et fantasmes coloniaux de l’époque. Selon
Franziska Torma, c’est à travers le concept de «&amp;nbsp;tropicalité&amp;nbsp;» que
l’on peut le mieux rendre compte de la manière dont les voyageurs et les savants
occidentaux ont pu assoir leur perception de ces nouvelles contrées à
explorer&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;soit ils conçoivent l’environnement comme paradis, lieu
de l’innocence et de la simplicité que l’Occident a perdu, soit comme un espace
fertile mais encore primitif qui n’attend que la civilisation et la
modernisation portées par l’Occident.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn65&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref65&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn65;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[65]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
Hans Hass et Jacques-Yves Cousteau, agents parmi les plus en vue de
l’océanographie au 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle, sont aussi des personnages dont les
expéditions, à partir des années 1940, peuvent être considérées comme une étape
dans la transition de l’âge colonial à l’âge postcolonial.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;De Williamson et Beebe
à Hass et Cousteau, la quête des profondeurs s’apparente au spectacle d’un
monde hors du temps, d’un espace au sein duquel sont absentes les notions de
pouvoir et de hiérarchie constitutives de l’ordre social. Le récit de la
science s’apparente alors à une quête personnelle et à sa représentation, d’où
n’est pas absente la «&amp;nbsp;gestion du sensationnel&amp;nbsp;» selon Gary Kroll&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn66&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref66&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn66;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[66]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’utilisation des médias
audiovisuels pour diffuser leurs aventures est une constante dès lors que la
radio (Beebe) puis la télévision (Cousteau) le permettent.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’appétit du public
pour ces récits est une constante tout au long du 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle. En
France on se passionnera pour les voyages en solitaire d’Alain Gerbault et
bientôt aussi pour les explorations sous-marines de Bernard Gorsky et de ses
compagnons du &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Moana&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On ne peut cependant
séparer le besoin de publicité manifesté par ces nouveaux explorateurs de la
nécessité de disposer d’importantes sources de financement. Le père de John
Ernest Williamson, entrepreneur avisé, est derrière l’aventure de son fils.
Otis Barton, héritier d’une fortune considérable se tient aux côtés de William
Beebe, auquel il apporte toutefois ses connaissances d’ingénieur qui permettent
la conception de la ‘Bathysphere’. Cousteau obtiendra l’aide d’un homme
d’affaires, Thomas Loel Guinness, qui rachète un ancien dragueur de mines, la C&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;alypso&lt;/i&gt;, qu’il met à sa disposition&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn67&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref67&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn67;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[67]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Cette époque est aussi
celle au cours de laquelle les menaces qui pèsent sur l’environnement
apparaissent dans les écrits d’intellectuels et de scientifiques. En 1951
Rachel Carson publie &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;The Sea Around Us&lt;/i&gt;,
qui préfigure sans doute son ouvrage le plus célèbre, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Silent Spring&lt;/i&gt; (1962). L’écologie comme nouvelle frontière est la
nouvelle utopie, qui change les représentations des aventures maritimes des
plongeurs et des cinéastes à travers l’inflexion d’un discours qui, jusque-là
était surtout consacré à la diffusion d’une version idéalisée de leurs
expéditions.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le passage progressif,
à partir des années 1960, du film d’aventures marines au film environnemental
marque aussi le début de la pénétration du discours écologiste dans les récits
des explorateurs et des cinéastes de la mer. Cette évolution de la représentation
de la nature en général a donné lieu à de nombreux travaux de recherche dans le
champ de l’histoire du cinéma documentaire en général et du film de science. On
notera que les principales références proviennent du monde anglo-saxon, où la
thématique des rapports entre cinéma et écologie est très présente&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn68&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref68&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn68;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[68]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;CONCLUSION&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;D’une manière générale
c’est l’historiographie du cinéma subaquatique qui reste à faire. L’un des
apports importants de ce genre cinématographique, qui consiste pour l’essentiel
à raconter l’exploration du monde sous-marin et à fournir une représentation de
ses habitants, sera la modification progressive du rapport aux animaux marins
dans la conscience des spectateurs des classes moyennes en Occident. D’une
certaine manière, les aventures de Hass et Cousteau et de leurs épigones vont
donner une représentation idéalisée de ce qui peut paraitre comme l’émergence
d’une conscience environnementale au 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle. C’est ainsi que
les personnages du chasseur sous-marin et de l’aventurier cèdent peu à peu la
place à celui de l’explorateur, conscient de l’importance de la préservation de
l’environnement et dont les films vont désormais traduire cette prise de
conscience. C’est une inflexion majeure, qui relègue désormais à un rôle
subsidiaire la question de l’aventure en solitaire dans un monde globalisé, où
priment les enjeux de sauvegarde de la biodiversité et dont le cinéma devrait
pouvoir rendre compte.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;C’est aussi une époque
au cours de laquelle la télévision jouera un rôle de plus en plus important, en
aidant à créer des stéréotypes de poissons et de mammifères marins aptes à
capter l’attention du public et à susciter son empathie. Ce sera le cas du
dauphin puis plus tard de son proche cousin l’orque, vedette de la franchise
‘Willy’ au cours des années 1990&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn69&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref69&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn69;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[69]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Deux éléments
importants dans cette évolution&amp;nbsp;: le développement du cinéma comme outil
pour l’enseignement et la recherche scientifique coïncide avec la montée du
système hollywoodien du ‘&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;mass
entertainment’&lt;/i&gt; d’une part, et une représentation
«&amp;nbsp;anthropomorphisée&amp;nbsp;» du monde animal, d’autre part. Les
documentaires animaliers produits par Disney, à partir de la fin des années
1940, vont présenter au public américain d’abord, une version sentimentale et
expurgée des scènes les plus difficiles à montrer à une époque, celle de
l’immédiat après-guerre, au cours de laquelle le spectacle de la violence et de
la mort paraissent insupportables&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn70&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref70&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn70;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[70]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div id=&quot;ftn1&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref1&quot; name=&quot;_ftn1&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn1;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Frédérique
Calcagno-Tristant, &lt;i&gt;Le film animalier: rhétoriques d’un genre du film
scientifique, 1950-2000&lt;/i&gt; (L&#39;Harmattan Paris, 2005)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;,&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;p. 96.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn2&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref2&quot; name=&quot;_ftn2&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn2;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Helen
M. Rozwadowski, «&amp;nbsp;From Danger Zone to World of Wonder: The 1950s
Transformation of the Ocean’s Depths&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i&gt;Interdisciplinary Journal of
Maritime Studies&lt;/i&gt; 4, n&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; 1 (24 septembre 2013).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn3&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref3&quot; name=&quot;_ftn3&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn3;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Thierry
Claerr et al., &lt;i&gt;La mer, terreur et fascination:&lt;/i&gt;, éd. par Alain Corbin et
Hélène Richard (Paris, France: Bibliothèque nationale de France : Seuil, 2004)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;, p.12&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn4&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref4&quot; name=&quot;_ftn4&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn4;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[4]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; A. Corbin, op. cit. p.13&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn5&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref5&quot; name=&quot;_ftn5&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn5;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[5]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Le terme est utilisé par &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Eugène
Trutat, &lt;i&gt;La photographie animée&lt;/i&gt; (Paris, France: Gauthier-Villars,
imprimeur-libraire, éditeur de la Bibliothèque photographique, 1899).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn6&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref6&quot; name=&quot;_ftn6&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn6;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[6]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; René Huyghes, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Formes et forces&lt;/i&gt;, Flammarion, 1971, p.
130-131.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn7&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref7&quot; name=&quot;_ftn7&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn7;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[7]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Laurent Mannoni, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le grand art de la lumière et de l’ombre.
Archéologie du cinéma&lt;/i&gt;, Nathan, 1995, p. 169.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn8&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref8&quot; name=&quot;_ftn8&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn8;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[8]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; T. W. Naylor, dans &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;The Mechanic’s magazine&lt;/i&gt; (1843), cité par
Laurent Mannoni, op. cit. p. 211.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn9&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref9&quot; name=&quot;_ftn9&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn9;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[9]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Monique Sicard, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La Fabrique du regard&lt;/i&gt;, Odile Jacob,
1998, p. 98.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn10&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref10&quot; name=&quot;_ftn10&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn10;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[10]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Pour reprendre le terme utilisé
par &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Frédérique
Calcagno-Tristant, &lt;i&gt;Le film animalier: rhétoriques d’un genre du film
scientifique, 1950-2000&lt;/i&gt; (L&#39;Harmattan Paris, 2005).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn11&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref11&quot; name=&quot;_ftn11&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn11;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[11]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;Voir&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;Nicole &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Starosielski,
«&amp;nbsp;&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Beyond Fluidity : a cultural
history of cinema underwater&amp;nbsp;&lt;/i&gt;», in Ecocinema, Theory and Practice, Ed.
S. Rust, S. Monani, S. Cubitt (2013) p. 149-168.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn12&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref12&quot; name=&quot;_ftn12&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn12;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[12]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Jean
Griffet, &lt;i&gt;Aventures marines: images et pratiques&lt;/i&gt; (Paris, France:
L’Harmattan, 1995).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; p.8.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn13&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref13&quot; name=&quot;_ftn13&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn13;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[13]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Gilbert
Simondon, &lt;i&gt;L’invention dans les techniques: cours et conférences&lt;/i&gt;, éd. par
Jean-Yves Chateau (Paris, France: Éditions du Seuil, 2005).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; p.31.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn14&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref14&quot; name=&quot;_ftn14&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn14;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[14]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Lucien
Febvre, «&amp;nbsp;Annales d’histoire économique et sociale : revue trimestrielle /
directeurs : Marc Bloch, Lucien Febvre&amp;nbsp;», n°36, Gallica, 1935.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; p.531-532.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn15&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref15&quot; name=&quot;_ftn15&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn15;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[15]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Voir &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Helen
M. Rozwadowski, «&amp;nbsp;Fathoming the Ocean — Helen M. Rozwadowski | Harvard
University Press&amp;nbsp;», (2005) p.40.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn16&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref16&quot; name=&quot;_ftn16&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn16;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[16]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Rozwadowski, p.41.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn17&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref17&quot; name=&quot;_ftn17&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn17;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[17]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Eugène
Trutat, &lt;i&gt;La photographie animée&lt;/i&gt; , préface par Etienne-Jules Marey (Paris,
France: Gauthier-Villars, imprimeur-libraire, éditeur de la Bibliothèque
photographique, 1899) p.VII.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn18&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref18&quot; name=&quot;_ftn18&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn18;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[18]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cnum.cnam.fr/CGI/redir.cgi?4KY28.101&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: windowtext; font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-fareast-language: FR; padding: 0cm; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;&quot;&gt;La Nature - 1921 : Quarante-neuvième
année, deuxième semestre : n. 2492-2516 (1921)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-fareast-language: FR;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;http://cnum.cnam.fr/CGI/sresrech.cgi?4KY28.101/348&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: windowtext; font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-fareast-language: FR; padding: 0cm; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;&quot;&gt;La&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: windowtext; font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-fareast-language: FR; padding: 0cm; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #444444; font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-fareast-language: FR; padding: 0cm; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;&quot;&gt;photographie&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #444444; font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-fareast-language: FR; padding: 0cm; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;b&gt;&lt;i&gt;sous&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/b&gt;-&lt;b&gt;&lt;i&gt;marine&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&amp;nbsp;(E.
COUSTET)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn19&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref19&quot; name=&quot;_ftn19&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn19;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[19]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Les travaux de Francis Ward ont
été relatés dans son livre&amp;nbsp;: &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Marvels
of fish life as revealed by the camera&lt;/i&gt;, Cassell and Co, London, 1912.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn20&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref20&quot; name=&quot;_ftn20&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn20;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[20]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Louis Boutan, «&amp;nbsp;Mémoire sur
la photographie sous-marine&amp;nbsp;». &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Archives
de Zoologie Expérimentale et Généra&lt;/i&gt;le, t. 1, n°1, p.281-332. 1893.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn21&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref21&quot; name=&quot;_ftn21&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn21;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[21]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Op. cit., p.284.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn22&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref22&quot; name=&quot;_ftn22&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn22;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[22]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Louis Boutan, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La Photographie sous-marine et les progrès
de la photographie&lt;/i&gt;, Schleicher Paris, 1900, p. 163.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn23&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref23&quot; name=&quot;_ftn23&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn23;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[23]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Ibid p. 164.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn24&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref24&quot; name=&quot;_ftn24&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn24;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[24]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Monique
Sicard, &lt;i&gt;La fabrique du regard: images de science et appareils de vision
(XVe-XXe siècle)&lt;/i&gt; (Paris, France: Éditions Odile Jacob, DL 1998, 1998).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; p.163&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn25&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref25&quot; name=&quot;_ftn25&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn25;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[25]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Sicard, op. cit. p.164&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn26&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref26&quot; name=&quot;_ftn26&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn26;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[26]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Trutat
et Marey, &lt;i&gt;La photographie animée&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; p.31&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn27&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref27&quot; name=&quot;_ftn27&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn27;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[27]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Peter Soppelsa, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Locomotion in water&lt;/i&gt;, sur &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.historyoftechnology.org/&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;http://www.historyoftechnology.org/&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn28&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref28&quot; name=&quot;_ftn28&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn28;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[28]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; François Dagognet, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Etienne-Jules Marey&amp;nbsp;: la passion de la
trace&lt;/i&gt;, Hazan, Paris, 1987.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn29&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref29&quot; name=&quot;_ftn29&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn29;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[29]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Laurent Mannoni, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le grand art de la lumière et de l’ombre&lt;/i&gt;,
Nathan, 1995.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn30&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref30&quot; name=&quot;_ftn30&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn30;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[30]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Etienne-Jules Marey, brevet n°
208&amp;nbsp;617, 3 octobre 1890, «&amp;nbsp;pour un appareil
photochronographique&amp;nbsp;».&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn31&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref31&quot; name=&quot;_ftn31&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn31;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[31]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Julia
Blagny, Anne Bramard-Blagny, et Josette Ueberschlag, &lt;i&gt;Etienne-Jules Marey -
La science au réveil des arts&lt;/i&gt;, s.&amp;nbsp;d., http://www.universcience.tv/video-etienne-jules-marey-la-science-au-reveil-des-arts-7237.html?source=facebook.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn32&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref32&quot; name=&quot;_ftn32&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn32;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[32]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mnhn.fr/fr/explorez/lieux/coelacanthes-afrique-sud&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;http://www.mnhn.fr/fr/explorez/lieux/coelacanthes-afrique-sud&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn33&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref33&quot; name=&quot;_ftn33&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn33;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[33]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Paul Bert, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La pression barométrique&amp;nbsp;: recherches de physiologie expérimentale&lt;/i&gt;,
Masson, Paris, 1878.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn34&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref34&quot; name=&quot;_ftn34&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn34;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[34]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; John Scott Haldane, «&amp;nbsp;The
Prevention of Compressed-air Illness&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;The Journal of Hygiene&lt;/i&gt;, vol. 8, 1908.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn35&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref35&quot; name=&quot;_ftn35&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn35;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[35]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; On assiste à un tel évènement
(rejoué pour la caméra) dans &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le Monde du silence&lt;/i&gt;,
réalisé par Louis Malle et Jacques-Yves Cousteau (1956).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn36&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref36&quot; name=&quot;_ftn36&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn36;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[36]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Pour de plus amples
développements on pourra se reporter à&amp;nbsp;: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Claude
Riffaud, &lt;i&gt;La grande aventure des hommes sous la mer: du temps d’Aristote à
l’âge nucléaire&lt;/i&gt; (Paris, France: A. Michel, 1988).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn37&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref37&quot; name=&quot;_ftn37&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn37;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[37]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Ernst
Haeckel et Olaf Breidbach, &lt;i&gt;Art forms from the ocean: the radiolarian atlas
of 1862&lt;/i&gt; (Munich, Allemagne, 2005).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn38&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref38&quot; name=&quot;_ftn38&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn38;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[38]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Philip
Henry Gosse, &lt;i&gt;The aquarium: an unveiling of the wonders of the deep sea.&lt;/i&gt;,
2d ed., rev. and enl. (London, J. Van Voorst, 1856).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn39&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref39&quot; name=&quot;_ftn39&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn39;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[39]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Auguste Denayrouse, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Benoit
Rouqueyrol, &lt;i&gt;Note sur l’appareil plongeur Rouquayrol à air comprimé, et sur
son emploi dans la marine / par A. Denayrouse,...&lt;/i&gt; (Paris: Arthus Bertrand,
1865).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; p.10&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn40&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref40&quot; name=&quot;_ftn40&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn40;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[40]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Op. cit., p.16&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn41&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref41&quot; name=&quot;_ftn41&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn41;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[41]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Ibid&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn42&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref42&quot; name=&quot;_ftn42&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn42;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[42]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Selon la définition de Thomas P.
Hughes, «&amp;nbsp;The Evolution of&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;Large
Technical Systems&amp;nbsp;» in&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Wiebe
E. Bijker, Thomas Parke Hughes, et Trevor J. Pinch, éd., &lt;i&gt;The social
construction of technological systems: new directions in the sociology and
history of technology&lt;/i&gt; (Cambridge, Mass., Etats-Unis d’Amérique: MIT Press,
2012).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn43&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref43&quot; name=&quot;_ftn43&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn43;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[43]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Roxane Haméry, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Jean Painlevé&amp;nbsp;: le cinéma au cœur de la
vie&lt;/i&gt;, PUR , 2009.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn44&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref44&quot; name=&quot;_ftn44&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn44;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[44]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Germaine Dulac, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le sens du cinéma&lt;/i&gt;, p. 169-170, dans
Prosper Hillairet (textes réunis par), 1994, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Ecrits sur le cinéma (1919-1937)&lt;/i&gt;, Paris expérimental.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn45&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref45&quot; name=&quot;_ftn45&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn45;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[45]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;Germaine Dulac, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le sens du cinéma&lt;/i&gt;, p. 169-170, dans
Prosper Hillairet (textes réunis par), 1994, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Ecrits sur le cinéma (1919-1937)&lt;/i&gt;, Paris expérimental.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn46&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref46&quot; name=&quot;_ftn46&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn46;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[46]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Jean Painlevé,&amp;nbsp; «&amp;nbsp;Les
Pieds dans l’eau&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Voilà&lt;/i&gt;, 1935,
215&amp;nbsp;: 5.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn47&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref47&quot; name=&quot;_ftn47&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn47;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[47]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Cité par Florence Riou&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;, Jean Painlevé&amp;nbsp;: de la science à la
fiction scientifique&lt;/i&gt;, Conserveries mémorielles, #6, 2009.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn48&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref48&quot; name=&quot;_ftn48&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn48;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[48]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Paul De Roubaix, «&amp;nbsp;Le
milieu subaquatique et le cinéma scientifique français&amp;nbsp;», dans &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le Cinéma et la Science&lt;/i&gt;, coordonné par
Alexis Martinet, CNRS Editions, 1994, p. 148-165.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn49&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref49&quot; name=&quot;_ftn49&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn49;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[49]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Jean Painlevé, «&amp;nbsp;La
Cinématographie scientifique en France&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le Mois&lt;/i&gt;, 10 mai 1935.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn50&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref50&quot; name=&quot;_ftn50&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn50;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[50]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Roxane
Hamery, &lt;i&gt;Jean Painlevé: le cinéma au cœur de la vie&lt;/i&gt; (Rennes, France:
Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2008)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;, p.64.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn51&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref51&quot; name=&quot;_ftn51&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn51;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[51]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Jean Painlevé, «&amp;nbsp;Formes et
mouvements dans le documentaire&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Les
Documents cinématographiques&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn52&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref52&quot; name=&quot;_ftn52&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn52;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[52]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Natascha Adamowsky&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;, The Mysterious Science of the Sea,
1775-1943&lt;/i&gt;, Routledge, 2015, p. 96.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn53&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref53&quot; name=&quot;_ftn53&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn53;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[53]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #222222; font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt;&quot;&gt;Frédérique
CalcagnoTristant,« Jean Painlevé et le cinéma animalier », &lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #222222; font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE;&quot;&gt;Communication&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #222222; font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt;&quot;&gt;, Vol.24/1 | 2005, 117149.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn54&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref54&quot; name=&quot;_ftn54&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn54;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[54]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; F. Riou, op. cit. #6 2009.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn55&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref55&quot; name=&quot;_ftn55&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn55;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[55]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Ralph Rugoff, «&amp;nbsp;Fluid
Mechanics&amp;nbsp;» dans&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt; Science is
Fiction&amp;nbsp;: the films of Jean Painlevé&lt;/i&gt;, Ed. A. Masaki Bellows et M.
McDougall, MIT Press 2000, p. 50.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn56&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref56&quot; name=&quot;_ftn56&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn56;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[56]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Ibid., p. 51.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn57&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref57&quot; name=&quot;_ftn57&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn57;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[57]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; D’après la contribution de Paul
De Roubaix dans &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le Cinéma et la Science&lt;/i&gt;,
ouvrage coordonné par A. Martinet, CNRS Ed., 1994, p. 148-165.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn58&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref58&quot; name=&quot;_ftn58&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn58;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[58]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Bazin, &lt;i&gt;Qu’est-ce
que le cinéma ?&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; «&amp;nbsp;Le mythe du cinéma total&amp;nbsp;», p.23.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn59&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref59&quot; name=&quot;_ftn59&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn59;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[59]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Dimitri
Rebikoff, &lt;i&gt;L’ Aviation sous-marine&lt;/i&gt; (Paris, France: Flammarion, 1962).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn60&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref60&quot; name=&quot;_ftn60&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn60;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[60]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Ces développements proviennent
principalement de l’ouvrage de &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Carl
Louis Gregory, &lt;i&gt;MOTION PICTURE PHOTOGRAPHY; Edited by Herbert C. McKay &lt;/i&gt;(Falk
Publishing Co., 1927).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn61&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref61&quot; name=&quot;_ftn61&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn61;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[61]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; André Coutant : «&amp;nbsp;Une vraie
caméra, mais submersible&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Science
et Vie&lt;/i&gt;, n°393, Juin 1950&amp;nbsp;p.363.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn62&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref62&quot; name=&quot;_ftn62&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn62;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[62]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Coutant, op. cit., p.365.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn63&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref63&quot; name=&quot;_ftn63&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn63;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[63]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;David
Edgerton et Dominique Pestre, «&amp;nbsp;De l’innovation aux usages: Dix thèses
éclectiques sur l’histoire des techniques&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i&gt;Annales. Histoire,
Sciences Sociales&lt;/i&gt; 53, n&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; 4/5 (1998): 815‑37.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn64&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref64&quot; name=&quot;_ftn64&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn64;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[64]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Vianney
Mascret, «&amp;nbsp;L’aventure sous-marine: Histoire de la plongée sous-marine de
loisir en scaphandre autonome en France (1865-1985)&amp;nbsp;» (Thèse de doctorat,
Université Claude Bernard, 2010).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Deuxième partie&amp;nbsp;: La
naissance des loisirs sous-marins, p.94.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn65&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref65&quot; name=&quot;_ftn65&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn65;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[65]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Franziska
Torma, «&amp;nbsp;Explorer les sept mers, Probing the seven seas. Towards an
oceanic and postcolonial concept of ‘tropicality’», &lt;i&gt;Revue d’anthropologie
des connaissances&lt;/i&gt; 6, n° 3, n&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; 3 (7 décembre 2012).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn66&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref66&quot; name=&quot;_ftn66&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn66;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[66]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Gary
Kroll, &lt;i&gt;America’s Ocean Wilderness. A cultural history of twentieth-century
exploration&lt;/i&gt;, University Press of Kansas, 2008.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn67&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref67&quot; name=&quot;_ftn67&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn67;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[67]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Franck
Machu, &lt;i&gt;Un cinéaste nommé Cousteau: une œuvre dans le siècle&lt;/i&gt; (Monaco,
Monaco: Éd. du Rocher, 2011).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; p.59. La &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Calypso&lt;/i&gt; est un ancien dragueur de mines de 42 mètres, construit en
1942 et converti en navire océanographique en 1951. La coque du navire, à
l’état de membrures, se trouve actuellement à Izmit, en Turquie, où serait
entrepris un travail de restauration. (source&amp;nbsp;: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.meretmarine.com/fr/content/que-devient-la-calypso&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;https://www.meretmarine.com/fr/content/que-devient-la-calypso&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;, 9/2/2018)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn68&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref68&quot; name=&quot;_ftn68&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn68;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[68]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;Voir entre autres contributions
celles de Janine Marchessault (&lt;i&gt;Ecstatic Worlds. Media, Utopia, Ecologies&lt;/i&gt;,
MIT Press, 2017)&amp;nbsp;; Gregg Mitman (&lt;i&gt;Reel Nature&amp;nbsp;: America’s romance
with wildlife on film&lt;/i&gt;, Harvard University Press,1999)&amp;nbsp;; Stephen Rust,
Salma Monani et Sean Cubitt (&lt;i&gt;Ecocinema Theory and Practice, &lt;/i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;Routledge, NY, 2013).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn69&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref69&quot; name=&quot;_ftn69&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn69;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[69]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Gregg
Mitman, &lt;i&gt;Reel nature: America’s romance with wildlife on films&lt;/i&gt;
(Cambridge, Mass., Etats-Unis d’Amérique: Harvard University Press, 1999).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; p.158&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn70&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref70&quot; name=&quot;_ftn70&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn70;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[70]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Mitman, op. cit. p.110&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/feeds/6490481614194558055/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2019/12/film-de-science-ou-recit-daventures-les.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/6490481614194558055'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/6490481614194558055'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2019/12/film-de-science-ou-recit-daventures-les.html' title='Film de science ou récit d&#39;aventures ? Les origines du cinéma sous la mer'/><author><name>Gestalt</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10962207802973660346</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFQRD6kaQLUr1OUFCHOR0VqUEPA0--dKvSXYzAg5UJQ0jQol9BgkX2GLgvMoTGRhoojVNzRfbkL-xTjTcSsJ4EzhOxXCrqqMJAg2A-bKdz9_mG632d3cuenkDsDa043g/s220/vertov.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEht6L-F0eiJP56Cz3xX6ttxY6heMR4nU5fPVOotY2cpajr3KCSc-PqVdI9nIUP5CfQ62sEtuEB76Anh0ebQelpb5ue30h7kx4iQzsTq3VwHKKvTX314D8AdN4AbDX846RItSZlD1-DVXVNd/s72-c/Capture1.JPG" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3824907278627072174.post-1623257128350903488</id><published>2019-12-06T10:29:00.004+01:00</published><updated>2019-12-09T09:11:59.207+01:00</updated><title type='text'>Renoir antisémite ?</title><content type='html'>&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: white; color: #1c1e21; display: inline; float: none; font-family: &amp;quot;helvetica&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;arial&amp;quot; , sans-serif; font-size: large; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;&quot;&gt;Renoir antisémite ? Louis Skorecki, critique de cinéma, affirme sur sa page facebook :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: white; color: #1c1e21; display: inline; float: none; font-family: &amp;quot;helvetica&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;arial&amp;quot; , sans-serif; font-size: large; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;&quot;&gt;La scène se passe en 1940, à Lisbonne&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: white; color: #1c1e21; display: inline; float: none; font-family: &amp;quot;helvetica&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;arial&amp;quot; , sans-serif; font-size: large; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;&quot;&gt;Jean Renoir attend le bateau qui le mènera aux USA, pays que le cinéaste a choisi pour son exil.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: white; color: #1c1e21; display: inline; float: none; font-family: &amp;quot;helvetica&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;arial&amp;quot; , sans-serif; font-size: large; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;&quot;&gt;LE JOURNALISTE : &quot;Alors, M. Renoir, vous quittez l&#39;Europe? Vous quittez la France?&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: white; color: #1c1e21; display: inline; float: none; font-family: &amp;quot;helvetica&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;arial&amp;quot; , sans-serif; font-size: large; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;&quot;&gt;JEAN RENOIR: &quot;Hélas oui... Et ce n&#39;est pas sans regrets. Mais je suis un homme d&#39;humeur, et souvent irréfléchi, et j&#39;ai commis quelques imprudences. Je me suis stupidement compromis avec le Parti Communi&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;text_exposed_show&quot; style=&quot;background-color: white; color: #1c1e21; display: inline; font-family: &amp;quot;helvetica&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;arial&amp;quot; , sans-serif; font-size: large; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;&quot;&gt;ste et les gens de gauche. Mais le temps travaille pour moi. Je reviendrai en France. Hitler est un homme à ma main, je suis sûr que nous nous entendrons très bien tous les deux, car nous sommes confrères. J&#39;ai été victime des Juifs qui nous empêchaient de travailler et qui nous exploitaient. Quand je reviendrai, je serai dans une France désenjuivée, où l&#39;homme aura retrouvé sa noblesse et sa raison de vivre.&quot;&lt;br /&gt;(signé DOCTEUR DEVO)&lt;br /&gt;La véritable question c&#39;est peut-être QUI, en ces temps-là (les années 1930) n&#39;était pas plus ou moins antisémite, ou ne nourrissait pas quelques préjugés à l&#39;encontre des juifs, dans les milieux de l&#39;art et de la culture... En tous cas on ne peut pas lui faire de reproches concernant ses relations avec Louis-Ferdinand Destouches. Voir ceci :&amp;nbsp;&lt;a data-ft=&quot;{&amp;quot;tn&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;-U&amp;quot;}&quot; data-lynx-mode=&quot;asynclazy&quot; data-lynx-uri=&quot;https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.openedition.org%2F1895%2F4317%3Ffbclid%3DIwAR1R4_IKBw35JdOuiiOgska05NLIwq-P5z0ZFTF6xIo_2LjJLnLPKwJDZqY&amp;amp;h=AT0wsVt8-iv3LDZfS-PXCipJtQ5PX01sYMQv7ybLf13jj1Vd0KVThR_HbtRLd5BlbzSg_5dd5_2uJImWgQhfP9JYeJPLkHrgfILVaSjoMyycQJA9VXpgobdyQK_GxONz2eP6ITbMHjtHgElA5WEoXHpVNsvvUqXfMA&quot; href=&quot;https://journals.openedition.org/1895/4317?fbclid=IwAR1R4_IKBw35JdOuiiOgska05NLIwq-P5z0ZFTF6xIo_2LjJLnLPKwJDZqY&quot; rel=&quot;noopener nofollow&quot; style=&quot;color: #385898; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; text-decoration: none;&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;https://journals.openedition.org/1895/4317&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;text_exposed_show&quot; style=&quot;background-color: white; color: #1c1e21; display: inline; font-family: &amp;quot;helvetica&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;arial&amp;quot; , sans-serif; font-size: large; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;&quot;&gt;On peut regretter aussi l&#39;absence de travaux sur l&#39;antisémitisme et la collaboration dans les milieux du cinéma, comme il a pu y en avoir en littérature (voir par exemple : &quot;Le soufre et le moisi&quot;, de François Dufay).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;text_exposed_show&quot; style=&quot;background-color: white; color: #1c1e21; display: inline; font-family: &amp;quot;helvetica&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;arial&amp;quot; , sans-serif; font-size: large; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;&quot;&gt;Selon Jacques Aumont, &quot; Tout cela est de notoriété publique depuis belle lurette. C&#39;est en toutes lettres dans la biographie (excellente) de Pascal Mérigeau. Et sur ce plan il était pleinement de sa génération, engluée dans ses contradictions et qui n&#39;arrivait pas à en finir avec le vieux réflexe antijuif.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;text_exposed_show&quot; style=&quot;background-color: white; color: #1c1e21; display: inline; font-family: &amp;quot;helvetica&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;arial&amp;quot; , sans-serif; font-size: large; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;&quot;&gt;Par ailleurs, Renoir n&#39;avait pas d&#39;opinions arrêtées. Il disait tout et le contraire de tout, parfois dans la même conversation. Il a réellement aimé Dalio et loué les qualités par exemple de Deutschmeister. Mais par ailleurs il lâchait sans y penser les pires clichés antisémites.&quot;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;text_exposed_show&quot; style=&quot;background-color: white; color: #1c1e21; display: inline; font-family: &amp;quot;helvetica&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;arial&amp;quot; , sans-serif; font-size: large; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;&quot;&gt;La question de la présence des juifs dans les milieux du cinéma et, comme on dit de nos jours, dans les médias, est un vieux serpent de mer de l&#39;antisémitisme, qu&#39;il soit affiché ou non. Il faut cependant aborder la question autrement que par le biais de l&#39;analyse traditionnelle de leurs rapports avec le christiannisme. La modernité européenne a vu apparaitre une nouvelle bourgeoisie d&#39;affaires, ayant un statut distinct des patrons du nouveau monde industriel en formation et des aristocraties paysannes. Les juifs, auxquels l&#39;émancipation progressive ouvrait les portes de toutes les professions, se sont naturellement dirigés vers celles qui ne demandaient pas un enracinement profond dans les structures traditionnelles ou la possession d&#39;un patrimoine mobilier important (les terres, en particulier). Les révolutions technologiques du XIXème siècle, et le fait qu&#39;elles avaient lieu dans un contexte de tabula rasa, étaient toutes indiquées dès lors qu&#39;on disposait d&#39;un certain capital financier et de beaucoup d&#39;imagination. Il fallait aussi une certaine liberté d&#39;action. Le cinéma, technologie et spectacle, dont le statut auprès des élites intellectuelles n&#39;était pas encore celui des disciplines artistiques classiques, était tout indiqué pour cela. On n&#39;y retrouvait aucune des entraves propres à certaines professions, destinées à maintenir à l&#39;écart les juifs et d&#39;autres minorités. Les juifs pouvaient donc y investir librement et d&#39;autre part, comme le précise Neal Gabler à propos de Hollywood (voir : &quot;Le royaume de leurs rêves&quot;, Calmann-Lévy, 2005) , le cinéma était tout indiqué pour leur permettre d&#39;établir à la fois leur identité américaine dans un pays d&#39;immigrants, et de participer à la création d&#39;une nouvelle culture populaire au XXème siècle.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;text_exposed_show&quot; style=&quot;background-color: white; color: #1c1e21; display: inline; font-family: &amp;quot;helvetica&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;arial&amp;quot; , sans-serif; font-size: large; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;&quot;&gt;Pourquoi une telle évolution ne s&#39;est pas produite en France, au début du siècle du cinéma ? Il y a sans doute deux éléments clés qui peuvent permettre d&#39;expliquer cela (ou un seul, si on les confond) : tout d&#39;abord la montée d&#39;un nouvel antisémitisme, au XIXème siècle, distinct de l&#39;antisémitisme chrétien classique, celui qui voyait alors les juifs comme le peuple déicide.Ce nouvel antisémitisme ne se fondait plus seulement sur la religion, mais voyait le juif comme représentant une catégorie ethnique particulière, différente en tous points des caractéristiques physiques attribuées au peuple de France. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;text_exposed_show&quot; style=&quot;background-color: white; color: #1c1e21; display: inline; font-family: &amp;quot;helvetica&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;arial&amp;quot; , sans-serif; font-size: large; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;text_exposed_show&quot; style=&quot;background-color: white; color: #1c1e21; display: inline; font-family: &amp;quot;helvetica&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;arial&amp;quot; , sans-serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;&quot;&gt;Cette idée parcourt alors tout le milieu des lettres françaises, de 
Drummont et Daudet et jusqu&#39;à Maurras et Céline, pour les représentants 
les plus extrêmes de ce courant. &lt;/span&gt;On passait donc d&#39;un antisémitisme religieux à un antisémitisme dans lequel la composante raciale était prépondérante. L&#39;autre élément c&#39;est l&#39;affaire Dreyfus. Celle-ci vient une fois pour toutes remettre en question l&#39;appartenance des juifs à la communauté nationale, et le doute sur cet élément ne sera pratiquement jamais levé depuis.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;text_exposed_show&quot; style=&quot;background-color: white; color: #1c1e21; display: inline; font-family: &amp;quot;helvetica&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;arial&amp;quot; , sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: #f2f3f5; color: #1c1e21; font-family: &amp;quot;helvetica&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;arial&amp;quot; , sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: inherit;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: inherit;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;text_exposed_show&quot; style=&quot;background-color: white; color: #1c1e21; display: inline; font-family: &amp;quot;helvetica&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;arial&amp;quot; , sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
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&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhl0n2Jhc5aVm2yoC7ZXMJD2VcbbHkLpp1WwAza6WvzU5zcVe6ZRnmO9oZZvfl3vlmfvBSiarQ12esj4CxXDEjwyZimEaBhMtIxAfKBH4xVh9D99d3a88_vc88U9d2TDnmjjC4Sb-u3y6X7/s1600/gettyimages-517240076-1024x1024.jpg&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1024&quot; data-original-width=&quot;841&quot; height=&quot;640&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhl0n2Jhc5aVm2yoC7ZXMJD2VcbbHkLpp1WwAza6WvzU5zcVe6ZRnmO9oZZvfl3vlmfvBSiarQ12esj4CxXDEjwyZimEaBhMtIxAfKBH4xVh9D99d3a88_vc88U9d2TDnmjjC4Sb-u3y6X7/s640/gettyimages-517240076-1024x1024.jpg&quot; width=&quot;524&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;text_exposed_show&quot; style=&quot;background-color: white; color: #1c1e21; display: inline; font-family: &amp;quot;helvetica&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;arial&amp;quot; , sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/feeds/1623257128350903488/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2019/12/renoir-antisemite.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/1623257128350903488'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/1623257128350903488'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2019/12/renoir-antisemite.html' title='Renoir antisémite ?'/><author><name>Gestalt</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10962207802973660346</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFQRD6kaQLUr1OUFCHOR0VqUEPA0--dKvSXYzAg5UJQ0jQol9BgkX2GLgvMoTGRhoojVNzRfbkL-xTjTcSsJ4EzhOxXCrqqMJAg2A-bKdz9_mG632d3cuenkDsDa043g/s220/vertov.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhl0n2Jhc5aVm2yoC7ZXMJD2VcbbHkLpp1WwAza6WvzU5zcVe6ZRnmO9oZZvfl3vlmfvBSiarQ12esj4CxXDEjwyZimEaBhMtIxAfKBH4xVh9D99d3a88_vc88U9d2TDnmjjC4Sb-u3y6X7/s72-c/gettyimages-517240076-1024x1024.jpg" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3824907278627072174.post-1067135850959427364</id><published>2019-11-09T12:55:00.003+01:00</published><updated>2019-12-09T09:12:39.617+01:00</updated><title type='text'>Cinéma et histoire : une relation ambiguë</title><content type='html'>&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Questions sur l&#39;histoire et ses interprétations... ou comment les 
controverses ressurgissent dès qu&#39;on aborde des questions 
contemporaines. Ici il est question de la série &quot;Apocalypse : la guerre des mondes&quot;, dans laquelle le duo Costelle - Clarke entreprend de donner sa propre version de la guerre froide au cours de la période 1945 - 1991. Les deux cinéastes-producteurs étaient invités pour participer à l&#39;émission &quot;Le cours de l&#39;histoire&quot;, présentée par Xavier Mauduit. Etait invité aussi l&#39;historien Pierre Grosser, auteur d&#39;un livre sur l&#39;année &quot;1989&quot;, présentée comme celle au cours de laquelle &quot;le monde a basculé&quot;. Dans cette émission de France Culture du 8 novembre, qui a tournée à l&#39;empoignade entre 
historien professionnel et producteurs-cinéastes, il est tout de même 
symptomatique que personne n&#39;ait évoqué la question de l&#39;ORIGINE des 
images utilisées : montage d&#39;images d&#39;archives, bien sûr, mais images 
d&#39;archives provenant de reportages, de films de propagande ou de films 
diffu&lt;span class=&quot;text_exposed_show&quot;&gt;sés par les services des forces 
armées... Utilisation de la bande son aussi : le commentaire, bien sûr, 
mais aussi des effets sonores qui peuvent appuyer le propos et orienter 
le regard vers une direction particulière. L&#39;image n&#39;est jamais neutre 
lorsqu&#39;il s&#39;agit d&#39;histoire.&lt;br /&gt; On peut relire bien sûr les travaux 
(fondateurs) de Marc Ferro et aussi, de parution plus récente, l&#39;ouvrage
 de Christian Delage et Vincent Guigueno : &quot;L&#39;historien et le film&quot; et, 
en particulier, l&#39;analyse par Christian Delage du &quot;Dunkerque&quot; de 
Christopher Nolan. Ou comment la reconstitution historique sert à 
expliciter la notion centrale de point de vue au cinéma.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
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</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/feeds/1067135850959427364/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2019/11/cinema-et-histoire-une-relation-ambigue.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/1067135850959427364'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/1067135850959427364'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2019/11/cinema-et-histoire-une-relation-ambigue.html' title='Cinéma et histoire : une relation ambiguë'/><author><name>Gestalt</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10962207802973660346</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFQRD6kaQLUr1OUFCHOR0VqUEPA0--dKvSXYzAg5UJQ0jQol9BgkX2GLgvMoTGRhoojVNzRfbkL-xTjTcSsJ4EzhOxXCrqqMJAg2A-bKdz9_mG632d3cuenkDsDa043g/s220/vertov.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj1-VX5PjJbF-kuW921XqxGcFXh08QezMgyjT77DQeljkABnSU-1GgQOKDpkKLZ2sUpKEKIiket9vBTEK-hArDN5uz58VriFdo0IrOpQ7muVYSFrgnIrD5dZdxGZemlPp3tMueZRK9ahpop/s72-c/838_gettyimages-119583155.webp" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3824907278627072174.post-4666982152106151343</id><published>2019-10-27T09:57:00.002+01:00</published><updated>2019-10-28T11:34:22.328+01:00</updated><title type='text'>Certification Netflix pour le Panasonic S1H</title><content type='html'>&lt;span aria-live=&quot;polite&quot; class=&quot;fbPhotosPhotoCaption&quot; data-ft=&quot;{&amp;quot;tn&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;K&amp;quot;}&quot; id=&quot;fbPhotoSnowliftCaption&quot; style=&quot;background-color: white; color: #1c1e21; display: inline; font-family: &amp;quot;helvetica&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;arial&amp;quot; , sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 18px; outline: none; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; width: auto; word-spacing: 0px;&quot; tabindex=&quot;0&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;hasCaption&quot; style=&quot;font-family: inherit;&quot;&gt;Netflix fixe les standards de diffusion : le S1H devient le premier appareil photo à faire partie des caméras &quot;autorisées&quot;. La liste complète de ces caméras se trouve ici :&amp;nbsp;&lt;a data-lynx-mode=&quot;asynclazy&quot; data-lynx-uri=&quot;https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fhelp.prodicle.com%2Fhc%2Fen-us%2Farticles%2F115001787532-Cameras-and-Image-Capture%3Ffbclid%3DIwAR10L10oYmMIZDfQ_3_bGFYe1IDypAr5DB6Cs8PF56R1fPL0GUDDnq3O2o0&amp;amp;h=AT2xb6SIYgF4YwDHwzqazCEXycNdUbifHyvoqVoKSNTVprnmGc4fPEFeR6iT_jZSq9S58lCOjyp1W8ef9Zi2fF15jo9jf0zfhDXlvjh5NlImx3ks8H_-laR9E6MI0iTEHf4vNRiX0A&quot; href=&quot;https://help.prodicle.com/hc/en-us/articles/115001787532-Cameras-and-Image-Capture?fbclid=IwAR10L10oYmMIZDfQ_3_bGFYe1IDypAr5DB6Cs8PF56R1fPL0GUDDnq3O2o0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noopener&quot; style=&quot;color: #385898; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; text-decoration: none;&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: inherit;&quot;&gt;https://help.prodicle.com/&lt;/span&gt;&lt;wbr&gt;&lt;/wbr&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;word_break&quot; style=&quot;display: inline-block; font-family: inherit;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: inherit;&quot;&gt;hc/en-us/articles/&lt;/span&gt;&lt;wbr&gt;&lt;/wbr&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;word_break&quot; style=&quot;display: inline-block; font-family: inherit;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: inherit;&quot;&gt;115001787532-Cameras-and-Im&lt;/span&gt;&lt;wbr&gt;&lt;/wbr&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;word_break&quot; style=&quot;display: inline-block; font-family: inherit;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;age-Capture&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjL-ftvCoSH3gbS1cEjlvRV7JCHG-7hfyo6ldcshmjocAJ6xPNgG5eoM4glMyPHLBFal3CGj-48BHay-K8YyjfgzUddaqu6uAaWm3YUTRp1KvtEuhSv5eKKHGUv094_fHers1sAZm5vxGU5/s1600/Netflix_S1H_list.jpeg&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1150&quot; data-original-width=&quot;1588&quot; height=&quot;462&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjL-ftvCoSH3gbS1cEjlvRV7JCHG-7hfyo6ldcshmjocAJ6xPNgG5eoM4glMyPHLBFal3CGj-48BHay-K8YyjfgzUddaqu6uAaWm3YUTRp1KvtEuhSv5eKKHGUv094_fHers1sAZm5vxGU5/s640/Netflix_S1H_list.jpeg&quot; width=&quot;640&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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Rappelons que la politique de certification de Netflix est basée sur la prise en compte des éléments suivants :&lt;br /&gt;
- Résolution native du capteur (3840x2160 au minimum ou 8.3 mégapixels) ;&lt;br /&gt;
- Etendue dynamique (Dynamic range) ;&lt;br /&gt;
- Formats d&#39;enregistrement (vidéo compressée et RAW) ;&lt;br /&gt;
- Connectivité et fonctionnalités ;&lt;br /&gt;
- Compatibilité du flux de production (workflow)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Dans le cas du S1H, cela signifie une configuration de travail en 4K UHD ou DCI (3840x2160 ou 4096x2160 pixels),&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;en V-Log, 4:2:2, 10 bit, ALL-I (400 Mbps), encodée pixel par pixel plein format ou Super 35. &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/feeds/4666982152106151343/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2019/10/certification-netflix-pour-le-panasonic.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/4666982152106151343'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/4666982152106151343'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2019/10/certification-netflix-pour-le-panasonic.html' title='Certification Netflix pour le Panasonic S1H'/><author><name>Gestalt</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10962207802973660346</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFQRD6kaQLUr1OUFCHOR0VqUEPA0--dKvSXYzAg5UJQ0jQol9BgkX2GLgvMoTGRhoojVNzRfbkL-xTjTcSsJ4EzhOxXCrqqMJAg2A-bKdz9_mG632d3cuenkDsDa043g/s220/vertov.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjL-ftvCoSH3gbS1cEjlvRV7JCHG-7hfyo6ldcshmjocAJ6xPNgG5eoM4glMyPHLBFal3CGj-48BHay-K8YyjfgzUddaqu6uAaWm3YUTRp1KvtEuhSv5eKKHGUv094_fHers1sAZm5vxGU5/s72-c/Netflix_S1H_list.jpeg" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3824907278627072174.post-3792622743442918971</id><published>2019-10-08T15:52:00.002+02:00</published><updated>2019-10-08T15:52:52.172+02:00</updated><title type='text'>Gilbert Simondon</title><content type='html'>&lt;table align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;tr-caption-container&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgeqqSo8nBGOcWu-4C9tuYgfzrVIL3ElVVsgGUoYbRbYtIsULd9muo5I-0fwf_l33QI0c7FpLc8XS6e8xQgHKBohFRBRVgpneNFH9s4m2GXuET9SaMcom7RzvOh_g6ODy4rnHyItrOUMf5K/s1600/MEOT.png&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1161&quot; data-original-width=&quot;1316&quot; height=&quot;564&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgeqqSo8nBGOcWu-4C9tuYgfzrVIL3ElVVsgGUoYbRbYtIsULd9muo5I-0fwf_l33QI0c7FpLc8XS6e8xQgHKBohFRBRVgpneNFH9s4m2GXuET9SaMcom7RzvOh_g6ODy4rnHyItrOUMf5K/s640/MEOT.png&quot; width=&quot;640&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;tr-caption&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Du mode d&#39;existence des objets techniques, p. 10&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/feeds/3792622743442918971/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2019/10/gilbert-simondon.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/3792622743442918971'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/3792622743442918971'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2019/10/gilbert-simondon.html' title='Gilbert Simondon'/><author><name>Gestalt</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10962207802973660346</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFQRD6kaQLUr1OUFCHOR0VqUEPA0--dKvSXYzAg5UJQ0jQol9BgkX2GLgvMoTGRhoojVNzRfbkL-xTjTcSsJ4EzhOxXCrqqMJAg2A-bKdz9_mG632d3cuenkDsDa043g/s220/vertov.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgeqqSo8nBGOcWu-4C9tuYgfzrVIL3ElVVsgGUoYbRbYtIsULd9muo5I-0fwf_l33QI0c7FpLc8XS6e8xQgHKBohFRBRVgpneNFH9s4m2GXuET9SaMcom7RzvOh_g6ODy4rnHyItrOUMf5K/s72-c/MEOT.png" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3824907278627072174.post-1757787703089586588</id><published>2019-08-16T11:24:00.000+02:00</published><updated>2019-08-16T11:24:40.230+02:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Amazon Web Services"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Canal+"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Netflix"/><title type='text'>Netflix, Canal+ et la Nouvelle télévision</title><content type='html'>Netflix a-t-il tué Canal + ? Ou plus exactement les nouveaux réseaux de communications ont-ils rendu définitivement obsolète le modèle de la chaîne de télévision cryptée avec son pool d&#39;abonnés captifs ? La question des technologies est certainement au coeur du problème, mais pas seulement, puisque les stratégies d&#39;entreprise sont toujours, quelque part, à mettre en relation avec la manière dont un système complexe, tel que celui de la télévision, est amené à évoluer dans un environnement en mutation rapide.&lt;br /&gt;
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Les mauvaises nouvelles s&#39;accumulent, en effet,
pour le Groupe Canal. L&#39;an dernier, les médias titraient déjà, sur
l&#39;effondrement des résultats de la chaîne&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn1&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref1&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn1;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-fareast-language: FR;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
Les chiffres publiés en 2018 montraient ainsi un résultat d’exploitation
passant d’un bénéfice 157 millions d’euros en 2014 à une perte de 128 millions
en 2017.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
Des résultats qui n’empêchaient pas pour autant
Vincent Bolloré d’afficher un optimisme à toute épreuve, le champion des
restructurations sauvages&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn2&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref2&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn2;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-fareast-language: FR;&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
estimant alors que «&amp;nbsp;la relance des activités en France et le redressement
des chaines payantes se poursuit&amp;nbsp;».&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
Le redressement en question n’a manifestement pas
suffi puisque le Groupe a annoncé, début juillet 2019, qu’il allait mettre en
œuvre un plan de départs volontaires concernant 500 salariés&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn3&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref3&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn3;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-fareast-language: FR;&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’autre mauvaise nouvelle pour Canal+ c’est que son
avance technologique en matière de programmes à péage ou «&amp;nbsp;on demand&amp;nbsp;»
a fondu comme neige au soleil sous l’effet Internet et sans que le groupe ait
jamais paru prendre réellement la mesure de la révolution en cours en matière
de distribution et de diffusion de programmes sur le réseau. En ce sens,
Netflix est le nouveau «&amp;nbsp;player&amp;nbsp;» qui a rebattu les cartes en
imposant son modèle, basé uniquement sur une diffusion par le Net. L’autre
idée, peut-être géniale, des promoteurs du service américain de pay-TV a été de
se débarrasser de la lourde gestion du hardware de diffusion en le confiant à
des data center disséminés sur la planète, et surtout à ceux d’Amazon Web
Services (AWS), en imposant ainsi un modèle de coopération prenant ses sources
dans la théorie des jeux. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il reste toutefois à comprendre quelle architecture
ont mis en place les ingénieurs de la firme américaine. Celle-ci est basée sur
une architecture de micro-services, ce qui signifie que chaque application, ou
code et ressources du micro-service lui appartiennent.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Voir l’article suivant&amp;nbsp;: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://medium.com/refraction-tech-everything/how-netflix-works-the-hugely-simplified-complex-stuff-that-happens-every-time-you-hit-play-3a40c9be254b&quot;&gt;https://medium.com/refraction-tech-everything/how-netflix-works-the-hugely-simplified-complex-stuff-that-happens-every-time-you-hit-play-3a40c9be254b&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;mso-element: footnote-list;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;

&lt;hr align=&quot;left&quot; size=&quot;1&quot; width=&quot;33%&quot; /&gt;



&lt;div id=&quot;ftn1&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref1&quot; name=&quot;_ftn1&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn1;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://bfmbusiness.bfmtv.com/entreprise/effondrement-des-resultats-de-la-chaine-canal-plus-1451152.html&quot;&gt;https://bfmbusiness.bfmtv.com/entreprise/effondrement-des-resultats-de-la-chaine-canal-plus-1451152.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn2&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref2&quot; name=&quot;_ftn2&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn2;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; On se
souvient de la manière dont il a «&amp;nbsp;géré&amp;nbsp;» la grève à CNews.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn3&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref3&quot; name=&quot;_ftn3&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn3;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.telerama.fr/television/pourquoi-canal-compte-supprimer-au-moins-500-postes,n6329914.php&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 11.0pt;&quot;&gt;https://www.telerama.fr/television/pourquoi-canal-compte-supprimer-au-moins-500-postes,n6329914.php&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/feeds/1757787703089586588/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2019/08/netflix-canal-et-la-nouvelle-television.html#comment-form' title='1 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/1757787703089586588'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/1757787703089586588'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2019/08/netflix-canal-et-la-nouvelle-television.html' title='Netflix, Canal+ et la Nouvelle télévision'/><author><name>Gestalt</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10962207802973660346</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFQRD6kaQLUr1OUFCHOR0VqUEPA0--dKvSXYzAg5UJQ0jQol9BgkX2GLgvMoTGRhoojVNzRfbkL-xTjTcSsJ4EzhOxXCrqqMJAg2A-bKdz9_mG632d3cuenkDsDa043g/s220/vertov.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhtXYQuYA3cWfhGlzRCE1qM19FHdJzGKn7w-rHfhCjb47S7Lfm6tRY8kLGao8PLyVMPnYKVWUWZnQNu1ZgOm68z8x9lS_06TEbDa2fPG0KsUf4cBP3v53pEZPcX5_1PD2-M9LAp2US3_L76/s72-c/maxstockworld372229_0.jpg" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>1</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3824907278627072174.post-5390472750692737975</id><published>2019-07-09T18:08:00.000+02:00</published><updated>2019-12-09T09:10:58.578+01:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Amiga"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Anne-Marie Duguet"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Apple 2"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Art vidéo"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Benoit Turquety"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Jussi Parikka"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Lev Manovich"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Michel Jaffrenou"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Paintbox"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Raymond Bellour"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Sigfried Giedion"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Steve Jobs"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Vidéo"/><title type='text'>Vidéo: Histoire, technologies, développement</title><content type='html'>&lt;!--[if gte mso 9]&gt;&lt;xml&gt;
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&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgtPkcVncLRaAYxRbpiee9dBIPfmlupzd08UsylDOjWPYC7S_BzM2VyfxalI51jVqK7ACsnIbsiy5R_tc83Iolkxx_zGBbMZM9NczZTICvPWn48JQlyIkDnHwWFyuROZTzC2JQvt_4-dK5B/s1600/General_PhiloFarnsworth_Filming_People_Dancing_.jpg&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;867&quot; data-original-width=&quot;1500&quot; height=&quot;368&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgtPkcVncLRaAYxRbpiee9dBIPfmlupzd08UsylDOjWPYC7S_BzM2VyfxalI51jVqK7ACsnIbsiy5R_tc83Iolkxx_zGBbMZM9NczZTICvPWn48JQlyIkDnHwWFyuROZTzC2JQvt_4-dK5B/s640/General_PhiloFarnsworth_Filming_People_Dancing_.jpg&quot; width=&quot;640&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;tr-caption&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Philo Farnsworth, un des inventeurs de la télévision en studio (années 1930)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
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  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;19&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Subtle Emphasis&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Intense Emphasis&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;31&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Subtle Reference&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;32&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Intense Reference&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;33&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Book Title&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;37&quot; Name=&quot;Bibliography&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;39&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;TOC Heading&quot;/&gt;
 &lt;/w:LatentStyles&gt;
&lt;/xml&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;!--[if gte mso 10]&gt;
&lt;style&gt;
 /* Style Definitions */
 table.MsoNormalTable
 {mso-style-name:&quot;Tableau Normal&quot;;
 mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
 mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
 mso-style-noshow:yes;
 mso-style-priority:99;
 mso-style-parent:&quot;&quot;;
 mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;
 mso-para-margin-top:0cm;
 mso-para-margin-right:0cm;
 mso-para-margin-bottom:10.0pt;
 mso-para-margin-left:0cm;
 line-height:115%;
 mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
 font-size:11.0pt;
 font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;;
 mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri;
 mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;
 mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri;
 mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;
 mso-bidi-font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;;
 mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi;
 mso-fareast-language:EN-US;}
&lt;/style&gt;
&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--[if gte mso 9]&gt;&lt;xml&gt;
 &lt;o:OfficeDocumentSettings&gt;
  &lt;o:RelyOnVML/&gt;
  &lt;o:AllowPNG/&gt;
 &lt;/o:OfficeDocumentSettings&gt;
&lt;/xml&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;!--[if gte mso 9]&gt;&lt;xml&gt;
 &lt;w:WordDocument&gt;
  &lt;w:View&gt;Normal&lt;/w:View&gt;
  &lt;w:Zoom&gt;0&lt;/w:Zoom&gt;
  &lt;w:TrackMoves/&gt;
  &lt;w:TrackFormatting/&gt;
  &lt;w:HyphenationZone&gt;21&lt;/w:HyphenationZone&gt;
  &lt;w:PunctuationKerning/&gt;
  &lt;w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/&gt;
  &lt;w:SaveIfXMLInvalid&gt;false&lt;/w:SaveIfXMLInvalid&gt;
  &lt;w:IgnoreMixedContent&gt;false&lt;/w:IgnoreMixedContent&gt;
  &lt;w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText&gt;false&lt;/w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText&gt;
  &lt;w:DoNotPromoteQF/&gt;
  &lt;w:LidThemeOther&gt;FR&lt;/w:LidThemeOther&gt;
  &lt;w:LidThemeAsian&gt;X-NONE&lt;/w:LidThemeAsian&gt;
  &lt;w:LidThemeComplexScript&gt;X-NONE&lt;/w:LidThemeComplexScript&gt;
  &lt;w:Compatibility&gt;
   &lt;w:BreakWrappedTables/&gt;
   &lt;w:SnapToGridInCell/&gt;
   &lt;w:WrapTextWithPunct/&gt;
   &lt;w:UseAsianBreakRules/&gt;
   &lt;w:DontGrowAutofit/&gt;
   &lt;w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/&gt;
   &lt;w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/&gt;
   &lt;w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/&gt;
   &lt;w:OverrideTableStyleHps/&gt;
  &lt;/w:Compatibility&gt;
  &lt;m:mathPr&gt;
   &lt;m:mathFont m:val=&quot;Cambria Math&quot;/&gt;
   &lt;m:brkBin m:val=&quot;before&quot;/&gt;
   &lt;m:brkBinSub m:val=&quot;--&quot;/&gt;
   &lt;m:smallFrac m:val=&quot;off&quot;/&gt;
   &lt;m:dispDef/&gt;
   &lt;m:lMargin m:val=&quot;0&quot;/&gt;
   &lt;m:rMargin m:val=&quot;0&quot;/&gt;
   &lt;m:defJc m:val=&quot;centerGroup&quot;/&gt;
   &lt;m:wrapIndent m:val=&quot;1440&quot;/&gt;
   &lt;m:intLim m:val=&quot;subSup&quot;/&gt;
   &lt;m:naryLim m:val=&quot;undOvr&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;/m:mathPr&gt;&lt;/w:WordDocument&gt;
&lt;/xml&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;!--[if gte mso 9]&gt;&lt;xml&gt;
 &lt;w:LatentStyles DefLockedState=&quot;false&quot; DefUnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
  DefSemiHidden=&quot;true&quot; DefQFormat=&quot;false&quot; DefPriority=&quot;99&quot;
  LatentStyleCount=&quot;267&quot;&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;0&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Normal&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;9&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;heading 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;9&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;heading 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;9&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;heading 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;9&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;heading 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;9&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;heading 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;9&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;heading 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;9&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;heading 7&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;9&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;heading 8&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;9&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;heading 9&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;39&quot; Name=&quot;toc 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;39&quot; Name=&quot;toc 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;39&quot; Name=&quot;toc 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;39&quot; Name=&quot;toc 4&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;39&quot; Name=&quot;toc 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;39&quot; Name=&quot;toc 6&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;39&quot; Name=&quot;toc 7&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;39&quot; Name=&quot;toc 8&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;39&quot; Name=&quot;toc 9&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;35&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;caption&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;10&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Title&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;1&quot; Name=&quot;Default Paragraph Font&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;11&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Subtitle&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;22&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Strong&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;20&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Emphasis&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;59&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Table Grid&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Placeholder Text&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;1&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;No Spacing&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light List&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
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  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Revision&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;34&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;List Paragraph&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Quote&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;30&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Intense Quote&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
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&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Times, &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black; font-size: large;&quot;&gt;L’histoire de l’invention des équipements qui ont marqué le
développement de la télévision est emblématique à certains égards. Elle peut
montrer, en particulier, comment la technique a suivi des voies parallèles
entre d’un côté un système fortement institutionnalisé et encadré, et de
l’autre les pratiques d’artistes et de techniciens, voire d’artistes eux-mêmes
techniciens, développant de nouvelles logiques d’usage de ces équipements, et
qui tentaient ainsi d’échapper au déterminisme d’une production audiovisuelle industrialisée
et de plus en plus concentrée. Il ne s’agit pas cependant de refaire ici une
sorte de pensum à vocation technologique ou de retracer l’histoire de
l’évolution de la télévision à la fois en tant que dispositif et système
technique. Mon intention (modeste&amp;nbsp;!) est de tenter de poser les premiers
jalons d&#39;une &quot;histoire technique des techniques&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn1&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref1&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn1;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; de la vidéo et de la
télévision au cours d’une période délimitée&amp;nbsp;: celle qui voit à la fois
apparaitre les premiers équipements de vidéo légère et leur utilisation comme
contre-technologies ou technologies alternatives, et sa clôture, plus ou moins
située au tournant des années 1990, lorsque la diffusion du numérique entraine
la transformation complète du système de production audiovisuelle &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;mainstream&lt;/i&gt; et la migration des artistes
vers la pratique du logiciel. La concordance dans le temps de ces deux
évènements demande sans doute des développements approfondis. La spécialisation
des effets numériques, l’importance des infrastructures à mettre en œuvre et le
coût des systèmes utilisés sont à prendre en compte dans toute histoire des
pratiques indépendantes de l’audiovisuel. D’autre part, le PC&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn2&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref2&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn2;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; s’impose progressivement
comme machine à tout faire dans l’univers des médias alternatifs et ce hardware
évolutif a deux conséquences directes sur l’univers de la création
audiovisuelle&amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Times, &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black; font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black; font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Les logiciels open
source permettent aux artistes d’accéder à des environnements de développement
et à maitriser progressivement le code source de leurs créations&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Times, &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black; font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black; font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Les progrès accélérés
en microélectronique contribuent à la baisse générale du prix des
configurations et à rendre réaliste un environnement de post-production à la
portée des indépendants.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Times, &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Times, &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black; font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Il me semble utile ici d’apporter quelques éclaircissements
sur l’emploi de mots tels que «&amp;nbsp;technique&amp;nbsp;» ou
«&amp;nbsp;technologie&amp;nbsp;». La langue anglaise désigne par &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;technology&lt;/i&gt; «&amp;nbsp;l’ensemble de l’activité technique fondée sur
l’application des sciences aux procédés de l’industrie&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn3&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref3&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn3;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Il peut sembler
préférable cependant de maintenir une distinction entre «&amp;nbsp;&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;technique&lt;/i&gt;&amp;nbsp;» et «&amp;nbsp;&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;technologies&lt;/i&gt;&amp;nbsp;», ces dernières
désignant l’ensemble des machines, alors que «&amp;nbsp;&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;techniques&lt;/i&gt;&amp;nbsp;» serait un mot recouvrant l’ensemble des
procédures adoptées par les opérateurs&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn4&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref4&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn4;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[4]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Times, &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black; font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Ce ne serait donc pas une histoire technique de la
télévision mais peut-être plutôt une histoire des technologies qui ont accompagné
et façonné l’émergence des nouveaux médias à travers les expérimentations
d’artistes, les pratiques d’utilisation des effets spéciaux numériques qui se
généralisent en post-production et l’apparition d’équipements qui deviendront
les marqueurs d’une époque de transition.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Times, &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black; font-size: large;&quot;&gt;La question de l’innovation technique est l’autre marqueur
d’une époque considérée comme celle du grand renouvellement dans les industries
culturelles au sens large. Selon Benoit Turquety, qui commente les
transformations de l’industrie du cinéma, pour comprendre ces changements il convient
«&amp;nbsp;d’une part d’étudier l’articulation entre inventions techniques et
évolution scientifique, et d’autre part de réintégrer les techniques au sein de
l’ensemble des activités humaines – économie, politique, art, religion,
etc.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn5&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref5&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn5;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[5]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Times, &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black; font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;Il ne s’agit donc
plus d’envisager l’histoire des techniques comme construite du dehors, par
l’histoire générale ou l’histoire économique, mais de s’intéresser au processus
de recherche dans les laboratoires et aux usages professionnels eux-mêmes.
C’est dans cette réalité concrète, celle de l’utilisation des équipements, de
leur adaptation ou de leur détournement qu’il faut sans doute aussi rechercher
les fondements de cette histoire technique des techniques audiovisuelles.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Times, &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black; font-size: large;&quot;&gt;La télévision a pourtant une caractéristique qui lui est propre
puisqu’elle est à la fois le lieu de la fabrication des programmes et le
système technique qui en permet la diffusion. Elle constitue donc un milieu
dans lequel travaillent ensemble, se croisent et se rencontrent des corps de
métiers ayant des cultures professionnelles très différentes&amp;nbsp;:
journalistes, directeurs de la photographie, chefs monteurs ou techniciens de
maintenance n’ont en effet pas la même formation et les modalités de leurs
interventions sont très différentes. Ils forment cependant une communauté
attachée à la réalisation des mêmes objectifs au sein de l’entreprise
télévisuelle. A côté, ou en&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;parallèle,
ou en décalage, sont apparues des communautés formées sur le plan idéologique
et désireuses d’intervenir dans le champ en construction des médias
électroniques. Qu’il s’agisse d’artistes ou de militants associatifs, ou de
personnes n’appartenant à aucune de ces catégories, leurs domaines d’activité
et leur manière de percevoir ce nouveau monde de l’audiovisuel sont alors très
différents du courant &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;mainstream&lt;/i&gt; de
la télévision. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Times, &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black; font-size: large;&quot;&gt;On peut dire, cependant, que la télévision ne serait
pas ce qu&#39;elle est si, pendant toute une période qui court du milieu des années
1960 à la fin des années 1970, un certain nombre de ces artistes,&amp;nbsp; bricoleurs, ingénieurs ou autres personnes sans formation précise, n&#39;avaient pas tenté de faire autre chose à partir d&#39;un médium qui
semblait au départ très difficile à mettre en œuvre, très technique et pour
tout dire assez limité dans ses possibilité esthétiques en comparaison de ce
que représentait alors le Cinéma. Ces expérimentations ont conduit à
l&#39;émergence de nouvelles pratiques artistiques qu&#39;on a appelées, peut-être un
peu facilement, &quot;art vidéo&quot;. De nombreux textes existent, en français
et dans bien des langues qui reviennent sur cette aventure depuis ses débuts,
au cours des années 1960 et jusqu&#39;aux transformations de ses pratiques vers la
fin des années 1980, qui est le moment où on assiste à la généralisation du
paradigme numérique. La plupart de ces textes traitent cependant des aspects
esthétiques, voire sociologiques de la vidéo, l&#39;aspect technique restant
relativement oblitéré ou simplifié. Cette tendance est restée très présente en
France, où la spécialisation dans les milieux universitaires et professionnels
à conduit à séparer les aspects techniques et esthétiques de la création,
surtout lorsqu&#39;il s&#39;agit de l&#39;image électronique.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Times, &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black; font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Mon postulat est qu&#39;il est insuffisant aujourd&#39;hui de
développer des théories concernant la place de l&#39;art vidéo parmi les pratiques
artistiques du 20ème siècle sans prendre en considération ses spécificités
technologiques. Une question émerge en particulier lorsqu’on parle de la
généralisation du numérique&amp;nbsp;: elle concerne le passage progressif du
hardware au software comme élément paradigmatique de toute l’évolution de
l’audiovisuel. C’est ce que Lev Manovich a résumé par une formule en titre d’un
ouvrage&amp;nbsp;: &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Software takes command&lt;/i&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn6&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref6&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn6;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[6]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Times, &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black; font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Manovich, qui paraphrase Sigfried Giedion&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn7&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref7&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn7;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[7]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, ne s’étend pas de manière
spécifique sur les évolutions survenues dans le monde de l’audiovisuel, cinéma
et vidéo confondus. Il me semble cependant qu’il faut remonter la piste aux
origines des expérimentations avec l’image électronique effectuées par des
artistes et des techniciens pour comprendre l’évolution qui suivra en direction
des «&amp;nbsp;nouveaux médias&amp;nbsp;» dominés par le logiciel. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Times, &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black; font-size: large;&quot;&gt;De la même manière, il est difficile de comprendre l’émergence
puis l’évolution de ces pratiques si on ne suit pas la trace du développement
des microprocesseurs et des premiers ordinateurs personnels au cours des années
1970. Là aussi, la perspective historique peut permettre de corriger un &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;a priori&lt;/i&gt;&amp;nbsp;: si l’Apple II de Jobs et
Wozniak a bien constitué une révolution dans l’accès à l’informatique
personnelle, c’est cependant l’Amiga de Commodore qui restera dans les annales
comme l’instrument de choix des artistes ayant basculé dans le numérique et le &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;creative coding&lt;/i&gt;…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Times, &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black; font-size: large;&quot;&gt;L’obsolescence des techniques analogiques, annoncée au
cours des années 1970 puis devenue effective au cours de la décennie suivante,
n’a pas entrainé cependant leur disparition complète des pratiques artistiques,
mais leur réévaluation et leur recyclage de plus en plus fréquents au sein de
dispositifs hybrides permettant de voir, par exemple, des images vidéo stockées
sur des disques vinyles et projetées sur des téléviseurs à tubes cathodiques.
Pour Jussi Parikka, en effet, «&amp;nbsp;Nous abordons l’avenir à travers un
rétroviseur&amp;nbsp;: avançant dans le futur technologique tout en regardant en
arrière avec une version déformée des mythes du progrès&amp;nbsp;» car «&amp;nbsp;aucun
medium ne meurt jamais vraiment… Nous vivons dans un contexte culturel qui
s’enthousiasme pour le vieillot et le rétro. Du style des années 1980 remanié
aux clubs d’écoute de vinyles en passant par les cassettes, les zines et autres
discussions esthétiques sur des sujets tels que le ‶post-digital″ tout cela
signale que la résurgence de l’analogique est caractéristique de la culture
contemporaine.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn8&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref8&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn8;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[8]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Times, &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Times, &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;, serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: black; font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Je reviendrai plus longuement sur ce point, mais d&#39;abord,
voici les premiers éléments de mon &quot;enquête&quot;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;table align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;tr-caption-container&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicF83LjxyZjL4iku3DBRhUlZdkFn_XoFhJzy3J3q2xXoXiNe9BzHydFmAKyKcniHXckRZ_IaIaCXaxZzWlSDnuRi1Wp6jK_fP4fPwPgq_RS7dmH-laG_rYxrTBtGI543NFikYtI6i9u3h9/s1600/Philips_LDK.jpg&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;500&quot; data-original-width=&quot;733&quot; height=&quot;436&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicF83LjxyZjL4iku3DBRhUlZdkFn_XoFhJzy3J3q2xXoXiNe9BzHydFmAKyKcniHXckRZ_IaIaCXaxZzWlSDnuRi1Wp6jK_fP4fPwPgq_RS7dmH-laG_rYxrTBtGI543NFikYtI6i9u3h9/s640/Philips_LDK.jpg&quot; width=&quot;640&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;tr-caption&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Une caméra de studio au début des années 1980&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Trois phases dans
l’évolution de la vidéo en tant que médium&amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; -&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’époque du «&amp;nbsp;broadcast&amp;nbsp;» et
du développement en tant que média de masse. La vidéo est un autre mot pour
«&amp;nbsp;télévision&amp;nbsp;»&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; -&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le deuxième moment concerne l’apparition
et la diffusion des bandes et cassettes vidéo, au sein d’un ensemble de
pratiques qui peuvent alors apparaitre comme une alternative à la domination de
la télévision&amp;nbsp;;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpLast&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;- Enfin, la numérisation des contenus audiovisuels
a conduit à considérer tous les contenus, films et vidéo, en tant que
«&amp;nbsp;média de l’image en mouvement&amp;nbsp;» (d’après Michael Z. Newman, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Video Revolutions&amp;nbsp;: on the history of a
medium&lt;/i&gt;, Columbia University Press, 2014) &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Quel est alors
le statut culturel de la vidéo au cours de ces trois phases&amp;nbsp;?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Selon Michael
Newman, l’existence matérielle de la vidéo et sa signification ne peuvent
apparaitre qu’à travers des discours sur la technologie et les pratiques
sociales qui y sont associées. Faut-il pourtant reconsidérer la place de la
vidéo, comme activité de production d’images électroniques, indépendante
conceptuellement mais toujours liée au système technique que constituent la
télévision et les pratiques de production associées au cours des années 1960 –
1970&amp;nbsp;? &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Alors que la
télévision est un média de masse, qui produit des images à travers des
programmes standardisés et relativement peu exigeants sur le plan intellectuel,
les utilisateurs de la vidéo se démarquent dès ses débuts de ce système de production.
La vidéo est utilisée par des artistes pour exprimer des idées conceptuelles
autour de nouvelles formes esthétiques. Elle l’est aussi par des acteurs de la
société, militants ou intellectuels engagés, intéressés par la reproduction
instantanée des images et des sons que permet le médium. Dans les deux cas les
utilisateurs tournent le dos au système hégémonique de la télévision
commerciale ou publique&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn9&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref9&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn9;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[9]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il reste que le
caractère très technique du médium, très différent de l’enregistrement
photographique, demandait des connaissances que peu d’utilisateurs de la vidéo
avaient à ses débuts. Au cours des années 1970, il n’était pas facile pour
l’amateur ou l’artiste de trouver des explications précises sur un certain
nombre de concepts tels que&amp;nbsp;: le signal vidéo, la synchronisation, la
commutation, l’incrustation ou le montage sur bande vidéo. Il n’existait en
France aucun organisme ou association capable de fournir un semblant de
formation aux théories et au langage du traitement électronique des images&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn10&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref10&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn10;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[10]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
(au contraire d’ailleurs des pays anglo-saxons, où des collectifs tels que
l’Experimental Television Center, autour de Ralph et Sherry Hocking, avaient
pris les choses en main). La formation restait donc quelque chose de tout à
fait aléatoire dans un pays où la vidéo était encore considérée comme un
dispositif pouvant intéresser des militants politiques ou quelques artistes,
mais trop complexe pour sortir de cercles institutionnels restreints. C’est
d’ailleurs tout naturellement, pourrait-on dire, que le mouvement pour la
libéralisation de la diffusion sur les ondes s’est tourné vers la radio, plus
facile et surtout moins coûteuse à mettre en œuvre.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La lourdeur des
dispositifs et le coût des équipements resteront longtemps des freins pour se
lancer dans la création en vidéo. L’arrivée des micro-ordinateurs sur le
marché, au début de la décennie 80 ne changera pas les choses, car ces machines
sont alors assez peu conviviales et dépourvues de réelles capacités de
traitement et de visualisation de la vidéo. Il faudra attendre le début de la
décennie suivante pour voir les choses changer progressivement. Notons tout de
même qu’en 1990, un Macintosh II fx doté d’une carte Rasterops 24 bits se vend
environ 90000 francs&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn11&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref11&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn11;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[11]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
(sans les logiciels&amp;nbsp;!). La vidéo avec l’aide de l’informatique est encore
hors de prix…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La phase de la
vidéo analogique se termine cependant vers la fin des années 1980. Ce dont
semble prendre acte sans le dire la revue de l’EHESS Communications, dans un
numéro de 1988 entièrement consacré à la création vidéo&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn12&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref12&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn12;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[12]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
Le rôle de l’ordinateur comme vecteur de nouvelles pratiques appelées à prendre
le relais de la vidéo est à peine mentionné. Il faut dire que l’autre élément,
qui sera crucial pour le développement des nouvelles&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;formes d’art qui émergeront autour de
l’informatique n’est même pas encore imaginé&amp;nbsp;: il s’agit bien sûr
d’Internet. La transformation sera pourtant rapide et spectaculaire, à mesure
que de nouveaux ordinateurs, moins chers et surtout dotés de capacités
graphiques importantes apparaitront sur le marché. Bien des artistes,
cependant, conserveront une certaine réticence à intégrer ce nouveau paradigme.
En témoigne l’attitude de Michel Jaffrenou à l’époque. À une question posée par
Catherine Millet&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn13&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref13&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn13;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[13]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;,
il répond ainsi&amp;nbsp;: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;M. J.&amp;nbsp;:
Avec les images de synthèse, un nouveau processus devrait, selon certains, se
mettre en route, nécessitant que les artistes participent directement à
l’élaboration des programmes. Je suis, pour ma part, réservé sur cette
question…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;C. M.&amp;nbsp;: &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Je ne comprends pas bien pourquoi tu penses
qu’il n’est pas nécessaire que l’artiste intervienne sur le logiciel lui-même.
Est-ce que ce ne serait pas de sa part une façon de maitriser la machine&amp;nbsp;?&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;M. J.&amp;nbsp;:
Sans doute. Je crois d’ailleurs qu’on va voir apparaitre des générations d’artistes
qui connaitront la technologie…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;C. M.&amp;nbsp;: &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Est-ce qu’on pourrait comparer ce que
mettrait en place un artiste en inventant un logiciel, qui va servir aussi à
d’autres, à certains fondateurs d’écoles qui ont mis au point des systèmes
formels exploités par d’autres artistes&amp;nbsp;? Autrement dit&amp;nbsp;: un
inventeur de logiciel aujourd’hui serait-il dans la même situation que Picasso
inventant le cubisme et le léguant à Juan Gris&amp;nbsp;?&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;M. J.&amp;nbsp;:
Inventer des logiciels est sans doute une manière de créer, mais le rapport aux
machines est différent. Ou bien tu as reçu une formation qui t’as rendu
familier de la façon de penser avec l’informatique, ou bien ce n’est pas le
cas, parce que tu préfères rêver, regarder les oiseaux…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il est évident
cependant qu’une des caractéristiques qui différencie de manière radicale la
vidéo analogique des technologies numériques de la fin du siècle c’est
justement la possibilité d’intervenir sur le matériel, par le biais du logiciel
et d’en changer les caractéristiques ou la destination. Ce que Lev Manovich
résume dans son deuxième opus consacré aux nouveaux média&amp;nbsp;: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;«&amp;nbsp;&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;In short, “new media” is “new” because new
properties (i.e.,&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt; new
software techniques) can always be easily added to it. Put differently,
in industrial (i.e. mass-produced) media technologies,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;“hardware”
and “software” were one and the same thing. For example,
the book pages were bound in a particular way that fixe the
order of pages. The reader could not change this order nor the
level of detail being displayed à la Engelbart’s “view control.” Similarly,
the film projector combined hardware and what we now call
a “media player” software into a single machine. In the same way,
the controls built into a twentieth-century mass-produced camera
could not be modified at the user’s will. And although today
the users of a digital camera similarly cannot easily modify the
hardware of their camera, as soon as they transfer the pictures into
a computer they have access to endless number of controls and options
for modifying their pictures via software.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn14&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref14&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn14;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[14]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il y a cependant
des équipements emblématiques de la vidéo, et dont l’utilisation restera au
centre de toutes les phases et transformations des industries culturelles. Et
le premier de ces équipements sera bien sûr la caméra vidéo.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Caméra vidéo…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Sony lance son
«&amp;nbsp;Portapak&amp;nbsp;» (portable analog video recorder system) en 1967. Le
système AV-3400 Portapak est composé de l’enregistreur DV-2400 couplé avec la
caméra DVC-2400. La caméra filme en noir et blanc. Le magnétoscope à têtes
hélicoïdales enregistre sur des bandes ½ pouce.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;«&amp;nbsp;Pour la
première fois, un individu dont le niveau d’expertise n’était en rien
comparable à celui du professionnel de la télévision se trouvait en mesure de
transporter avec lui tous les équipements de la production télévisuelle&amp;nbsp;»
(Ben Keen, cité par Michael Newman)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Dans les milieux
de l’art et dans celui de l’art vidéo, le Portapak symbolise alors une manière
«&amp;nbsp;décentralisée, anarchiste, à double sens et transportable&amp;nbsp;»
(Maxwell Dawson, cité par Michael Newman) d’investir le monde de l’image
électronique.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;VTR, Videotape,
videocassette, vidéodisque interactif…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’apparition du magnétoscope «&amp;nbsp;pour
tous&amp;nbsp;» remonte à 1968&amp;nbsp;: plusieurs compagnies américaines dévoilent
des prototypes de machines à moins de 1000$ l’unité. A l’époque, un
magnétoscope professionnel à bandes est vendu par Ampex à plus de 50000$. Cette
machine, introduite en 1956, utilisait un système de balayage latéral à 4 têtes
(Quadruplex) sur une bande de 2 pouces.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le standard 2 pouces de la production
«&amp;nbsp;broadcast&amp;nbsp;» sera supplanté à la fin des années 1980 par des
magnétoscopes à bande 1 pouce type C (Sony) et B (Bosch Fernseh)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Cependant, le Betamax de Sony, qui est
le premier magnétoscope à cassette destiné à un usage «&amp;nbsp;grand
public&amp;nbsp;» est mis sur le marché en 1975. A l’époque, Sony produit déjà des
machines à cassettes pour le marché institutionnel et broadcast sous la
dénomination «&amp;nbsp;U-matic&amp;nbsp;» (1971).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Qu’il soit à
bande ou à cassettes, relié à une caméra par un câble ou bien intégré à la
caméra dans le dispositif qui s’appellera «&amp;nbsp;caméscope&amp;nbsp;» (camcorder),
le magnétoscope sera l’élément central de la télévision, puis de la création
vidéo. Il permettra tout d’abord de s’affranchir de la notion de direct et de
diffuser à n’importe quelle heure des programmes auparavant débarrassés de
leurs «&amp;nbsp;scories&amp;nbsp;». Pour les stations américaines de la fin des années
1950, ces machines ouvrent de nouvelles possibilités comme celle consistant à
diffuser sur la côte Ouest des programmes préalablement enregistrés sur la côte
Est, avec quelques heures de décalage dues au fuseau horaire. Ces machines
exercent donc une véritable fonction de reproduction électromécanique de la
réalité et de contrôle du temps grâce à l’enregistrement &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ces machines
inaugurent aussi l’ère du montage en vidéo…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le mélangeur
vidéo ou &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;vision mixer&lt;/i&gt; (que l’on
distingue généralement du &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;switcher&lt;/i&gt;)&amp;nbsp;:
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Placé au cœur de
la régie vidéo, il reçoit à l’entrée des sources aussi diverses que des
caméras, des lecteurs vidéo, des sources vidéographiques, pour redistribuer en
sortie la source ou le mélange de sources choisi en fonction des desiderata
d’une production. En fait, le mélangeur qui était à l’origine une simple
console de commutation des sources, avec plusieurs entrées et une sortie, en
est arrivé progressivement à intégrer l’ensemble des effets spéciaux à réaliser
au cours d’une production ou d’un enregistrement en post-production. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;table cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;tr-caption-container&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjK_ValP4Abtm1JaPxrcQbDGh6D9TcdidOm7hb8id87q-MMA1ghhnThgBsuGXJR5nV3ySeKBWo4b5nPZGHWP_1VhAD-sHIE43rhK2tq59QLyCIUqtMybABZrspJk8cc8VQQXfpL_vN6auYq/s1600/Wireless_world.JPG&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1069&quot; data-original-width=&quot;968&quot; height=&quot;400&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjK_ValP4Abtm1JaPxrcQbDGh6D9TcdidOm7hb8id87q-MMA1ghhnThgBsuGXJR5nV3ySeKBWo4b5nPZGHWP_1VhAD-sHIE43rhK2tq59QLyCIUqtMybABZrspJk8cc8VQQXfpL_vN6auYq/s400/Wireless_world.JPG&quot; width=&quot;360&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;tr-caption&quot;&gt;Exemple d&#39;une création effectuée avec le Videokalos (Wireless World,1975)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Synthétiseur
vidéo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La machine à
tout faire de l’art vidéo. Les premiers appareils sont conçus au cours des
années 1960 par des artistes et des techniciens qui voyaient là un moyen
d’explorer «&amp;nbsp;l’espace électronique artificiel produit par leurs moniteurs
vidéo.&amp;nbsp;» (Peter Sachs Collopy)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ces machines,
conçues au départ comme des ordinateurs analogiques, représentaient un point de
convergence entre informatique graphique, art vidéo et les explorations
technologiques de la contre-culture.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Deux machines
emblématiques de l’époque&amp;nbsp;: l’EMS Spectron et le Videokalos qui, montés en
cascade représentaient déjà une solution complète de synthèse vidéo analogique.
Ces appareils ont été conçus et utilisés d’abord au Royaume Uni (Peter
Donebauer, Richard Monkhouse). En France ils n’ont connu qu’un succès relatif,
utilisés surtout par Hervé Nisic, au début des années 1980 et par Marcel
Dupouy, un inventeur, toujours en activité, qui a créé ses propres machines.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Voir&amp;nbsp;: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/YaFLzghCCrg&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;https://youtu.be/YaFLzghCCrg&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;table cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;tr-caption-container&quot; style=&quot;float: left; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgtIsq2-ZRzsZnLSv5Rp7d3d7xyHBa2MYC5lljDyw5rIIX1knhK0dTS1nJlQ9hYrwwsztxy6R1R0ClWSHmdDrI1FlN6qXopX7-gxLX_qbLSS3RJbdAvkR_qpUvlRNHFWvgr7H3cG2cMcVid/s1600/Quantel_Paint_Box2.jpg&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;974&quot; data-original-width=&quot;1200&quot; height=&quot;323&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgtIsq2-ZRzsZnLSv5Rp7d3d7xyHBa2MYC5lljDyw5rIIX1knhK0dTS1nJlQ9hYrwwsztxy6R1R0ClWSHmdDrI1FlN6qXopX7-gxLX_qbLSS3RJbdAvkR_qpUvlRNHFWvgr7H3cG2cMcVid/s400/Quantel_Paint_Box2.jpg&quot; style=&quot;cursor: move;&quot; width=&quot;400&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;tr-caption&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;La Paintbox de Quantel&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La Paint Box de
Quantel&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Premier
équipement conçu pour des applications de vidéographie et répondant aux
spécifications broadcast des industries de l’audiovisuel, elle marque les
années 1980 et devient incontournable pour tous les ‘habillages’ créatifs
réalisés par les chaines de télévision et les créateurs indépendants. Elle est
aussi, surtout, le premier ordinateur numérique doté d’entrées sorties vidéo à
avoir été utilisé de manière intensive sur des clips, des publicités et des
émissions de télévision.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpLast&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les effets
spéciaux en vidéo&amp;nbsp;: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;1.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On remarquera tout d’abord la bascule
effectuée au début des années 1980. Les effets spéciaux quittent alors l’arène
expérimentale et intègrent les régies des chaines de télévision et des grandes
sociétés de post-production. Chroma key et DVE deviennent des affaires
sérieuses que les grandes structures utiliseront désormais dans un cadre
rigoureux qui ne laisse plus de place à l’improvisation. Une perte évidente du
côté de la créativité… Le début de l’industrialisation des effets spéciaux
numériques.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;2.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il est intéressant de rechercher la
généalogie des effets spéciaux de la vidéo (analogiques et numériques) dans
l’histoire du cinéma. Les caches-contrecache, la rear projection préfigurent en
effet les incrustations de type chroma key. La motion capture (ou &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;mocap&lt;/i&gt;), technique déjà plus complexe à
mettre en œuvre et dont la mise au point remonte à seulement quelques années, a
sans doute comme précurseur la chronophotographie de Marey (voir le texte de
Trond Lundema dans &lt;i&gt;Techniques et technologies du cinéma&lt;/i&gt;, ouvrage dirigé par André Gaudreault et Martin Lefebvre, PUR, 2015). Les translations et transformations (redimensionnement,
rotation) sur 3 axes, caractéristiques des DVE de première génération, n’ont
pas d’ancêtres aussi lointains. Les ordinateurs analogiques des années
1950-1960 et les oscilloscopes fournissent déjà une assez bonne approximation
de ce vers quoi se dirigera cette esthétique des effets spéciaux en vidéo. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;3.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les origines mathématiques de
l’infographie analogique&amp;nbsp;: si on peut qualifier certains processeurs vidéo
d’ordinateurs analogiques, le terme d’infographie analogique pour désigner les
créations réalisées à l’aide de ces machines peut sembler justifié. Les
possibilités de ces machines restent cependant assez limitées&amp;nbsp;: les
synthétiseurs vidéo analogiques (comme l’EMS Spectron) travailleront surtout à
la création de modèles du type pavage dans le plan et symétries. Des appareils
tels que le &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Scanimate&lt;/i&gt; parviendront à
recréer l’illusion de la 3D grâce à l’interaction de nombreux oscillateurs (le &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;scanimate&lt;/i&gt; est un peu l’équivalent du
synthétiseur audio des années 1970). Les frères Whitney utiliseront des
machines analogiques pour créer des effets spéciaux&amp;nbsp;: le générique
d’entrée de &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Vertigo&lt;/i&gt;, par exemple, et
ceux de plusieurs émissions de télévision des années 1960.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpLast&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;4.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Une théorie de certains effets spéciaux
emblématiques reste à écrire&amp;nbsp;: le chroma key (i. e. l’incrustation), par
exemple. Son histoire, sa technique, ses utilisations… Du chroma key on passera
au &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;compositing&lt;/i&gt;, ou &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;digital compositing&lt;/i&gt;, ce qui est une
manière de désigner la fabrique des effets spéciaux en post-production. L’incrustation
classique, dont l’assemblage est réalisé en plateau, cède la place
progressivement à la composition numérique, dont les principes et les
possibilités sont fondamentalement différents&amp;nbsp;: selon Lev Manovich&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn15&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref15&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn15;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[15]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;,
l’image numérique permet de composer des couches d’images en nombre illimité,
au contraire de l’incrustation électronique qui se contente d’assembler des
images vidéo de sources différentes. La différence est d’ordre qualitatif&amp;nbsp;:
la création d’univers virtuels est désormais à la portée des cinéastes.
Cependant, on remarque une évolution importante depuis la publication du livre
de Manovich en 2001 puisque, avant même cette date, on a commencé à voir de
plus en plus d’images de synthèse en mouvement apparaitre sur les plateaux télé
au sein de véritables studios virtuels.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Développer&amp;nbsp;:
digital compositing versus optical film compositing. Au cinéma comme à la
télévision les compositions numériques ont remplacé les expositions multiples
(multiple exposure) et les écrans de projection à l’arrière de la scène filmée
(background projection). Les stations de travail intégrées au sein du processus
de production ont remplacé la truca optique et la prévisualisation du rendu
final a permis au flux de production d’être plus rapide et plus facilement
modifiable.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les effets
spéciaux numériques au tournant des années 1990&amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Si une première
approche des effets spéciaux en vidéo nous amène à nous concentrer sur le
travail en régie (voir supra), dès le début des années 1980 de nouveaux
systèmes très puissants et très spécialisés vont apparaitre et étendre
progressivement le champ de la création au-delà de la régie et de sa console.
Avec ces nouveaux logiciels qui tournent sur des stations de travail
graphiques, avec un hardware spécialisé ou non, ce type de créations quitte
presque définitivement la régie de production. La complexité du travail et les
temps de rendu sur des systèmes tels que le Mirage de Quantel (qui est pourtant
positionné comme un processeur d’effets vidéo numériques temps réel en 1982),
et par la suite des machines tels que les Henry et Hal de Quantel (systèmes de
compositing haut de gamme, 1992) ou les Flame et Inferno de Discreet Logic
(compositing pour le cinéma et la vidéo, 1992), vont trouver leur place dans
les salles de post-production de sociétés spécialisés. Le coût de ces systèmes,
par ailleurs, les réservera aux grosses productions et aux diffuseurs de la
télévision. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les problèmes
liés à la rentabilité et le financement même de ces systèmes par les
entreprises qui en font l’acquisition éloigneront la plupart des créateurs
vidéo de ces nouveaux studios de production, en introduisant dès lors des
questions de notoriété dans l’accès aux aides et aux subventions, publiques et
privées. La vidéo reproduit très rapidement ce qui se passait déjà au niveau du
cinéma, en distinguant entre ceux qui ont les moyens d’accéder à des
équipements sophistiqués et aux structures de production qui les mettent en
œuvre et ceux qui devront passer par des circuits institutionnels ou plus ou
moins parallèles (c’est-à-dire des maisons de la culture, des structures
éducatives, etc.). Le vieux rêve de la télévision libre implique en effet des
financements d’un autre ordre que celui de la radio. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Un autre
problème se posera aussi très rapidement aux apprentis vidéastes du début des
années 1980&amp;nbsp;: face à la sophistication et à la complexité croissante des
équipements, il n’existe pratiquement pas de circuit d’apprentissage et/ou de
formation digne de ce nom, en dehors de ce que mettent en place les grandes
entreprises (les chaines de télévision, la SFP, l’INA et certains prestataires
privés…), sachant que pour beaucoup d’entre elles la formation se fait sur le
tas, la tendance étant alors de recruter des profils techniques, n’ayant que
peu ou pas du tout de formation artistique.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;A quoi ressemble
en effet une société de production audiovisuelle, spécialisée dans les effets
spéciaux (film, vidéo, télévision…) au début des années 1980&amp;nbsp;? &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Voir&amp;nbsp;:
Mikros, GL-Pipa, Riff, toutes ces sociétés ont été créées au cours des années
1980, au moment où la demande pour des effets spéciaux numériques explose au
cinéma et devient progressivement de plus en plus importante à la télévision.
Elles rassemblent des personnels aux profils très divers, techniques (électronique)
pour la plupart ou issus de formations généralistes mais capables de s’adapter
à un environnement en mutation. En réalité, les électroniciens eux-mêmes n’ont
qu’une connaissance très superficielle des équipements qui apparaissent sur le
marché à l’époque mais pour beaucoup, quelques éléments de formation et les
capacités d’adaptation feront le reste&amp;nbsp;: il est notoire, par exemple, que
parmi les techniciens d’exploitation recrutés par Canal Plus, au moment du lancement
de la chaine en novembre 1984, très peu avaient une expérience significative du
métier et des nouveaux équipements qu’ils allaient utiliser. Qui connaissait en
effet l’Abekas A51 ou le mélangeur GVG300, voire le magnétoscope Sony BVH
2000&amp;nbsp;? Personne ne pouvait se targuer d’une expérience d’opérateur sur les
commandes de voies caméra Ikegami HL79…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Une chose est
sûre&amp;nbsp;: rester en dehors de ce microcosme technique, au tournant de la
décennie, signifie qu’on n’aura pas accès aux nouveaux équipements qui
apparaissent sur le marché, soit parce qu’on n’en a pas les moyens, soit parce
que les connaissances techniques font défaut.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Rôle de
l’ordinateur graphique&amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’apparition du
PC et du Mac, les possibilités graphiques de ces machines à mesure que le
matériel devient plus performant, le développement de logiciels spécialisés
mais, plus encore, celui de langages de programmation plus accessibles à des
artistes qui ne seraient pas des programmeurs professionnels, expliquent en
partie le passage progressif de l’art vidéo analogique à l’art numérique. Il y
a d’autre part le coût de plus en plus élevé de la production audiovisuelle
(voir le paragraphe précédent). L’ordinateur personnel devient alors une
alternative aux équipements vidéo traditionnels, tout en introduisant des
logiques nouvelles, de plus en plus éloignées de celles en usage jusque-là.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpLast&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Autres
équipements emblématiques de l’époque «&amp;nbsp;pré-digital&amp;nbsp;» (et même après)&amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le VTR ou enregistreur vidéo sur bandes,
puis sur cassettes&amp;nbsp;(voir supra) et son complément de l’époque
analogique&amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le TBC (Time Base Corrector)&amp;nbsp;:
élément indispensable dès lors que l’on songe à relier des appareils entre eux
et à réaliser un système de traitement d’images. Le TBC est à l’origine conçu
pour aligner la base de temps d’un magnétoscope sur celle des autres
équipements en post-production. En vidéo composite ceci était particulièrement
important lorsqu’on sait qu’une erreur de phase de 5 degrés sur une
sous-porteuse couleur à 3.58 MHz (en NTSC donc) est déjà visible à l’œil.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le générateur de signaux de synchronisation
qui fournit le «&amp;nbsp;black burst&amp;nbsp;» servant à aligner tous les équipements
d’une régie vidéo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les «&amp;nbsp;mémoires d’image&amp;nbsp;» ou &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;frame synchronizer&lt;/i&gt;. En 1980 cet
équipement fait son apparition dans les chaines de télévision et permet alors
de synchroniser sans difficulté des éléments vidéo extérieurs avec des sources
produites à l’intérieur des régies de diffusion et, par conséquent, la
commutation sur des mélangeurs en temps réel. De nos jours, les synchroniseurs
sont intégrés dans de nombreux équipements. Cette évolution a rendu obsolète le
concept même de &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;genlock&lt;/i&gt;. Cependant,
des difficultés subsistent lorsqu’il s’agit d’aligner des sources audio et
vidéo.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpLast&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les DVE (Digital Video Effect)&amp;nbsp;: on
devrait ajouter «&amp;nbsp;Generator&amp;nbsp;», mais l’usage de l’acronyme raccourci s’est
généralisé. Des machines telles que l’Abekas A60 vont amener les premiers
effets numériques en temps réel au sein des régies vidéo. Les transitions
réalisées à l’aide de ces machines vont devenir omniprésentes dans l’habillage
de la plupart des émissions de télévision du début des années 1980.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’époque qui s’étend de
la fin des années 1970 au début des années 1990 est cependant celle de
l’hybridation. Les équipements numériques sont désormais présents partout sous
forme de consoles spécialisées (Paint Box, Character Generator, consoles de
montage type BVE, etc.) mais le système est encore analogique&amp;nbsp;: les
entrées et sorties, le codage, l’enregistrement et la diffusion…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les impasses et
les échecs&amp;nbsp;: vie et mort des techniques…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’enregistrement
sur disques optiques&amp;nbsp;: cette technologie n’est pas tout à fait récente,
puisqu’on peut remonter jusqu’à Georges Demeny qui avait breveté un
«&amp;nbsp;phonoscope&amp;nbsp;» qui projetait des images issues des
chronophotographies sur un disque en verre. Cependant, ce sont les
développements modernes de l’électronique qui vont permettre le développement
de cette technologie.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Un cas particulièrement
intéressant&amp;nbsp;: le vidéodisque interactif. Cette technologie a constitué la
première tentative de rapprochement entre l’image, le son et l’informatique. Sur
ce dispositif, l’image et le son sont stockés sur un disque laser de 12 pouces.
Le lecteur de vidéodisque est connecté à un PC qui se charge de piloter la
machine et d’offrir, par logiciel, les commandes interactives.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La diffusion de
l’informatique avec les PC fait naitre l’idée de l’interactivité, qui devient
un concept clé de l’imaginaire technologique du début des années 1980. On peut
ainsi se référer aux recherches entreprises à l’époque par le MIT au sein de
l’Architecture Machine Group. Un article de Richard A. Bolt, qui faisait partie
de l’équipe du MIT, fait le point sur la question&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;Les images
interactives&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La Recherche&lt;/i&gt;,
Spécial «&amp;nbsp;La Révolution des Images&amp;nbsp;», n° 144 (1983).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;mso-element: footnote-list;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;hr align=&quot;left&quot; size=&quot;1&quot; width=&quot;33%&quot; /&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn1&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref1&quot; name=&quot;_ftn1&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn1;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;calibri&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;Pour paraphraser Lucien Febvre&lt;/span&gt;&amp;nbsp;:
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;«&amp;nbsp;Annales
d’histoire économique et sociale : revue trimestrielle / directeurs : Marc
Bloch, Lucien Febvre&amp;nbsp;», n°36, Gallica, 1935.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; p.531-532.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn2&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref2&quot; name=&quot;_ftn2&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn2;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Windows, Linux ou Mac OS&amp;nbsp;:
je considère qu’il s’agit de systèmes d’exploitation qui tournent sur des
ordinateurs personnels (Personal Computer)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn3&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref3&quot; name=&quot;_ftn3&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn3;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Jacques Guillerme et Jan
Sebestik&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;Les commencements de la technologie&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Thalès&lt;/i&gt;, vol. 12, 1968, p. 44&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn4&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref4&quot; name=&quot;_ftn4&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn4;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[4]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[4]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Pour de plus amples
développements voir&amp;nbsp;: Benoît Turqutey&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;,
Inventer le cinéma. Épistémologie&amp;nbsp;: problèmes, machines&lt;/i&gt;, p. 28, L’Âge
d’Homme, 2014.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn5&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref5&quot; name=&quot;_ftn5&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn5;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[5]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; B. Turquety, op. cit. p. 79.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn6&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref6&quot; name=&quot;_ftn6&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn6;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[6]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Lev Manovich, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Software takes command&lt;/i&gt;, New York London,
Bloomsbury, 2014.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn7&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref7&quot; name=&quot;_ftn7&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn7;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[7]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Sigfried Giedion, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Mechanization takes command&lt;/i&gt;, Oxford
University Press, 1948.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn8&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref8&quot; name=&quot;_ftn8&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn8;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[8]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Jussi PARIKKA&amp;nbsp;:
«&amp;nbsp;Combien d’archéologies des média&amp;nbsp;?&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;MCD Magazine des Cultures Digitales&lt;/i&gt;, pp. 10 – 13, N° 75 (2014).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn9&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref9&quot; name=&quot;_ftn9&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn9;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[9]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Il faut remarquer en effet que dans
de nombreux pays, y compris dans les démocraties occidentales, la télévision
est restée longtemps une affaire d’Etat. La France, par exemple, a attendu les
années 1980 pour voir apparaitre des réseaux de télévision privée sur son sol. Cela
est dû sans doute au caractère particulier de ce médium qui tend à supplanter
rapidement tous les autres, mais qui permet aussi aux gouvernants de
s’introduire dans le foyer de n’importe quel citoyen.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn10&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref10&quot; name=&quot;_ftn10&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn10;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[10]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Si l’on excepte les formations
effectuées au sein d’entreprises publiques telles que la SFP ou les chaines de
télévision.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn11&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref11&quot; name=&quot;_ftn11&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn11;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[11]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Source&amp;nbsp;: Science et Vie
Micro, N°72, Mai 1990&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn12&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref12&quot; name=&quot;_ftn12&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn12;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[12]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; «&amp;nbsp;Vidéo&amp;nbsp;», dirigé par
Raymond Bellour et Anne-Marie Duguet, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Communications&lt;/i&gt;
N° 48, 1988.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn13&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref13&quot; name=&quot;_ftn13&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn13;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[13]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; «&amp;nbsp;Michel
Jaffrenou&amp;nbsp;travailler avec le temps&amp;nbsp;», Artpress Spécial Nouvelles
Technologies, N° 12, 1991.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn14&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref14&quot; name=&quot;_ftn14&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn14;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[14]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Lev Manovich, op. cit., p. 92.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn15&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref15&quot; name=&quot;_ftn15&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn15;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[15]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Lev MANOVICH, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le Langage des Nouveaux Médias&lt;/i&gt;, pp. 266
– 302, Les Presses du Réel (2010) &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
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</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/feeds/5390472750692737975/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2019/07/video-histoire-technologies_9.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/5390472750692737975'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/5390472750692737975'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2019/07/video-histoire-technologies_9.html' title='Vidéo: Histoire, technologies, développement'/><author><name>Gestalt</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10962207802973660346</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFQRD6kaQLUr1OUFCHOR0VqUEPA0--dKvSXYzAg5UJQ0jQol9BgkX2GLgvMoTGRhoojVNzRfbkL-xTjTcSsJ4EzhOxXCrqqMJAg2A-bKdz9_mG632d3cuenkDsDa043g/s220/vertov.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgtPkcVncLRaAYxRbpiee9dBIPfmlupzd08UsylDOjWPYC7S_BzM2VyfxalI51jVqK7ACsnIbsiy5R_tc83Iolkxx_zGBbMZM9NczZTICvPWn48JQlyIkDnHwWFyuROZTzC2JQvt_4-dK5B/s72-c/General_PhiloFarnsworth_Filming_People_Dancing_.jpg" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3824907278627072174.post-3017531358460547702</id><published>2019-05-26T15:21:00.000+02:00</published><updated>2019-12-15T15:27:35.576+01:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Carl Akeley"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Hans Hass"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Helen M. Rozwadowski"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Jacques-Yves Cousteau"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Jean Painlevé"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="John Ernest Williamson"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Jules Verne"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Louis Boutan"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Nicole Starosielski"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Otis Barton"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="William Beebe"/><title type='text'>Film de science ou récit d&#39;aventures ? Les origines du cinéma sous la mer</title><content type='html'>&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpFirst&quot;&gt;
&lt;u style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;RESUME&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;:
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;La
constitution d’une science de la mer a lieu alors que se développent de
nouvelles techniques d’exploration du monde sous-marin. Ces techniques ne
parviendront à maturité que vers le milieu du 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle. Il
conviendra d’en montrer le développement et d’expliciter leur relation avec les
représentations du milieu marin.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le cinéma, art
du 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle mais dont la conception et la mise au point ont lieu
au siècle précédent, devient le véhicule d’un «&amp;nbsp;imaginaire des
profondeurs&amp;nbsp;» qui se délivre progressivement du lien avec la recherche
scientifique pour constituer un genre populaire dans lequel se mêlent
vulgarisation scientifique et fiction. Les films de Jean Painlevé, dans les
années 1930, annoncent déjà ce cinéma à travers la place qu’y occupent les
animaux marins, préfigurant ainsi le genre actuel du film animalier.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’invention du
scaphandre autonome et sa mise au point, au début des années 1940, clôt cette
période et annonce l’émergence d’un cinéma ayant pour sujet l’exploration du
monde sous-marin et arrivant à maturité avec le perfectionnement des conditions
techniques qui permettent sa réalisation.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiC3UqnRGnSYok1NbItA8AHXMU8NFGLlbh2_0mJkgsq3IpZwEByXBiWAGyOdjGC7tEYG5NiCNHqlrB8fwJXmZ4G_5bRsSy_-P2hZsAXrxG1B3fzk8dWTYuRPd_5QbqhVbdXgkaEI3Sn6jGg/s1600/Capture1.JPG&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;667&quot; data-original-width=&quot;867&quot; height=&quot;492&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiC3UqnRGnSYok1NbItA8AHXMU8NFGLlbh2_0mJkgsq3IpZwEByXBiWAGyOdjGC7tEYG5NiCNHqlrB8fwJXmZ4G_5bRsSy_-P2hZsAXrxG1B3fzk8dWTYuRPd_5QbqhVbdXgkaEI3Sn6jGg/s640/Capture1.JPG&quot; width=&quot;640&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;INTRODUCTION&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ce texte se
propose d’étudier les conditions matérielles ayant permis l’apparition du
cinéma subaquatique. Le cinéma subaquatique peut être défini comme l’ensemble
des films ayant pour sujet l’environnement marin et ses habitants et qui, pour
les représenter, ont recours aux techniques de la plongée sous-marine et à
l’utilisation d’équipements submersibles. Cette définition trop large pourrait
être restreinte, dans un premier temps, au film scientifique animalier, en
mettant en avant les expériences de chronophotographies d’animaux marins
réalisées par Etienne-Jules Marey, vers la fin du 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle, et de
nombreux films de Jean Painlevé, tels &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La
Pieuvre&lt;/i&gt; et &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;L’Hippocampe&lt;/i&gt;. En
suivant Frédérique Calcagno-Tristant, on pourra remarquer que ce genre
s’inscrit dans une construction sociale de la science dont les modes d’expressions
empruntent aux trois courants de l’histoire du cinéma&amp;nbsp;: il peut jouer
«&amp;nbsp;sur la part proprement documentaire illustrée par Lumière&amp;nbsp;; il peut
aussi profiter de tout ce qu’apportent à la science les techniques de prise de
son et d’images dans la lignée de Muybridge et Duncan&amp;nbsp;; enfin, le film
scientifique animalier peut séduire en utilisant les codes du spectacle dans la
lignée de Méliès.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn1&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref1&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn1;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; On
remarquera cependant que ni Marey, ni Painlevé, n’ont tourné de films sous la
mer, et les premiers dispositifs de prise de vues sous-marines réellement
aboutis ont été l’œuvre d’un autre savant, le naturaliste Louis Boutan.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On déborde
cependant très rapidement le cadre de la recherche scientifique et de la
vulgarisation&amp;nbsp;: le premier film qui comporte des séquences tournées
réellement sous la mer est probablement un documentaire réalisé par l’américain
John Ernest Williamson, intitulé &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Thirty
Leagues under the Sea &lt;/i&gt;(1914). Ce film de 13 minutes montre quelques vues
tournées sous l’océan et, en particulier, Williamson lui-même qui tue un requin
à l’aide d’un poignard. Ces images sont réalisées depuis l’intérieur d’une
cabine submersible appelée &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Photosphère&lt;/i&gt;,
une invention dont l’origine remonte aux travaux de Williamson père.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;En quoi
cependant une telle aventure a-t-elle un intérêt pour l’historien&amp;nbsp;? Il
faut, dans un premier temps, considérer que jusqu’au début du 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt;
siècle ce monde des profondeurs était largement inconnu des populations du
monde occidental et demeurait, en fait, un élément susceptible d’inspirer la
terreur et, en tous cas impossible à approcher pour la plupart des habitants du
rivage. Selon Helen Rozwadowski, «&amp;nbsp;les historiens avaient cependant
identifié les environnements ‘extrêmes’ comme une catégorie à part qui faisait
des lieux les plus lointains et les moins accessibles, tels que l’Antarctique,
l’espace intersidéral et les profondeurs océaniques, des éléments pouvant faire
l’objet d’une analyse historique. Les environnements extrêmes ne peuvent être
approchés qu’avec l’aide de technologies adéquates mais leur histoire fait
partie des traditions culturelles et scientifiques qu’on retrouve dans tous les
voyages d’exploration partis depuis le monde occidental… Technologie et culture
sont en effet des catégories essentielles pour une histoire du monde
sous-marin.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn2&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref2&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn2;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;D’autre part, si
pour Alain Corbin les historiens de la mer sont avant tout des historiens de la
navigation et de ses techniques, il est possible aussi d’adopter une autre
perspective et de «&amp;nbsp;considérer la mer comme un élément en soi et tenter
d’en repérer les représentations élaborées au cours des siècles&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn3&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref3&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn3;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
Ceci nous invite, pour la période étudiée dans ce texte, à nous pencher plus
précisément sur cette seconde moitié du 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle, qui est aussi
le temps à partir duquel on assiste à une accélération du rythme des
découvertes. C’est la croisière du Challenger (1872-1876) qui inaugure
réellement cette «&amp;nbsp;révélation des profondeurs&amp;nbsp;» comme l’écrit encore
Alain Corbin, qui remarque que «&amp;nbsp;dans le même temps, celles-ci fascinent
plus que jamais les écrivains et les artistes, intensément stimulés par le
progrès scientifique.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn4&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref4&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn4;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[4]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il est évident,
cependant, que le rapport à la mer et à la troisième dimension de l’océan
acquiert un autre statut à partir du moment où existent des moyens d’explorer
les profondeurs et d’en faire les premières représentations réalistes. C’est ce
passage de la mythologie à la science, permis pour l’essentiel par le
développement de nouvelles techniques d’exploration des fonds marins et par la
«&amp;nbsp;photographie animée&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn5&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref5&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn5;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[5]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;,
qui change le rapport des sociétés humaines à la mer. Ce qui n’était que
fiction devient rapidement réalité, et les premiers films tournés réellement
sous la mer apparaissent au moment où le cinéma devient un art à part entière.
Il n’est d’ailleurs pas indifférent que ce soit une version de &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Vingt Mille Lieues sous les Mers &lt;/i&gt;(1916),
que l’on doit aux américains Stuart Paton et John Ernest Williamson, qui
inaugure pratiquement cette période, plaçant ainsi d’emblée ce genre
cinématographique dans le monde du spectacle. Le cinéma subaquatique jouera
ainsi, tout au long du siècle, une partition thématique qui le placera à
l’intersection du film d’exploration, du film de vulgarisation scientifique et
de la fiction.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il semble donc
possible d’étudier l’apparition et le développement de cette forme particulière
de cinéma sous des angles différents, ayant un lien avec l’histoire des idées
et l’historiographie du cinéma&amp;nbsp;:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--[if !supportLists]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Une histoire des représentations du
monde sous-marin, avec l’émergence de la nouvelle science de la mer au 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt;
siècle et les publications de vulgarisation scientifique de l’époque&amp;nbsp;;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--[if !supportLists]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Une histoire du cinéma, considérée sous
l’angle des origines de la cinématographie scientifique&amp;nbsp;;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--[if !supportLists]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’histoire des techniques, avec le
développement de la cinématographie sous-marine et l’invention du scaphandre
autonome&amp;nbsp;;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--[if !supportLists]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’histoire des relations de ce cinéma
avec différentes formes d’expérience du voyage et de l’aventure&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les origines d’une
aventure humaine et ses rapports avec l’histoire technique et scientifique de
son temps&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’intérêt pour la
représentation visuelle du monde marin doit sans doute beaucoup aux recherches
qui, à travers l’étude des productions de la nature, veulent contribuer à
l’établissement d’une &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;morphologie&lt;/i&gt;,
considérée comme une description et une classification des formes naturelles.
Dans ce mouvement, caractéristique d’un siècle dans lequel apparait un intérêt
pour la structure et l’organisation des formes, on peut citer les travaux de
D’Arcy W. Thompson, mais peut-être surtout les planches du naturaliste Ernst
Haeckel, rassemblées dans un ouvrage&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;, Les
formes artistiques de la nature (Kunstformen der Natur)&lt;/i&gt;, publié en 1904, dont
le succès montre bien la fascination qu’éprouvent ses contemporains pour des
êtres vivants que l’on apprend à connaitre à mesure que la biologie marine
distille ses découvertes. Haeckel y ajoute la dimension esthétique, que l’on
retrouve dans des planches, lithographiées avec soin et qui, selon René
Huyghes, apparaissent plus comme une idéalisation de ses idées sur la régularité
et la perfection des structures que le résultat d’observations rigoureuses&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn6&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref6&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn6;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[6]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
Cependant, ce goût de l’image et des représentations minutieuses est
caractéristique du besoin de montrer avec une précision inédite les éléments
d’un monde dont l’exploration ne fait que commencer et dont la science, dans
son besoin d’objectivité rationnelle, cherche à garantir l’apparence formelle.
On ne peut en effet rapprocher les lithographies de radiolaires effectuées par
Haeckel des illustrations de Neuville et Riou pour les &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Voyages Extraordinaires&lt;/i&gt; de Jules Verne, même si ces derniers
cherchent, autant que possible, à donner à leurs dessins l’apparence du
réalisme sérieux obtenu d’après une documentation scientifique.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’invention de la
photographie, réalisée sans doute à la même époque, quoique dans des
circonstances différentes par Nièpce (1765-1833), Daguerre (1787-1851) et Henry
Fox Talbot (1800-1877), marque cependant le début de ce que l’on peut
considérer comme la visualisation scientifique moderne. La photographie est le
gage de la représentation parfaite de la réalité. Si le panorama, inventé à la
fin du 18&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle, annonce déjà «&amp;nbsp;le rêve du spectacle
intégral, du «&amp;nbsp;cinéma total&amp;nbsp;» que des pionniers tenteront de réaliser
au début du 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn7&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref7&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn7;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[7]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;,
il n’apporte pas cependant ce gage de réalisme absolu et de fidélité parfaite,
de preuve irréfutable de l’existence du phénomène observé que semble garantir
la photographie. Aussi, le panorama et son successeur le diorama vont céder la
place, progressivement, à la photographie dans la multiplication des tentatives
pour trouver une solution à la «&amp;nbsp;question vitale&amp;nbsp;» qui consiste à
inventer un «&amp;nbsp;nouveau principe capable de montrer des figures en mouvement
avec toutes les apparences de la vie et de la réalité.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn8&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref8&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn8;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[8]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La photographie, comme
technique de reproduction automatique de la réalité sensible, s’impose comme un
important outil de documentation qui sera très vite adopté par les voyageurs de
l’époque et sous l’impulsion de François Arago, qui se fera le chantre de son
utilisation dans le monde scientifique. Les interventions effectuées par Arago,
à l’Académie des Sciences et à la Chambre des députés en 1839, seront décisives
pour la diffusion de cette découverte. Elles permettent, en effet, la
reconnaissance de la légitimité de la photographie en tant qu’invention aux
conséquences économiques et sociales profondes, et ouvrent la voie à son
utilisation dans un contexte scientifique. C’est ainsi que vont se mettre en
place les fondements d’une «&amp;nbsp;confiance dans les images&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn9&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref9&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn9;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[9]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, laquelle
aura pour conséquence de permettre l’utilisation de la photographie aussi bien
dans le champ scientifique que pour documenter le réel.&lt;u&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Quels seront
ensuite les progrès techniques et les avancées scientifiques qui seront à
l’origine de l’émergence du cinéma subaquatique&amp;nbsp;? On pourra, pour
simplifier, distinguer deux périodes caractéristiques de l’évolution des
représentations photographiques et filmiques du monde sous-marin&amp;nbsp;: celle
qui précède l’adoption universelle du scaphandre autonome et celle qui, au
milieu des années 1940, marque le début véritable de l’aventure du cinéma
sous-marin et sa constitution comme genre&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;
hybride&lt;/i&gt; du cinéma scientifique et animalier&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn10&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref10&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn10;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[10]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
et en tant que réceptacle contemporain de l’imaginaire des profondeurs des
siècles précédents.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On utilisera
pour cela différentes sources, avec tout d’abord les films et les photographies
réalisés par les pionniers de l’exploration sous-marine, mais aussi la
littérature technique concernant la plongée sous-marine, son histoire et ses
développements. A la fin du 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle, puis dans les premières
décennies du siècle suivant, c’est un mouvement général dans les sciences de la
nature qui impose l’image photographique et cinématographique comme auxiliaires
de la recherche. On retiendra ici les figures d’Etienne-Jules Marey et de Jean
Painlevé car tous deux, à leur manière, ont travaillé à la représentation du
monde animal et,&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;plus particulièrement
des animaux marins. Par la suite, ce sont les plongées profondes en
bathyscaphe, puis les évolutions en liberté permises par le scaphandre
autonome, qui permettront les développements ultérieurs de l’image du monde
sous-marin.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Cependant, il ne
faut pas s’y tromper&amp;nbsp;: le cinéma sous-marin doit peut-être autant aux
expériences menés par des scientifiques, à la fin du 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle,
qu’aux explorations permises par la plongée en scaphandre autonome et les
progrès des équipements de prise de vues.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Cette histoire
commence donc, en réalité, avec les premières images réalisées par des savants,
engagés dans des recherches situées parfois en marge des préoccupations de leur
discipline. La personnalité d’Etienne-Jules Marey émerge durant cette première
période, pré-cinématographique&amp;nbsp;: alors qu’il est encore impossible de
représenter les habitants du monde sous-marin dans leur environnement naturel,
pour Marey il ne s’agit que d’étudier plus précisément le mouvement des
animaux, en utilisant la chronophotographie dont il est l’un des inventeurs.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le travail de
Marey reste cependant en marge d’une étude concernant les rapports du cinéma
avec les sciences de la mer, mais il constitue un élément pouvant permettre de
répondre à la question principale&amp;nbsp;: comment l’exploration des profondeurs
océaniques et la représentation des animaux marins sont-ils devenus des sujets
à part entière pour le cinéma&amp;nbsp;? &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Cette question
en amène une autre&amp;nbsp;: dans quelles conditions a-t-on assisté à l’émergence
du genre du film d’aventures et d’exploration en marge du film de vulgarisation
scientifique&amp;nbsp;? On peut penser en effet que, dans une certaine mesure, le
mode d’exploitation du cinéma et la constitution d’un public de classes
moyennes dans le monde occidental, ont permis la production de films dont les
représentations demeuraient conformes à l’imaginaire colonial de l’époque&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn11&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref11&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn11;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[11]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’océanographie,
jusqu’à une époque récente que l’on peut situer vers la fin des années 1920,
n’avait jamais connu de développements importants en relation avec l’image
cinématographique. Cependant, la mise au point du scaphandre autonome et
l’invention d’équipements de prise de vues adaptés à cet environnement ont
apporté de nouveaux moyens à la connaissance du monde sous-marin.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’observation et
la recherche scientifique dans les profondeurs sous-marines connaitront par
conséquent, à partir des années 1950, un véritable développement grâce au
perfectionnement des moyens mis en œuvre par les plongeurs et la mise au point d’équipements
de propulsion. Pourtant, une question demeure&amp;nbsp;: pourquoi voit-on s’écouler
une période aussi longue entre la première invention du scaphandre autonome
(1865) et sa mise en pratique réelle qui marque aussi les débuts véritables du
cinéma sous-marin (1943)&amp;nbsp;? Ce décalage dans le temps de la diffusion d’une
invention peut être vu, pour partie, comme une conséquence du contexte
économique et politique de l’époque. L’expansion des puissances coloniales et
leur affrontement, qui semble inéluctable au début du 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle,
ont pu favoriser le développement et la construction d’autres équipements au
sein des Marines nationales des différents pays.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Cependant, au lendemain
du conflit de 1914-1918, le monde occidental connait une transformation rapide
des conditions sociales et des modes de vie qui favorisent l’apparition d’une
nouvelle sorte d’aventuriers-explorateurs. A la suite des découvertes réalisées
par l’océanographie et l’utilisation à grande échelle des submersibles, la mer
et les profondeurs océaniques n’apparaissent plus comme un monde dangereux et
inaccessible, mais comme une partie de la nature sauvage à laquelle il devient
possible d’accéder. Progressivement, la mer en vient à représenter, selon Jean
Griffet, «&amp;nbsp;une des réalités quotidiennes les plus intensément vécues du
milieu du 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle. Une telle émotion est occasionnée par
l’expansion d’une forme de vie – l’aventure – dans un espace qui lui offre tant
de possibilités de se déployer.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn12&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref12&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn12;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[12]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Considérer cette
aventure du point de vue de l’histoire des techniques nous conduit à y voir, en
premier lieu, une histoire des inventions qui ont conduit à l’émergence, puis
au développement de l’exploration sous-marine et, par la suite, du cinéma
sous-marin. Il y a cependant un danger, comme le souligne Jean-Yves Château, à
rendre compte du développement des techniques à partir de l’invention, car
alors «&amp;nbsp;on peut craindre de s’y trouver enfermé et de ne pouvoir rendre
compte de l’ensemble des aspects humains qu’une véritable histoire prend en
charge, c’est-à-dire des aspects humains collectifs, politiques, sociaux,
économiques.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn13&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref13&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn13;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[13]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
Château cite, pour appuyer son raisonnement, Lucien Febvre qui, appelant à
fonder une «&amp;nbsp;histoire technique de la technique&amp;nbsp;», affirme que
«&amp;nbsp;l’activité technique ne saurait s’isoler des autres activités
humaines&amp;nbsp;» et que, en suivant cela, «&amp;nbsp;chaque époque a sa technique,
et cette technique a le style d’une époque.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn14&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref14&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn14;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[14]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On peut alors
estimer que ces différents aspects de l’entreprise, avec des problématiques
environnementales qui prennent forme à partir des années 1960, peuvent trouver
leur place dans une histoire de l’exploration et de la représentation du monde
sous-marin.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’invention
demeure cependant le moteur de l’histoire des techniques, et la dichotomie
établie par Gilbert Simondon entre invention et innovation permet sans doute de
mieux comprendre les débats autour de l’invention du cinéma et ceux concernant
la primauté de la mise en œuvre véritable du scaphandre autonome. Ce dernier
point a son importance, puisqu’il est admis que le cinéma sous la mer, tel que
nous le connaissons, a été permis par la possibilité pour des plongeurs de se
déplacer librement sous l’eau et d’y rester assez longtemps pour impressionner
des centaines de mètres de pellicule.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Trois facteurs
peuvent caractériser la dynamique de l’évolution du système technique constitué
par le cinéma sous-marin et ont contribué à son essor&amp;nbsp;: tout d’abord la
science océanographique, dont l’émergence au 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle a entrainé
le développement de plusieurs technologies et méthodes d’investigation des
profondeurs, telles que&amp;nbsp;: sondage, dragage, microscopie, mesure des
températures, analyse chimique et expériences de laboratoire. &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Toutes ces
techniques ont permis d’accéder à une description plus complète du monde
sous-marin. Jusqu’à cette époque, en effet, l’essentiel des connaissances de la
mer provenait des navigateurs, des pêcheurs et des baleiniers qui sillonnaient
les océans. En réalité, ces mêmes baleiniers demeuraient à l’avant-garde de la
recherche océanique en raison de leur propension à poursuivre leurs proies en
dehors des voies de navigation suivies par la plupart des marins&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn15&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref15&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn15;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[15]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
Les baleiniers avaient observé, au cours de leurs navigations, que les baleines
évitaient certaines zones de l’Atlantique Nord et remarqué, dans le même temps,
que ces eaux avaient une couleur et une température différente. Comme ils
conservaient des relevés détaillés indiquant l’emplacement de leurs zones de
pêche, cette connaissance a permis par la suite de reconnaitre l’existence du
Gulf Stream et d’établir des cartes de navigation le prenant en compte&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn16&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref16&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn16;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[16]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’exploration
des fonds marins a constitué le deuxième élément, dont les développements
doivent autant à une meilleure connaissance de la physiologie humaine, qu’à des
innovations ayant conduit à l’invention de dispositifs mécaniques permettant de
respirer sous l’eau. Les recherches de Paul Bert sur la physiologie humaine,
dans des conditions de forte variation de la pression atmosphérique, avaient
aussi pour objectif&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;de trouver le moyen
de faire face aux problèmes posés par les variations de la pression
barométrique en plongée. Les tables de décompression calculées par John Scott
Haldane seront un élément essentiel dans la compréhension, puis dans la
résolution des problèmes posés par la plongée en scaphandre.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le troisième
élément est constitué par l’apparition des «&amp;nbsp;photographies animées&amp;nbsp;»
qui, selon Marey, «&amp;nbsp;ont fixé pour toujours des mouvements essentiellement
fugitifs [et qui] permettent de voir et de revoir indéfiniment des phénomènes
parfois difficiles à reproduire.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn17&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref17&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn17;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[17]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
A l’époque où il écrit ces lignes (1899), Marey est cependant convaincu que la
«&amp;nbsp;chronophotographie&amp;nbsp;» doit renoncer à la représentation réaliste des
phénomènes pour pouvoir en permettre l’analyse scientifique. Elle doit aussi se
détourner du spectacle du monde et revenir à ce qui lui semble être sa
véritable vocation, à savoir la recherche scientifique.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Aux origines du cinéma
sous la mer&amp;nbsp;: invention et imagination scientifique&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les prémisses du cinéma
subaquatique apparaissent au cours des dernières années du 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt;
siècle. L’invention des premiers dispositifs de prise de vues photographiques
conçus à cet effet témoigne de l’intérêt des scientifiques pour l’exploration
sous-marine et la connaissance du milieu marin. Il faudra pourtant attendre le
siècle suivant et, surtout, les années 1940 pour que soient tournés des films
sous la mer par des scaphandriers libérés de toute attache avec la surface.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Cependant, au
cours des deux dernières décennies du 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle et au début du
siècle suivant, des expériences menées par des savants utilisent la
photographie pour représenter des animaux marins. On les doit en particulier à
Francis Ward, un naturaliste anglais et à son homologue français Louis Boutan,
qui travaillera à la station marine de Banyuls-sur-Mer.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Francis Ward fait
aménager dans sa propriété d’Ipswich, en 1911, un atelier de photographie
subaquatique qui sera décrit par Ernest Coustet, dans un article publié dans &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La Nature&amp;nbsp;&lt;/i&gt;: «&amp;nbsp;C’est une
chambre souterraine, creusée au bord de l’eau, dont elle est séparée par un mur,
au milieu duquel s’ouvre une baie vitrée. L’opérateur se voit ainsi transporté
au fond de la mer&amp;nbsp;; il en distingue les moindres détails, tandis que les
sujets en expérience ne sauraient l’apercevoir, dans son &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;studio&lt;/i&gt; où règne l’obscurité. Il a donc toute facilité pour les
observer à loisir, sans éveiller leur attention, et déclencher son obturateur
au moment le plus favorable. Le docteur Ward a ainsi photographié, non
seulement des poissons, des crustacées et autres créatures exclusivement
aquatiques, mais aussi des amphibies (phoques, loutres, etc.) et des oiseaux
plongeurs (mouettes, pingouins et cormorans), dont il a étudié les curieux
procédés de pêche.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn18&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref18&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn18;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[18]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La Nature&lt;/i&gt; nous apprend, en outre, que le
docteur Ward «&amp;nbsp;a utilisé aussi le cinématographe, et ses films lui ont
permis de faire de très intéressantes constatations sur diverses particularités
de la locomotion dans l’eau.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn19&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref19&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn19;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[19]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Toutefois, les
expériences de Ward sont menées en dehors du milieu marin proprement dit. Louis
Boutan, qui est aussi photographe par intérêt, se rend en 1884 au Laboratoire
Arago de Banyuls-sur-Mer, où il a été invité par le professeur Henri de
Lacaze-Duthiers. Il va étudier sur place, pendant six étés, la biologie marine,
et en profite pour apprendre à plonger en scaphandre «&amp;nbsp;pieds lourds&amp;nbsp;».
Il effectue alors ses premières plongées et il est impressionné par le monde
qu’il découvre et frappé par l’impossibilité de le décrire par des mots ou en
dessinant, ainsi qu’en témoigne la relation qu’il en fait : «&amp;nbsp;L’étrangeté
de ces paysages sous-marins m’avait causé une très vive impression et il me
paraissait regrettable de ne pouvoir la traduire que par une description plus
ou moins exacte, mais forcément incomplète.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;J’aurais voulu
rapporter de ces explorations sous-marines un souvenir plus tangible&amp;nbsp;;
mais il n’est guère possible, quelque bon scaphandrier que l’on soit, de faire
un dessin, voire même un croquis, au fond de l’eau.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn20&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref20&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn20;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[20]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’utilisation de
la photographie pour ramener des vues précises de cet environnement lui semble
une évidence&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;Je résolus alors d’essayer la photographie&amp;nbsp;;
puisqu’on arrive à prendre sans difficulté un paysage en plein air, pourquoi,
me disais-je, ne parviendrait-on pas à faire une photographie au fond de la
mer&amp;nbsp;?&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn21&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref21&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn21;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[21]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;Il lui faut pour cela mettre au point un appareil
capable de photographier sous l’eau, aux profondeurs permises par l’utilisation
d’un scaphandre. En 1893, il fait construire, avec l’aide de son frère Auguste
et du mécanicien du laboratoire David, un boitier étanche pour un appareil de
type &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Détective&lt;/i&gt; à 6 plaques de 9cm x
12cm. Pour Boutan, le principe de ce premier appareil peut se résumer
ainsi&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;Utiliser l’appareil photographique ordinaire en le plaçant
dans des conditions telles que le fait de son immersion dans l’eau ne change
pas sensiblement son mode habituel de fonctionnement, et que l’objectif ne
puisse être altéré par son contact avec le nouveau milieu.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn22&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref22&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn22;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[22]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ce premier appareil
doit présenter, selon Louis Boutan, certaines caractéristiques qui puissent
permettre sa manipulation sous l’eau. Ce genre d’appareil, précise-t-il,
«&amp;nbsp;permet de faire arriver l’image des objets sur la plaque sensible sans
une mise au point préalable, à condition qu’on opère sur des objets distants de
l’objectif de plus de 3 à 4 mètres.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn23&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref23&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn23;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[23]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;D&#39;autre part, un
mécanisme automatique permettant le remplacement de la plaque impressionnée par
une plaque neuve lui permet d’utiliser un magasin et de prendre plusieurs vues
successives sans être obligé de remonter à la surface. Ce premier appareil est
cependant d’un maniement peu pratique&amp;nbsp;: pour le manœuvrer, il faut
effectuer de longs séjours sous l’eau et, pour pouvoir impressionner les
plaques de manière à obtenir des images d’une qualité satisfaisante, il faut
des temps de pose d’au moins dix minutes et, certaines photographies, selon
Boutan, ont même demandé une demi-heure de temps de pose. Dans ces conditions,
on imagine bien tous les problèmes posés par les mouvements de la faune et de
la flore sous-marine.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les premiers résultats
ne sont guère satisfaisants, et Louis Boutan met en cause le manque de
profondeur de champ permise par l’appareil. Il lui parait alors indispensable
de pouvoir disposer de la possibilité de régler la mise au point avec
exactitude.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicydvSVUucAc2qBhnwn3c4FRZx4leVe_WMOIYKFi9vlbmlSwRUqGTk-coZRcH7rObP2w9NYQDz70r6QD6CQau46UieI9ZSqHWoIf-3ku4HR4DKVGNFjIZG-71wJdF6SRnfjFhZHyU7xZkb/s1600/Appareil_3-Boutan.JPG&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;982&quot; data-original-width=&quot;1082&quot; height=&quot;362&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicydvSVUucAc2qBhnwn3c4FRZx4leVe_WMOIYKFi9vlbmlSwRUqGTk-coZRcH7rObP2w9NYQDz70r6QD6CQau46UieI9ZSqHWoIf-3ku4HR4DKVGNFjIZG-71wJdF6SRnfjFhZHyU7xZkb/s400/Appareil_3-Boutan.JPG&quot; width=&quot;400&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
Un deuxième appareil, construit en 1896, et
dans lequel les objectifs sont immergés au contact direct de l’eau, ne donne
pas de résultats satisfaisants lui non plus. Les problèmes rencontrés par la
réalisation d’images suffisamment nettes sous l’eau amènent Boutan à en faire
réaliser un troisième, un appareil pour plaques 18mm x 24mm, construit au
laboratoire Arago par le mécanicien David, et dont le principe est reproduit
sur le dessin publié dans son ouvrage principal.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Comme le premier
dispositif, cet appareil est constitué par une boite étanche, qui renferme à la
fois l’objectif et la plaque sensible, qui se trouvent ainsi tous les deux dans
le même environnement. Tout se ramène donc, selon Boutan, à perfectionner
l’objectif qui doit transmettre l’image à la plaque sensible.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les essais
effectués dans la Baie du Troc, aux environs de Banyuls, puis à Port-Vendres,
et utilisant cet appareil seront concluants. Toutefois, les dimensions et le
poids de l’appareil ne permettront jamais de réaliser une documentation précise
de la faune et de la flore sous-marines. Le travail de Louis Boutan demeure
celui d’un expérimentateur, pionnier de la construction de divers procédés de
prise de vues sous-marines, sans toutefois réussir à les utiliser pleinement
dans ses travaux scientifiques. On notera aussi que Louis Boutan a sans doute
été le premier à mettre au point et à utiliser des dispositifs d’éclairage
électrique pour les prises de vues sous-marines, en utilisant d’abord des
lampes au magnésium, puis des projecteurs à arc, enfermés dans des enveloppes
hermétiques et munies de systèmes optiques, et alimentés par des batteries
d’accumulateurs transportées par un navire en surface.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les expériences
en plongée de Louis Boutan prendront fin en 1900, sans que la question de
l’utilisation du cinématographe dans l’environnement sous-marin soit posée. La
difficulté d’emporter des équipements aussi lourds et difficiles à manipuler
représentait sans doute une contrainte insurmontable pour un scaphandrier
limité dans ses mouvements.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;A l’époque
cependant, l’image animée était déjà très largement utilisée dans un contexte
scientifique&amp;nbsp;: Jules Janssen, dès 1874, part au Japon à la tête d’une
mission scientifique afin d’observer une éclipse totale du soleil du fait de
l’alignement de Vénus avec la Terre et l’astre solaire. Il emporte dans ses
bagages le &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;revolver astronomique&lt;/i&gt;
qu’il vient d’inventer et qui doit lui permettre d’enregistrer automatiquement
le passage de Vénus, le 8 décembre. Selon Monique Sicard, «&amp;nbsp;les enjeux du
revolver de Jules Janssen, bien au-delà de la réalisation d’une série
photographique chronologique, sont à la fois scientifiques, internationaux mais
aussi métaphysiques.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn24&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref24&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn24;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[24]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
Les savants de l’époque espéraient peut-être obtenir de la sorte un début de
réponse à la question de la place des humains dans l’univers… Les
daguerréotypes de Janssen n’ont pas permis de répondre à cette question mais,
ajoute Monique Sicard, «&amp;nbsp;du moins ont-ils contribué à jeter les bases d’un
nouveau regard, presque d’une nouvelle écriture&amp;nbsp;: celle qui rendrait
compte d’un univers mouvant, découpé en tranches de 72 secondes, celle qui,
décomposant les phénomènes, ne les percevrait que par intermittence, comme par
effet stroboscopique, dans leur ordonnancement chronologique.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn25&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref25&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn25;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[25]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Marey sait
d’ailleurs reconnaitre ce qu’il lui doit&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;c’est donc à lui,
écrit-il, que revient l’honneur d’avoir inauguré ce que l’on appelle
aujourd’hui la &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Chronophotographie sur
plaque mobile&lt;/i&gt;.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn26&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref26&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn26;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[26]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Marey est né à
Beaune en 1830. Il étudie la physiologie et la médecine à Paris, à partir de
1848, et il réalise des études sur le cœur humain à l’aide d’un dispositif
qu’il adapte, le sphygmographe, pour mesurer la pression artérielle. Cet
appareil inscrit les résultats avec une aiguille sur une bande de papier
enroulé autour d’un cylindre. Marey produit ainsi des cardiogrammes au cours
des années 1860, manifestant dès cette époque son intérêt pour le mouvement
périodique et le rythme. A l’instar de ses contemporains Claude Bernard et
Louis Pasteur, Marey était imprégné du positivisme épistémologique de l’époque
et par le débat entre conceptions vitalistes et mécanistes. Ceci peut sans
doute expliquer son intérêt pour l’étude du mouvement animal. Selon Peter
Soppelsa, son ouvrage de 1873, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La Machine
animale&lt;/i&gt;, trace une analogie heuristique entre machines et organismes, en
insistant sur le fait que biologistes et mécaniciens pourraient tirer un
bénéfice mutuel de la combinaison de leurs méthodes de recherche&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn27&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref27&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn27;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[27]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Laurent Mannoni
considère que les bandes de Marey, tout comme celles de son collègue et ami
George Demenÿ, constituent en fait des films au sens que nous donnons au
cinéma. François Dagognet, de son côté, estime que ses recherches ont produit
des effets aux conséquences incalculables, allant de l’industrie aux arts
technologiques – il donne comme exemple l’influence des recherches de Marey sur
le vol des oiseaux dans le développement de l’aviation&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn28&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref28&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn28;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[28]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Selon Laurent
Mannoni&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn29&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref29&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn29;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[29]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;,
c’est en 1890 qu’Etienne-Jules Marey a réalisé les premières séries de
photographies successives sur une pellicule en celluloïd, à l’aide de sa
«&amp;nbsp;caméra chronophotographique&amp;nbsp;» à pellicule celluloïd mobile. Marey,
dont le fusil photographique réalisé en 1882 s’inspirait du revolver
photographique de l’astronome Jules Janssen, a mis au point une machine dont le
principe consiste à entrainer au foyer d’une optique photographique une bande
sensible, dont les arrêts successifs correspondent à l’ouverture d’un
obturateur qui laisse passer ainsi une certaine quantité de lumière. Il décrit
de la façon suivante sa caméra «&amp;nbsp;photochronographique&amp;nbsp;» à
pellicule&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;Cet appareil est disposé pour recevoir des images
successives sur une bande de pellicule sensible. Cette pellicule est montée sur
des bobines à couvertures&amp;nbsp;; elle défile rapidement au foyer de l’objectif
et s’arrête pendant les temps de pose.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn30&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref30&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn30;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[30]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
C’est le principe même des caméras de cinéma qui seront employées jusqu’à nos
jours.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;En janvier 1890
Marey, qui réside plusieurs mois par an dans une villa achetée au Posillipo,
près de Naples, étudie les particularités du mouvement des animaux aquatiques
en utilisant la chambre chronophotographique à bande mobile qu’il vient de
mettre au point. Il n’est cependant pas certain que les bandes recouvertes de
gélatino-bromure d’argent qu’il utilise soient du papier négatif ou le tout
nouveau support en celluloïd, breveté par Eastman.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le Professeur
allemand Anton Dohrn, fondateur de la Station Zoologique de Naples, va lui
fournir une aide pour se procurer les animaux vivants&amp;nbsp;: poissons, étoiles
de mer, poulpes et autres habitants des profondeurs proches des côtes
napolitaines.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La rencontre
avec Anton Dorhn, à la Station zoologique, représentera pour Marey une nouvelle
étape dans l’étude du mouvement animal. Naples était, au 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt;
siècle, un lieu important où se croisaient et se rencontraient artistes et
hommes de science. Anton Dorhn était convaincu que la biologie, et tout
particulièrement l’étude des animaux marins, étaient des thèmes fondamentaux
pour la science de son temps. Selon lui, la création d’une station biologique à
Naples allait servir de point d’appui pour démontrer la validité des théories
de Charles Darwin. La Station devient alors un lieu de rencontres pour des
savants venus du monde entier et près d’un millier de scientifiques de
différentes nationalités y ont travaillé au cours de la période pendant
laquelle Anton Dorhn a géré la Station. Il fait venir aussi des professeurs de
l’Académie des Beaux-Arts et des artistes, lesquels vont reproduire en dessins
les animaux marins que les scientifiques étudient. Cette collaboration
instituée entre dessinateurs et savants a eu, selon Ricardo de Sanctis&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn31&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref31&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn31;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[31]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;,
une influence sur Marey, qui comprend alors que l’on peut récupérer et traiter
de nombreuses données à partir de ces images. Dorhn met à la disposition de
Marey l’aquarium de la Station zoologique et l’aide à se procurer les animaux
marins dont il va fixer les mouvements à l’aide du tout nouveau dispositif de
chronophotographie sur bandes de pellicule souple photosensible. Le dispositif
qu’il installe à Naples lui permettra de fixer les mouvements de divers
animaux, mais aussi de sortir photographier le littoral.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’installation
qu’il met au point consiste à fixer un réservoir d’eau en verre transparent,
sorte d’aquarium mobile, sur le mur extérieur de son laboratoire, avec l’océan
à l’arrière-plan. La lumière du jour éclaire alors le dispositif en contrejour
et les animaux apparaissent en silhouette. Sa caméra chronophotographique est
disposée de manière à pouvoir enregistrer des séries d’images des poissons que
lui procurent Dorhn et les pêcheurs locaux. Marey était tout particulièrement
intéressé par les pieuvres, et il se montrait fasciné par ces animaux, dont il
avouait «&amp;nbsp;être amoureux&amp;nbsp;». Son travail consiste alors à enregistrer
les mouvements de chaque animal sur une seule bande. Ces expériences sont
relatées dans &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le Mouvement&lt;/i&gt;, son
ouvrage de 1894. Ces bandes restent cependant parmi les rares qu’il tourne
ailleurs qu’à la Station physiologique du Bois de Boulogne. &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Marey n’était
pas véritablement intéressé par l’invention du cinématographe. Pour lui, les
appareils qu’il utilisait, sphygmographe ou chambre photographique, restaient
des instruments d’étude du mouvement et les phénomènes relatifs à la synthèse
du mouvement étaient en quelque sorte des effets secondaires qui ne devaient
pas infléchir le sens de sa démarche. On peut noter que d’autres
«&amp;nbsp;inventeurs&amp;nbsp;» du cinéma, les frères Lumière, ont tenu à peu près le
même raisonnement, mettant en doute pour leur part la viabilité commerciale du
dispositif. Il reste que Marey, au même titre que Boutan, a sans doute réalisé
les premières vues photographiques du monde subaquatique, en leur ajoutant en
prime le mouvement.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les frères
Lumière, inspirés sans doute par ces images, vont produire un film, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;L’Aquarium&lt;/i&gt;, mettant en scène des
anguilles, des poissons et des grenouilles. Les recherches de Marey sont à
l’origine des études sur le mouvement des corps dans l’eau, études qui se
poursuivent jusqu’à nos jours&amp;nbsp;: on peut citer, en particulier, les travaux
du Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, réalisés par l’équipe de Gaël Clément
et Laurent Ballesta pour le ‘Projet cœlacanthe’ lors de l’expédition Gombessa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn32&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref32&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn32;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;calibri&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[32]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;,
en 2013.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La nouvelle science des
profondeurs et les débuts de l’exploration sous-marine&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les premiers
films sous-marins sont tournés lorsque le cinématographe arrive à maturité et
prend son essor comme industrie de divertissement. Il s’agit alors de séquences
réalisées à partir des hublots de cloches de plongée et des premiers
bathyscaphes. C’est la mise au point du scaphandre autonome qui permettra aux
plongeurs de se libérer de tout lien avec la surface et de se mouvoir sous
l’eau, en toute liberté, avec les équipements de prise de vues. &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Si le
développement du cinéma sous-marin est permis par l’invention du scaphandre
autonome, il l’est tout autant par la disponibilité d’équipements de prise de
vues plus légers, susceptibles d’être mis en œuvre par un seul opérateur en
plongée. D’autre part, l’arrivée sur le marché d’émulsions photographiques très
sensibles, en tous cas bien plus que celles existant jusqu’au début des années
1930, sera un progrès déterminant, pour la photographie et le cinéma. Ce manque
de sensibilité des émulsions avait cependant conduit photographes et cinéastes
à développer très tôt des systèmes d’éclairage susceptibles de fonctionner aux
profondeurs dans lesquelles avaient lieu les prises de vues. Ces éclairages
permettront aussi d’équilibrer les couleurs sur les films, dans un
environnement au sein duquel la lumière perçue devient très rapidement
monochrome, avec une dominante bleue.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt;
siècle voit apparaitre un véritable imaginaire des profondeurs porté par la
littérature et le développement de la vulgarisation scientifique. C’est aussi
l’époque de l’expansion des puissances occidentales&amp;nbsp;: les expéditions
scientifiques de circumnavigation et l’établissement des premières lignes de
communications télégraphiques transatlantiques sont des manifestations de
l’intérêt à la fois économique et géostratégique représenté par les océans.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’importance de
l’exploration sous-marine apparait lorsque les premiers engins submersibles
sont mis au point, dans un contexte de militarisation technologique des espaces
marins, et alors que des travaux scientifiques permettent de mieux comprendre
les effets de la pression de l’eau sur l’organisme. Ces travaux on les devra à
Paul Bert&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn33&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref33&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn33;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[33]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
et à John Scott Haldane&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn34&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref34&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn34;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[34]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Paul
Bert, en particulier, a élucidé le problème des accidents qui surviennent lors
de la remontée rapide des scaphandriers. Dans ce cas, en effet, l’azote de
l’air dissous dans l’organisme se libère sous forme de bulles dans le sang et
peut provoquer des embolies, parfois mortelles. Le physiologiste recommande
donc de remonter lentement et graduellement, et dans le cas où un accident
surviendrait, il préconise d&#39;enfermer immédiatement le plongeur dans un caisson
et de recommencer le processus de décompression&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn35&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref35&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn35;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[35]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
De son côté, John-Scott Haldane mettra au point la première table de
décompression par paliers et, à partir de 1907, la plupart des marines
militaires adopteront ces tables qui marquent, en quelque sorte, les débuts de
la plongée moderne&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn36&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref36&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn36;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[36]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Durant presque tout le
19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle, et malgré l’existence de la photographie, technologie
déjà arrivée à maturité au cours du dernier tiers du siècle, il n’est pas
possible de se représenter le fond des mers autrement qu’à travers les dessins
et les lithographies des artistes et des savants. Les œuvres réalisées par
Ernst Haeckel&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn37&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref37&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn37;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[37]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
et Philip Henry Gosse&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn38&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref38&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn38;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[38]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
s’inscrivent dans cette tradition de représentation artistique de la vie dans
les fonds marins. La représentation des fonds marins, au-delà de vingt mètres,
ne peut se faire de manière réaliste.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;D’autre part, la
plongée elle-même est un procédé long et compliqué, réalisé par des équipes
entières comprenant, en plus du plongeur, des hommes qui manœuvrent une pompe
sur le pont d’un navire pour lui fournir de l’air en continu. Le plongeur est
donc relié à la surface par un câble d’arrivée d’air et, en outre, son
équipement personnel est lourd et encombrant, ne permettant de se déplacer que
très lentement, dans un périmètre circonscrit. Le scaphandrier lui-même est
maintenu au fond grâce à des chaussures lestées de plomb, d’où l’appellation de
«&amp;nbsp;scaphandre pieds lourds&amp;nbsp;». &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Tout au long du
19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle, les seuls progrès significatifs en matière de plongée
individuelle seront le fait des français Benoît Rouqueyrol, ingénieur des
mines, et Auguste Denayrouse, lieutenant de vaisseau. Ils avaient ouvert la
voie en brevetant un dispositif qui préfigurait déjà le scaphandre autonome du
siècle suivant. Dans un contexte différent de celui des technologies maritimes,
Rouqueyrol avait mis au point un appareil respiratoire pour les mineurs qui se
déplaçaient dans des galeries contenant des gaz dangereux. L’appareil contenait
de l’air comprimé dans un réservoir métallique, et comportait deux tuyaux pour
l’inspiration et l’expiration. Il fallait ensuite «&amp;nbsp;détendre&amp;nbsp;» l’air
contenu dans le réservoir avant qu’il puisse être inspiré. Une membrane
commandait alors l’ouverture et la fermeture du clapet permettant l’arrivée
d’air, que le mineur régulait lui-même par sa respiration. C’était déjà le
principe du «&amp;nbsp;détendeur à la demande&amp;nbsp;» qui équipe aujourd’hui les
appareils de plongée autonome. Pour Benoit Rouqueyrol, l’adaptation de cet
appareil à la plongée sous-marine consiste seulement à inventer un système de
régulateur «&amp;nbsp;qui fournisse de l’air à une pression variable avec les
mouvements du plongeur, mais toujours égale à la pression ambiante.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn39&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref39&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn39;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[39]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
Au final, la mise au point de l’appareil résout le problème posé, consistant à
fournir la quantité d’air nécessaire à la respiration et toujours à la même
pression que celle qui s’exerce sur le plongeur. Denayrouse indique toutefois
que cet appareil «&amp;nbsp;renferme en même temps une idée aussi nouvelle
qu’importante dans la pratique&amp;nbsp;: &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;l’utilisation
d’une force vitale pour déterminer un mouvement alternatif&lt;/i&gt;.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn40&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref40&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn40;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[40]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
Et il ajoute&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;C’est, je crois, la première fois qu’on a eu l’idée
d’employer un organe aussi délicat que le poumon à produire, sans aucun effet
nuisible pour la respiration, un travail utile… Cet appareil constitue donc un &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;véritable tiroir&lt;/i&gt; de distribution d’air
mis en mouvement par le poumon, et fonctionnant par suite avec la régularité de
l’organe qui préside à la vie de l’homme.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn41&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref41&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn41;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[41]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le dispositif
mis au point par les deux inventeurs n’avait cependant pas supprimé le besoin de
faire arriver l’air comprimé de la surface, pour le stocker dans un réservoir
métallique de huit litres que le plongeur portait sur le dos. &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Pourquoi cet
appareil n’a pas connu le succès espéré par ses inventeurs à l’époque&amp;nbsp;?&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On peut penser
que le système technique en vigueur dans le monde européo-centré&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;de la deuxième moitié du 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt;
siècle, et la configuration de ce que nous appellerions aujourd’hui le complexe
militaro-industriel, étaient concentrés sur la possibilité d’une guerre avec
les autres puissances impérialistes. Dès lors, la préférence était donnée au
développement de «&amp;nbsp;grands systèmes techniques&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn42&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref42&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn42;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[42]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;,
tels que les sous-marins, les cuirassés ou l’artillerie lourde, qui connaitront
leur apogée à l’orée de la Grande Guerre. &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Si, à l’époque,
l’invention du cinématographe s’inscrit dans la continuité du système
sociotechnique constitué par la photographie et ses applications, il n’en va
pas de même pour la plongée sous-marine, dont le système consiste en une
hybridation de techniques encore mal maitrisées. D’autre part, une descente
dans les profondeurs de l’océan provoque chez l’individu des troubles dus à la
pression, bien plus importants à mesure qu’on descend plus bas. Ce problème de
la pression barométrique et ses conséquences pour l’organisme humain
représente, aujourd’hui encore, le principal danger auquel sont confrontés les
plongeurs.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il reste une question
récurrente aujourd’hui, dans un débat qui, de temps à autre fait remonter à la
surface des questions relatives à la primauté d’une invention&amp;nbsp;: à qui
revient en effet l’invention élémentaire celle qui, selon Gilbert
Simondon,&amp;nbsp; induit une transformation majeure et une discontinuité ? A Yves
Le Prieur, à Georges Commeinhes ou bien au duo Cousteau-Gagnan&amp;nbsp;? S’il
revient à ces derniers d’avoir mis au point la version définitive du scaphandre
qui allait équiper les plongeurs du monde entier, on ne saurait sous-estimer
l’apport des deux premiers, celui de Commeinhes en particulier, à qui on doit
sans doute le premier équipement de plongée autonome avec régulateur à la
demande, qui sera breveté sous l’appellation «&amp;nbsp;G.C.42&amp;nbsp;».&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’imagination
scientifique de Jean Painlevé&amp;nbsp;: comment le cinéma raconte la science&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgc6NfcYQ4TC1wF5Tl0cnPivBHZxii6foWHMnPrssrPxKUHrAdlUTCjUWA7xe8Uh6x-n_Rr6bm1Y3yHN8bFS-QvzfjxsJZU8fgbC1zciOKmtKNWQ-wq5axqzTZY5wEkMk9dbxzU54_CtCxn/s1600/305245_original.jpg&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1190&quot; data-original-width=&quot;1600&quot; height=&quot;296&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgc6NfcYQ4TC1wF5Tl0cnPivBHZxii6foWHMnPrssrPxKUHrAdlUTCjUWA7xe8Uh6x-n_Rr6bm1Y3yHN8bFS-QvzfjxsJZU8fgbC1zciOKmtKNWQ-wq5axqzTZY5wEkMk9dbxzU54_CtCxn/s400/305245_original.jpg&quot; width=&quot;400&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Jean Painlevé
(1902-1989) a réalisé une vingtaine de courts métrages sur des sujets
animaliers et de nombreuses contributions filmées qui ont servi aux travaux des
savants dans les principales disciplines scientifiques&amp;nbsp;: médecine,
biologie, physique… Son œuvre de vulgarisateur dans des domaines réputés
obscurs (les mathématiques…) s’est appuyée sur sa propre formation de
scientifique et ses liens avec l’avant-garde cinématographique et artistique de
son époque. D’autre part, ses activités institutionnelles, autant peut-être que
ses documentaires, avaient fait beaucoup pour la promotion du cinéma
scientifique en France, après la Libération. Jean Painlevé a occupé brièvement
la fonction de Directeur général du cinéma en 1944, puis qu’il fut Président de
la Fédération française des ciné-clubs, mais aussi le fondateur, en 1931, de
l’Institut de cinématographie scientifique (ICS), ou encore, en 1933, de
l’Association pour la documentation photographique et cinématographique dans
les sciences. Dans l’ensemble, cependant, on trouve peu d’études de fond
consacrées à sa production filmique. En France, l’ouvrage de Roxane Haméry&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn43&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref43&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn43;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;calibri&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[43]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;,&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;demeure la principale source biographique. On
peut citer aussi, en anglais, l’ouvrage collectif coordonné par Andy Masaki
Bellows, Marina McDougall et Brigitte Berg&amp;nbsp;: &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Science is Fiction. The Films of Jean Painlevé&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ces ouvrages
s’accordent cependant pour reconnaitre l’importance de la cinématographie de
Painlevé dans la construction d’une forme de représentation du discours
scientifique qui met en relation l’imagination du cinéaste et la rigueur du
discours de l’homme de science. L’utopie du cinématographe, au tournant du 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt;
siècle, est celle d’un instrument en mesure de témoigner de toutes les facettes
du réel. C’est aussi celle d’un œil mécanique, au pouvoir de vérité absolu, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;kino glaz&lt;/i&gt; ou &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;kino pravda&lt;/i&gt;, selon les termes popularisés par Dziga Vertov,
Elizaveta Svilova et Mikhail Kaufman. &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Cependant Jean
Painlevé, biologiste de formation mais aussi artiste proche des milieux de
l’avant-garde littéraire et artistique de l’époque, voyait dans le cinéma
«&amp;nbsp;[un] nouvel instrument de la pensée, de la connaissance et de
l’art.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn44&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref44&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn44;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;calibri&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[44]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
La caméra permet de découvrir un monde insoupçonné à l’œil nu, dans lequel
agissent, se transforment et se mélangent sans cesse microbes, végétaux,
cristaux et animaux marins. Le cinéma pourrait être alors une prothèse,
permettant d’augmenter les capacités visuelles de l’observateur, et un outil
d’analyse dans le prolongement des recherches de Marey et Muybridge au siècle
précédent. Pour Germaine Dulac, influente cinéaste et théoricienne de
l’avant-garde cinématographique en France, ce révélateur du récit de la nature
doit rester dans un rapport de stricte observation de l’objet étudié&amp;nbsp;:
«&amp;nbsp;La vérité est vis-à-vis de l’instrument, dans le mouvement et son objet.
L’œuvre de l’artiste sera d’abord, en dehors de toute déformation, de se saisir
de cette vérité et de la rendre émouvante, à un degré quelconque&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn45&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref45&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn45;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[45]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&amp;nbsp;Le
cinéma scientifique, en permettant de représenter ce que l’œil nu ne peut voir,
réalise un cinéma pur, c’est-à-dire débarrassé des artifices du théâtre et de
la mise en scène.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Germaine Dulac a eu une
influence considérable sur les jeunes cinéastes de l’avant-garde des années
1920-1930. Cependant, pour Jean Painlevé, confronté très vite au scepticisme et
aux réticences de certains savants quant à l’utilisation du cinématographe, il
faut aller plus loin et élaborer une méthodologie qui prenne en compte les
besoins de rigueur de la recherche et les capacités créatives de la caméra. Il
faut en réalité dépasser le cadre de la prétendue objectivité de l’appareil,
instrument qui se contenterait d’observer le monde en témoin impartial et neutre.
L’influence de l’outil d’observation sur le milieu étudié est, précise-t-il, inévitable.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Dès les premiers films,
consacrés à des habitants des fonds marins, parmi lesquels &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La Pieuvre &lt;/i&gt;(1929), &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La Daphnie&lt;/i&gt;
(1929) ou &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le Bernard l’ermite&lt;/i&gt; (1931),
Jean Painlevé, qui filme en aquarium pour des raisons de facilité, est
confronté à la réalité de conditions de tournage qui ne peuvent manquer
d’influer sur les comportements animaux. L’éclairage artificiel, en
particulier, indispensable à l’époque en raison de la trop faible sensibilité
des émulsions utilisées au cinéma (de l’ordre de 25 à 50 ISO), utilisait des
lampes à arc ou bien des lampes à vapeur de mercure et par la suite, au début
des années 1930, des lampes au tungstène. Dans un cas comme dans l’autre, la
chaleur dégagée par ces projecteurs était très importante, sans parler de la
luminosité bien plus grande que dans les conditions de vie réelles des animaux
observés, ce que note Jean Painlevé lui-même&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;Il arrive pour
chaque animal des complications particulières&amp;nbsp;: (…) Les &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Bernard l’ermite &lt;/i&gt;qui rentrent dans leur
coquille dès qu’on illumine, se livrent à des facéties inter-coquillères
aussitôt rendus à l’obscurité. Certaines bêtes continuent&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;leurs gestes en sens contraire quand on varie
la lumière&amp;nbsp;; par exemple se mettent à descendre alors qu’elles montaient,
si on augmente ou si on diminue la lumière à laquelle elles s’étaient
habituées…&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn46&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref46&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn46;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[46]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’idée même de la
neutralité de l’observateur, de l’absence d’interaction entre l’observateur et
la chose ou le phénomène observé est alors mise en doute, comme le souligne
cette interrogation de Paul Werrie, dans un entretien avec Jean Painlevé pour &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le Vingtième Siècle&lt;/i&gt; (1932)&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;Sommes-nous
sûrs que l’œil de la pieuvre qui ne s’ouvre que dans l’obscurité, disiez-vous,
et que vous nous avez rendu visible, grâce à des lumières évidemment,
sommes-nous sûrs que ce soit bien l’œil tel qu’il est dans
l’obscurité&amp;nbsp;?&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn47&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref47&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn47;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[47]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Pour pallier aux
difficultés d’observation dans un milieu – l’aquarium – où les conditions de
vie animale, d’une part, et la visibilité permise par ce dispositif, d’autre
part, sont très différentes de l’environnement naturel, Painlevé devra
construire et utiliser une variété de dispositifs pour lui permettre de
s’adapter à ce type d’observation. En effet, tourner à travers les vitres d’un
aquarium comporte des exigences spécifiques. La caméra qui se trouve à
l’extérieur (la plupart du temps, mais on verra que Painlevé finit par
l’introduire dans l’eau) doit enregistrer des images d’un milieu dont l’indice
de réfraction est différent. Un poisson vu à travers les vitres d’un aquarium
n’est évidemment pas le même que s’il est observé hors de l’eau. Il faut donc
prendre ces distorsions en compte lorsqu’on calibre une optique de caméra. A
ces problèmes d’optique viennent s’ajouter des problèmes d’éclairage dus à
l’absorption inégale des longueurs d’ondes de la lumière dans les différents
milieux. Paul De Roubaix l’explique de la manière suivante : «&amp;nbsp;Dans l’eau
et par ciel clair, les pertes d’éclairement liées à la réflexion peuvent
atteindre des valeurs élevées lorsque les rayons lumineux frappent la surface
de l’eau sous un angle très oblique… [En prises de vues sous-marines] la
répartition spectrale de l’absorption est très inégale suivant les longueurs
d’onde de la lumière. Dans la gamme du visible, les grandes longueurs d’onde
(675 à 575 millimicrons) – autrement dit les couleurs «&amp;nbsp;chaudes&amp;nbsp;» - le
rouge, l’orangé et le jaune disparaissent pratiquement pour l’œil et les
émulsions photographiques classiques vers 10/15 m d’épaisseur d’eau (verticale
ou horizontale). Les plus courtes (le bleu, par exemple, 475 millimicrons)
pénètrent plus profondément ainsi que l’ultraviolet (325 millimicrons) qui se
situe en dehors du visible…&amp;nbsp;». Par ailleurs, continue De Roubaix, &amp;nbsp;«&amp;nbsp;L’intensité
lumineuse mesurée à 10 m de profondeur n’est plus que de 14% de celle de la
surface, de 4% à 25 m, de 0,7% à 50 m et de 0,17% à 90 m.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn48&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref48&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn48;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[48]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
De telles conditions expliquent alors, selon lui, que pour les chercheurs et
les cinéastes des premiers temps du cinéma subaquatique il ait été
incomparablement plus facile de filmer derrière les vitres d’un aquarium, ce
qui permettait de tourner sans avoir à apporter des modifications importantes
au matériel utilisé. On a vu, cependant, que le dispositif permettant de filmer
à travers les vitres d’un aquarium ne permet pas une reproduction fiable des
conditions de vie des animaux évoluant habituellement en pleine mer ou dans des
rivières. &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Pour Painlevé
toutefois, la question n’est pas celle d’une reproduction «&amp;nbsp;naturaliste&amp;nbsp;»
des conditions de la vie animale, à la manière d’une caméra cachée. S’il faut
bien éviter les écarts générateurs d’erreurs dans l’interprétation des
phénomènes observés, il reste cependant un espace important qui, une fois le
regard du scientifique assuré, peut permettre de réaliser un authentique acte
de création à travers la représentation d’un phénomène. Certains de ces
phénomènes, d’ailleurs, ne deviennent «&amp;nbsp;visibles&amp;nbsp;» qu’à partir du
moment où la technique cinématographique elle-même a pu en proposer une autre
possibilité d’observation. Painlevé l’explique de la manière suivante :
«&amp;nbsp;On peut faire apparaitre ou disparaitre, rendre important ou nul, tout
ou partie d’un phénomène. A vingt-quatre images par seconde, aucun changement
dans une culture de tissu&amp;nbsp;; à une image par seconde la culture croît avec
des cellules qui ont tendance à se diviser et des inclusions s’agglomèrent puis
se désagrègent&amp;nbsp;; à une image par quinze secondes, la culture croît très
vite en emportant hors du champ d’observation des cellules passant nettement
par toutes les phases de la division et dont les inclusions sont agitées d’un
va et vient si rapide qu’on a la sensation d’un accordéon de matière vivante. A
une image par trente secondes on ne perçoit plus qu’un bouillonnement général
des cellules mais on assiste à l’élaboration d’un nouveau tissu, etc.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn49&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref49&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn49;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[49]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ce cinéma qui va
tenter, grâce à la technique, d’élaborer un discours original sur la
transmission des sciences de la nature, est aussi dans l’esprit de Painlevé un
cinéma tout entier orienté vers l’élaboration d’un acte créatif. C’est alors
que, comme l’écrit Roxane Hamery, «&amp;nbsp;des vedettes aquatiques envahissent
les salles obscures&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn50&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref50&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn50;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[50]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Il
ne s’agit plus simplement de documenter la vie de tel ou tel céphalopode,
mollusque ou crustacé. Les animaux observés deviendront eux-mêmes des acteurs,
grâce à une stratégie de récit et des décors reconstitués dans des aquariums où
il faudra se rapprocher le plus possible des conditions de vie réelles des
animaux. La machine de prise de vues est devenue l’instrument minutieux qui va
découper le réel et permettre à l’observateur d’accéder à la dimension
«&amp;nbsp;surréelle&amp;nbsp;» du monde, au sens où Breton, sans doute, l’aurait
entendue. Pour Jean Painlevé, il est devenu évident que «&amp;nbsp;le mouvement,
spécifique du cinéma, ajoute une grâce ou une puissance étonnante aux formes. Si
la comatule, sorte d’étoile de mer aux bras très déliés, est déjà ravissante à
voir au repos, sa grâce se développe lorsqu’elle se livre à la danse sur les
pointes. L’inhospitalière carapace de l’oursin avec tous ses piquants devient
majestueuse et inquiétante lorsqu’on y applique le grossissement du microscope.
Les piquants se transforment en colonnes doriques plus ou moins penchées et au
milieu de ces temples croulants on voit s’agiter des serpents, les
pédicellaires, petits organes formés par l’oursin comme les ongles sont formés
par notre substance.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn51&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref51&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn51;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[51]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Jean Painlevé n’hésite
pas à utiliser l’analogie anthropomorphique lorsqu’il situe d’emblée une partie
du décor de son film &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La Pieuvre&lt;/i&gt;
(1927) dans une maison et un lit occupés par le céphalopode.
L’anthropomorphisme, dans ce jeu de juxtaposition entre la beauté, l’étonnement
et le grotesque est ce qui va permettre de dépasser le cadre documentaire pour
montrer plus que le contenu manifeste, et transformer une observation
scientifique en poème cinématographique. En réalité, Painlevé était fasciné par
les pieuvres. Il semble que cet intérêt existait chez lui depuis l’enfance, et
était resté présent jusqu’au début de sa carrière de cinéaste. Il était
manifestement sensible à l’intelligence de l’animal et, même s’il n’est pas
tout à fait certain qu’il ait trouvé, pour une part, son inspiration dans les
descriptions qu’en fait Lautréamont dans &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Les
Chants de Maldoror &lt;/i&gt;(1869), sa proximité avec le mouvement surréaliste peut
expliquer la place qu’il donne à cet animal dans sa filmographie, puisqu’il lui
consacre deux films, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La Pieuvre&lt;/i&gt; et &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Les Amours de la Pieuvre.&lt;/i&gt; Le premier
film, qui nous montre l’animal glissant sur le rebord d’une fenêtre puis
atterrissant dans un lit, et ensuite glissant sur un arbre, puis s’enroulant
autour d’une tête de squelette sous l’eau est clairement construit à la manière
d’une séquence de film surréaliste, où la juxtaposition des formes et des
mouvements donne un sens nouveau à un contenu manifeste, ou encore fait surgir
une inquiétante étrangeté au-delà de la contingence culturelle de l’observation
scientifique. L’animal, qui est aussi le symbole le plus complet du mystère
primitif caché au fond de l’Océan, nous est montré plus loin étendu, endormi
semble-t-il, dans un recoin rocheux sous la mer. Un plan rapproché s’attarde
alors sur un œil fermé. Le corps de l’animal se soulève et retombe comme sous
l’effet d’une respiration puissante. Et puis, lentement, la pieuvre s’éveille,
ouvre un œil brièvement et retourne à sa somnolente léthargie. Un intertitre
nous apprend alors que cet œil ressemble à un œil humain. Ce moment, contenu
entre réveil et sommeil, laisse ressentir cependant toutes les forces à l’œuvre
dans le corps de l’animal&amp;nbsp;:&amp;nbsp;«&amp;nbsp;Sa respiration donne l’impression
de suivre une chorégraphie convulsive&amp;nbsp;: sa peau est recouverte
d’ondulations rythmées entre tensions et détentes, comme si ce corps tout
entier était l’instrument d’un musicien inconnu. Malgré l’absence de musique,
les oreilles semblent vibrer comme si elles entendaient un vrombissement puissant
– un spectacle digne du Dieu Poséidon lui-même.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn52&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref52&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn52;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[52]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
Cette chose – la pieuvre – décrite comme un être monstrueux, par la forme,
complètement inhumain, par ses organes, reste tout de même très proche de
l’humain «&amp;nbsp;par la tactilité même de sa surface organique.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn53&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref53&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn53;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[53]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;De fait, si
l’anthropomorphisme, manifeste dans ce film comme dans d’autres films de
Painlevé, est propre à la nature humaine, il devient selon Florence Riou
«&amp;nbsp;légitime, à ses yeux, d’en jouer clairement pour communiquer avec le
public.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn54&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref54&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn54;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[54]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
Et, au moment où, dans les années 1930, la société est déjà entrée de plein
pied dans une culture des images en mouvement, il est presque naturel qu’un
cinéaste qui cherche à rendre accessible au plus grand nombre les réalités du
monde animal utilise cette tendance propre à l’homme, qui est d’attribuer des
caractères humains à des formes et des comportements existant dans le règne
animal. Les commentaires sur la bande son viendront bientôt accompagner les
images et accentuer par un humour décalé cet aspect anthropomorphique&amp;nbsp;: un
Bernard l’ermite coiffé d’une anémone de mer est comparé à un pot de fleurs, le
pantopode est comparé à «&amp;nbsp;un paysan cultivant sa terre, vue de dos&amp;nbsp;»,
l’hippocampe, étrange poisson vertical est rapproché de la posture humaine…
Selon Ralph Rugoff, «&amp;nbsp;l’utilisation ludique d’images hybrides par Painlevé
va bien au-delà de l’ironie de cet anthropomorphisme. Son film sur le &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Pantopode&lt;/i&gt; amène le spectateur à se
demander si ces créatures à huit membres sont des crustacés ou des
araignées.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn55&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref55&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn55;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[55]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
Alors que, célébration ultime de l’hermaphrodite, dans &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Acéra ou le bal des sorcières&lt;/i&gt; on voit des scènes d’accouplements en
chaine de mollusques. Dans ces séquences, les créatures se trouvant au centre
sont identifiées à la fois comme mâle et femelle.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On remarque
aussi que, si de tels moments fonctionnent dans les films comme d’amusants
interludes venant interrompre la sécheresse des descriptions de la physiologie
animale, ils réussissent aussi à créer un effet d’étrangeté en mettant en
rapport l’apparence des animaux marins et le comportement humain. C’est ainsi
que, toujours selon Rugoff, «&amp;nbsp;les films de Painlevé se déroulent selon une
alternance de séquences séduction-répulsion et la mise en exergue d’un
caractère particulier auquel nous sommes invités à nous identifier, pour
aussitôt après montrer le caractère monstrueux et radicalement différent de
cette autre forme de vie.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn56&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref56&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn56;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[56]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’aquarium a été
pour Painlevé un lieu privilégié pour observer et enregistrer des images de la
faune sous-marine. L’originalité de son œuvre cinématographique dépasse le
cadre du film scientifique, et ce caractère a été reconnu en France par des
critiques de cinéma et des théoriciens de l’art tels qu’André Bazin, Ado Kyrou
et Henri Agel. Curieusement, comme le remarque Paul De Roubaix, Jean Painlevé
n’a réalisé pratiquement aucun film en plongée. Il en connaissait pourtant les
techniques, bien avant le commandant Cousteau, grâce en particulier au
scaphandre autonome inventé par le capitaine de Corvette Yves Le Prieur,
breveté en 1926. Il avait même fondé en juillet 1935, toujours avec Le Prieur,
le «&amp;nbsp;Club des scaphandres et de la vie sous l’eau&amp;nbsp;», plus connu sous
le nom de «&amp;nbsp;Club des sous-l’eau&amp;nbsp;», et ils firent des démonstrations
dans une cuve au Salon nautique du Cours-de-la-Reine en avril 1935, puis à
l’aquarium du Trocadéro. En 1937, un des clous de l’Exposition universelle sera
«&amp;nbsp;l’Aquarium humain&amp;nbsp;» du Trocadéro, une vaste cuve circulaire où
évoluent les scaphandriers à casque de Rouqeyrol et Denayrouze &lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;et les plongeurs autonomes de Le Prieur&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn57&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref57&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn57;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[57]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
D’autre part, Le Prieur avait même construit un caisson étanche pour caméra
35mm, et une photographie célèbre montre d’ailleurs Painlevé muni d’une
bouteille de plongée et portant la caméra dans son caisson étanche. Williamson
demeure donc, à l’époque, le seul véritable précurseur du cinéma subaquatique.
Une situation qui va changer avec la 2&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; Guerre Mondiale et le
développement stratégique des unités de nageurs de combat et, dans le même
temps, les premières expériences de plongée en scaphandre autonome du duo
Cousteau et Gagnan.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les débuts du cinéma
sous la mer&amp;nbsp;: une aventure technologique &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’invention du
cinématographe ouvre de nouvelles perspectives en permettant au public
d’assister au spectacle du monde. La vision du réel tel qu’il apparait aux
spectateurs n’est plus la représentation imaginée des panoramas et des
dioramas. Elle apporte en plus l’image du monde dans la salle de spectacle,
«&amp;nbsp;une image sur laquelle ne pèserait pas l’hypothèque de la liberté
d’interprétation de l’artiste&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn58&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref58&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn58;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[58]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;,
et elle efface les représentations fantasmagoriques qui avaient encore cours au
début du siècle. L’effet de réel est la conséquence de la perception du
mouvement induite par la projection de 18 ou 24 photogrammes à la seconde.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’ouverture du
dispositif cinématographique au public montre qu’il ne s’agit plus seulement
d’une machine permettant l’étude de certains phénomènes par le monde
scientifique. Cette nouvelle manière de reproduire le réel permet au cinéma de
devenir très rapidement le rapporteur des explorations d’une nouvelle sorte
d’aventuriers. Le cinéma sous la mer apparait, dès ses origines, comme une
nouvelle manière de documenter les fonds marins et aussi comme le cadre à
l’intérieur duquel on raconte des histoires d’un autre temps, hors du monde
civilisé et de la réalité historique.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les équipements
utilisés, inventés pour les prises de vues et la plongée en scaphandre autonome
procèdent autant de la démarche d’inventeurs isolés ou travaillant en petits
groupes, que des applications de la recherche institutionnelle. Cette dualité
accompagne toute l’histoire moderne de la plongée et du cinéma subaquatique. Les
inventions ne sont, la plupart du temps, rien d’autre que des innovations,
c’est-à-dire des perfectionnements, parfois importants mais qui ne constituent
pas une rupture par rapport à l’invention originale.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;De John Ernest
Williamson à Jacques-Yves Cousteau, la représentation filmique du monde
sous-marin traverse plusieurs phases&amp;nbsp;: elle passe de la ‘cloche du
plongeur’ revisitée par Williamson au scaphandre autonome et à la caméra
mobile, encastrée dans un caisson étanche, de Cousteau – Hans Hass utilisera
rapidement les mêmes équipements que Cousteau, et Dimitri Rebikoff leur
apportera des perfectionnements et inventera, en particulier, des machines
permettant de se déplacer au fond des mers&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn59&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref59&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn59;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[59]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les séquences et les
photographies prises sous la mer, à travers les hublots de bathyscaphes, comme
le feront William Beebe et Otis Barton lors de leurs&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;plongées avec la &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Bathysphère&lt;/i&gt;, servaient plus de témoignages qu’à la réalisation de
films documentaires. Les caméras utilisées étaient donc, de manière relative, à
l’abri de l’eau, tout comme ce fut le cas d’ailleurs pour celles de John Ernest
Williamson dans sa &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Photosphère&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les caméras utilisées à
l’époque nécessiteraient à elles seules des développements qui dépassent assez
largement le cadre de cet exposé. Cependant, l’intérêt du public pour les
récits mêlant l’exotisme à l’aventure, une constante au début du siècle, commandait
la recherche de nouveaux sujets qui ne soient plus seulement des fictions
tournées en studio. A partir des années 1920, les documentaires tournés en
pleine nature étaient devenus un genre en vogue et les équipements utilisés
dans les studios apparaissaient, de manière évidente, peu adaptés à un tel
travail. Ici émerge la figure de Carl E. Akeley, conservateur de l’American
Museum of Natural History, qui en plus d’être un naturaliste de renom était
aussi un inventeur. &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Akeley était parti en
Afrique pour tourner des films montrant des animaux sauvages en pleine nature.
Malgré le fait qu’il emmenait avec lui les meilleurs équipements disponibles
sur le marché, le résultat ne fut pas à la hauteur de ses espérances. De retour
aux Etats-Unis, il s’attelle à la conception d’une caméra aux caractéristiques
révolutionnaires pour l’époque. Celle-ci, simplement dénommée ‘Akeley’, est
entièrement métallique et recouverte d’émail cristallin noir. Elle emporte deux
magasins de 65 mètres, avec un pignon dans chaque magasin, ce qui rend leur
chargement très facile. Il est possible alors de changer de magasin en dix
secondes, ce qui est impossible avec n’importe quelle autre caméra. Chaque
viseur est généralement apparié avec son objectif et l’ensemble, magasin et
trépied compris ne pèse que 20 kilos, un record pour l’époque&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn60&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref60&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn60;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[60]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La caméra d’Akeley
devint très rapidement l’équipement standard pour tourner des films en pleine
nature et, par la suite, on vit apparaitre sur le marché d’autres caméras, plus
légères et maniables, telle l’&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Eyemo&lt;/i&gt;
de Bell &amp;amp; Howell. Cette dernière comportait une bobine fixe de 30 mètres,
rechargeable en plein jour. Le ressort était remonté par un moteur électrique,
son poids total n’excédait pas 3,5 kilogrammes (sans l’objectif) ce qui en
faisait une des premières caméras portables à pellicule 35mm. Une variante de
cette caméra pouvait filmer à 12, 16 ou 24 images par seconde. Compte tenu de
sa maniabilité, elle sera adaptée et utilisée enfermée dans un caisson PVC pour
le tournage du &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Monde du Silence&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Dès les années 1930, en
effet, avaient lieu des expériences pour adapter des équipements de prise de
vues à la plongée sous-marine. Yves Le Prieur avait réussi à installer une
caméra dans un caisson étanche, sans qu’il soit possible, cependant, de
commander les principales opérations de mise au point ou de diaphragme. De son
côté, la Marine américaine s’était attaquée au problème et leur Centre de
cinématographie réussit, en 1949, à tourner des films jusqu’à une profondeur de
dix-sept mètres environ au moyen d’une caméra enfermée dans un caisson blindé,
relié par des câbles à un navire en surface. Mais, là encore, aucune commande
de réglage n’était accessible à l’opérateur, et toutes les commandes étaient
effectuées depuis la surface&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;une fois sa visée opérée, le
plongeur signalait, en tirant sur un cordage, qu’il y avait lieu de mettre le
moteur en marche. Un autre signal commandait d’interrompre le déroulement du
film. Une sorte de grue permettait, à la rigueur, des effets de travellings
d’ailleurs exclusivement verticaux.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn61&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref61&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn61;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[61]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEigrHtyqR42d216GsiWLoX4YBgEBrj1WzJbWeFgdSUKXU39UXv6d_wRzmMlUi15vbpJ3A0F3_eAhmFx_1Mldz4uKFAtpmbcZA1bCowJh66f-P2vjrVQMEwrty87p3VqpCIaCA1Tk6tUFvrd/s1600/Aquaflex.JPG&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;775&quot; data-original-width=&quot;675&quot; height=&quot;400&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEigrHtyqR42d216GsiWLoX4YBgEBrj1WzJbWeFgdSUKXU39UXv6d_wRzmMlUi15vbpJ3A0F3_eAhmFx_1Mldz4uKFAtpmbcZA1bCowJh66f-P2vjrVQMEwrty87p3VqpCIaCA1Tk6tUFvrd/s400/Aquaflex.JPG&quot; width=&quot;347&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;A la même époque, en
France, André Coutant et Jacques Mathot mettaient au point une version
submersible de leur Caméflex 16-35mm qu’ils baptisaient &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Aquaflex. &lt;/i&gt;Cette caméra était constituée par un caisson étanche
comprenant deux parties&amp;nbsp;: l’une, à l’avant, renfermant la caméra avec ses
commandes et les accumulateurs&amp;nbsp;; l’autre, à l’arrière, qui enveloppe le
chargeur automatique. Elle comportait en outre un stabilisateur de 1,20 m
d’envergure et une dérive, ce qui lui donnait le profil assez caractéristique
d’un petit avion. La caméra était dotée d’une visée reflex, et les commandes de
l’objectif étaient accessibles à l’opérateur grâce à des boutons et une manette
de marche/arrêt se trouvant à proximité de la poignée de maintien de l’appareil.
Reste la question de la pression barométrique. André Coutant décrit de la
manière suivante la solution apportée&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;Pour contrebalancer la
pression de l’eau sans risques de fuites, une bouteille d’air comprimé, chargée
à 150 kg/cm² et reliée à un détendeur, assure automatiquement une pression
intérieure qui excède de 150 g environ la pression ambiante, quelle que soit la
profondeur d’utilisation. L’équilibre des pressions, lors de la remontée, se
rétablit automatiquement grâce à une soupape de décompression.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn62&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref62&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn62;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[62]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Cette caméra fut
utilisée pour la première fois pour réaliser les séquences sous-marines de &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;L’Epave&lt;/i&gt; (1949), réalisé par Willy
Rozier, l’un des tous premiers films de «&amp;nbsp;fiction sous-marine&amp;nbsp;».&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhsr7rli38RAdxdxtUypKx_OGQyAvCzyyegnAqeTcAwBHv-pOwCt2vjG_YJ-T57UuZqrcxy_oych8t8FoD4YtDhFu0SjIc47OEXuAG_mwCOKCysj7-RN17a1nR0XZAcEpKLC9kyx4FmT2Je/s1600/IMG_0140.JPG&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1600&quot; data-original-width=&quot;1200&quot; height=&quot;320&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhsr7rli38RAdxdxtUypKx_OGQyAvCzyyegnAqeTcAwBHv-pOwCt2vjG_YJ-T57UuZqrcxy_oych8t8FoD4YtDhFu0SjIc47OEXuAG_mwCOKCysj7-RN17a1nR0XZAcEpKLC9kyx4FmT2Je/s320/IMG_0140.JPG&quot; width=&quot;240&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le cinéma sous la mer
et son temps&amp;nbsp;: la recherche de la nouvelle frontière et l’aventure comme
style de vie&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le cinéma sous
la mer n’est pas un genre à part. Il s’inscrit en fait dans la vogue
croissante, depuis le début du siècle, des films de nature et d’exploration, un
genre hybride qui cherche à s’émanciper du cadre savant pour des raisons
commerciales, esthétiques ou de style de vie&amp;nbsp;; un style qui s’apparente
aussi à une esthétisation du personnage de l’explorateur qui représente, d’une
certaine manière, le rejet des conventions de la vie bourgeoise autant que le
désir de repousser les frontières d’un monde devenu trop étroit. C’est un
cinéma qui veut représenter l’aventure et qui trouve dans la nature un
réservoir inépuisable d’histoires. Mais c’est surtout une manière de se
raconter soi-même, ce qui apparait tant dans les premiers films de John Ernest
Williamson que dans ceux, plus tard, de Hass et Cousteau. Tout ceci participe,
en somme, à la création d’une utopie maritime au 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle&amp;nbsp;:
celle qui conduit aventuriers et savants vers la quête du nouveau monde des
profondeurs.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il faut sans doute
revenir à la manière dont s’est constitué le petit groupe de plongeurs, qui
avec le concours de la figure tutélaire de Cousteau a pu produire cette
histoire des «&amp;nbsp;nouveaux explorateurs&amp;nbsp;» du monde des abysses. Il est
certain que Cousteau lui-même a bénéficié, ou à su s’emparer, d’une idée encore
très présente à l’époque, qui voit selon George Basalla, cité par David&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;Edgerton, émerger «&amp;nbsp;l’inventeur comme
héros, et particulièrement comme héros national.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn63&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref63&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn63;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[63]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
Cet «&amp;nbsp;inventeur héroïque&amp;nbsp;», dont le personnage s’inscrit dans la
conscience moderne depuis le milieu du siècle précédent, a joué un rôle non
négligeable dans la diffusion des innovations liées à l’exploration puis à la
représentation du monde sous-marin.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ce n’est certainement
pas le seul élément à prendre en compte dans le développement de
l’extraordinaire popularité que vont connaitre «&amp;nbsp;Le Commandant&amp;nbsp;» et
ses compagnons de la première heure.&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;Il
y a aussi, tout autant, l’attrait de l’époque pour les récits d’aventure, les
voyages et les débuts du tourisme de masse, avec en particulier la création des
premiers clubs de plongée&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn64&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref64&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn64;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[64]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;C’est aussi l’histoire
d’une époque&amp;nbsp;: les représentations de l’indigène habitant les rivages
marins et de ses rapports avec la mer, sont tributaires de l’épopée coloniale
des puissances occidentales. Au 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle, les expéditions
océanographiques ont popularisé auprès du public européen l’idée d’un monde
sous-marin imaginé comme espace intemporel, vierge de tout contact avec les
humains et la civilisation, ouvert à la colonisation sans que cela suscite une
opposition. Cette vision prend place dans une conception plus générale des
tropiques, définies comme une invention européenne ayant produit un système de
significations englobant imaginaire et fantasmes coloniaux de l’époque. Selon
Franziska Torma, c’est à travers le concept de «&amp;nbsp;tropicalité&amp;nbsp;» que
l’on peut le mieux rendre compte de la manière dont les voyageurs et les savants
occidentaux ont pu assoir leur perception de ces nouvelles contrées à
explorer&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;soit ils conçoivent l’environnement comme paradis, lieu
de l’innocence et de la simplicité que l’Occident a perdu, soit comme un espace
fertile mais encore primitif qui n’attend que la civilisation et la
modernisation portées par l’Occident.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn65&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref65&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn65;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[65]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
Hans Hass et Jacques-Yves Cousteau, agents parmi les plus en vue de
l’océanographie au 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle, sont aussi des personnages dont les
expéditions, à partir des années 1940, peuvent être considérées comme une étape
dans la transition de l’âge colonial à l’âge postcolonial.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;De Williamson et Beebe
à Hass et Cousteau, la quête des profondeurs s’apparente au spectacle d’un
monde hors du temps, d’un espace au sein duquel sont absentes les notions de
pouvoir et de hiérarchie constitutives de l’ordre social. Le récit de la
science s’apparente alors à une quête personnelle et à sa représentation, d’où
n’est pas absente la «&amp;nbsp;gestion du sensationnel&amp;nbsp;» selon Gary Kroll&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn66&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref66&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn66;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[66]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’utilisation des médias
audiovisuels pour diffuser leurs aventures est une constante dès lors que la
radio (Beebe) puis la télévision (Cousteau) le permettent.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’appétit du public
pour ces récits est une constante tout au long du 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle. En
France on se passionnera pour les voyages en solitaire d’Alain Gerbault et
bientôt aussi pour les explorations sous-marines de Bernard Gorsky et de ses
compagnons du &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Moana&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On ne peut cependant
séparer le besoin de publicité manifesté par ces nouveaux explorateurs de la
nécessité de disposer d’importantes sources de financement. Le père de John
Ernest Williamson, entrepreneur avisé, est derrière l’aventure de son fils.
Otis Barton, héritier d’une fortune considérable se tient aux côtés de William
Beebe, auquel il apporte toutefois ses connaissances d’ingénieur qui permettent
la conception de la ‘Bathysphere’. Cousteau obtiendra l’aide d’un homme
d’affaires, Thomas Loel Guinness, qui rachète un ancien dragueur de mines, la C&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;alypso&lt;/i&gt;, qu’il met à sa disposition&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn67&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref67&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn67;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[67]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Cette époque est aussi
celle au cours de laquelle les menaces qui pèsent sur l’environnement
apparaissent dans les écrits d’intellectuels et de scientifiques. En 1951
Rachel Carson publie &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;The Sea Around Us&lt;/i&gt;,
qui préfigure sans doute son ouvrage le plus célèbre, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Silent Spring&lt;/i&gt; (1962). L’écologie comme nouvelle frontière est la
nouvelle utopie, qui change les représentations des aventures maritimes des
plongeurs et des cinéastes à travers l’inflexion d’un discours qui, jusque-là
était surtout consacré à la diffusion d’une version idéalisée de leurs
expéditions.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le passage progressif,
à partir des années 1960, du film d’aventures marines au film environnemental
marque aussi le début de la pénétration du discours écologiste dans les récits
des explorateurs et des cinéastes de la mer. Cette évolution de la représentation
de la nature en général a donné lieu à de nombreux travaux de recherche dans le
champ de l’histoire du cinéma documentaire en général et du film de science. On
notera que les principales références proviennent du monde anglo-saxon, où la
thématique des rapports entre cinéma et écologie est très présente&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn68&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref68&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn68;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[68]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;u&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;CONCLUSION&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgigACFMSJ7vz92UeW3KFEjdRB9YTFQ4SQRzBM1smYhV3qpGwLMhBnu025rhpTq56pfgdncZU-POedqMMh8r8-uK0W91_xRIJzXVVLjxOTaLTioPt45EVyCrZNsn52jz09P5He1CpyCWDwD/s1600/RS440_photographie_Sous-Marine_Boutan.jpg&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1600&quot; data-original-width=&quot;1233&quot; height=&quot;400&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgigACFMSJ7vz92UeW3KFEjdRB9YTFQ4SQRzBM1smYhV3qpGwLMhBnu025rhpTq56pfgdncZU-POedqMMh8r8-uK0W91_xRIJzXVVLjxOTaLTioPt45EVyCrZNsn52jz09P5He1CpyCWDwD/s400/RS440_photographie_Sous-Marine_Boutan.jpg&quot; width=&quot;307&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;D&#39;une manière générale
c’est l’historiographie du cinéma subaquatique qui reste à faire. L’un des
apports importants de ce genre cinématographique, qui consiste pour l’essentiel
à raconter l’exploration du monde sous-marin et à fournir une représentation de
ses habitants, sera la modification progressive du rapport aux animaux marins
dans la conscience des spectateurs des classes moyennes en Occident. D’une
certaine manière, les aventures de Hass et Cousteau et de leurs épigones vont
donner une représentation idéalisée de ce qui peut paraitre comme l’émergence
d’une conscience environnementale au 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle. C’est ainsi que
les personnages du chasseur sous-marin et de l’aventurier cèdent peu à peu la
place à celui de l’explorateur, conscient de l’importance de la préservation de
l’environnement et dont les films vont désormais traduire cette prise de
conscience. C’est une inflexion majeure, qui relègue désormais à un rôle
subsidiaire la question de l’aventure en solitaire dans un monde globalisé, où
priment les enjeux de sauvegarde de la biodiversité et dont le cinéma devrait
pouvoir rendre compte.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;C’est aussi une époque
au cours de laquelle la télévision jouera un rôle de plus en plus important, en
aidant à créer des stéréotypes de poissons et de mammifères marins aptes à
capter l’attention du public et à susciter son empathie. Ce sera le cas du
dauphin puis plus tard de son proche cousin l’orque, vedette de la franchise
‘Willy’ au cours des années 1990&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn69&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref69&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn69;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[69]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Deux éléments
importants dans cette évolution&amp;nbsp;: le développement du cinéma comme outil
pour l’enseignement et la recherche scientifique coïncide avec la montée du
système hollywoodien du ‘&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;mass
entertainment’&lt;/i&gt; d’une part, et une représentation
«&amp;nbsp;anthropomorphisée&amp;nbsp;» du monde animal, d’autre part. Les
documentaires animaliers produits par Disney, à partir de la fin des années
1940, vont présenter au public américain d’abord, une version sentimentale et
expurgée des scènes les plus difficiles à montrer à une époque, celle de
l’immédiat après-guerre, au cours de laquelle le spectacle de la violence et de
la mort paraissent insupportables&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftn70&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref70&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn70;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[70]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhmwmDk4ObEfI91OdrV8yQhGfmMzYsiF587dlEHyhVvw_4rbTWG_VxrwgLSRyeU8IUKlh5_qGU60crSvmNtIJaBHjdTrGcCjJTWAyZUAJ2OXC2yPcILmIPssYQptH43TEEqhapHiUWcNZ1N/s1600/Capture2.JPG&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;576&quot; data-original-width=&quot;840&quot; height=&quot;438&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhmwmDk4ObEfI91OdrV8yQhGfmMzYsiF587dlEHyhVvw_4rbTWG_VxrwgLSRyeU8IUKlh5_qGU60crSvmNtIJaBHjdTrGcCjJTWAyZUAJ2OXC2yPcILmIPssYQptH43TEEqhapHiUWcNZ1N/s640/Capture2.JPG&quot; width=&quot;640&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;mso-element: footnote-list;&quot;&gt;
&lt;hr align=&quot;left&quot; size=&quot;1&quot; width=&quot;33%&quot; /&gt;
&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;

&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn1&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref1&quot; name=&quot;_ftn1&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn1;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&quot;citationID&quot;:&quot;Ikh4tE8Z&quot;,&quot;properties&quot;:{&quot;formattedCitation&quot;:&quot;Fr\\uc0\\u233{}d\\uc0\\u233{}rique
Calcagno-Tristant, {\\i{}Le film animalier: rh\\uc0\\u233{}toriques
d\\uc0\\u8217{}un genre du film scientifique, 1950-2000} (Paris, France,
2005).&quot;,&quot;plainCitation&quot;:&quot;Frédérique Calcagno-Tristant, Le
film animalier: rhétoriques d’un genre du film scientifique, 1950-2000 (Paris,
France, 2005).&quot;,&quot;dontUpdate&quot;:true,&quot;noteIndex&quot;:5},&quot;citationItems&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:1058,&quot;uris&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/ENK3VRTS&quot;],&quot;uri&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/ENK3VRTS&quot;],&quot;itemData&quot;:{&quot;id&quot;:1058,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;book&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Le
film animalier: rhétoriques d&#39;un genre du film scientifique,
1950-2000&quot;,&quot;publisher-place&quot;:&quot;Paris,
France&quot;,&quot;number-of-pages&quot;:&quot;337&quot;,&quot;source&quot;:&quot;Library
Catalog - www.sudoc.abes.fr&quot;,&quot;event-place&quot;:&quot;Paris,
France&quot;,&quot;abstract&quot;:&quot;Comment s&#39;y retrouver dans les méandres
du film animalier, tantôt film de recherche, d&#39;enseignement, documentaire,
fiction... et tantôt film scientifique ? Comment ne pas tomber dans les vieux
débats insolubles des genres convoquant toujours les mêmes concepts (réel,
réalité, fiction, imaginaire...) ? Et comment aussi faire sortir le film
scientifique animalier de son anonymat vis-à-vis du public et, finalement, de
son statut hybride ? Le film scientifique animalier serait-il victime du
mélange ou de la porosité des genres, ou relèverait-il d&#39;une stratégie
intentionnelle de dissimulation ?&quot;,&quot;ISBN&quot;:&quot;978-2-7475-9441-7&quot;,&quot;shortTitle&quot;:&quot;Le
film
animalier&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;français&quot;,&quot;author&quot;:[{&quot;family&quot;:&quot;Calcagno-Tristant&quot;,&quot;given&quot;:&quot;Frédérique&quot;}],&quot;issued&quot;:{&quot;date-parts&quot;:[[&quot;2005&quot;]],&quot;season&quot;:&quot;DL&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;, cop.
2005&quot;}}}],&quot;schema&quot;:&quot;https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json&quot;}
&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-separator&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Frédérique
Calcagno-Tristant, &lt;i&gt;Le film animalier: rhétoriques d’un genre du film
scientifique, 1950-2000&lt;/i&gt; (L&#39;Harmattan Paris, 2005)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;,&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;p. 96.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn2&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref2&quot; name=&quot;_ftn2&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn2;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&quot;citationID&quot;:&quot;9ASWxCgR&quot;,&quot;properties&quot;:{&quot;formattedCitation&quot;:&quot;Helen
M. Rozwadowski, \\uc0\\u171{}\\uc0\\u160{}From Danger Zone to World of Wonder:
The 1950s Transformation of the Ocean\\uc0\\u8217{}s
Depths\\uc0\\u160{}\\uc0\\u187{}, {\\i{}Interdisciplinary Journal of Maritime
Studies} 4, n\\super o\\nosupersub{} 1 (24 septembre 2013).&quot;,&quot;plainCitation&quot;:&quot;Helen
M. Rozwadowski, « From Danger Zone to World of Wonder: The 1950s
Transformation of the Ocean’s Depths », Interdisciplinary Journal of
Maritime Studies 4, no 1 (24 septembre 2013).&quot;,&quot;noteIndex&quot;:1},&quot;citationItems&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:1278,&quot;uris&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/C5BXK7GT&quot;],&quot;uri&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/C5BXK7GT&quot;],&quot;itemData&quot;:{&quot;id&quot;:1278,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;article-journal&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;From
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Studies&quot;,&quot;volume&quot;:&quot;4&quot;,&quot;issue&quot;:&quot;1&quot;,&quot;source&quot;:&quot;ijms.nmdl.org&quot;,&quot;abstract&quot;:&quot;Characterization
of the ocean as remote, extreme and inaccessible is cultural rather than
absolute.&lt;span style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;Today we think about the sea,
especially its depths, in similar terms as outer space or the Antarctic.&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;While the profound depths constitute an
extreme environment for human bodies, so can a few feet of water.&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;The history of the ocean’s third dimension
reveals different conceptions of the ocean’s depths at different times.&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;The introduction of self-contained underwater
breathing apparatus dramatically altered our human relationship with the depths
in the 1950s.&lt;span style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;Formerly the turf of
military frogmen and skin-diving spear-hunters, the undersea realm opened up to
ordinary people:&lt;span style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;civilians, non-hunters,
women, children, photographers, scientists, film-makers, treasure-hunters, and
consumers of products advertised in conjunction with diving.&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;During the first decade of undersea
exploration, the underwater realm was transformed from a place of danger to a
place of wonder.&lt;span style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;Early on, sharks and
octopi were terrible monsters intent on attacking people, while the depths
threatened divers with deadly “rapture of the deep.”&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;After more people experienced the underwater
world, and more was known about it, the conception of divable depths shifted to
a place of mystery and wonder, accessible to women as well as men, and safe
even for kids.&lt;span style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;This transformation – visible
through advertisements, popular and scientific literature, diving training
materials and movies and tv shows – was wrought by a combination of
technological change, new scientific knowledge, and also simply the experiences
of the increasingly large numbers of people who went undersea or wanted to do
so.&quot;,&quot;ISSN&quot;:&quot;2163-8381&quot;,&quot;shortTitle&quot;:&quot;From
Danger Zone to World of
Wonder&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;,&quot;author&quot;:[{&quot;family&quot;:&quot;Rozwadowski&quot;,&quot;given&quot;:&quot;Helen
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M. Rozwadowski, «&amp;nbsp;From Danger Zone to World of Wonder: The 1950s
Transformation of the Ocean’s Depths&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i&gt;Interdisciplinary Journal of
Maritime Studies&lt;/i&gt; 4, n&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; 1 (24 septembre 2013).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn3&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref3&quot; name=&quot;_ftn3&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn3;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&quot;citationID&quot;:&quot;dqOkGwBv&quot;,&quot;properties&quot;:{&quot;formattedCitation&quot;:&quot;Thierry
Claerr et al., {\\i{}La mer, terreur et fascination:}, \\uc0\\u233{}d. par
Alain Corbin et H\\uc0\\u233{}l\\uc0\\u232{}ne Richard (Paris, France:
Biblioth\\uc0\\u232{}que nationale de France\\uc0\\u8239{}: Seuil,
2004).&quot;,&quot;plainCitation&quot;:&quot;Thierry Claerr et al., La mer,
terreur et fascination:, éd. par Alain Corbin et Hélène Richard (Paris, France:
Bibliothèque nationale de France : Seuil, 2004).&quot;,&quot;noteIndex&quot;:2},&quot;citationItems&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:1286,&quot;uris&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/M9C5ZK4R&quot;],&quot;uri&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/M9C5ZK4R&quot;],&quot;itemData&quot;:{&quot;id&quot;:1286,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;book&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;La
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nationale de
France&quot;,&quot;given&quot;:&quot;&quot;},{&quot;family&quot;:&quot;Le
Quartz&quot;,&quot;given&quot;:&quot;&quot;}],&quot;issued&quot;:{&quot;date-parts&quot;:[[&quot;2004&quot;]]}}}],&quot;schema&quot;:&quot;https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json&quot;}
&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-separator&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Thierry
Claerr et al., &lt;i&gt;La mer, terreur et fascination:&lt;/i&gt;, éd. par Alain Corbin et
Hélène Richard (Paris, France: Bibliothèque nationale de France : Seuil, 2004)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;, p.12&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn4&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref4&quot; name=&quot;_ftn4&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn4;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[4]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; A. Corbin, op. cit. p.13&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn5&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
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style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&quot;citationID&quot;:&quot;ZkgLkc6v&quot;,&quot;properties&quot;:{&quot;formattedCitation&quot;:&quot;Eug\\uc0\\u232{}ne
Trutat et \\uc0\\u201{}tienne-Jules Marey, {\\i{}La photographie
anim\\uc0\\u233{}e} (Paris, France: Gauthier-Villars, imprimeur-libraire,
\\uc0\\u233{}diteur de la Biblioth\\uc0\\u232{}que photographique,
1899).&quot;,&quot;plainCitation&quot;:&quot;Eugène Trutat et Étienne-Jules
Marey, La photographie animée (Paris, France: Gauthier-Villars,
imprimeur-libraire, éditeur de la Bibliothèque photographique,
1899).&quot;,&quot;noteIndex&quot;:4},&quot;citationItems&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:1263,&quot;uris&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/J59WJJKD&quot;],&quot;uri&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/J59WJJKD&quot;],&quot;itemData&quot;:{&quot;id&quot;:1263,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;book&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;La
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imprimeur-libraire, éditeur de la Bibliothèque
photographique&quot;,&quot;publisher-place&quot;:&quot;Paris,
France&quot;,&quot;number-of-pages&quot;:&quot;xii+185;
1&quot;,&quot;source&quot;:&quot;Library Catalog - www.sudoc.abes.fr&quot;,&quot;event-place&quot;:&quot;Paris,
France&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;français&quot;,&quot;author&quot;:[{&quot;family&quot;:&quot;Trutat&quot;,&quot;given&quot;:&quot;Eugène&quot;},{&quot;family&quot;:&quot;Marey&quot;,&quot;given&quot;:&quot;Étienne-Jules&quot;}],&quot;issued&quot;:{&quot;date-parts&quot;:[[&quot;1899&quot;]]}}}],&quot;schema&quot;:&quot;https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json&quot;}
&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-separator&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Eugène
Trutat, &lt;i&gt;La photographie animée&lt;/i&gt; (Paris, France: Gauthier-Villars,
imprimeur-libraire, éditeur de la Bibliothèque photographique, 1899).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn6&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref6&quot; name=&quot;_ftn6&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn6;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[6]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; René Huyghes, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Formes et forces&lt;/i&gt;, Flammarion, 1971, p.
130-131.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn7&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref7&quot; name=&quot;_ftn7&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn7;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[7]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Laurent Mannoni, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le grand art de la lumière et de l’ombre.
Archéologie du cinéma&lt;/i&gt;, Nathan, 1995, p. 169.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn8&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref8&quot; name=&quot;_ftn8&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn8;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[8]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; T. W. Naylor, dans &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;The Mechanic’s magazine&lt;/i&gt; (1843), cité par
Laurent Mannoni, op. cit. p. 211.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn9&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref9&quot; name=&quot;_ftn9&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn9;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[9]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Monique Sicard, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La Fabrique du regard&lt;/i&gt;, Odile Jacob,
1998, p. 98.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn10&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref10&quot; name=&quot;_ftn10&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn10;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[10]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Pour reprendre le terme utilisé
par &lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&quot;citationID&quot;:&quot;Ikh4tE8Z&quot;,&quot;properties&quot;:{&quot;formattedCitation&quot;:&quot;Fr\\uc0\\u233{}d\\uc0\\u233{}rique
Calcagno-Tristant, {\\i{}Le film animalier: rh\\uc0\\u233{}toriques
d\\uc0\\u8217{}un genre du film scientifique, 1950-2000} (Paris, France,
2005).&quot;,&quot;plainCitation&quot;:&quot;Frédérique Calcagno-Tristant, Le
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France, 2005).&quot;,&quot;dontUpdate&quot;:true,&quot;noteIndex&quot;:5},&quot;citationItems&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:1058,&quot;uris&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/ENK3VRTS&quot;],&quot;uri&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/ENK3VRTS&quot;],&quot;itemData&quot;:{&quot;id&quot;:1058,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;book&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Le
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animalier&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;français&quot;,&quot;author&quot;:[{&quot;family&quot;:&quot;Calcagno-Tristant&quot;,&quot;given&quot;:&quot;Frédérique&quot;}],&quot;issued&quot;:{&quot;date-parts&quot;:[[&quot;2005&quot;]],&quot;season&quot;:&quot;DL&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;, cop.
2005&quot;}}}],&quot;schema&quot;:&quot;https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json&quot;}
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Calcagno-Tristant, &lt;i&gt;Le film animalier: rhétoriques d’un genre du film
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style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref11&quot; name=&quot;_ftn11&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn11;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;calibri&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[11]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;Voir&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;Nicole &lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&quot;citationID&quot;:&quot;JAYYcp4r&quot;,&quot;properties&quot;:{&quot;formattedCitation&quot;:&quot;{\\rtf
Starosielsky, \\uc0\\u171{}\\uc0\\u160{}Beyond
Fluidity\\uc0\\u160{}\\uc0\\u187{}.}&quot;,&quot;plainCitation&quot;:&quot;Starosielsky,
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«&amp;nbsp;&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Beyond Fluidity : a cultural
history of cinema underwater&amp;nbsp;&lt;/i&gt;», in Ecocinema, Theory and Practice, Ed.
S. Rust, S. Monani, S. Cubitt (2013) p. 149-168.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn12&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref12&quot; name=&quot;_ftn12&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn12;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[12]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&quot;citationID&quot;:&quot;luFB14W1&quot;,&quot;properties&quot;:{&quot;formattedCitation&quot;:&quot;Jean
Griffet, {\\i{}Aventures marines: images et pratiques} (Paris, France:
L\\uc0\\u8217{}Harmattan, 1995).&quot;,&quot;plainCitation&quot;:&quot;Jean
Griffet, Aventures marines: images et pratiques (Paris, France: L’Harmattan,
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Catalog - www.sudoc.abes.fr&quot;,&quot;event-place&quot;:&quot;Paris,
France&quot;,&quot;abstract&quot;:&quot;Les récits d&#39;aventures auraient-ils
naguère fasciné nombre de contemporains ? Suivre Alain Gerbault, Bernard
Moitessier et Eric Tabarly avec et contre les vents, accompagner Hans Hass et
Bernard Gorky sous les eaux, rayonner de l&#39;île de Port-Cros aux atolls du
Pacifique : ce travail essaie d&#39;enregistrer les actions, les parcours, les
gestes, les images sensorielles, les peurs et les émerveillements fondateurs
des ambiances qui, pour de très nombreuses personnes les ayant partagées,
symbolisent certainement le plaisir de vivre. Au cours du deuxième tiers de
notre siècle, on assiste, en France tout particulièrement, à la montée de
l&#39;engouement pour les traversées à la voile, la redécouverte des îles,
l&#39;exploration du \&quot; monde du silence \&quot;. De l&#39;exploit à l&#39;acte le
plus quotidien, les témoignages écrits montrent la profusion des entreprises,
des enthousiasmes et des énergies qui symbolisent la liberté. Cette passion se
diffuse dans la société au point que les années cinquante constituent le temps
de la mer. Comment comprendre les images et les pratiques actuelles de
l&#39;aventure ? L&#39;ouvrage tente de décrire la formation des sensibilités nées au
contact de la mer. Si les perceptions varient selon les époques, les multiples
aventures relatées sont d&#39;abord le produit d&#39;une relation émotionnelle à la
nature et aux sociétés. Toujours, le récit témoigne de l&#39;intensité vitale et
d&#39;un rapport sensible au monde naturel et social&quot;,&quot;ISBN&quot;:&quot;978-2-7384-3387-9&quot;,&quot;shortTitle&quot;:&quot;Aventures
marines&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;français&quot;,&quot;author&quot;:[{&quot;family&quot;:&quot;Griffet&quot;,&quot;given&quot;:&quot;Jean&quot;}],&quot;issued&quot;:{&quot;date-parts&quot;:[[&quot;1995&quot;]],&quot;season&quot;:&quot;DL&quot;}}}],&quot;schema&quot;:&quot;https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json&quot;}
&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-separator&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Jean
Griffet, &lt;i&gt;Aventures marines: images et pratiques&lt;/i&gt; (Paris, France:
L’Harmattan, 1995).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-element:field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; p.8.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn13&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref13&quot; name=&quot;_ftn13&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn13;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[13]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&quot;citationID&quot;:&quot;klIU2W7g&quot;,&quot;properties&quot;:{&quot;formattedCitation&quot;:&quot;Gilbert
Simondon, {\\i{}L\\uc0\\u8217{}invention dans les techniques: cours et
conf\\uc0\\u233{}rences}, \\uc0\\u233{}d. par Jean-Yves Chateau (Paris, France:
\\uc0\\u201{}ditions du Seuil,
2005).&quot;,&quot;plainCitation&quot;:&quot;Gilbert Simondon, L’invention dans
les techniques: cours et conférences, éd. par Jean-Yves Chateau (Paris, France:
Éditions du Seuil,
2005).&quot;,&quot;noteIndex&quot;:7},&quot;citationItems&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:1242,&quot;uris&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/BPJLD2B2&quot;],&quot;uri&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/BPJLD2B2&quot;],&quot;itemData&quot;:{&quot;id&quot;:1242,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;book&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;L&#39;invention
dans les techniques: cours et
conférences&quot;,&quot;publisher&quot;:&quot;Éditions du
Seuil&quot;,&quot;publisher-place&quot;:&quot;Paris,
France&quot;,&quot;number-of-pages&quot;:&quot;347&quot;,&quot;source&quot;:&quot;Library
Catalog - www.sudoc.abes.fr&quot;,&quot;event-place&quot;:&quot;Paris,
France&quot;,&quot;abstract&quot;:&quot;La pensée de Simondon, dont Canguilhem
ou Deleuze reconnurent l&#39;importance voire l&#39;influence, suscite depuis quelques
années un regain d&#39;intérêt. Le célèbre Cours de 1968, L&#39;Invention et le
Développement des techniques, que nous publions ici, ainsi que d&#39;autres qui le
complètent, enrichit considérablement par des illustrations et des perspectives
historiques larges les analyses de l&#39;ouvrage de 1958, Du mode d&#39;existence des
objets techniques. Il étudie l&#39;objet technique à la fois du point de vue de sa
structure et de sa fonction et du point de vue de sa genèse et de son
invention. Il est possible ainsi de situer la technique par rapport au
développement et à l&#39;histoire de l&#39;humanité et, en même temps, de faire
apparaître son autonomie de principe par rapport à ses causes socio-économiques
\&quot; extrinsèques \&quot;, voire son indépendance, à certaines époques, à
l&#39;égard de la science : ce n&#39;est pas une simple application de la science.
C&#39;est l&#39;invention qui assure l&#39;autonomie de l&#39;objet technique : \&quot; Les
réalisations techniques apparaissent par invention \&quot; (1971). Cet énoncé
est à prendre comme une thèse forte, qui exige notamment que l&#39;on ne confonde
pas l&#39;invention avec la créativité ni la découverte, et qu&#39;on l&#39;étudie comme
une résolution de problème. L&#39;étude de cette \&quot; fonction du nouveau
\&quot; est décisive pour comprendre le développement et l&#39;histoire des
techniques. [Source : d&#39;après la 4e de
couverture]&quot;,&quot;ISBN&quot;:&quot;978-2-02-056337-6&quot;,&quot;shortTitle&quot;:&quot;L&#39;invention
dans les techniques&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;français&quot;,&quot;author&quot;:[{&quot;family&quot;:&quot;Simondon&quot;,&quot;given&quot;:&quot;Gilbert&quot;}],&quot;editor&quot;:[{&quot;family&quot;:&quot;Chateau&quot;,&quot;given&quot;:&quot;Jean-Yves&quot;}],&quot;issued&quot;:{&quot;date-parts&quot;:[[&quot;2005&quot;]]}}}],&quot;schema&quot;:&quot;https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json&quot;}
&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-separator&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Gilbert
Simondon, &lt;i&gt;L’invention dans les techniques: cours et conférences&lt;/i&gt;, éd. par
Jean-Yves Chateau (Paris, France: Éditions du Seuil, 2005).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; p.31.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn14&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref14&quot; name=&quot;_ftn14&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn14;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[14]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&quot;citationID&quot;:&quot;Uu2usAox&quot;,&quot;properties&quot;:{&quot;formattedCitation&quot;:&quot;Lucien
Febvre, \\uc0\\u171{}\\uc0\\u160{}Annales d\\uc0\\u8217{}histoire \\uc0\\u233{}conomique
et sociale\\uc0\\u8239{}: revue trimestrielle / directeurs\\uc0\\u8239{}: Marc
Bloch, Lucien Febvre\\uc0\\u160{}\\uc0\\u187{}, n\\uc0\\u176{}36, Gallica,
1935.&quot;,&quot;plainCitation&quot;:&quot;Lucien Febvre, « Annales
d’histoire économique et sociale : revue trimestrielle / directeurs : Marc
Bloch, Lucien Febvre », n°36, Gallica, 1935.&quot;,&quot;noteIndex&quot;:8},&quot;citationItems&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:1245,&quot;uris&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/NNHC54TF&quot;],&quot;uri&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/NNHC54TF&quot;],&quot;itemData&quot;:{&quot;id&quot;:1245,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;webpage&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Annales
d&#39;histoire économique et sociale : revue trimestrielle / directeurs : Marc
Bloch, Lucien
Febvre&quot;,&quot;container-title&quot;:&quot;Gallica&quot;,&quot;genre&quot;:&quot;n°36&quot;,&quot;abstract&quot;:&quot;Annales
d&#39;histoire économique et sociale : revue trimestrielle / directeurs : Marc Bloch,
Lucien Febvre -- 1935 -- periodiques&quot;,&quot;shortTitle&quot;:&quot;Annales
d&#39;histoire économique et
sociale&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;FR&quot;,&quot;author&quot;:[{&quot;family&quot;:&quot;Febvre&quot;,&quot;given&quot;:&quot;Lucien&quot;}],&quot;issued&quot;:{&quot;date-parts&quot;:[[&quot;1935&quot;]]},&quot;accessed&quot;:{&quot;date-parts&quot;:[[&quot;2018&quot;,7,27]]}}}],&quot;schema&quot;:&quot;https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json&quot;}
&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-separator&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Lucien
Febvre, «&amp;nbsp;Annales d’histoire économique et sociale : revue trimestrielle /
directeurs : Marc Bloch, Lucien Febvre&amp;nbsp;», n°36, Gallica, 1935.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; p.531-532.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn15&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref15&quot; name=&quot;_ftn15&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn15;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[15]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Voir &lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&quot;citationID&quot;:&quot;nHIIb84r&quot;,&quot;properties&quot;:{&quot;formattedCitation&quot;:&quot;Helen
M. Rozwadowski, \\uc0\\u171{}\\uc0\\u160{}Fathoming the Ocean \\uc0\\u8212{}
Helen M. Rozwadowski | Harvard University Press\\uc0\\u160{}\\uc0\\u187{},
s.\\uc0\\u160{}d.&quot;,&quot;plainCitation&quot;:&quot;Helen M. Rozwadowski,
« Fathoming the Ocean — Helen M. Rozwadowski | Harvard University
Press »,
s. d.&quot;,&quot;dontUpdate&quot;:true,&quot;noteIndex&quot;:9},&quot;citationItems&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:908,&quot;uris&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/DH6AV8LT&quot;],&quot;uri&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/DH6AV8LT&quot;],&quot;itemData&quot;:{&quot;id&quot;:908,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;webpage&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Fathoming
the Ocean — Helen M. Rozwadowski | Harvard University
Press&quot;,&quot;abstract&quot;:&quot;By the middle of the 19th century, as
scientists explored the frontiers of polar regions and the atmosphere, the
ocean remained silent and inaccessible. The history of how this changed -- of
how the depths became a scientific passion and a cultural obsession, an
engineering challenge and a political attraction -- is the story that unfolds
in this book.&quot;,&quot;author&quot;:[{&quot;family&quot;:&quot;Rozwadowski&quot;,&quot;given&quot;:&quot;Helen
M.&quot;}],&quot;issued&quot;:{&quot;date-parts&quot;:[[&quot;2005&quot;]]}}}],&quot;schema&quot;:&quot;https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json&quot;}
&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-separator&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Helen
M. Rozwadowski, «&amp;nbsp;Fathoming the Ocean — Helen M. Rozwadowski | Harvard
University Press&amp;nbsp;», (2005) p.40.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn16&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref16&quot; name=&quot;_ftn16&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn16;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[16]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Rozwadowski, p.41.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn17&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref17&quot; name=&quot;_ftn17&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn17;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[17]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&quot;citationID&quot;:&quot;IbDtb50P&quot;,&quot;properties&quot;:{&quot;formattedCitation&quot;:&quot;Eug\\uc0\\u232{}ne
Trutat et \\uc0\\u201{}tienne-Jules Marey, {\\i{}La photographie
anim\\uc0\\u233{}e} (Paris, France: Gauthier-Villars, imprimeur-libraire,
\\uc0\\u233{}diteur de la Biblioth\\uc0\\u232{}que photographique,
1899).&quot;,&quot;plainCitation&quot;:&quot;Eugène Trutat et Étienne-Jules
Marey, La photographie animée (Paris, France: Gauthier-Villars,
imprimeur-libraire, éditeur de la Bibliothèque photographique,
1899).&quot;,&quot;dontUpdate&quot;:true,&quot;noteIndex&quot;:11},&quot;citationItems&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:1263,&quot;uris&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/J59WJJKD&quot;],&quot;uri&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/J59WJJKD&quot;],&quot;itemData&quot;:{&quot;id&quot;:1263,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;book&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;La
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imprimeur-libraire, éditeur de la Bibliothèque
photographique&quot;,&quot;publisher-place&quot;:&quot;Paris,
France&quot;,&quot;number-of-pages&quot;:&quot;xii+185;
1&quot;,&quot;source&quot;:&quot;Library Catalog -
www.sudoc.abes.fr&quot;,&quot;event-place&quot;:&quot;Paris,
France&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;français&quot;,&quot;author&quot;:[{&quot;family&quot;:&quot;Trutat&quot;,&quot;given&quot;:&quot;Eugène&quot;},{&quot;family&quot;:&quot;Marey&quot;,&quot;given&quot;:&quot;Étienne-Jules&quot;}],&quot;issued&quot;:{&quot;date-parts&quot;:[[&quot;1899&quot;]]}}}],&quot;schema&quot;:&quot;https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json&quot;}
&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-separator&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Eugène
Trutat, &lt;i&gt;La photographie animée&lt;/i&gt; , préface par Etienne-Jules Marey (Paris,
France: Gauthier-Villars, imprimeur-libraire, éditeur de la Bibliothèque
photographique, 1899) p.VII.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn18&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref18&quot; name=&quot;_ftn18&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn18;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[18]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cnum.cnam.fr/CGI/redir.cgi?4KY28.101&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;border: none 1.0pt; font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; padding: 0cm; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;La Nature - 1921 : Quarante-neuvième
année, deuxième semestre : n. 2492-2516 (1921)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;http://cnum.cnam.fr/CGI/sresrech.cgi?4KY28.101/348&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;border: none 1.0pt; font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; padding: 0cm; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;La&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;border: none 1.0pt; font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; padding: 0cm; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;border: none 1.0pt; color: #444444; font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; padding: 0cm; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;photographie&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;border: none 1.0pt; color: #444444; font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; padding: 0cm; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;b&gt;&lt;i&gt;sous&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/b&gt;-&lt;b&gt;&lt;i&gt;marine&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&amp;nbsp;(E.
COUSTET)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn19&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref19&quot; name=&quot;_ftn19&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn19;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[19]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Les travaux de Francis Ward ont
été relatés dans son livre&amp;nbsp;: &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Marvels
of fish life as revealed by the camera&lt;/i&gt;, Cassell and Co, London, 1912.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn20&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref20&quot; name=&quot;_ftn20&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn20;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[20]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Louis Boutan, «&amp;nbsp;Mémoire sur
la photographie sous-marine&amp;nbsp;». &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Archives
de Zoologie Expérimentale et Généra&lt;/i&gt;le, t. 1, n°1, p.281-332. 1893.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn21&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref21&quot; name=&quot;_ftn21&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn21;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[21]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Op. cit., p.284.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn22&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref22&quot; name=&quot;_ftn22&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn22;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[22]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Louis Boutan, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La Photographie sous-marine et les progrès
de la photographie&lt;/i&gt;, Schleicher Paris, 1900, p. 163.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn23&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref23&quot; name=&quot;_ftn23&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn23;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[23]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Ibid p. 164.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn24&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref24&quot; name=&quot;_ftn24&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn24;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[24]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&quot;citationID&quot;:&quot;8MK8Gd9Y&quot;,&quot;properties&quot;:{&quot;formattedCitation&quot;:&quot;Monique
Sicard, {\\i{}La fabrique du regard: images de science et appareils de vision
(XVe-XXe si\\uc0\\u232{}cle)} (Paris, France: \\uc0\\u201{}ditions Odile Jacob,
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(XVe-XXe siècle)&lt;/i&gt; (Paris, France: Éditions Odile Jacob, DL 1998, 1998).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
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&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn25&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref25&quot; name=&quot;_ftn25&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn25;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[25]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Sicard, op. cit. p.164&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn26&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref26&quot; name=&quot;_ftn26&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn26;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[26]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&quot;citationID&quot;:&quot;qhWUZrHn&quot;,&quot;properties&quot;:{&quot;formattedCitation&quot;:&quot;Trutat
et Marey, {\\i{}La photographie anim\\uc0\\u233{}e}.&quot;,&quot;plainCitation&quot;:&quot;Trutat
et Marey, La photographie
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1&quot;,&quot;source&quot;:&quot;Library Catalog -
www.sudoc.abes.fr&quot;,&quot;event-place&quot;:&quot;Paris,
France&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;français&quot;,&quot;author&quot;:[{&quot;family&quot;:&quot;Trutat&quot;,&quot;given&quot;:&quot;Eugène&quot;},{&quot;family&quot;:&quot;Marey&quot;,&quot;given&quot;:&quot;Étienne-Jules&quot;}],&quot;issued&quot;:{&quot;date-parts&quot;:[[&quot;1899&quot;]]}}}],&quot;schema&quot;:&quot;https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json&quot;}
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style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; p.31&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn27&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref27&quot; name=&quot;_ftn27&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn27;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[27]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Peter Soppelsa, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Locomotion in water&lt;/i&gt;, sur &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.historyoftechnology.org/&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;http://www.historyoftechnology.org/&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn28&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref28&quot; name=&quot;_ftn28&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn28;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[28]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; François Dagognet, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Etienne-Jules Marey&amp;nbsp;: la passion de la
trace&lt;/i&gt;, Hazan, Paris, 1987.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn29&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref29&quot; name=&quot;_ftn29&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn29;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[29]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Laurent Mannoni, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le grand art de la lumière et de l’ombre&lt;/i&gt;,
Nathan, 1995.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn30&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref30&quot; name=&quot;_ftn30&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn30;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[30]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Etienne-Jules Marey, brevet n°
208&amp;nbsp;617, 3 octobre 1890, «&amp;nbsp;pour un appareil
photochronographique&amp;nbsp;».&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn31&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref31&quot; name=&quot;_ftn31&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn31;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[31]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&quot;citationID&quot;:&quot;4C8ai1a5&quot;,&quot;properties&quot;:{&quot;formattedCitation&quot;:&quot;Julia
Blagny, Anne Bramard-Blagny, et Josette Ueberschlag, {\\i{}Etienne-Jules Marey
- La science au r\\uc0\\u233{}veil des arts}, s.\\uc0\\u160{}d., http://www.universcience.tv/video-etienne-jules-marey-la-science-au-reveil-des-arts-7237.html?source=facebook.&quot;,&quot;plainCitation&quot;:&quot;Julia
Blagny, Anne Bramard-Blagny, et Josette Ueberschlag, Etienne-Jules Marey - La
science au réveil des arts, s. d., http://www.universcience.tv/video-etienne-jules-marey-la-science-au-reveil-des-arts-7237.html?source=facebook.&quot;,&quot;noteIndex&quot;:31},&quot;citationItems&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:1265,&quot;uris&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/9Z6GSDEA&quot;],&quot;uri&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/9Z6GSDEA&quot;],&quot;itemData&quot;:{&quot;id&quot;:1265,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;motion_picture&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Etienne-Jules
Marey - La science au réveil des
arts&quot;,&quot;source&quot;:&quot;www.universcience.tv&quot;,&quot;abstract&quot;:&quot;Il
y a un siècle, Etienne-Jules Marey allait de découverte en découverte pour
décomposer et comprendre le mouvement, contribuant ainsi largement à la
naissance du cinéma. En s&#39;intéressant notamment au galop du cheval, à la nage
de la raie, à la marche humaine, aux tourbillons des fumées, il a induit une
nouvelle perception du vivant qui inspire encore aujourd&#39;hui les arts visuels
et
numériques.&quot;,&quot;URL&quot;:&quot;http://www.universcience.tv/video-etienne-jules-marey-la-science-au-reveil-des-arts-7237.html?source=facebook&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;fr&quot;,&quot;author&quot;:[{&quot;literal&quot;:&quot;Julia
Blagny&quot;},{&quot;literal&quot;:&quot;Anne
Bramard-Blagny&quot;},{&quot;literal&quot;:&quot;Josette
Ueberschlag&quot;}]}}],&quot;schema&quot;:&quot;https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json&quot;}
&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-separator&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Julia
Blagny, Anne Bramard-Blagny, et Josette Ueberschlag, &lt;i&gt;Etienne-Jules Marey -
La science au réveil des arts&lt;/i&gt;, s.&amp;nbsp;d., http://www.universcience.tv/video-etienne-jules-marey-la-science-au-reveil-des-arts-7237.html?source=facebook.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
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&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn32&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref32&quot; name=&quot;_ftn32&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn32;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;calibri&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[32]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mnhn.fr/fr/explorez/lieux/coelacanthes-afrique-sud&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;http://www.mnhn.fr/fr/explorez/lieux/coelacanthes-afrique-sud&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn33&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref33&quot; name=&quot;_ftn33&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn33;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[33]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Paul Bert, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La pression barométrique&amp;nbsp;: recherches de physiologie expérimentale&lt;/i&gt;,
Masson, Paris, 1878.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn34&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref34&quot; name=&quot;_ftn34&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn34;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[34]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; John Scott Haldane, «&amp;nbsp;The
Prevention of Compressed-air Illness&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;The Journal of Hygiene&lt;/i&gt;, vol. 8, 1908.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn35&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref35&quot; name=&quot;_ftn35&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn35;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[35]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; On assiste à un tel évènement
(rejoué pour la caméra) dans &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le Monde du silence&lt;/i&gt;,
réalisé par Louis Malle et Jacques-Yves Cousteau (1956).&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn36&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref36&quot; name=&quot;_ftn36&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn36;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[36]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Pour de plus amples
développements on pourra se reporter à&amp;nbsp;: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&quot;citationID&quot;:&quot;OFTPNgzd&quot;,&quot;properties&quot;:{&quot;formattedCitation&quot;:&quot;Claude
Riffaud, {\\i{}La grande aventure des hommes sous la mer: du temps
d\\uc0\\u8217{}Aristote \\uc0\\u224{} l\\uc0\\u8217{}\\uc0\\u226{}ge
nucl\\uc0\\u233{}aire} (Paris, France: A. Michel,
1988).&quot;,&quot;plainCitation&quot;:&quot;Claude Riffaud, La grande aventure
des hommes sous la mer: du temps d’Aristote à l’âge nucléaire (Paris, France:
A. Michel,
1988).&quot;,&quot;noteIndex&quot;:15},&quot;citationItems&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:666,&quot;uris&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/X5THUJBD&quot;],&quot;uri&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/X5THUJBD&quot;],&quot;itemData&quot;:{&quot;id&quot;:666,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;book&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;La
grande aventure des hommes sous la mer: du temps d&#39;Aristote à l&#39;âge
nucléaire&quot;,&quot;publisher&quot;:&quot;A.
Michel&quot;,&quot;publisher-place&quot;:&quot;Paris,
France&quot;,&quot;number-of-pages&quot;:&quot;456; 32&quot;,&quot;source&quot;:&quot;Library
Catalog - www.sudoc.abes.fr&quot;,&quot;event-place&quot;:&quot;Paris,
France&quot;,&quot;ISBN&quot;:&quot;978-2-226-03502-8&quot;,&quot;shortTitle&quot;:&quot;La
grande aventure des hommes sous la
mer&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;français&quot;,&quot;author&quot;:[{&quot;family&quot;:&quot;Riffaud&quot;,&quot;given&quot;:&quot;Claude&quot;}],&quot;issued&quot;:{&quot;date-parts&quot;:[[&quot;1988&quot;]]}}}],&quot;schema&quot;:&quot;https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json&quot;}
&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-separator&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Claude
Riffaud, &lt;i&gt;La grande aventure des hommes sous la mer: du temps d’Aristote à
l’âge nucléaire&lt;/i&gt; (Paris, France: A. Michel, 1988).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn37&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
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{&quot;citationID&quot;:&quot;cNdEbyFi&quot;,&quot;properties&quot;:{&quot;formattedCitation&quot;:&quot;Philip
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Henry Gosse, &lt;i&gt;The aquarium: an unveiling of the wonders of the deep sea.&lt;/i&gt;,
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&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn39&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref39&quot; name=&quot;_ftn39&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn39;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[39]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Auguste Denayrouse, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&quot;citationID&quot;:&quot;F3EUdVt3&quot;,&quot;properties&quot;:{&quot;formattedCitation&quot;:&quot;Benoit
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\\uc0\\u224{} air comprim\\uc0\\u233{}, et sur son emploi dans la marine / par
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&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn40&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref40&quot; name=&quot;_ftn40&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn40;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[40]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Op. cit., p.16&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn41&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref41&quot; name=&quot;_ftn41&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn41;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[41]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Ibid&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn42&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref42&quot; name=&quot;_ftn42&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn42;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[42]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Selon la définition de Thomas P.
Hughes, «&amp;nbsp;The Evolution of&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;Large
Technical Systems&amp;nbsp;» in&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
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&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn43&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref43&quot; name=&quot;_ftn43&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn43;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;calibri&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[43]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Roxane Haméry, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Jean Painlevé&amp;nbsp;: le cinéma au cœur de la
vie&lt;/i&gt;, PUR , 2009.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn44&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref44&quot; name=&quot;_ftn44&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn44;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;calibri&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[44]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Germaine Dulac, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le sens du cinéma&lt;/i&gt;, p. 169-170, dans
Prosper Hillairet (textes réunis par), 1994, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Ecrits sur le cinéma (1919-1937)&lt;/i&gt;, Paris expérimental.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn45&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref45&quot; name=&quot;_ftn45&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn45;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;calibri&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[45]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;Germaine Dulac, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le sens du cinéma&lt;/i&gt;, p. 169-170, dans
Prosper Hillairet (textes réunis par), 1994, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Ecrits sur le cinéma (1919-1937)&lt;/i&gt;, Paris expérimental.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn46&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref46&quot; name=&quot;_ftn46&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn46;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[46]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Jean Painlevé,&amp;nbsp; «&amp;nbsp;Les
Pieds dans l’eau&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Voilà&lt;/i&gt;, 1935,
215&amp;nbsp;: 5.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn47&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref47&quot; name=&quot;_ftn47&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn47;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[47]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Cité par Florence Riou&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;, Jean Painlevé&amp;nbsp;: de la science à la
fiction scientifique&lt;/i&gt;, Conserveries mémorielles, #6, 2009.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn48&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref48&quot; name=&quot;_ftn48&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn48;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[48]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Paul De Roubaix, «&amp;nbsp;Le
milieu subaquatique et le cinéma scientifique français&amp;nbsp;», dans &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le Cinéma et la Science&lt;/i&gt;, coordonné par
Alexis Martinet, CNRS Editions, 1994, p. 148-165.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn49&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref49&quot; name=&quot;_ftn49&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn49;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[49]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Jean Painlevé, «&amp;nbsp;La
Cinématographie scientifique en France&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le Mois&lt;/i&gt;, 10 mai 1935.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn50&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref50&quot; name=&quot;_ftn50&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn50;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[50]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&quot;citationID&quot;:&quot;FLqLs997&quot;,&quot;properties&quot;:{&quot;formattedCitation&quot;:&quot;Roxane
Hamery, {\\i{}Jean Painlev\\uc0\\u233{}: le cin\\uc0\\u233{}ma au coeur de la
vie} (Rennes, France: Presses Universitaires de Rennes,
2008).&quot;,&quot;plainCitation&quot;:&quot;Roxane Hamery, Jean Painlevé: le
cinéma au coeur de la vie (Rennes, France: Presses Universitaires de Rennes,
2008).&quot;,&quot;noteIndex&quot;:39},&quot;citationItems&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:689,&quot;uris&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/ZZIXF5HA&quot;],&quot;uri&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/ZZIXF5HA&quot;],&quot;itemData&quot;:{&quot;id&quot;:689,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;book&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Jean
Painlevé: le cinéma au coeur de la
vie&quot;,&quot;publisher&quot;:&quot;Presses Universitaires de
Rennes&quot;,&quot;publisher-place&quot;:&quot;Rennes,
France&quot;,&quot;number-of-pages&quot;:&quot;312&quot;,&quot;source&quot;:&quot;Library
Catalog - www.sudoc.abes.fr&quot;,&quot;event-place&quot;:&quot;Rennes,
France&quot;,&quot;ISBN&quot;:&quot;978-2-7535-0761-6&quot;,&quot;shortTitle&quot;:&quot;Jean
Painlevé&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;français&quot;,&quot;author&quot;:[{&quot;family&quot;:&quot;Hamery&quot;,&quot;given&quot;:&quot;Roxane&quot;}],&quot;issued&quot;:{&quot;date-parts&quot;:[[&quot;2008&quot;]]}}}],&quot;schema&quot;:&quot;https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json&quot;}
&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-separator&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Roxane
Hamery, &lt;i&gt;Jean Painlevé: le cinéma au cœur de la vie&lt;/i&gt; (Rennes, France:
Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2008)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;, p.64.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn51&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref51&quot; name=&quot;_ftn51&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn51;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[51]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Jean Painlevé, «&amp;nbsp;Formes et
mouvements dans le documentaire&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Les
Documents cinématographiques&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn52&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref52&quot; name=&quot;_ftn52&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn52;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[52]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Natascha Adamowsky&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;, The Mysterious Science of the Sea,
1775-1943&lt;/i&gt;, Routledge, 2015, p. 96.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn53&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref53&quot; name=&quot;_ftn53&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn53;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[53]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #222222; font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt;&quot;&gt;Frédérique
CalcagnoTristant,« Jean Painlevé et le cinéma animalier », &lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #222222; font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt;&quot;&gt;Communication&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #222222; font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt;&quot;&gt;, Vol.24/1 | 2005, 117149.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn54&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref54&quot; name=&quot;_ftn54&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn54;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[54]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; F. Riou, op. cit. #6 2009.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn55&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref55&quot; name=&quot;_ftn55&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn55;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[55]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Ralph Rugoff, «&amp;nbsp;Fluid
Mechanics&amp;nbsp;» dans&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt; Science is
Fiction&amp;nbsp;: the films of Jean Painlevé&lt;/i&gt;, Ed. A. Masaki Bellows et M.
McDougall, MIT Press 2000, p. 50.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn56&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref56&quot; name=&quot;_ftn56&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn56;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[56]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Ibid., p. 51.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn57&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref57&quot; name=&quot;_ftn57&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn57;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[57]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; D’après la contribution de Paul
De Roubaix dans &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le Cinéma et la Science&lt;/i&gt;,
ouvrage coordonné par A. Martinet, CNRS Ed., 1994, p. 148-165.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn58&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
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style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
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arts&quot;,&quot;publisher&quot;:&quot;Ed. du
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&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn59&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
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style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&quot;citationID&quot;:&quot;UeikKawa&quot;,&quot;properties&quot;:{&quot;formattedCitation&quot;:&quot;Dimitri
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France&quot;,&quot;number-of-pages&quot;:&quot;250&quot;,&quot;source&quot;:&quot;Library
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&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn60&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref60&quot; name=&quot;_ftn60&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn60;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[60]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Ces développements proviennent
principalement de l’ouvrage de &lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&quot;citationID&quot;:&quot;AcGFUmlW&quot;,&quot;properties&quot;:{&quot;formattedCitation&quot;:&quot;Carl
Louis Gregory, {\\i{}MOTION PICTURE PHOTOGRAPHY; Edited by Herbert C. McKay by
Carl Louis Gregory} (Falk Publishing Co., 1927).&quot;,&quot;plainCitation&quot;:&quot;Carl
Louis Gregory, MOTION PICTURE PHOTOGRAPHY; Edited by Herbert C. McKay by Carl
Louis Gregory (Falk Publishing Co.,
1927).&quot;,&quot;dontUpdate&quot;:true,&quot;noteIndex&quot;:36},&quot;citationItems&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:1294,&quot;uris&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/VDTJ46KK&quot;],&quot;uri&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/VDTJ46KK&quot;],&quot;itemData&quot;:{&quot;id&quot;:1294,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;book&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;MOTION
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Falk Publishing Co. 1927. Second ed. 8vo., 435 pp., adverts. Publisher&#39;s orange
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in cinematography at the New York Institute of Photography. In the
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Louis Gregory, &lt;i&gt;MOTION PICTURE PHOTOGRAPHY; Edited by Herbert C. McKay &lt;/i&gt;(Falk
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&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn61&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref61&quot; name=&quot;_ftn61&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn61;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[61]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; André Coutant : «&amp;nbsp;Une vraie
caméra, mais submersible&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Science
et Vie&lt;/i&gt;, n°393, Juin 1950&amp;nbsp;p.363.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn62&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref62&quot; name=&quot;_ftn62&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn62;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[62]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Coutant, op. cit., p.365.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn63&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
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style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&quot;citationID&quot;:&quot;nWVFMpoD&quot;,&quot;properties&quot;:{&quot;formattedCitation&quot;:&quot;David
Edgerton et Dominique Pestre, \\uc0\\u171{}\\uc0\\u160{}De
l\\uc0\\u8217{}innovation aux usages: Dix th\\uc0\\u232{}ses
\\uc0\\u233{}clectiques sur l\\uc0\\u8217{}histoire des
techniques\\uc0\\u160{}\\uc0\\u187{}, {\\i{}Annales. Histoire, Sciences
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drawn from a number of different, and all too often disjointed, traditions of thinking
about the role of technology in history. In presenting theses I have tried to
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clearly.&quot;,&quot;ISSN&quot;:&quot;0395-2649&quot;,&quot;shortTitle&quot;:&quot;De
l&#39;innovation aux
usages&quot;,&quot;author&quot;:[{&quot;family&quot;:&quot;Edgerton&quot;,&quot;given&quot;:&quot;David&quot;},{&quot;family&quot;:&quot;Pestre&quot;,&quot;given&quot;:&quot;Dominique&quot;}],&quot;issued&quot;:{&quot;date-parts&quot;:[[&quot;1998&quot;]]}}}],&quot;schema&quot;:&quot;https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json&quot;}
&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-separator&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;David
Edgerton et Dominique Pestre, «&amp;nbsp;De l’innovation aux usages: Dix thèses
éclectiques sur l’histoire des techniques&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i&gt;Annales. Histoire,
Sciences Sociales&lt;/i&gt; 53, n&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; 4/5 (1998): 815‑37.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn64&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref64&quot; name=&quot;_ftn64&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn64;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[64]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&quot;citationID&quot;:&quot;TLsEnL4N&quot;,&quot;properties&quot;:{&quot;formattedCitation&quot;:&quot;Vianney
Mascret, \\uc0\\u171{}\\uc0\\u160{}L\\uc0\\u8217{}aventure sous-marine:
Histoire de la plong\\uc0\\u233{}e sous-marine de loisir en scaphandre autonome
en France (1865-1985)\\uc0\\u160{}\\uc0\\u187{} (Th\\uc0\\u232{}se de doctorat,
Universit\\uc0\\u233{} Claude Bernard,
2010).&quot;,&quot;plainCitation&quot;:&quot;Vianney Mascret, « L’aventure
sous-marine: Histoire de la plongée sous-marine de loisir en scaphandre autonome
en France (1865-1985) » (Thèse de doctorat, Université Claude Bernard,
2010).&quot;,&quot;noteIndex&quot;:43},&quot;citationItems&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:991,&quot;uris&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/WJMYV56S&quot;],&quot;uri&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/WJMYV56S&quot;],&quot;itemData&quot;:{&quot;id&quot;:991,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;thesis&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;L&#39;aventure
sous-marine: Histoire de la plongée sous-marine de loisir en scaphandre
autonome en France (1865-1985)&quot;,&quot;publisher&quot;:&quot;Université
Claude Bernard&quot;,&quot;publisher-place&quot;:&quot;Lyon, France&quot;,&quot;genre&quot;:&quot;Thèse
de doctorat&quot;,&quot;source&quot;:&quot;Library Catalog - www.sudoc.abes.fr&quot;,&quot;event-place&quot;:&quot;Lyon,
France&quot;,&quot;abstract&quot;:&quot;Le scaphandre autonome donnant de l’air
à la demande naît en France dans l’Aveyronau début des années 1860. L’invention
est efficace mais moyennement satisfaisante du pointde vue du travail
sous-marin. L’apnée et la plongée en scaphandre lourd relié à la surface parun
tuyau amenant de l’air, sont utilisées pour s’immerger à des fins utilitaires :
la pêche deséponges et des coquillages. Les scientifiques comme Paul Bert et
J.S. Haldane posent lesbases de la décompression mais il faut attendre les
années 1930 pour voir naître un loisir sousmarin: la pêche à la nage sur les
côtes méditerranéennes puis les premiers scaphandresautonomes de Yves Le Prieur
qui crée le premier club de plongée loisir en 1935. A la fin de laguerre, les
militaires s’approprient et perfectionnent l’invention autour de
Jacques-YvesCousteau et Philippe Tailliez. La plongée autonome de loisir
poursuit son développementautour de la jeune fédération française nationale
d’études et de sports sous-marins (1948) etdu Club Méditerranée. Les premières
entreprises de travaux sous-marins utilisent lescaphandre autonome de Cousteau
et Gagnan et la plongée entre au cinéma en obtenant unepalme d’or à Cannes en
1956 (Le monde du Silence de Cousteau et Louis Malle). Unenouvelle presse
spécialisée se construit et, vers 1960, la plongée s’émancipe du
modèlemilitaire pour devenir une pratique de loisir avec ses brevets et
contenus spécifiques. Laconstruction de modèle technique de référence, le
développement d’une offre commerciale etla professionnalisation de
l’encadrement transforment les imaginaires de l’immersion etinstallent
l’activité comme une pratique, certes aventureuse mais possible. La plongée
enscaphandre autonome devient un bien de consommation avec ses équipements, ses
voyagesthématiques et ses centres de plongées. La profession de moniteur est à
peine envisageable àplein temps mais les premiers syndicats de défense des
professionnels de l’enseignementvoient le jour. Au milieu des années 1980, la
plongée de loisir professionnelle existe, elleparticipe à la mise en place
d’une pratique d’aventure raisonnée où l’immersion devient unenjeu de
concurrence. Les innovations technologiques comme l’ordinateur de plongée ou
legilet stabilisateur au début des années 1980 participent à une transformation
des pratiques,féminisées (30% de pratiquantes) et plus hédonistes. La plongée
en associant technologie etimaginaire de l’aventure devient une pratique
légitime sans être tout à fait sportive niexclusivement
contemplative.\n\n \nScubadiving was born in France (Aveyron) in the early
1860s. Although the invention wasefficient under water worker did not find it
useful enough. Free diving and scuba diving weremainly used for sponge and
shell fishing. P. Bert and J.S. Haldane – two scientists – were thefirst to
settle down the basis of decompression. We have to wait until 1930 to
considerscubadiving as a hobby : first submarine in the Mediterranean sea, then
Yves Le Prieurcreated the first aqualung and established the first diving club
in 1935. At the end of theSecond World War, soldiers made the invention theirs
and improved the system withCousteau and Tailliez. Scubadiving grew up thanks
to the fédération française nationaled’études et de sports sous-marins and the
Club Méditerranée. The first submarine workscompanies used the aqualung of
Jacques-Yves Cousteau : scubadiving became famous : TheSilent world won the
Palme d’Or in Cannes in 1956. Some specialised international pressappeared
around 1960, scubadiving was not only for the army but also a hobby for
everybodywith degrees and a specific curriculum. Scubadiving became more and
more popular thanks toits specific rules, business development and professional
instructors. Scubadiving becameconsumer goods thanks to its equipment, its
dedicated trips and scubadiving clubs. At thebeginning, it was unbelievable to
think of it as a fulltime job but quickly the first unionsappeared. In the
middle of the 80s professional scubadiving did exist. It participated to set upa
reasonable practice. There were more and more competitors. Technological
innovationssuch as scubadiving computers or stabilizing jacket – at the
beginnings of the 80s – opened upto women (30% of them) and made the activity
more hedonistic. Technology linked to thedesire of adventure helped scubadiving
to be a legitimate practise. Scubadiving is not either asport not a
contemplative activity.&quot;,&quot;shortTitle&quot;:&quot;L&#39;aventure
sous-marine&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;français&quot;,&quot;author&quot;:[{&quot;family&quot;:&quot;Mascret&quot;,&quot;given&quot;:&quot;Vianney&quot;}],&quot;issued&quot;:{&quot;date-parts&quot;:[[&quot;2010&quot;]]}}}],&quot;schema&quot;:&quot;https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json&quot;}
&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-separator&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Vianney
Mascret, «&amp;nbsp;L’aventure sous-marine: Histoire de la plongée sous-marine de
loisir en scaphandre autonome en France (1865-1985)&amp;nbsp;» (Thèse de doctorat,
Université Claude Bernard, 2010).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Deuxième partie&amp;nbsp;: La
naissance des loisirs sous-marins, p.94.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn65&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref65&quot; name=&quot;_ftn65&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn65;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[65]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&quot;citationID&quot;:&quot;ePbUwo4M&quot;,&quot;properties&quot;:{&quot;formattedCitation&quot;:&quot;Franziska
Torma, \\uc0\\u171{}\\uc0\\u160{}Explorer les sept mers, Probing the seven
seas. Towards an oceanic and postcolonial concept of \\uc0\\u8216{}tropicality\\uc0\\u8217{},
Resumen\\uc0\\u160{}\\uc0\\u187{}, {\\i{}Revue d\\uc0\\u8217{}anthropologie des
connaissances} 6, n\\uc0\\u176{} 3, n\\super o\\nosupersub{} 3 (7
d\\uc0\\u233{}cembre 2012): 603\\uc0\\u8209{}24,
https://doi.org/10.3917/rac.017.0135.&quot;,&quot;plainCitation&quot;:&quot;Franziska
Torma, « Explorer les sept mers, Probing the seven seas. Towards an
oceanic and postcolonial concept of ‘tropicality’, Resumen », Revue
d’anthropologie des connaissances 6, n° 3, no 3 (7 décembre 2012): 603‑24, https://doi.org/10.3917/rac.017.0135.&quot;,&quot;dontUpdate&quot;:true,&quot;noteIndex&quot;:44},&quot;citationItems&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:1270,&quot;uris&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/3SSK8WEH&quot;],&quot;uri&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/3SSK8WEH&quot;],&quot;itemData&quot;:{&quot;id&quot;:1270,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;article-journal&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Explorer
les sept mers, Probing the seven seas. Towards an oceanic and postcolonial
concept of ‘tropicality’, Resumen&quot;,&quot;container-title&quot;:&quot;Revue
d&#39;anthropologie des
connaissances&quot;,&quot;page&quot;:&quot;603-624&quot;,&quot;volume&quot;:&quot;6,
n°
3&quot;,&quot;issue&quot;:&quot;3&quot;,&quot;source&quot;:&quot;Cairn.info&quot;,&quot;abstract&quot;:&quot;RésuméL’intention
de cet article est de montrer comment les expéditions océanographiques ont,
simultanément, redéfini et popularisé les tropiques comme un espace de science
postcoloniale et l’imaginaire européen occidental. Entre 1950 et 1970 n’était
pas simplement un champ de recherche scientifique. Jacques-Yves Cousteau et
Hans Hass, figures populaires, ont navigué à travers les sept mers et réalisé
de nombreux films documentaires. Les animaux marins, et la future discipline du
comportement animal, devenaient indispensables à la perception populaire des
tropiques. En saisissant la science et la perception comme étant deux pratiques
reliées, structurant le contact des Européens avec l’environnement océanique,
cet article met l’accent sur la continuité et la discontinuité des idéologies
et pratiques coloniales. Par exemple, la « nouvelle » science du comportement
animal a été structurée par des anciennes vues coloniales, du « paradis », les
pratiques à bord des navires de recherche pourraient être rapprochées des
aventures de pirates et la représentation du paysage tropical reliée à la
tradition des films ethnographiques. Méthodologiquement, un concept
multi-niveau de la connaissance qui combine l’imagination et la science, le
discours et la pratique, est essentiel : la connaissance n’est pas seulement
l’information obtenue par l’observation de la faune marine, mais plutôt un
modèle d’interprétation par lequel les gens perçoivent le monde et donnent un
sens à leur propre existence dans un environnement donné. Le but de cet article
est d’esquisser un concept de la « tropicalité » dans une perspective océanique
: les stéréotypes coloniaux des mers ne présentent pas seulement une « violence
épistémique » (Spivak) mais aussi une façon de produire de nouvelles significations
pour les environnements non européens dans cette époque de décolonisation et de
transition globale., This article intends to show how oceanographic expeditions
redefined and popularized the tropics as a space of postcolonial science and
western European imagination in equal measure. From the 1950s to the 1970s
oceanography was not merely a field of scientific endeavour. Popular figures
like Jacques-Yves Cousteau and Hans Hass sailed the seven seas and produced
documentary films. Marine animals, and the up and coming discipline of animal
behavioural science, were crucial to popular perceptions of the tropics. By
understanding science and perception as interconnected practices that
structured the contact of European individuals with the oceanic environment,
this article focuses on the continuity and discontinuity of colonial culture in
these endeavours. For example, the &lt;new&gt; science of animal behaviour was
structured by older, colonial visions of &lt;paradise&gt;, the practices aboard
the research vessels could be linked to pirate adventures, and the
representation of tropical surroundings likewise linked to the tradition of
ethnographical films. Methodologically, a multilayered concept of knowledge
that combines imagination and science is crucial: knowledge is not only the
information gained through the observation of marine fauna, but rather an
interpretative pattern by which people perceive the world and make sense of
their own existence within a given environment. The aim of this article is to
sketch &lt;tropicality&gt; from an oceanic perspective: colonial stereotypes of
the seas are a way of producing new meanings for non-European environments
during the time of decolonization and served as backdrop for conservation
measures in the oceanic realm., La intención de este articulo es señalar como
las expediciones oceanográficas ha simultaneadamente re-definido y popularizado
el trópico como espacio de las ciencias post-coloniales y de la imaginación
europea occidental. Desde los años 1950 hasta los años 1970 la oceanografía no
es simplemente un espacio de investigación científica. Jacques-Yves Cousteau et
Hans Hass, figuras populares, han navegado e los siete mares y realizado
numerosas películas documentales. Los animales marinos y la futura disciplina
de la conducta animal se volvieron indispensables a la percepción popular del
trópico. Con observar la ciencia y la percepción como dos practicas unidas, que
estructuran el contacto entre los europeos y el ambiente oceánico, este
articulo pone énfasis en la continuidad y la discontinuidad de las ideologías y
prácticas coloniales. Por ejemplo, la ‘nueva’ ciencia de la conducta animal ha
sido estructurada por las antiguas visiones coloniales, del ‘paraíso’, de la
vida a bordo de una nave que se puede acercar a la de los piratas en las
aventuras tropicales y en la representación del paisaje en los documentales
etnográficos. Metodológicamente, un concepto multi-nivel del conocimiento es
necesario que combine la imaginación y la ciencia, el discurso y la práctica.
El conocimiento no es información solamente obtenida con la observación de la
fauna marítima; mas bien, es un modelo de interpretación co el cual la gente
percibe el mundo y le da sentido a su propia vida en un ambiente dado. El
objeto de este articulo es dar un concepto de la tropicalidad en una
perspectiva oceánica: los estereotipos coloniales del los mares no se presentan
como “violencia epistémica” (Spivak) solamente sino también como manera de
producir significados nuevos para los ambientes no-europeos en esta epoca de
decolonizacion y de transición
global.&quot;,&quot;DOI&quot;:&quot;10.3917/rac.017.0135&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;fr&quot;,&quot;author&quot;:[{&quot;family&quot;:&quot;Torma&quot;,&quot;given&quot;:&quot;Franziska&quot;}],&quot;issued&quot;:{&quot;date-parts&quot;:[[&quot;2012&quot;,12,7]]}}}],&quot;schema&quot;:&quot;https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json&quot;}
&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-separator&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Franziska
Torma, «&amp;nbsp;Explorer les sept mers, Probing the seven seas. Towards an
oceanic and postcolonial concept of ‘tropicality’», &lt;i&gt;Revue d’anthropologie
des connaissances&lt;/i&gt; 6, n° 3, n&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; 3 (7 décembre 2012).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn66&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
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style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&quot;citationID&quot;:&quot;u5qEgzoX&quot;,&quot;properties&quot;:{&quot;formattedCitation&quot;:&quot;Gary
Kroll, {\\i{}America\\uc0\\u8217{}s Ocean Wilderness}, University Press of
Kansas, 2008.&quot;,&quot;plainCitation&quot;:&quot;Gary Kroll, America’s Ocean
Wilderness, University Press of Kansas, 2008.&quot;,&quot;dontUpdate&quot;:true,&quot;noteIndex&quot;:45},&quot;citationItems&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:1272,&quot;uris&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/7TTX7TRT&quot;],&quot;uri&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/7TTX7TRT&quot;],&quot;itemData&quot;:{&quot;id&quot;:1272,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;book&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;America&#39;s
Ocean Wilderness&quot;,&quot;collection-title&quot;:&quot;University Press of
Kansas&quot;,&quot;abstract&quot;:&quot;America&#39;s Ocean Wilderness is a
cultural history of America&#39;s exploration of the ocean and the first book to
critically analyze the legacies of seven marine explorers. Assessing work that
often straddles professional science and popular culture, Gary Kroll examines
the different perspectives a handful of scientists and naturalists—Jacques
Cousteau, Thor Heyerdahl, Roy Chapman Andrews, Robert Cushman Murphy, Eugenie
Clark, Rachel Carson, and William Beebe—have offered on what the ocean means
and how their views helped shape the way many Americans relate to the
seas.&quot;,&quot;author&quot;:[{&quot;family&quot;:&quot;Kroll&quot;,&quot;given&quot;:&quot;Gary&quot;}],&quot;issued&quot;:{&quot;date-parts&quot;:[[&quot;2008&quot;]]}}}],&quot;schema&quot;:&quot;https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json&quot;}
&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-separator&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Gary
Kroll, &lt;i&gt;America’s Ocean Wilderness. A cultural history of twentieth-century
exploration&lt;/i&gt;, University Press of Kansas, 2008.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div id=&quot;ftn67&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref67&quot; name=&quot;_ftn67&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn67;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[67]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION
{&quot;citationID&quot;:&quot;VkROA7Om&quot;,&quot;properties&quot;:{&quot;formattedCitation&quot;:&quot;Franck
Machu, {\\i{}Un cin\\uc0\\u233{}aste nomm\\uc0\\u233{} Cousteau: une
\\uc0\\u339{}uvre dans le si\\uc0\\u232{}cle} (Monaco, Monaco: \\uc0\\u201{}d.
du Rocher, 2011).&quot;,&quot;plainCitation&quot;:&quot;Franck Machu, Un
cinéaste nommé Cousteau: une œuvre dans le siècle (Monaco, Monaco: Éd. du
Rocher,
2011).&quot;,&quot;noteIndex&quot;:46},&quot;citationItems&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:1018,&quot;uris&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/JXXM35KZ&quot;],&quot;uri&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/JXXM35KZ&quot;],&quot;itemData&quot;:{&quot;id&quot;:1018,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;book&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Un
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siècle&quot;,&quot;publisher&quot;:&quot;Éd. du
Rocher&quot;,&quot;publisher-place&quot;:&quot;Monaco,
Monaco&quot;,&quot;number-of-pages&quot;:&quot;481;
8&quot;,&quot;source&quot;:&quot;Library Catalog - www.sudoc.abes.fr&quot;,&quot;event-place&quot;:&quot;Monaco,
Monaco&quot;,&quot;abstract&quot;:&quot;Le parcours de Cousteau est éblouissant.
En une vie d&#39;homme, il sut être militaire, marin, cinéaste, écrivain,
ingénieur, aventurier, explorateur, chantre de l&#39;écologie, académicien, et
humaniste. Ce livre invite à un voyage dans les bulles du cinéaste Cousteau, à
une enquête sur les inventions clés de cet ingénieur des profondeurs marines, à
un éclairage sur les grandes idées proposées à ses contemporains, et met en
lumière la dimension artistique de son oeuvre. Il raconte les coulisses des
tournages, décrit les avancées techniques, les moyens mis en oeuvre, nous fait
revivre une aventure humaine extraordinaire, porteuse de rêves pour plusieurs
générations de spectateurs, qui découvraient, devant leur écran de télévision,
le grand Atlas marin de la planète. Après Cousteau, 20000 rêves sous les mers,
résumé du présent livre, Un cinéaste nommé Cousteau tente le pari de
réconcilier la précision scrupuleuse et la passion exacerbée, espérant toucher
à la fois le féru d&#39;histoire, le cinéphile curieux, et le rêveur impénitent.
Franck Machu, ingénieur en génie marin, plongeur, s&#39;est nourri depuis l&#39;enfance
des images et du message de la grande épopée Cousteau. Son travail repose sur
une copieuse documentation, le témoignage des acteurs, cinéastes, opérateurs,
plongeurs, techniciens...&quot;,&quot;ISBN&quot;:&quot;978-2-268-07056-8&quot;,&quot;shortTitle&quot;:&quot;Un
cinéaste nommé
Cousteau&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;français&quot;,&quot;author&quot;:[{&quot;family&quot;:&quot;Machu&quot;,&quot;given&quot;:&quot;Franck&quot;}],&quot;issued&quot;:{&quot;date-parts&quot;:[[&quot;2011&quot;]],&quot;season&quot;:&quot;DL&quot;}}}],&quot;schema&quot;:&quot;https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json&quot;}
&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-separator&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Franck
Machu, &lt;i&gt;Un cinéaste nommé Cousteau: une œuvre dans le siècle&lt;/i&gt; (Monaco,
Monaco: Éd. du Rocher, 2011).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; p.59. La &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Calypso&lt;/i&gt; est un ancien dragueur de mines de 42 mètres, construit en
1942 et converti en navire océanographique en 1951. La coque du navire, à
l’état de membrures, se trouve actuellement à Izmit, en Turquie, où serait
entrepris un travail de restauration. (source&amp;nbsp;: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.meretmarine.com/fr/content/que-devient-la-calypso&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;https://www.meretmarine.com/fr/content/que-devient-la-calypso&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;, 9/2/2018)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn68&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref68&quot; name=&quot;_ftn68&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn68;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;calibri&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[68]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;Voir entre autres contributions
celles de Janine Marchessault (&lt;i&gt;Ecstatic Worlds. Media, Utopia, Ecologies&lt;/i&gt;,
MIT Press, 2017)&amp;nbsp;; Gregg Mitman (&lt;i&gt;Reel Nature&amp;nbsp;: America’s romance
with wildlife on film&lt;/i&gt;, Harvard University Press,1999)&amp;nbsp;; Stephen Rust,
Salma Monani et Sean Cubitt (&lt;i&gt;Ecocinema Theory and Practice, &lt;/i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;Routledge, NY, 2013).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn69&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref69&quot; name=&quot;_ftn69&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn69;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[69]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-begin&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;mso-spacerun:yes&#39;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {&quot;citationID&quot;:&quot;R9jeTdIx&quot;,&quot;properties&quot;:{&quot;formattedCitation&quot;:&quot;Gregg
Mitman, {\\i{}Reel nature: America\\uc0\\u8217{}s romance with wildlife on
films} (Cambridge, Mass., Etats-Unis d\\uc0\\u8217{}Am\\uc0\\u233{}rique:
Harvard University Press, 1999).&quot;,&quot;plainCitation&quot;:&quot;Gregg
Mitman, Reel nature: America’s romance with wildlife on films (Cambridge,
Mass., Etats-Unis d’Amérique: Harvard University Press,
1999).&quot;,&quot;noteIndex&quot;:47},&quot;citationItems&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:1260,&quot;uris&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/JGJ4FFWN&quot;],&quot;uri&quot;:[&quot;http://zotero.org/groups/730613/items/JGJ4FFWN&quot;],&quot;itemData&quot;:{&quot;id&quot;:1260,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;book&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Reel
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University Press&quot;,&quot;publisher-place&quot;:&quot;Cambridge, Mass.,
Etats-Unis d&#39;Amérique&quot;,&quot;number-of-pages&quot;:&quot;viii+263&quot;,&quot;source&quot;:&quot;Library
Catalog - www.sudoc.abes.fr&quot;,&quot;event-place&quot;:&quot;Cambridge,
Mass., Etats-Unis
d&#39;Amérique&quot;,&quot;ISBN&quot;:&quot;978-0-674-71571-4&quot;,&quot;shortTitle&quot;:&quot;Reel
nature&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;anglais&quot;,&quot;author&quot;:[{&quot;family&quot;:&quot;Mitman&quot;,&quot;given&quot;:&quot;Gregg&quot;}],&quot;issued&quot;:{&quot;date-parts&quot;:[[&quot;1999&quot;]]}}}],&quot;schema&quot;:&quot;https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json&quot;}
&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-separator&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;Gregg
Mitman, &lt;i&gt;Reel nature: America’s romance with wildlife on films&lt;/i&gt;
(Cambridge, Mass., Etats-Unis d’Amérique: Harvard University Press, 1999).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[if supportFields]&gt;&lt;span
style=&#39;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;&#39;&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;mso-element:field-end&#39;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; p.158&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn70&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;file:///D:/Universit%C3%A9%20Evry%20Val%20d&#39;Essonne%20-%20UEVE/CINEMA_SUBAQUATIQUE_THESE/Publications/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatique/Origines_cin%C3%A9ma_subaquatiqueBLOG.docx#_ftnref70&quot; name=&quot;_ftn70&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn70;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if !supportFootnotes]--&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[70]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Mitman, op. cit. p.110&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/feeds/3017531358460547702/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2019/05/film-de-science-ou-recit-daventures-les_26.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/3017531358460547702'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/3017531358460547702'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2019/05/film-de-science-ou-recit-daventures-les_26.html' title='Film de science ou récit d&#39;aventures ? Les origines du cinéma sous la mer'/><author><name>Gestalt</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10962207802973660346</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFQRD6kaQLUr1OUFCHOR0VqUEPA0--dKvSXYzAg5UJQ0jQol9BgkX2GLgvMoTGRhoojVNzRfbkL-xTjTcSsJ4EzhOxXCrqqMJAg2A-bKdz9_mG632d3cuenkDsDa043g/s220/vertov.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiC3UqnRGnSYok1NbItA8AHXMU8NFGLlbh2_0mJkgsq3IpZwEByXBiWAGyOdjGC7tEYG5NiCNHqlrB8fwJXmZ4G_5bRsSy_-P2hZsAXrxG1B3fzk8dWTYuRPd_5QbqhVbdXgkaEI3Sn6jGg/s72-c/Capture1.JPG" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3824907278627072174.post-9206920964937210366</id><published>2019-04-28T18:46:00.000+02:00</published><updated>2019-12-15T13:02:07.449+01:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Alejandro Martinez"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Arnaud Felici"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="François Brun"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Josef Maria Eder"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Louis Boutan"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Monique Sicard"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="photographie"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="photographie sous-marine"/><title type='text'>Louis Boutan et la photographie sous-marine (1886 - 1900)</title><content type='html'>&lt;!--[if !mso]&gt;
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  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;39&quot; Name=&quot;toc 7&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;39&quot; Name=&quot;toc 8&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;39&quot; Name=&quot;toc 9&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;35&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;caption&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;10&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Title&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;1&quot; Name=&quot;Default Paragraph Font&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;11&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Subtitle&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;22&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Strong&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;20&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Emphasis&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;59&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Table Grid&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Placeholder Text&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;1&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;No Spacing&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light List&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Revision&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;34&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;List Paragraph&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;29&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Quote&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;30&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Intense Quote&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 1&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 2&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 3&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 4&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 5&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 6&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Subtle Emphasis&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Intense Emphasis&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Subtle Reference&quot;/&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Intense Reference&quot;/&gt;
  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;33&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Book Title&quot;/&gt;
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  &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;39&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;TOC Heading&quot;/&gt;
 &lt;/w:LatentStyles&gt;
&lt;/xml&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;!--[if gte mso 10]&gt;
&lt;style&gt;
 /* Style Definitions */
 table.MsoNormalTable
 {mso-style-name:&quot;Tableau Normal&quot;;
 mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
 mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
 mso-style-noshow:yes;
 mso-style-priority:99;
 mso-style-parent:&quot;&quot;;
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&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;‘Il
en est du naturaliste&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;comme du
chasseur&amp;nbsp;; ce n’est pas dans un tiré que l’on parvient à trouver du
gibier. Celui qui est guidé par une longue expérience, durement acquise,
trouvera toujours quelque chose là où tout autre ne verra rien’&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Henri de Lacaze-Duthiers, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Archives de Zoologie Expérimentale et Générale &lt;/i&gt;(1891)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’invention de
la photographie constitue l’un des grands moments de la transformation
esthétique et technologique du 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle. Son emploi dans la
recherche scientifique, et tout particulièrement dans les sciences naturelles
reste cependant conditionné, pendant toute la période, aux possibilités qu’elle
pourrait offrir pour l’observation de processus, de matières ou d’êtres
vivants. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;A mesure que le siècle
avance, il devient évident pour nombre de savants que l’emploi des dispositifs
de prise de vues automatiques nécessite la mise au point d’équipements
particuliers, développés pour des applications spécifiques. Des noms de savants
ou d’artistes seront très vite associés à des innovations technologiques
permettant d’effectuer des prises de vues dans des conditions particulières.
Jules Janssen, Edwaerd Muybridge et d’autres vont associer leur nom à
l’invention de dispositifs qui vont rendre visibles, grâce au procédé
photographique, des évènements qui ne pourraient être perçus à l’œil nu. Alfred
Donné réalise, en 1840, des daguerréotypes d’objets microscopiques invisibles à
l’œil nu. Pour Monique Sicard, «&amp;nbsp;l’irruption de la photographie au sein du
dispositif d’observation est une révolution. L’image rend possible le partage
du regard. Avec lui, le dialogue.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn1&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref1&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn1;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Dans le domaine des
sciences de la nature, la photographie des animaux vivants dans leur milieu
naturel devient un objectif réaliste à mesure qu’apparaissent sur le marché, ou
que sont réalisés, des équipements permettant de visualiser des évènements se
produisant en dehors des capacités de perception de l’œil humain, ou encore des
évolutions et des transformations se produisant dans des milieux difficilement
accessibles.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;En somme, l’invention
de la photographie ouvre tout un champ à la visualisation scientifique qui
restait, jusqu’au milieu du siècle, le domaine des reproductions d’artistes ou
de savants versés dans les arts plastiques. C’est ainsi&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;qu’un naturaliste tel que Louis Boutan, et
avant lui l’anglais William Thompson, en sont venus à tenter de donner une
visibilité à des phénomènes et à des paysages subaquatiques encore largement
ignorés de la communauté scientifique.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Dans ce travail
consacré à l’utilisation par Louis Boutan de la photographie comme moyen de
représenter de manière réaliste les fonds marins, je commencerai par retracer
de manière succincte les principales étapes de sa carrière de naturaliste. Une
deuxième partie sera consacrée à Henri de Lacaze-Duthiers, le fondateur du Laboratoire
Arago, qui lui a permis de réaliser cette avancée majeure dans le champ des
techniques photographiques qu’a constituée la représentation des fonds marins
avec l’aide de la photographie. Les étapes ayant mené Boutan des premiers
essais de prise de vues sous-marines, avec un appareil du commerce, à la
conception et à la construction d’équipements spécifiques, adaptés au milieu
subaquatique, seront retracées dans une troisième partie.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraph&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 32.05pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;1.&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Itinéraire d’un savant dans la France
d’après 1870&amp;nbsp;: genèse du travail scientifique de Louis Boutan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Louis Marie Auguste
Boutan (1859-1934) est né à Versailles, dans une famille emblématique de la
méritocratie française de la deuxième moitié du 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle. Son
père, Auguste Boutan (1820-1900), après un passage par l’Ecole Normale
Supérieure, devient professeur de physique dans un lycée parisien et termine sa
carrière comme inspecteur général de l’Education Elémentaire&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn2&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref2&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn2;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Après des études
secondaires au lycée Saint-Louis, à Paris, Louis Boutan est nommé, en 1879, préparateur
adjoint à la Faculté des Sciences de Paris. Il est rattaché au laboratoire d’Henri
de Lacaze-Duthiers&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn3&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref3&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn3;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
Invité par ce dernier à effectuer des interventions, en tant que conférencier,
au laboratoire Arago de Banyuls sur Mer, il y découvre la plongée sous-marine
équipé du scaphandre «&amp;nbsp;pieds lourds&amp;nbsp;», le seul disponible à l’époque.
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Boutan, qui est aussi
intéressé par les possibles utilisations de la photographie dans les sciences
naturelles, effectue ses premiers essais de photographie sous-marine grâce aux
dispositifs réalisés par son frère&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;et le
mécanicien du laboratoire, David. En 1900, il fait paraitre &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La Photographie sous-marine et les progrès
de la photographie&lt;/i&gt;, ouvrage qui fait le récit détaillé de ses expériences et
qui en marque la fin.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Dans la biographie
de Louis Boutan, on remarquera tout d’abord l’intérêt constant d’un naturaliste
pour la mer et ses habitants. De l’étude de la fissurelle, qui est l’objet de
sa thèse de doctorat en 1886, à la publication de son ouvrage sur la perle, en
1925, son intérêt pour les ressources halieutiques ne s’est jamais démenti. On
pourrait donc en déduire que le développement de l’exploration sous-marine,
puis la mise au point des équipements permettant la photographie sous-marine,
avaient un rapport avec ses travaux sur les animaux marins. En effet, dès son
séjour de 1886 à Banyuls, Boutan va s’essayer à la plongée en scaphandre
«&amp;nbsp;pieds lourds&amp;nbsp;» pour récolter mollusques et autres espèces marines.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Cependant, la
découverte du spectacle subaquatique du littoral du Roussillon va l’amener à
adopter une toute autre perspective et à envisager la manière la plus moderne
de partager cette expérience. Avant de retracer les principales étapes de cette
invention de la photographie sous-marine par un naturaliste du 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt;
siècle, il convient de décrire le cadre dans lequel elles auront lieu,
c’est-à-dire celui créé par Henri de Lacaze-Duthiers avec l’établissement du
Laboratoire Arago à Banyuls sur Mer.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpLast&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraph&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 32.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;2.&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Henri
de Lacaze-Duthiers et la création du Laboratoire Arago&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Henri de
Lacaze-Duthiers (1821-1901), originaire du Lot-et-Garonne, était sans doute,
comme le note François Brun, un personnage «&amp;nbsp;dans la lignée des
savants-voyageurs (Cuvier, Milne-Edwards, de Quatrefages) qui étudient les
animaux dans leur environnement et leur habitat, à la différence d’autres
érudits qui ne travaillent que dans leur laboratoire éloigné des sites
naturels.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn4&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref4&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn4;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[4]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
Influencé, au cours de ses études de médecine, par l’enseignement d’Henri
Milne-Edwards, il s’intéresse de plus en plus à l’histoire naturelle, sans
abandonner la médecine pour autant.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Spécialisé dans l’étude
des mollusques, il est à l’origine de la création de la première station
maritime à Roscoff, en 1872. Cependant, le climat sur ces côtes à l’extrémité
ouest de la Bretagne ne permet pas d’y effectuer des recherches durant la
période hivernale, de fin octobre et jusqu’au mois d’avril, et il devient
évident qu’il faut trouver un deuxième lieu qui puisse permettre de travailler
toute l’année.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;En 1881, il crée le
Laboratoire Arago, sur la Côte Vermeille (Pyrénées-Orientales), grâce à
diverses subventions et en raison du climat qui lui parait alors
particulièrement propice pour y effectuer des travaux tout au long de l’année. La
création du Laboratoire Arago est pour la carrière&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;scientifique d’Henri de Lacaze-Duthiers,
toute entière tournée vers les études expérimentales en zoologie, un point
d’appui et un aboutissement logique. Cette création, qui suit naturellement celle
de la station de Roscoff, en 1872, fait alors partie d’un véritable mouvement
en faveur de la création de laboratoires spécialisés. Ce mouvement, d’ailleurs,
ne prend réellement de l’importance qu’après la guerre de 1870 et la chute de
l’Empire. C’est donc avec la 3&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; République que commence
véritablement l’extension de l’enseignement de l’Histoire Naturelle à l’école,
puis au niveau de l’enseignement supérieur.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La station de Banyuls
devra son développement aux dons et contributions diverses provenant
d’initiatives privées&amp;nbsp;: en 1893, le prince Roland Bonaparte, président de
la Société de Géographie, donne 50000 francs pour l’achat d’un bateau à vapeur
(le ‘Roland’). D’autres donateurs offriront machines à vapeur ou bibliothèques.
Lacaze-Duthiers insistera tout particulièrement d’ailleurs sur l’importance de
la bibliothèque, le seul luxe autorisable, selon lui, dans ses stations
maritimes.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;D’autre part,
conférences et excursions avaient été, dès sa création, un des moyens mis en
œuvre par Lacaze-Duthiers pour animer le laboratoire et le faire connaitre à la
communauté scientifique et au-delà. Boutan lui-même, souvent sollicité, s’est
prêté au jeu, y voyant sans&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;doute aussi
un moyen de divulguer ses recherches et ses expériences sous-marines et,
peut-être aussi, d’obtenir des soutiens. &lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;Cet aspect pédagogique des activités de la
station s’étendait sans doute au-delà de la communauté scientifique comme le
montre une affiche de 1893 conservée à la Bibliothèque de l’Observatoire
océanologique de Banyuls (Figure 2 - Voir aussi les courriers et le Livre d’Or du
Laboratoire Arago, en Annexe).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjWuqL5cGYGB7Bp3lq4gpdV0fjc7N3KxbhlWFR8yNZXVXD7IKpM5elBI8AJyZb8xOUvqxgFXIQ-UiSRVIWCeqZfWBhLAOL8TWmown-IHxAumUdL4VyE4t0115EMSlVSHgxTwlxgeqJ1eqht/s1600/Banyuls1.JPG&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;750&quot; data-original-width=&quot;826&quot; height=&quot;580&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjWuqL5cGYGB7Bp3lq4gpdV0fjc7N3KxbhlWFR8yNZXVXD7IKpM5elBI8AJyZb8xOUvqxgFXIQ-UiSRVIWCeqZfWBhLAOL8TWmown-IHxAumUdL4VyE4t0115EMSlVSHgxTwlxgeqJ1eqht/s640/Banyuls1.JPG&quot; width=&quot;640&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoCaption&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
Figure &lt;span style=&quot;mso-no-proof: yes;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;-
Planche parue dans les &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Archives de
zoologie expérimentale et Générale&lt;/i&gt;, 2&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; série, tome 9, p.256
(1891)&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhWgFaxkOR59NnxFvRXgSJGn67gUlCw7VEUW8YF8789uBdBRVXpZMGZEh4fTjlJCvsmrZmFNSzE7sgp1585Y7Div85xSrb-z2vFj2xm4cjK4lmGeLr-Wa-lnaep-bHEws1nAQLFQ2aCoMRv/s1600/Banyuls2.JPG&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1034&quot; data-original-width=&quot;1390&quot; height=&quot;475&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhWgFaxkOR59NnxFvRXgSJGn67gUlCw7VEUW8YF8789uBdBRVXpZMGZEh4fTjlJCvsmrZmFNSzE7sgp1585Y7Div85xSrb-z2vFj2xm4cjK4lmGeLr-Wa-lnaep-bHEws1nAQLFQ2aCoMRv/s640/Banyuls2.JPG&quot; width=&quot;640&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoCaption&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
Figure 2&lt;span style=&quot;mso-no-proof: yes;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
- Le Laboratoire Arago en 1894 et l&#39;île Grosse (&lt;span style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;©&lt;/span&gt; Bibliothèque du Laboratoire
Arago / Sorbonne Université)&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraph&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 32.2pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;3.&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Louis
Boutan à Banyuls&amp;nbsp;: premières plongées et expériences avec la photographie&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Louis Boutan,
qui se trouve, depuis 1884, en résidence quasi-permanente à la station marine
de Banyuls-sur-Mer, va combiner ses travaux sur la fissurelle – afin d’achever
sa thèse de doctorat – avec l’apprentissage de la plongée sous-marine en
scaphandre «&amp;nbsp;pieds lourds&amp;nbsp;», c’est-à-dire le fameux scaphandre à
casque, avec arrivée d’air depuis la surface et chaussures aux semelles lestées
de plomb.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Pendant l’été
1892, Louis Boutan décide de descendre en scaphandre dans la rade de Banyuls et
à Port Vendres afin d’observer le développement d’un mollusque, l’Haliotis. Ce
ne sont d’ailleurs pas ses premières expériences de scaphandrier mais, cette
fois, il est saisi par la beauté des paysages sous-marins à tel point qu’il
regrette de ne pouvoir en rapporter des images&amp;nbsp;: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;«&amp;nbsp;L’étrangeté
de ces paysages sous-marins m’avait causé une très vive impression et il me
paraissait regrettable de ne pouvoir la traduire que par une description plus
ou moins exacte, mais forcément incomplète. J’aurais voulu rapporter de ces
explorations sous-marines un souvenir plus tangible&amp;nbsp;; mais il n’est guère
possible, quelque bon scaphandrier que l’on soit, de faire un dessin, voire
même un croquis, au fond de l’eau.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn5&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref5&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn5;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[5]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’utilisation de la photographie, qui
est devenue un instrument à part entière de la recherche scientifique, lui
apparait comme une évidence&amp;nbsp;: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;«&amp;nbsp;Je
résolus alors d’essayer la photographie&amp;nbsp;; puisqu’on arrive à prendre sans
difficulté un paysage en plein air, pourquoi, me disais-je, ne parviendrait-on
pas à faire une photographie au fond de la mer&amp;nbsp;?&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn6&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref6&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn6;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[6]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Cette question,
toute théorique de prime abord, avait pourtant déjà fait l’objet de recherches
et même d’une expérimentation de la part d’un anglais, William Thompson
(1822-1879), qui parvint à réaliser, en 1856, ce que l’on s’accorde à
considérer comme la première photographie prise sous l’eau. Son dispositif
consistait alors à placer l’appareil dans un conteneur en bois et en métal,
scellé de manière à peu près hermétique, et qui était immergé à environ cinq
mètres sous l’eau tout en étant retenu par une corde. Au cours de cette
expérience, cependant, le conteneur n’ayant pu résister à la pression, l’eau
salée pénètre à l’intérieur et atteint la plaque de collodion&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn7&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref7&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn7;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[7]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
Le résultat en sera une image faiblement révélée, sur laquelle il est difficile
de distinguer les détails, mais Thompson considère que c’est le dispositif mis
en œuvre qui est en cause et non pas le médium aquatique lui-même. C’est une
limite technologique qui, selon lui, sera résolue tôt ou tard.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;C’est là
qu’apparait, en réalité, la principale «&amp;nbsp;vertu&amp;nbsp;» de la photographie.
Alejandro Martinez soutient ainsi que&amp;nbsp;: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;«&amp;nbsp;&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;the value granted to photography as evidence
was not so much linked to its faithfulness or the degree of accuracy in
representing its referent, but to its ability to eliminate human hands from the
process of recording and representing the world&lt;/i&gt;.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn8&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref8&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn8;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[8]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’automatisme de
la machine photographique est donc son principal avantage et garantit, par le
résultat de la reproduction mécanique du réel, ce qui apparait déjà comme un
gage d’objectivité.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La densité de
l’eau n’apparait pas comme un obstacle insurmontable. Boutan entreprend donc
«&amp;nbsp;de passer de la théorie à la pratique et de faire construire les
appareils spéciaux&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn9&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref9&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn9;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[9]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
qui lui seront nécessaires pour la réussite de son entreprise. Le frère de
Louis Boutan, Auguste Boutan, qui est centralien et dont la collaboration
s’avèrera précieuse par la suite, se charge de la conception de l’appareil, qui
sera construit par la société Alvergnat. Un système d’éclairage, conçu par un
autre ingénieur, M. Chaufour, sera construit par la Compagnie générale de
constructions mécaniques.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Pour remédier
aux problèmes causés par la réfraction de l’eau sur les systèmes optiques, il
lui semble indispensable de construire un appareil photographique adapté au
milieu subaquatique. Pour cela, deux solutions&amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;«&amp;nbsp;1° Faire
construire un objectif qu’on pourrait immerger directement dans l’eau&amp;nbsp;;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;2° Faire établir une boite étanche, dans
l’intérieur de laquelle l’objectif ordinaire serait à l’abri du liquide
salé.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn10&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref10&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn10;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[10]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;En1893, il fait
construire, avec l’aide de son frère Auguste, un boitier étanche pour un
appareil de type &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Détective&lt;/i&gt; à 6
plaques de 9cm x 12cm&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn11&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref11&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn11;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[11]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
Pour Boutan, le principe de ce premier appareil peut se résumer ainsi : «
Utiliser l’appareil photographique ordinaire en le plaçant dans des conditions
telles que le fait de son immersion dans l’eau ne change pas sensiblement son mode
habituel de fonctionnement, et que l’objectif ne puisse être altéré par son
contact avec le nouveau milieu. »&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn12&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref12&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn12;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[12]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ce premier
appareil doit présenter, selon Louis Boutan, certaines caractéristiques qui
puissent permettre sa manipulation sous l’eau. Ce genre d’appareil,
précise-t-il, « permet de faire arriver l’image des objets sur la plaque
sensible sans une mise au point préalable, à condition qu’on opère sur des
objets distants de l’objectif de plus de 3 à 4 mètres. »&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn13&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref13&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn13;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[13]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’appareil est
placé dans un boitier étanche dont les plans sont réalisés par son frère
Auguste et dont la réalisation est confiée à la société des frères Alvergniat,
à Paris, une maison bien connue à l’époque pour la réalisation d’instruments
scientifiques.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Boutan fait une
longue description de l’appareil dans un premier texte&amp;nbsp;: l’appareil est
enfermé dans une boite étanche, disposant d’une série d’orifices. C’est «&amp;nbsp;Un
parallélépipède rectangle creux, formé de lames de cuivre soudées ensemble… Sur
les faces latérales de l’instrument se trouvent percés une série d’orifices de
forme circulaire. Ces orifices, d’égale grandeur, sont au nombre de trois pour
la face antérieure V, V, O et d’un OV pour la face latérale.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Chacun de ces
orifices est munie d’une glace plane parfaitement sertie et mastiquée dans
l’intérieur de l’orifice.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn14&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref14&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn14;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[14]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’appareil
présente d’autre orifices&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;l’un sur la face latérale et l’autre
sur la face postérieure, deux orifices de diamètre beaucoup plus restreint, OB
et D, sur lesquels sont adaptés des presse-étoupe, qui permettent le mouvement
de va et vient de deux manettes indépendantes.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn15&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref15&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn15;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[15]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
(Figure 5)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Un «&amp;nbsp;ballon
de compensation&amp;nbsp;» de trois litres a d’autre part été rajouté sur le dessus
de l’appareil afin d’équilibrer à la pression ambiante. Ce ballon est rempli
d’air, et la pression de l’eau fait passer l’air à l’intérieur de l’appareil
grâce à une ouverture pratiquée sur le dessus, équilibrant ainsi la pression
exercée sur ses parois. Boutan fait remarquer, en effet, que lorsque «&amp;nbsp;la
boite est immergée à 10 mètres de profondeur, les parois extérieures ont à supporter
à la fois la pression atmosphérique, et en plus une pression égale au poids
d’une colonne d’eau salée de 10 mètres de hauteur.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn16&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref16&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn16;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[16]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;D’autre part, un
mécanisme automatique permettant le remplacement de la plaque impressionnée par
une plaque neuve lui permet d’utiliser un magasin et de prendre plusieurs vues
successives sans être obligé de remonter à la surface. Boutan le décrit de la
manière suivante&amp;nbsp;: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;«&amp;nbsp;Un simple
mouvement de bascule imprimé à une manette fait tomber la plaque impressionnée
au fond de l’appareil et met en face de l’objectif une plaque neuve, prête à
subir à son tour l’impression lumineuse.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ce dispositif
spécial des appareils photographiques, du genre détective, me semble propre à
rendre de grands services dans la photographie sous-marine en permettant de
prendre successivement plusieurs vues, sans être obligé de remonter à la
surface de l’eau.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn17&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref17&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn17;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[17]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ce premier
appareil est cependant d’un maniement peu pratique, sa mise en œuvre nécessite
de longs séjours sous l’eau et, pour pouvoir impressionner les plaques de
manière à obtenir des images d’une qualité satisfaisante, il faut des temps de
pose d’au moins dix minutes, et certaines photographies, selon Boutan, ont même
demandé une demi-heure de temps de pose. Dans ces conditions, on imagine bien
tous les problèmes posés par les mouvements de la faune et de la flore sous-marine.
De plus, les prises de vue nécessitaient une longue préparation&amp;nbsp;: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;«&amp;nbsp;Le bateau
devait être ancré solidement, le scaphandrier se mettait à l’eau et recherchait
un site approprié, il recevait ensuite l’appareil qu’il devait assembler au
fond de l’eau. Une fois en place, le scaphandrier donnait le signal en surface
au patron du bateau pour qu’il compte le temps de pose car les chronomètres
étanches n’existaient pas encore…&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn18&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref18&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn18;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[18]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les premiers
résultats ne sont guère satisfaisants, les temps de pose sont très longs, les
photographies sont floues et Louis Boutan met en cause le manque de profondeur
de champ permise par l’appareil&amp;nbsp;: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;«&amp;nbsp;Les
clichés obtenus ont un grave défaut. Malgré leur pittoresque, malgré le rendu
des premiers des premiers plans, ils manquent visiblement de profondeur. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Même dans les
clichés les mieux réussis, le paysage semble coupé brusquement à une distance
relativement faible.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;En réalité, la
vue porte plus loin que ne semble l’indiquer l’image photographique, et l’on
pourrait reprocher avec juste raison à mes clichés de ne traduire qu’une faible
partie du paysage que le scaphandrier a sous les yeux. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;(…) La cause de cet insuccès tient, je
crois, non pas à la façon d’opérer, mais à l’appareil lui-même&amp;nbsp;; il est
très vraisemblable qu’avec un appareil photographique puissant, dans lequel il
serait possible de régler la mise au point avec exactitude, on pourrait obtenir
une profondeur plus considérable et qui traduirait plus fidèlement le spectacle
qu’on a sous les yeux.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn19&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref19&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn19;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[19]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg_uirBb8s5ATxq5S_T4i4l1UxO13Wn9hdKw5SGALj5QhJuO5L6vtOKoOnMQAT_choasD5ArhVPRyfLSunz9_pnw33l_XD_ciBGzTPiSDsCDZfeB7nJxXm9atHNQ3xFZk_ZbcyvmERjCDKs/s1600/D%25C3%25A9tective1.JPG&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;675&quot; data-original-width=&quot;543&quot; height=&quot;640&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg_uirBb8s5ATxq5S_T4i4l1UxO13Wn9hdKw5SGALj5QhJuO5L6vtOKoOnMQAT_choasD5ArhVPRyfLSunz9_pnw33l_XD_ciBGzTPiSDsCDZfeB7nJxXm9atHNQ3xFZk_ZbcyvmERjCDKs/s640/D%25C3%25A9tective1.JPG&quot; width=&quot;513&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoCaption&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
Figure &lt;span style=&quot;mso-no-proof: yes;&quot;&gt;4&lt;/span&gt;
- L&#39;appareil Détective de 1893 (&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Archives
de zoologie Expérimentale et Générale&lt;/i&gt;, 3ème série, tome 1, 1893)&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpFirst&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il lui parait
alors indispensable de pouvoir disposer de la possibilité de régler la mise au
point avec exactitude.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Alejandro
Martinez fait remarquer que la conception de ce premier appareil ressemble à
une proposition faite en 1891 par Paul Regnard (1850-1927), pour la réalisation
d’un dispositif photographique submersible, mais cet appareil ne fut
apparemment jamais construit&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn20&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref20&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn20;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[20]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
Boutan a d’ailleurs eu connaissance du projet de Paul Regnard, mais cet
appareil lui paraissait singulièrement limité car ne proposant que des vues en
plan&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn21&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref21&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn21;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[21]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le deuxième
dispositif utilisé par Boutan était d’une conception complètement différente.
Dans cet appareil, ni l’objectif, ni la chambre noire, ni même les plaques
photographiques ne sont protégés par un boitier hermétique, mais ils sont
placés au contraire au contact de l’eau. Selon Boutan, «&amp;nbsp;Rien ne s’oppose
à ce que des objectifs calculés convenablement ne fonctionnent également bien
dans des milieux plus réfringents, en étant immergés complètement, par exemple,
dans le milieu eau.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn22&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref22&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn22;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[22]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ce deuxième
appareil ne donne cependant pas de bons résultats et Boutan ne le mentionne,
semble-t-il, que pour mémoire. Il indique aussi que son principe était
certainement bon et que «&amp;nbsp;si le résultat a été insuffisant, cela tient à
ce que je n’ai pas eu à ma disposition des objectifs convenablement appropriés
à cette nouvelle fonction.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn23&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref23&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn23;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[23]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;D’autres
considérations, tenant en particulier à la nécessité de manœuvrer l’obturateur
sans bouger l’appareil, conduisent à la construction d’un troisième dispositif,
qu’il décrit ainsi&amp;nbsp;: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;«&amp;nbsp;Une boite
étanche, renfermant à la fois l’objectif et la plaque, qui sont ainsi plongés
tous les deux dans l’air.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’objectif est
donc exactement dans la même situation que l’œil du scaphandrier qui, placé au
milieu de l’air que lui envoie la pompe, voit les objets à travers la glace du
casque. Comme lui, s’il est myope, il ne verra pas grand’chose&amp;nbsp;; si, au
contraire, il est doué d’une vue normale et perçante, le paysage qui va se
dérouler devant lui sera très étendu. Tout se ramène donc à perfectionner,
autant que possible, l’œil ou plutôt l’objectif qui doit transmettre l’image à
la plaque sensible.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn24&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref24&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn24;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[24]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
(Figure 7)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;En effet, pour
Boutan la conception d’objectifs spécialement manufacturés et calibrés pour une
utilisation au contact de l’eau est primordiale. Il souligne&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;«&amp;nbsp;[qu’]il est bon de rappeler ici que la
différence des indices de réfraction de l’eau de mer et du verre pour les
différentes radiations solaires étant relativement faible, il est indispensable
de créer un objectif nouveau, dont les courbures soient calculées en partant de
ces conditions spéciales.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn25&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref25&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn25;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[25]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’objectif
employé est à «&amp;nbsp;astygmats symétriques&amp;nbsp;» et provient de la maison
Darlot. Le nouvel appareil pour plaques 18 X 24 est construit au laboratoire
Arago par le mécanicien David. Boutan ne manquera d’ailleurs jamais de mettre
en avant le rôle joué par l’ingénieux mécanicien, tout en décrivant longuement
dans son ouvrage les différentes pièces du dispositif. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoCaption&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhp88_8bT4lildF9GhcqTomKFE80-dnVudMCA1iFBHCcXsKH8M-AMLQxGxtZ96_7QExTm8NWBGBRoxrgRU-na5AGj2RfBVGw8VbpRU-b9kfG1gGJpfL0EIijDqwp90S8fGIKqbp-h3vo6Zy/s1600/La_photographie_sous-marine1.bmp&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1002&quot; data-original-width=&quot;724&quot; height=&quot;640&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhp88_8bT4lildF9GhcqTomKFE80-dnVudMCA1iFBHCcXsKH8M-AMLQxGxtZ96_7QExTm8NWBGBRoxrgRU-na5AGj2RfBVGw8VbpRU-b9kfG1gGJpfL0EIijDqwp90S8fGIKqbp-h3vo6Zy/s640/La_photographie_sous-marine1.bmp&quot; width=&quot;459&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;page-break-after: avoid; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoCaption&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
Figure &lt;span style=&quot;mso-no-proof: yes;&quot;&gt;5&lt;/span&gt;
- Le troisième appareil, construit au laboratoire Arago (&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La Photographie sous-marine et les progrès de la photographie&lt;/i&gt;)&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpFirst&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’appareil
permet de prendre six vues successives avec des plaques contenues dans un
châssis et qui sont changées et positionnées les unes après les autres grâce à
une manette rotative, placée à l’extérieur de l’appareil et commandée par le
scaphandrier.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Cet appareil est
donc manœuvré par une manette pour l’obturateur (MO) et par une deuxième
manette pour le changement et le positionnement des plaques (M). &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La mise au point
doit se faire en tenant compte de l’indice de réfraction de l’eau&amp;nbsp;; comme
il ne lui est pas possible d’effectuer cette mise au point sous l’eau, un
dispositif est réalisé dans un bassin de radoub, qui permet de simuler les
différentes distances de mise au point permises par l’appareil et donc de
graduer celui-ci en tenant compte de cet indice&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn26&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref26&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn26;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[26]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
Pour des profondeurs plus importantes, le même dispositif est réalisé à partir
d’une passerelle accrochée «&amp;nbsp;au flanc d’un bateau et au bord de laquelle
on fixait l’appareil de manière à ce que l’opérateur pût manœuvrer facilement
la glace dépolie.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn27&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref27&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn27;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[27]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le dispositif,
qui est particulièrement lourd, devra être descendu sous l’eau par plusieurs
hommes à partir d’un bateau.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’appareil, dont
il n’a été construit qu’un seul exemplaire, sera celui qui permettra à Boutan
de faire ses photographies les plus réussies. Il n’a malheureusement pas été
conservé.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les premiers
essais sont effectués dans les environs du laboratoire Arago, sans doute aux
abords de l’ile Grosse. Boutan dispose de deux embarcations, mises à sa
disposition par Lacaze-Duthiers, dont l’une est une balancelle de 4 à 5
tonneaux, cadeau fait au laboratoire, lors de sa fondation, par les habitants
du pays et appelée le&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;«&amp;nbsp;Lacaze-Duthiers&amp;nbsp;».&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgKEZ_Htqq4K26udo3_RORxeJ0fFXx_GOCx8zhRF1Bs5XHysjjE67VtqYW-WmadGuy2mnGcBmiqojXFl_5DOJ-2q14T5zA-X943csD4Mdrz_Pjree6U9TYiN6KYCuhGfGlR5KxV55DRvkVY/s1600/RS435_Le+Lacaze-Duthiers.jpg&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1260&quot; data-original-width=&quot;1600&quot; height=&quot;500&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgKEZ_Htqq4K26udo3_RORxeJ0fFXx_GOCx8zhRF1Bs5XHysjjE67VtqYW-WmadGuy2mnGcBmiqojXFl_5DOJ-2q14T5zA-X943csD4Mdrz_Pjree6U9TYiN6KYCuhGfGlR5KxV55DRvkVY/s640/RS435_Le+Lacaze-Duthiers.jpg&quot; width=&quot;640&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’autre est un
bâtiment plus important, un bateau à vapeur de 25 tonneaux, baptisé le
«&amp;nbsp;Roland&amp;nbsp;» en l’honneur de son donateur, le prince Roland Bonaparte,
membre de l’Institut.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le mécanicien
David a transformé la cale du navire en chambre noire. Ainsi, «&amp;nbsp;à l’aide
d’un palan fixé sur la vergue, les hommes de l’équipage descendaient l’appareil
dans la cale, puis on rabattait le capot et l’on calfeutrait le mécanicien et
son aide dans la chambre noire.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn28&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref28&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn28;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[28]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les premières
expéditions, à partir de 1892, se déroulent dans des fonds où la vase ne permet
pas toujours d’obtenir de bonnes épreuves. Les contrastes sont peu accentués et
les clichés obtenus sont ternes. Il est d’ailleurs impossible de se déplacer
sur le fond sans soulever des nuages de vase, ce qui rend l’eau encore plus
trouble. L’appareil est très difficile à manœuvrer sous l’eau par un
scaphandrier. Plus tard, Boutan a l’idée de lui attacher un tonneau rempli
d’air, ce qui facilite alors les déplacements du système.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Autre facteur
important pour la réussite des prises de vues&amp;nbsp;: le degré hygrométrique de
l’air renfermé dans l’appareil qui se trouve à une température différente de
celle de l’eau. Il conviendra alors, selon Boutan, de «&amp;nbsp;maintenir dans
l’intérieur de l’appareil, entre chaque descente, un bocal ouvert, renfermant
de la chaux vive ou tout autre corps avide d’eau, de manière à dessécher à peu
près complètement l’atmosphère limitée, qui va éprouver un abaissement de
température pendant l’immersion.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn29&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref29&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn29;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[29]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Boutan finit par
trouver un endroit plus favorable pour ses plongées&amp;nbsp;: une petite anse
enfermée entre deux hautes collines rocheuses, appelée la baie du Troc, dans
laquelle on peut opérer à des profondeurs variant de 2 à 11 mètres. Voici
comment Boutan décrit son mode opératoire au cours de ses premières expéditions
photographiques&amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;«&amp;nbsp;Le bateau
étant solidement ancré sur le fond et maintenu dans une position invariable à
l’aide d’une série d’amarres fixées aux rochers de la côte, je revêtais l’habit
de scaphandrier, et je descendais sur le point choisi d’avance comme centre
d’opérations.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Après avoir pris
terre à la profondeur voulue, je donnais au patron le signal de me faire
descendre les différentes parties de l’appareil photographique.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Je recevais au
bout d’une corde le trépied en fer, l’appareil contenant la boite
photographique et un poids en fonte destiné à caler le tout.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Je me mettais
alors en marche pour choisir définitivement le point de vue à reproduire.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le paysage une
fois choisi, j’installais à loisir le pied de l’appareil, et je disposais la
boite photographique de manière à n’avoir plus qu’à soulever un bouchon pour
ouvrir l’obturateur.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ceci fait, un
nouveau signal était expédié par moi au patron, qui tenait en main la corde de
sauvetage. Ce signal signifiait que la pose était commencée, et j’attendais
patiemment que le patron m’indiquât de nouveau la fin de l’opération.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn30&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref30&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn30;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[30]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il arrivait
ainsi que les temps de pose atteignent la demi-heure. On imagine alors la
patience du scaphandrier-photographe, obligé de tenir l’appareil immobile sur
son trépied durant tout ce temps. Des temps de pose aussi longs étaient
nécessaires pour obtenir des images suffisamment nettes. Il fallait
«&amp;nbsp;diaphragmer&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn31&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref31&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn31;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[31]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
et donc accepter des temps de pose de plus en plus longs.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il fallait
cependant corriger tout cela et trouver un mode opératoire mieux à même de
rendre à l’image les subtilités du paysage sous-marin. Le nouvel appareil
construit au laboratoire (voir Figure 2, supra) employait des optiques plus
performantes, comme on l’a vu, ce qui avait des conséquences sans doute
bénéfiques pour le travail de l’opérateur.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il reste que,
pour Boutan, la photographie sous-marine doit, pour pouvoir être d’une certaine
utilité, être à même de prendre ce qu’il nomme des «&amp;nbsp;photographies instantanées&amp;nbsp;»
(autrement dit avec un temps de pose réduit). Pour atteindre ce résultat, il
lui apparait &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;«&amp;nbsp;[Qu’] il
fallait renoncer complètement à l’emploi de diaphragmes à petite ouverture, et
[qu’il devait] chercher à produire la netteté par une mise au point rigoureuse.
Les diaphragmes à petite ouverture ont, en effet, l’inconvénient de diminuer la
quantité de lumière qui doit impressionner la plaque&amp;nbsp;; ils ne pouvaient
convenir pour l’instantané, alors, précisément, que j’essayais d’opérer avec le
maximum de lumière.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn32&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref32&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn32;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[32]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il lui faut donc
utiliser une source lumineuse intense et, après réflexion, il préfère tout
d’abord utiliser la lumière du soleil, ce qui impose évidemment de ne
travailler que certains jours et dans des environnements peu profonds. Il reste
que la qualité des clichés obtenus, dans un tel milieu, ne peut être uniquement
la conséquence de la sensibilité des plaques photographiques et de la qualité
des objectifs.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Boutan, en
effet, remarque très vite qu’en s’enfonçant plus avant dans l’eau, l’intensité
de la lumière diminue&amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;«&amp;nbsp;On se
trouve successivement en possession d’une source lumineuse qui s’affaiblit
graduellement, si bien qu’il arrive un moment où le faisceau solaire correspond
à une intensité moins forte qu’une source artificielle qui serait immergée au
niveau même de l’objet à photographier.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn33&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref33&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn33;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[33]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Un équipement semble
alors indispensable aux recherches sous-marines de Louis Boutan&amp;nbsp;: c’est
l’éclairage par une source de lumière artificielle. L’intensité lumineuse,
devenue progressivement de plus en plus faible à mesure que l’on s’enfonce dans
les profondeurs, il devient indispensable de recourir à une source de lumière
artificielle afin d’éclairer suffisamment les objets à photographier. La
lumière électrique semble être la mieux adaptée, car sa durée et son intensité
ne dépendent que de la puissance des appareils utilisés. Mais pour l’utiliser,
remarque-t-il, il est indispensable de disposer de dynamos puissantes ou de
nombreux accumulateurs, qui sont difficiles à manier sur un bateau. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Compte tenu des
difficultés présentées par l’utilisation de sources électriques, Boutan et ses
compagnons préfèrent utiliser, dans un premier temps, des lampes au magnésium,
dont le principe est décrit de la manière suivante&amp;nbsp;:&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;«&amp;nbsp;Un fil de
magnésium enroulé sous forme de spirale est placé dans un ballon de verre qui
contient de l’oxygène.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ce ballon,
complètement étanche, renferme en outre un fil fin de platine qui est relié aux
deux pôles d’une pile.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Quand on établit
le courant, le fil rougit, le magnésium s’enflamme et s’oxyde, en produisant
une vive lumière, au contact de l’oxygène.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn34&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref34&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn34;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[34]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’appareil est
composé du globe de la lampe proprement dit, qui renferme la spirale de
magnésium et un dispositif d’allumage, et un flacon étanche contenant de l’oxygène,
attaché à la lampe et qui permet ainsi au magnésium de s’enflammer. Cette lampe
présente cependant de sérieux inconvénients, dont le plus sérieux provient du
mode de combustion de la spirale de magnésium.&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;En effet, l’intensité du flux lumineux est variable, en raison des
caractéristiques propres au magnésium qui ne se consume pas de manière
homogène.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Par la suite,
Boutan fait construire un appareil plus simple et plus robuste. La lampe cette
fois descend toute allumée sous la mer, et sa combustion est entretenue par une
atmosphère contenue dans un réservoir d’air qui communique avec le globe de la
lampe elle-même (voir figure 8). Boutan décrit longuement ce dispositif. On
retiendra cependant que son maniement est dangereux et que son rendement lumineux
demeure assez faible.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj46v5p966oV5JXHob7FKOQGuDdmZxLaOqhUMPzrq9eVvsQEiDCpZYWXnWGSP-id_fL3Ozu6G0mcQqbK5E2SMGHznWOrV3vjV8GiVd8KexmF0vrOlFa4hYATauRjw9KATJeJwdEG3vcydbv/s1600/La_photographie_sous-marine4.bmp&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;901&quot; data-original-width=&quot;757&quot; height=&quot;640&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj46v5p966oV5JXHob7FKOQGuDdmZxLaOqhUMPzrq9eVvsQEiDCpZYWXnWGSP-id_fL3Ozu6G0mcQqbK5E2SMGHznWOrV3vjV8GiVd8KexmF0vrOlFa4hYATauRjw9KATJeJwdEG3vcydbv/s640/La_photographie_sous-marine4.bmp&quot; width=&quot;536&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpLast&quot; style=&quot;page-break-after: avoid; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoCaption&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
Figure &lt;span style=&quot;mso-no-proof: yes;&quot;&gt;6&lt;/span&gt;
- Lampe au magnésium (&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La Photographie
sous-marine et les progrès de la photographie&lt;/i&gt;, p. 234)&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpFirst&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Boutan attribue
d’autre part la qualité médiocre des photographies obtenues par ce procédé à la
poussière de magnésie qui se produit à l’intérieur du globe de la lampe.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Boutan se tourne
alors vers l’électricité et, grâce à la collaboration d’une entreprise privée,
L’Optique, il entreprend avec l’aide de l’ingénieur Chaufour la construction et
la mise au point d’appareils avec les ressources de l’atelier de mécanique du
Laboratoire Arago.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Deux lampes arc
de 20 ampères et une batterie d’accumulateurs (60 en tout, pouvant fournir
jusqu’à 25 ampères par heure) seront embarquées à bord d’un des voiliers du
laboratoire&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn35&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref35&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn35;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[35]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les lampes
avaient une forme sphérique. L’optique de chaque lampe était composée d’une
lentille convergente de 100 mm de diamètre et ayant une focale de 150mm.
L’optique était fixée dans le hublot en bronze boulonné sur la sphère&amp;nbsp;; un
réflecteur argenté était disposé en arrière de l’arc.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Après les
premiers essais en mer, l’optique sera supprimée car elle «&amp;nbsp;produisait une
absorption trop importante&amp;nbsp;» (c’est-à-dire, par conséquent, une diminution
importante de l’intensité lumineuse).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le montage des
appareils et les premiers essais en mer auront lieu en août 1899, «&amp;nbsp;sous
l’habile direction de M. Chaufour&amp;nbsp;». L’ensemble représenté par l’appareil
photographique et les lampes sous-marines était très imposant. Boutan ne
disposait alors que d’un petit voilier, et tout le travail de descente des
appareils, dont le poids total représentait plus de 500 kilos, devait
s’effectuer à la force des bras. On remarque d’ailleurs que le déclenchement de
l’obturateur de l’appareil photographique se fait depuis le bateau. Aucun
scaphandrier ne descendra au cours des premières expériences. Par la suite, des
photographies seront prises à 50 mètres de profondeur, avec un dispositif
perfectionné, toujours télécommandé&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn36&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref36&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn36;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[36]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’avenir de la photographie sous-marine&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le dernier
chapitre du livre de Louis Boutan porte ce titre et s’interroge sur les
possibles utilisations scientifiques de la photographie des fonds marins et de
leurs habitants. Ces techniques lui semblent particulièrement adaptées au
repérage d’épaves de navires coulés ou de tout autre objet qu’il conviendrait
de localiser avec préciser avant d’en réaliser l’exploration.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Mais, en réalité
Boutan demeure assez vague sur la question et le chapitre est très court, car
l’exploration et les photographies qu’il a réalisées portent au fond sur des
sujets limités, ce qui n’a rien de surprenant compte tenu des conditions
techniques dans lesquelles elles sont effectuées. Le scaphandrier «&amp;nbsp;pieds
lourds&amp;nbsp;», relié à un navire en surface, ne peut se mouvoir librement ni
aller bien loin. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le dispositif de
prise de vues lui-même est particulièrement encombrant. Boutan utilise des
appareils à plaques de verre et ne semble pas avoir eu connaissance de
l’existence de films sur bandes de celluloïd – en tous cas il n’en fait jamais
mention comme d’une possible alternative. Ceci est d’autant plus étonnant qu’à
la même époque, l’américain Georges Eastman, cherchant une alternative au
procédé du collodion humide, commence à expérimenter des plaques sèches
recouvertes d’une nouvelle gélatine (bromure d’argent). &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;En 1888, Eastman
lance sur le marché un premier modèle d’appareil portatif, appelé &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Kodak N°1&lt;/i&gt;, et dont les images
circulaires ont un diamètre de 6,5cm. L’appareil pèse 680 grammes et contient
un porte-film en rouleau susceptible d’emporter une bande d’une longueur
suffisante pour une centaine d’images. Le succès commercial est immédiat. En
1889, les films sur support papier sont remplacés par le support transparent à
base de nitrocellulose mis au point par le chimiste Henry N. Reichenbach&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn37&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref37&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn37;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[37]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’ère de la
photographie pour tous commence. Mais surtout, l’existence d’appareils
photographiques de petite taille et relativement légers va transformer complètement
le champ de la photographie en permettant une très large documentation du monde
contemporain, par des photographes professionnels, certes, mais plus encore par
l’ensemble de la population qui accède ainsi, très rapidement, à une forme
«&amp;nbsp;d’art moyen&amp;nbsp;», qui ne demande au fond qu’une dextérité toute
relative – et qui n’a rien à voir avec la technique du dessinateur et du
peintre.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Boutan,
cependant, avait-il eu connaissance de l’existence de ces procédés et avait-il
eu des doutes concernant leur efficacité&amp;nbsp;? Rien ne permet de l’affirmer,
au vu de l’absence dans ses écrits d’une quelconque référence à des
développements techniques ayant eu lieu ailleurs qu’en France.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’autre limite
au travail de Boutan, bien réelle à l’époque, est l’impossibilité pour le
scaphandrier de se mouvoir en toute liberté. Pour respirer, le lien avec la
surface demeure incontournable et limite les opérations réalisables sous l’eau
et la profondeur à atteindre. Cette question pourtant a déjà été l’objet d’une
invention, celle de l’ingénieur Benoît Rouqueyrol et du lieutenant de vaisseau
Auguste Denayrouse. L’appareil respiratoire qu’ils mettent au point en 1865
préfigure déjà ce que sera le scaphandre autonome à détendeur automatique. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Louis Boutan et
son frère Auguste vont cependant être amenés à travailler avec la Marine
Nationale, à partir de 1915, dans le cadre de l’effort de guerre. Ils mettront
alors au point un modèle de scaphandre autonome, apparemment fonctionnel, mais
dont on ne connait pas la postérité. Cet équipement sera-t-il utilisé par la
Marine&amp;nbsp;? Avait-il dépassé le stade de prototype&amp;nbsp;?&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn38&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref38&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn38;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[38]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La photographie
des fonds marins proches de Banyuls-sur-Mer par Louis Boutan demeure cependant
le premier travail réaliste de représentation des fonds marins, et son
utilisation des techniques de l’époque – particulièrement de l’éclairage
électrique – aura une influence sur les cinéastes et plongeurs du 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt;
siècle. Cousteau lui-même, et Dimitri Rebikoff, n’ont pas manqué de le citer
comme un précurseur et un inspirateur.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Mes remerciements à M. Vincent LAUDET, Directeur
de l’Observatoire Océanologique de Banyuls-sur-Mer, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;À Mme Sandrine BODIN, Responsable de la
Bibliothèque de l’Observatoire, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Et Mme Véronique ARNAUD, Bibliothécaire,
pour leur aide précieuse et leurs conseils.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEii1QfBqm-V_-7Dpu534nLcVYn-u1sQL_SBxktVtjr0eKu95hk1ojfw8GdBAlb32eZFqzMm2f9WCeu6vHGj3yIA1qtxR7RxS2mx6dIejSgclakvy_wSkb6ZfkyfadiKlFjOTkbethcKwn2V/s1600/RS440_photographie_Sous-Marine_Boutan.jpg&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1600&quot; data-original-width=&quot;1233&quot; height=&quot;640&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEii1QfBqm-V_-7Dpu534nLcVYn-u1sQL_SBxktVtjr0eKu95hk1ojfw8GdBAlb32eZFqzMm2f9WCeu6vHGj3yIA1qtxR7RxS2mx6dIejSgclakvy_wSkb6ZfkyfadiKlFjOTkbethcKwn2V/s640/RS440_photographie_Sous-Marine_Boutan.jpg&quot; width=&quot;492&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;mso-element: footnote-list;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;
&lt;hr align=&quot;left&quot; size=&quot;1&quot; width=&quot;33%&quot; /&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn1&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref1&quot; name=&quot;_ftn1&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn1;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; SICARD, Monique, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La fabrique du regard&lt;/i&gt;, Odile Jacob,
1998, p.109.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn2&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref2&quot; name=&quot;_ftn2&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn2;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt;&quot;&gt; DIEUZEIDE, R.
1934 ‘‘Le Professeur Louis Boutan (1859–1934).’’ &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Bulletin des Travaux publiés par la Station d’Acquiculture et de Pêche
de Castiglione&lt;/i&gt;. Alger: Carbonel, pp.10–34.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn3&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref3&quot; name=&quot;_ftn3&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn3;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;calibri&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;Cette chronologie est écrite en
suivant les données fournies par Arnaud FELICI, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Vie et œuvre de Louis Boutan (1859-1934)&lt;/i&gt;, Mémoire de Maîtrise sous
la direction de Monsieur Cyr Descamps, Perpignan (2001).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn4&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref4&quot; name=&quot;_ftn4&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn4;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[4]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; BRUN, François, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le Roussillon sous-marin&lt;/i&gt;, Editions Gap,
2017, p.268.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn5&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref5&quot; name=&quot;_ftn5&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn5;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[5]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; BOUTAN, Louis, «&amp;nbsp;Mémoire
sur la photographie sous-marine&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Archives
de zoologie expérimentale et générale&lt;/i&gt;, 3&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; série, tome 1, 1893,
p.283.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn6&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref6&quot; name=&quot;_ftn6&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn6;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[6]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Op. cit., p.284.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn7&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref7&quot; name=&quot;_ftn7&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn7;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;calibri&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[7]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;Le négatif sur verre au collodion
est mis au point par Gustave Legray puis perfectionné l’année suivante par
Scott Archer. &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f9ffef; color: black;&quot;&gt;Ses avantages
consistent en une grande netteté de l&#39;image et une plus grande rapidité de
prise de vue due à la sensibilité du collodion, substance chimique visqueuse
qui sert à faire adhérer les sels d&#39;argent sensibles sur la plaque tout en
augmentant leur sensibilité à la lumière. Par contre, le verre lourd et fragile
est difficile à transporter et préserver et le collodion très sensible à la
chaleur. Aussi le trouve-t-on surtout utilisé d&#39;abord par les photographes
professionnels disposant d&#39;ateliers sur place pour stocker les négatifs. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background: #f9ffef; color: black; font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;(Sur&amp;nbsp;: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://expositions.bnf.fr/legray/reperes/glossaire/index.htm&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: #f9ffef; font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;http://expositions.bnf.fr/legray/reperes/glossaire/index.htm&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: #f9ffef; color: black; font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: #f9ffef; color: black; font-family: &amp;quot;arial&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn8&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref8&quot; name=&quot;_ftn8&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn8;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[8]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt;&quot;&gt; MARTÍNEZ,
Alejandro. “A souvenir of undersea landscapes:” underwater photography and the
limits of photographic visibility, 1890-1910. &lt;i&gt;História, Ciências, Saúde –
Manguinhos&lt;/i&gt;, Rio de Janeiro, v.21, n.3, jul.-set. 2014.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn9&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref9&quot; name=&quot;_ftn9&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn9;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[9]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; BOUTAN, op. cit., p.284.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn10&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref10&quot; name=&quot;_ftn10&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn10;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[10]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Ibid, p.285.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn11&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref11&quot; name=&quot;_ftn11&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn11;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[11]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; L’appareil est nommé ainsi en
raison de son apparence relativement discrète et de la facilité de sa mise en
œuvre.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn12&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref12&quot; name=&quot;_ftn12&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn12;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[12]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; BOUTAN, Louis, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La Photographie sous-marine et les progrès
de la photographie&lt;/i&gt;, Schleicher Paris, 1900, p.163.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn13&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref13&quot; name=&quot;_ftn13&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn13;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[13]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Ibid, p.164.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn14&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref14&quot; name=&quot;_ftn14&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn14;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[14]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; BOUTAN, «&amp;nbsp;Mémoire…&amp;nbsp;»,
p.287&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn15&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref15&quot; name=&quot;_ftn15&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn15;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[15]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Ibid, p.287&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn16&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref16&quot; name=&quot;_ftn16&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn16;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[16]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Ibid, p.289.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn17&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref17&quot; name=&quot;_ftn17&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn17;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[17]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; BOUTAN, Louis, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La Photographie sous-marine&lt;/i&gt;…, op. cit.
p.165.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn18&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref18&quot; name=&quot;_ftn18&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn18;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[18]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; FELICI, Arnaud, op. cit., p.44&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn19&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref19&quot; name=&quot;_ftn19&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn19;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[19]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; BOUTAN, Louis,
«&amp;nbsp;Mémoire…&amp;nbsp;», p.313.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn20&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref20&quot; name=&quot;_ftn20&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn20;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;calibri&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[20]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;MARTÍNEZ, op. cit., p.6&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn21&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref21&quot; name=&quot;_ftn21&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn21;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[21]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; BOUTAN, Louis,&lt;/span&gt; «&amp;nbsp;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;L’instantané dans la photographie
sous-marine&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Archives de zoologie
expérimentale et générale&lt;/i&gt;, 3&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; série, tome 6, No. 1 (1898)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn22&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref22&quot; name=&quot;_ftn22&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn22;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[22]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; BOUTAN, Louis, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La Photographie sous-marine…,&lt;/i&gt; op. cit.
p.172.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn23&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref23&quot; name=&quot;_ftn23&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn23;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[23]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Ibid, p.173.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn24&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref24&quot; name=&quot;_ftn24&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn24;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[24]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Ibid, p.175.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn25&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref25&quot; name=&quot;_ftn25&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn25;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[25]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; BOUTAN, Louis,
«&amp;nbsp;L’instantané…&amp;nbsp;», op. cit., p.311&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn26&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref26&quot; name=&quot;_ftn26&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn26;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[26]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; BOUTAN, Louis,
«&amp;nbsp;L’instantané…&amp;nbsp;», Figure 5, p.317.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn27&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref27&quot; name=&quot;_ftn27&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn27;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[27]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Op. cit., p.319.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn28&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref28&quot; name=&quot;_ftn28&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn28;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[28]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Ibid, p.319.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn29&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref29&quot; name=&quot;_ftn29&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn29;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[29]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Ibid, p.322.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn30&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref30&quot; name=&quot;_ftn30&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn30;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[30]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; BOUTAN, op. cit., p.187.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn31&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref31&quot; name=&quot;_ftn31&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn31;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[31]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Diaphragmer signifie ici
accentuer la fermeture de l’iris pour obtenir une plus grande profondeur de
champ et donc, éventuellement, une image plus nette.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn32&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref32&quot; name=&quot;_ftn32&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn32;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;calibri&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[32]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;BOUTAN,
Louis, «&amp;nbsp;L’instantané dans la photographie sous-marine&amp;nbsp;», &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Archives de zoologie expérimentale et
générale&lt;/i&gt;, 3&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; série, tome 6, No. 1 (1898), p.306.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn33&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref33&quot; name=&quot;_ftn33&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn33;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[33]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; BOUTAN, op. cit., p.307.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn34&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref34&quot; name=&quot;_ftn34&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn34;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[34]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; BOUTAN, Louis,
«&amp;nbsp;Mémoire…&amp;nbsp;», p. 292.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn35&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref35&quot; name=&quot;_ftn35&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn35;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[35]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Des photographies des lampes et
des accumulateurs se trouvent dans &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;La Photographie
sous-marine et les progrès de la photographie&lt;/i&gt;, pp. 241-245.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn36&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref36&quot; name=&quot;_ftn36&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn36;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[36]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Ibid, Figure 42, p. 261.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn37&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref37&quot; name=&quot;_ftn37&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn37;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[37]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; EDER, Josef Maria, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;History of Photography&lt;/i&gt;, Dover
Publications, New York, 1945, p. 489.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn38&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref38&quot; name=&quot;_ftn38&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn38;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[38]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; BOUTAN, Louis et Auguste, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le scaphandre autonome à respiration normale&lt;/i&gt;,
1919. Document conservé à la Bibliothèque du Laboratoire Arago.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/feeds/9206920964937210366/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2019/04/louis-boutan-et-la-photographie-sous_28.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/9206920964937210366'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/9206920964937210366'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2019/04/louis-boutan-et-la-photographie-sous_28.html' title='Louis Boutan et la photographie sous-marine (1886 - 1900)'/><author><name>Gestalt</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10962207802973660346</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFQRD6kaQLUr1OUFCHOR0VqUEPA0--dKvSXYzAg5UJQ0jQol9BgkX2GLgvMoTGRhoojVNzRfbkL-xTjTcSsJ4EzhOxXCrqqMJAg2A-bKdz9_mG632d3cuenkDsDa043g/s220/vertov.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhPq7Pck8ewsNjVw2pFXhEwk51bnI-CrByL2Gq9PaU9GRFXkEAbquH74pQtmMBCRLofE2B5WFcQhqUfPrJmduXIhNvwVKnb9YRDs1YEtLlFJuPEiudiBuviLO2Q1O5GeyN_mjSPuHdV6PH7/s72-c/RS436_LouisBoutan.jpg" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3824907278627072174.post-915131858618038348</id><published>2019-03-23T11:25:00.001+01:00</published><updated>2019-03-23T11:25:36.882+01:00</updated><title type='text'>Le grand buzz à propos des hybrides</title><content type='html'>Comment s&#39;y retrouver lorsqu&#39;on pense à passer du reflex à l&#39;hybride plein format ? Peut-être en consultant ce comparatif effectué par &lt;a href=&quot;https://kenrockwell.com/tech/comparisons/nikon-vs-canon-vs-sony-full-frame.htm&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;Ken Rockwell&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp; :&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiiQOdST16_Ng0AGH6U4J01SVrybxgTfzbIe-rIHNn40HuxWn5zZSVspagT-kvVLvDK_j4Vg1ZWq_MXAi-cy-GyME_UrOy82HzlpkT-SMvGBK_wXxHzv4_zggUPcocu7qsWNBweeU5NPNNT/s1600/Rockwell1.JPG&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;418&quot; data-original-width=&quot;1565&quot; height=&quot;169&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiiQOdST16_Ng0AGH6U4J01SVrybxgTfzbIe-rIHNn40HuxWn5zZSVspagT-kvVLvDK_j4Vg1ZWq_MXAi-cy-GyME_UrOy82HzlpkT-SMvGBK_wXxHzv4_zggUPcocu7qsWNBweeU5NPNNT/s640/Rockwell1.JPG&quot; width=&quot;640&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Conclusions :&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;&quot;All these systems are excellent. All of them have&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href=&quot;https://kenrockwell.com/tech/mirrorless-vs-dslr.htm&quot; style=&quot;color: #551a8b;&quot;&gt;The Mirrorless Advantage&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;over DSLRs.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;Sony has been the established leader with a 5-year head start. Technically Sony is a generation ahead of Nikon or Canon, but when you actually shoot with these cameras you immediately realize that the Canon or Nikon are what you really want.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;Sonys have always had an obtuse menu interface that requires us to look everywhere to find anything. Sony&#39;s bodies are uncomfortable to hold for any length of time due to iffy or absent industrial design. We don&#39;t love the handling or menus of our Sonys, but we love the way they shoot once we get them set up the way we want them.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;Nikon and Canon are a joy to hold and shoot, and their menu systems are the clear and well laid out ones we already know. Likewise, Nikon and Canon retain their superb color rendition, while the Sonys give merely OK colors, at least if you&#39;re as picky as I am (color rendition is always a personal artistic preference). Color accuracy, a technical measurement, is unrelated to color quality or color rendition, which are artistic qualities.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;We all have our preferences, and this guide may guide you, For instance, I don&#39;t like that Canon is missing an auto brightness control on its finder, but the fact that all my EF lenses work flawlessly, it&#39;s the only model on which the shutter closes when you turn it off, it has a superior touch screen AF selector during EVF shooting and the&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href=&quot;https://kenrockwell.com/canon/eos-r/r.htm&quot; style=&quot;color: #551a8b;&quot;&gt;EOS-R&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;has a clever&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href=&quot;https://kenrockwell.com/canon/eos-r/r.htm#fv&quot; style=&quot;color: #551a8b;&quot;&gt;new Fv mode&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;makes up for that. The Nikon&#39;s shutter stays open, collecting dust like Sony when it&#39;s off and it has only mediocre compatibility with old lenses, but it has a superior finder and one more control dial than the Canon. If you&#39;re starting from nothing, I find Nikon and Canon equally attractive overall, unless you have a real need for one or another area in which one excels. I wouldn&#39;t buy into Sony today unless you need the&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href=&quot;https://kenrockwell.com/sony/a9.htm&quot; style=&quot;color: #551a8b;&quot;&gt;A9&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;for sports for this fall season or prefer two cards over good handling. We&#39;re all different; if you are OK with Sony&#39;s handing and color rendition then Sony is a generation ahead technically.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;The final answer is that you should get whichever brand you already love; they are all surprisingly wonderful. Nikon and Canon&#39;s brand-new mirrorless are amazingly excellent. If you&#39;re invested in either Canon or Nikon, their new mirrorless work the same as your DSLR -&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href=&quot;https://kenrockwell.com/tech/mirrorless-vs-dslr.htm&quot; style=&quot;color: #551a8b;&quot;&gt;just better&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;- and give the same colors you love. If you&#39;re already in Sony and if you love the menu system and in-hand-feel, then stick with them.&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/feeds/915131858618038348/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2019/03/le-grand-buzz-propos-des-hybrides.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/915131858618038348'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/915131858618038348'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2019/03/le-grand-buzz-propos-des-hybrides.html' title='Le grand buzz à propos des hybrides'/><author><name>Gestalt</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10962207802973660346</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFQRD6kaQLUr1OUFCHOR0VqUEPA0--dKvSXYzAg5UJQ0jQol9BgkX2GLgvMoTGRhoojVNzRfbkL-xTjTcSsJ4EzhOxXCrqqMJAg2A-bKdz9_mG632d3cuenkDsDa043g/s220/vertov.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiiQOdST16_Ng0AGH6U4J01SVrybxgTfzbIe-rIHNn40HuxWn5zZSVspagT-kvVLvDK_j4Vg1ZWq_MXAi-cy-GyME_UrOy82HzlpkT-SMvGBK_wXxHzv4_zggUPcocu7qsWNBweeU5NPNNT/s72-c/Rockwell1.JPG" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3824907278627072174.post-3584310362164387960</id><published>2019-03-12T08:04:00.002+01:00</published><updated>2019-03-12T08:04:40.387+01:00</updated><title type='text'>Quand la télévision découvrait le Web</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;iframe width=&quot;320&quot; height=&quot;266&quot; class=&quot;YOUTUBE-iframe-video&quot; data-thumbnail-src=&quot;https://i.ytimg.com/vi/9qzUpN9CUoU/0.jpg&quot; src=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/embed/9qzUpN9CUoU?feature=player_embedded&quot; frameborder=&quot;0&quot; allowfullscreen&gt;&lt;/iframe&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;style-scope ytd-video-secondary-info-renderer&quot; id=&quot;top-row&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 0px; display: flex; flex-direction: row; font-family: Roboto, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10px; margin: 0px 0px 12px; padding: 16px 0px 0px;&quot;&gt;
&lt;ytd-video-owner-renderer class=&quot;style-scope ytd-video-secondary-info-renderer&quot; style=&quot;display: flex; flex-direction: row; flex: 1 1 1e-09px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;style-scope ytd-video-owner-renderer&quot; id=&quot;upload-info&quot; style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; display: flex; flex-direction: column; flex: 1 1 1e-09px; justify-content: center; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;style-scope ytd-video-owner-renderer&quot; id=&quot;owner-container&quot; style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; display: flex; flex-direction: row; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;&quot;&gt;
&lt;yt-formatted-string class=&quot;style-scope ytd-video-owner-renderer&quot; has-link-only_=&quot;&quot; id=&quot;owner-name&quot; style=&quot;--yt-endpoint-color: var(--yt-channel-owner); --yt-endpoint-hover-color: var(--yt-channel-owner); font-size: 1.4rem; line-height: 1.6rem;&quot;&gt;&lt;a class=&quot;yt-simple-endpoint style-scope yt-formatted-string&quot; href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCYpRDnhk5H8h16jpS84uqsA&quot; spellcheck=&quot;false&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; display: inline-block; text-decoration-line: none;&quot;&gt;Le Monde&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/yt-formatted-string&gt;&lt;ytd-badge-supported-renderer class=&quot;style-scope ytd-video-owner-renderer&quot; style=&quot;align-items: center; display: flex; flex-direction: row;&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;badge badge-style-type-verified style-scope ytd-badge-supported-renderer&quot; style=&quot;background: none; border-radius: 2px; border: 0px; display: var(--ytd-badge-display, block); flex: 0 0 auto; font-size: 1.2rem; line-height: 1.2rem; margin: 0px 0px 1px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 4px; white-space: var(--ytd-badge-white-space, inherit);&quot;&gt;
&lt;yt-icon class=&quot;style-scope ytd-badge-supported-renderer&quot; style=&quot;align-items: center; color: var(--ytd-badge-icon-color, var(--ytd-owner-badge-color)); display: inline-flex; fill: var(--iron-icon-fill-color, currentcolor); height: var(--ytd-badge-icon-size, 13px); justify-content: center; margin-bottom: var(--iron-icon_-_margin-bottom); margin-left: var(--iron-icon_-_margin-left); margin-right: var(--iron-icon_-_margin-right); position: relative; stroke: none; vertical-align: middle; width: var(--ytd-badge-icon-size, 13px);&quot;&gt;&lt;svg class=&quot;style-scope yt-icon&quot; focusable=&quot;false&quot; preserveaspectratio=&quot;xMidYMid meet&quot; style=&quot;display: block; height: 100%; pointer-events: none; width: 100%;&quot; viewbox=&quot;0 0 24 24&quot;&gt;&lt;g class=&quot;style-scope yt-icon&quot;&gt;&lt;path class=&quot;style-scope yt-icon&quot; clip-rule=&quot;evenodd&quot; d=&quot;M12,2C6.48,2,2,6.48,2,12s4.48,10,10,10s10-4.48,10-10 S17.52,2,12,2z M9.92,17.93l-4.95-4.95l2.05-2.05l2.9,2.9l7.35-7.35l2.05,2.05L9.92,17.93z&quot; fill-rule=&quot;evenodd&quot;&gt;&lt;/path&gt;&lt;/g&gt;&lt;/svg&gt;&lt;/yt-icon&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;style-scope ytd-badge-supported-renderer&quot; style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;paper-tooltip class=&quot;style-scope ytd-badge-supported-renderer&quot; role=&quot;tooltip&quot; style=&quot;cursor: default; display: block; left: 124.719px; outline: none; position: absolute; top: 838.234px; user-select: none; z-index: 1002;&quot; tabindex=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;/paper-tooltip&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/ytd-badge-supported-renderer&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;date style-scope ytd-video-secondary-info-renderer&quot; slot=&quot;date&quot; style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; color: var(--ytd-video-publish-date-color); font-size: 1.3rem; line-height: 1.8rem; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;&quot;&gt;Ajoutée le 11 mars 2019&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/ytd-video-owner-renderer&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;style-scope ytd-video-secondary-info-renderer&quot; id=&quot;subscribe-button&quot; style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; display: flex; flex-direction: column; justify-content: center; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;&quot;&gt;
&lt;ytd-subscribe-button-renderer class=&quot;style-scope ytd-video-secondary-info-renderer&quot; style=&quot;--yt-formatted-string-deemphasize_-_color: hsla(0, 0%, 100%, 0.85); --yt-formatted-string-deemphasize_-_display: initial; --yt-formatted-string-deemphasize_-_margin-left: 4px; display: flex; flex-direction: row;&quot;&gt;&lt;paper-button animated=&quot;&quot; aria-disabled=&quot;false&quot; aria-label=&quot;S&#39;abonner à Le Monde.&quot; class=&quot;style-scope ytd-subscribe-button-renderer&quot; elevation=&quot;0&quot; noink=&quot;&quot; role=&quot;button&quot; style=&quot;--paper-material-elevation-1_-_box-shadow: 0 2px 2px 0 rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.14), 0 1px 5px 0 rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.12), 0 3px 1px -2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2); --paper-material-elevation-2_-_box-shadow: 0 4px 5px 0 rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.14), 0 1px 10px 0 rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.12), 0 2px 4px -1px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.4); --paper-material-elevation-3_-_box-shadow: 0 6px 10px 0 rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.14), 0 1px 18px 0 rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.12), 0 3px 5px -1px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.4); --paper-material-elevation-4_-_box-shadow: 0 8px 10px 1px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.14), 0 3px 14px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.12), 0 5px 5px -3px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.4); --paper-material-elevation-5_-_box-shadow: 0 16px 24px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.14), 0 6px 30px 5px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.12), 0 8px 10px -5px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.4); --paper-material_-_display: block; --paper-material_-_position: relative; -webkit-font-smoothing: var(--paper-font-common-base_-_-webkit-font-smoothing); -webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; align-items: center; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: var(--yt-spec-brand-subscribe-button-background); background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-radius: 2px; border: var(--paper-button_-_border); box-sizing: border-box; color: var(--yt-subscribe-button-text-color); cursor: pointer; display: flex; flex-direction: row; font-family: var(--paper-font-common-base_-_font-family); font-size: 1.4rem; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; justify-content: center; letter-spacing: 0.007px; line-height: inherit; margin: auto var(--ytd-subscribe-button-margin, 4px); min-width: 5.14em; outline-width: 0px; padding: 10px 16px; position: relative; text-transform: uppercase; transition: box-shadow 0.28s cubic-bezier(0.4, 0, 0.2, 1) 0s; user-select: none; white-space: nowrap; width: var(--paper-button_-_width); z-index: 0;&quot; tabindex=&quot;0&quot;&gt;&lt;yt-formatted-string class=&quot;style-scope ytd-subscribe-button-renderer&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;deemphasize style-scope yt-formatted-string&quot; style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; color: var(--yt-formatted-string-deemphasize_-_color, var(--yt-formatted-string-deemphasize-color)); display: var(--yt-formatted-string-deemphasize_-_display); margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: var(--yt-formatted-string-deemphasize_-_margin-left); margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding: 0px;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;K&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/yt-formatted-string&gt;&lt;/paper-button&gt;&lt;/ytd-subscribe-button-renderer&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;ytd-expander class=&quot;style-scope ytd-video-secondary-info-renderer&quot; collapsed-height=&quot;60&quot; style=&quot;--ytd-expander-collapsed-height: 60px; background-color: white; display: block; font-family: Roboto, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1.4rem; line-height: 2.1rem; margin-left: 64px;&quot;&gt;&lt;/ytd-expander&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;style-scope ytd-expander&quot; id=&quot;content&quot; style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; min-width: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;style-scope ytd-video-secondary-info-renderer&quot; id=&quot;description&quot; slot=&quot;content&quot; style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; display: block; margin: 0px; max-width: 615px; padding: 0px;&quot;&gt;
&lt;yt-formatted-string class=&quot;content style-scope ytd-video-secondary-info-renderer&quot; split-lines=&quot;&quot; style=&quot;color: var(--yt-spec-text-primary); white-space: pre-wrap;&quot;&gt;Des écrans partout dans la maison, des « cyberpunks » capables de s’organiser secrètement, les premiers e-mails… Il y a trente ans, la télévision française découvrait Internet et le World Wide Web.

La date exacte est connue : le 12 mars 1989, Tim Berners-Lee, un physicien du CERN qui se trouve être passionné d’informatique, invente le World Wide Web. Cette application d’Internet parmi d’autres, comme les messageries et les services de discussion instantanée, permet de consulter des pages sur des sites web, grâce à des navigateurs adaptés et via des machines comme un ordinateur ou un smartphone.&lt;/yt-formatted-string&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/feeds/3584310362164387960/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2019/03/quand-la-television-decouvrait-le-web.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/3584310362164387960'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/3584310362164387960'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2019/03/quand-la-television-decouvrait-le-web.html' title='Quand la télévision découvrait le Web'/><author><name>Gestalt</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10962207802973660346</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFQRD6kaQLUr1OUFCHOR0VqUEPA0--dKvSXYzAg5UJQ0jQol9BgkX2GLgvMoTGRhoojVNzRfbkL-xTjTcSsJ4EzhOxXCrqqMJAg2A-bKdz9_mG632d3cuenkDsDa043g/s220/vertov.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://img.youtube.com/vi/9qzUpN9CUoU/default.jpg" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3824907278627072174.post-796263664189549388</id><published>2018-11-11T18:21:00.002+01:00</published><updated>2018-11-11T18:21:29.568+01:00</updated><title type='text'>André Bazin, pour toujours</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhCqTHEYGT0hpf_9LhUNWjsATE0gG_KACotox6WpV_owic4zAy5gNuhiUuGCQZphHXGpzrel5nV9XbGakJrFEdByHfIrRl_SE8nZmUjqRqx8Kq1gkWootxIAcK0agtzZwfVztp_19DQcFln/s1600/00-andre-bazin-cigarette-crop_1000_420_90_c1.jpg&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;420&quot; data-original-width=&quot;1000&quot; height=&quot;268&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhCqTHEYGT0hpf_9LhUNWjsATE0gG_KACotox6WpV_owic4zAy5gNuhiUuGCQZphHXGpzrel5nV9XbGakJrFEdByHfIrRl_SE8nZmUjqRqx8Kq1gkWootxIAcK0agtzZwfVztp_19DQcFln/s640/00-andre-bazin-cigarette-crop_1000_420_90_c1.jpg&quot; width=&quot;640&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
Parution chez &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.editionsmacula.com/livre/119.html&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;Macula&lt;/a&gt;, de l&#39;édition complète des œuvres de l&#39;incontournable André Bazin. On peut télécharger le dossier de presse sur le site.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQzKxz17GCnad41YiMzAHCSlehRMVDKxhVuIES-KCcly8l714_jonO3e3cW2zKhSQ3aW9Aio61qsixRK2wJkyVSVcX7cQu-8chSTcDHcHwZn7MWdTmc1RaNOlq7uxDOnBTeYfE5j8YVn2X/s1600/Bazin-complet-600.jpg&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;594&quot; data-original-width=&quot;600&quot; height=&quot;395&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQzKxz17GCnad41YiMzAHCSlehRMVDKxhVuIES-KCcly8l714_jonO3e3cW2zKhSQ3aW9Aio61qsixRK2wJkyVSVcX7cQu-8chSTcDHcHwZn7MWdTmc1RaNOlq7uxDOnBTeYfE5j8YVn2X/s400/Bazin-complet-600.jpg&quot; width=&quot;400&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/feeds/796263664189549388/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2018/11/andre-bazin-pour-toujours.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/796263664189549388'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/796263664189549388'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2018/11/andre-bazin-pour-toujours.html' title='André Bazin, pour toujours'/><author><name>Gestalt</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10962207802973660346</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFQRD6kaQLUr1OUFCHOR0VqUEPA0--dKvSXYzAg5UJQ0jQol9BgkX2GLgvMoTGRhoojVNzRfbkL-xTjTcSsJ4EzhOxXCrqqMJAg2A-bKdz9_mG632d3cuenkDsDa043g/s220/vertov.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhCqTHEYGT0hpf_9LhUNWjsATE0gG_KACotox6WpV_owic4zAy5gNuhiUuGCQZphHXGpzrel5nV9XbGakJrFEdByHfIrRl_SE8nZmUjqRqx8Kq1gkWootxIAcK0agtzZwfVztp_19DQcFln/s72-c/00-andre-bazin-cigarette-crop_1000_420_90_c1.jpg" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3824907278627072174.post-3292889913347421541</id><published>2018-08-29T10:36:00.000+02:00</published><updated>2018-08-29T15:24:08.735+02:00</updated><title type='text'>&#39;Reel Nature&#39; : Carl Akeley pionnier du film animalier</title><content type='html'>Sur le site &lt;a href=&quot;http://scienceandfilm.org/articles/3130/carl-akeley-and-natures-truth&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;Sloan Science and Film&lt;/a&gt;, un très intéressant article par Sonia Shechet Epstein sur Carl E. Akeley, un des pionniers du film de nature, durant les premières années du XX ème siècle.&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;/xml&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;!--[if gte mso 10]&gt;
&lt;style&gt;
 /* Style Definitions */
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 {mso-style-name:&quot;Tableau Normal&quot;;
 mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
 mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
 mso-style-noshow:yes;
 mso-style-priority:99;
 mso-style-parent:&quot;&quot;;
 mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;
 mso-para-margin-top:0cm;
 mso-para-margin-right:0cm;
 mso-para-margin-bottom:10.0pt;
 mso-para-margin-left:0cm;
 line-height:115%;
 mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
 font-size:11.0pt;
 font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;;
 mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri;
 mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;
 mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri;
 mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;
 mso-bidi-font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;;
 mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi;
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&lt;/style&gt;
&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;A l&#39;époque,
l’intérêt du public pour les récits mêlant l’exotisme à l’étrange, une
constante au début du siècle, commandait la recherche de nouveaux sujets qui ne
soient plus seulement des fictions tournées en studio. Il faut savoir qu’à
partir des années 1920, les documentaires tournés en pleine nature étaient
devenus un genre en vogue et les équipements utilisés dans les studios
apparaissaient, de manière évidente, peu adaptés à un tel travail. Ici émerge
la figure de Carl E. Akeley, conservateur de l’American Museum of Natural
History, qui en plus d’être un naturaliste de renom était aussi un inventeur.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Akeley
était parti en Afrique pour tourner des films montrant des animaux sauvages en
pleine nature. Malgré le fait qu’il emmenait avec lui les meilleurs équipements
disponibles sur le marché, le résultat ne fut pas à la hauteur de ses
espérances. De retour aux Etats-Unis, il s’attelle à la conception d’une caméra
aux caractéristiques révolutionnaires pour l’époque. Celle-ci, simplement
dénommée ‘Akeley’, est entièrement métallique et recouverte d’émail cristallin
noir. Elle emporte deux magasins de 65 mètres, avec un pignon dans chaque
magasin, ce qui rend leur chargement très facile. Il est possible alors de
changer de magasin en dix secondes, ce qui est impossible avec n’importe quelle
autre caméra. Chaque viseur est généralement apparié avec son objectif et
l’ensemble, magasin et trépied compris ne pèse que 20 kilos, un record pour
l’époque&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn1&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref1&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn1;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;table cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;tr-caption-container&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiVyKcDMuZWEOqPcdkpm2x-Deh6j-G_HfkDTtisEXifN7cv4tYrZV5SXkIbxZ0WjPCPo-jV8KLi9n1s-d9Ta3CcRqLzoWVybETcMfWpR3QNST14EfMlN5NWBSw4NlS8BqsKsYoFc2rtNPOe/s1600/Scientific+American+2+March+1918+page+194+picture+1.jpg&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;872&quot; data-original-width=&quot;985&quot; height=&quot;561&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiVyKcDMuZWEOqPcdkpm2x-Deh6j-G_HfkDTtisEXifN7cv4tYrZV5SXkIbxZ0WjPCPo-jV8KLi9n1s-d9Ta3CcRqLzoWVybETcMfWpR3QNST14EfMlN5NWBSw4NlS8BqsKsYoFc2rtNPOe/s640/Scientific+American+2+March+1918+page+194+picture+1.jpg&quot; width=&quot;640&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;tr-caption&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Evidemment, la caméra d&#39;Akeley n&#39;a pas servi seulement à filmer des animaux sauvages (Photographie publiée dans &lt;i&gt;Scientific American&lt;/i&gt; de Mars 1918)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;tr-caption&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;tr-caption&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;tr-caption&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td class=&quot;tr-caption&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La
caméra d’Akeley devint très rapidement l’équipement standard pour tourner des
films en pleine nature et, par la suite, on vit apparaitre sur le marché
d’autres caméras, plus légères et maniables, telle l’&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Eyemo&lt;/i&gt; de Bell &amp;amp; Howell. Cette caméra comportait une bobine fixe
de 30 mètres, rechargeable en plein jour. Le ressort était remonté par un
moteur électrique, son poids total n’excédait pas 3,5 kilogrammes (sans
l’objectif) ce qui en faisait une des premières caméras portables à pellicule
35mm. Une variante de cette caméra pouvait filmer à 12, 16 ou 24 images par
seconde. Compte tenu de sa maniabilité, elle sera adaptée et utilisée enfermée
dans un caisson PVC pour le tournage du &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Monde
du Silence&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;mso-element: footnote-list;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;
&lt;hr align=&quot;left&quot; size=&quot;1&quot; width=&quot;33%&quot; /&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn1&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref1&quot; name=&quot;_ftn1&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn1;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;calibri&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; Ces
développements proviennent principalement de l’ouvrage de &lt;span style=&quot;mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;&quot;&gt;Carl Louis Gregory, &lt;i&gt;MOTION PICTURE
PHOTOGRAPHY; Edited by Herbert C. McKay &lt;/i&gt;(Falk Publishing Co., 1927).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/feeds/3292889913347421541/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2018/08/reel-nature-carl-akeley-pionnier-du.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/3292889913347421541'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/3292889913347421541'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2018/08/reel-nature-carl-akeley-pionnier-du.html' title='&#39;Reel Nature&#39; : Carl Akeley pionnier du film animalier'/><author><name>Gestalt</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10962207802973660346</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFQRD6kaQLUr1OUFCHOR0VqUEPA0--dKvSXYzAg5UJQ0jQol9BgkX2GLgvMoTGRhoojVNzRfbkL-xTjTcSsJ4EzhOxXCrqqMJAg2A-bKdz9_mG632d3cuenkDsDa043g/s220/vertov.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiVyKcDMuZWEOqPcdkpm2x-Deh6j-G_HfkDTtisEXifN7cv4tYrZV5SXkIbxZ0WjPCPo-jV8KLi9n1s-d9Ta3CcRqLzoWVybETcMfWpR3QNST14EfMlN5NWBSw4NlS8BqsKsYoFc2rtNPOe/s72-c/Scientific+American+2+March+1918+page+194+picture+1.jpg" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3824907278627072174.post-3487288541577099679</id><published>2018-06-14T10:54:00.000+02:00</published><updated>2018-06-14T10:59:53.056+02:00</updated><title type='text'>Pour une histoire culturelle du cinéma sous la mer</title><content type='html'>&lt;!--[if gte mso 9]&gt;&lt;xml&gt;
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&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjMAOvexDOY7JmiG3CigwC1Cp-Q1cn0V3a8ICtCaI6VCfJPtJpZjbAuMUft9k3c7apWalOy0TGnD1y04O14OGd9k6vYLRkgR-nU3A-R20upkhBANTA3NGiFxLKFqhdZFIBe64lBwp545nH2/s1600/IMG_0140.JPG&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1600&quot; data-original-width=&quot;1200&quot; height=&quot;400&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjMAOvexDOY7JmiG3CigwC1Cp-Q1cn0V3a8ICtCaI6VCfJPtJpZjbAuMUft9k3c7apWalOy0TGnD1y04O14OGd9k6vYLRkgR-nU3A-R20upkhBANTA3NGiFxLKFqhdZFIBe64lBwp545nH2/s400/IMG_0140.JPG&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le cinéma subaquatique, qui est devenu
aujourd’hui un genre cinématographique à part entière, pourrait être défini à
la fois comme objet technique et comme objet culturel.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Objet culturel, parce qu’il donne lieu à
des représentations réelles ou imaginées d’un univers particulier et de ses
habitants.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Objet technique, parce qu’il utilise des
dispositifs matériels qui sont propres à ce genre cinématographique et aussi
parce qu’il a fallu constamment innover dans ce domaine pour parvenir à
atteindre et explorer son domaine.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il faut donc l’étudier comme un système
technique, au sens donné à ce terme par Bertrand Gille&amp;nbsp;; un système dont
l’histoire et les développements prennent place dans un contexte culturel
particulier, celui des explorations maritimes et de naissance de la science
océanographique, de la biologie et de la théorie de l’évolution.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le contexte culturel et le système
technique ont donc des prolongements dans la sphère politique et les conditions
socio-économiques d’une époque.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Lorsqu’on aura défini les périodes qui ont
vu surgir et se développer l’exploration sous-marine, on pourra s’interroger
sur les connaissances produites et leur représentation par le cinéma. Ou encore
sur le rôle du cinéma (ou d’un genre particulier de cinéma documentaire) sur
l’acquisition et la diffusion des connaissances du monde subaquatique.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Par voie de conséquence&amp;nbsp;: quelle
est l’influence des techniques développées au cours des explorations sur
l’accroissement de la connaissance de cet environnement&amp;nbsp;?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ces techniques sont-elles neutres (sans
influence sur l’environnement qu’elles décrivent ou qu’elles explorent) ou au
contraire ont-elles été amenées à le modifier dans un sens ou un autre&amp;nbsp;?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La diffusion de fictions ayant pour cadre
et sujet le monde sous-marin a-t-elle permis d’en accroître la connaissance par
le public ou bien ces récits n’ont-ils fait au contraire qu’en donner une image
déformée, éloignée de la méthodologie et des objectifs de la recherche&amp;nbsp;?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpLast&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Deux directions, deux genres bien
définis, ont caractérisé le développement du cinéma commercial consacré aux
mondes marins&amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le documentaire, à visée informative, qui
souvent adopte un ton d’empathie avec le milieu décrit, un lyrisme étudié,
proche parfois d’une certaine forme de vulgarisation scientifique en ce qu’il
lui arrive de donner la parole à des scientifiques…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpLast&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La fiction, qui connaitra une évolution
assez peu différenciée puisque, en dehors de quelques grands titres, elle
s’appuiera souvent sur une vision de la mer perçue (et représentée) comme le
lieu de tous les dangers&amp;nbsp;: grands prédateurs, tempêtes et autres
évènements naturels catastrophiques. Les thèmes liés à l’écologie apparaissent
à une période relativement récente, au cours des années 1980.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpFirst&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Mon hypothèse est que cet objet
«&amp;nbsp;cinéma subaquatique&amp;nbsp;» a marqué profondément l’imaginaire
sociotechnique de son époque, à travers des représentations d’un univers hors
de portée, mais que des systèmes d’exploration et de tournage de plus en plus
perfectionnés ont rapproché de l’univers mental du spectateur dans le monde
occidental&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn1&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref1&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn1;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;,
tout en contribuant à en donner une vision finalement très réaliste.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ce cinéma peut, d’une certaine manière,
être comparé aux films de science-fiction se déroulant dans l’espace&amp;nbsp;: ceux-ci
construisent un univers imaginaire, le plus souvent, mais &lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;articulé, agencé autour de ce qui semble être
une représentation réaliste des explorations spatiales.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il reste que cet univers marin est, quant
à lui, peuplé de créatures vivantes, ayant acquis une réalité matérielle dans
la conscience du monde contemporain, et déjà éloignées des récits des marins et
de la mythologie&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn2&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref2&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn2;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ce savoir marque en réalité un
changement décisif par rapport à la perception qu’en avaient les sociétés du
début du 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle. Bien que ce monde soit encore largement
inexploré, il n’est plus hors de portée et ses habitants, bien réels, ont
désormais quitté leurs attributs mythologiques, tout en devenant objets d’étude,
vivants ou morts, pour la science, objets d’intérêt également pour le cinéma.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il est intéressant cependant de
constater que, depuis H. G. Wells&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn3&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref3&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn3;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; et
William Hope Hodgson, très peu d’auteurs de science-fiction ou de récits
d’aventures se sont intéressés à ce monde des abysses&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn4&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref4&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn4;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[4]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
Le cinéma de fiction produit bien plus de récits aujourd’hui sur des thèmes
liés, peu ou prou, à l’exploration spatiale. A l’inverse, le genre documentaire
a investi l’espace sous-marin, en multipliant les expéditions aux objectifs
publicitaires plus ou moins affichées avec une thématique écologique, ou du
moins environnementaliste, devenue prépondérante dans le choix des récits et
leur développement narratif.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La figure de l’aventurier qui émerge dans
la littérature contemporaine (Melville, Conrad, Tournier…) sera d’emblée liée à
l’exploration de ces nouveaux territoires, perçus comme des espaces encore
vierges de toute présence humaine, ouverts à la chasse et à la conquête et dont
l’altérité participe d’une nouvelle définition du rapport des humains à leur
environnement (voir par exemple Nicole Starosielski, «&amp;nbsp;Beyond
fluidity&amp;nbsp;: a cultural history of cinema under water&amp;nbsp;», in &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Ecocinema theory and practice&lt;/i&gt;, Ed.
Stephen Rust et al. AFI Film Readers, 2013).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La question du cinéma sous-marin peut
alors être comprise à travers ce dualisme représentation/exploration de
territoires. Les enjeux seraient aujourd’hui compris en termes d’exploitation
de ressources, de luttes d’influence et de domination…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les aventuriers des fonds marins
eux-mêmes évoluent dans leur représentation du monde subaquatique, à mesure que
se produit, à l’échelle de la planète, une prise de conscience concernant la
raréfaction des ressources halieutiques et la fragilisation de l’écosystème
sous-marin. Ils passent alors d’un discours et d’un système de représentations
qui considérait l’espace sous-marin comme le lieu d’une possible colonisation
sans opposition notable (une possibilité qui, pour Cousteau, était censée
résoudre les problèmes de surpopulation) à un militantisme écologique que l’on
retrouve aujourd’hui dans presque toutes les productions du cinéma subaquatique
(N. Starosielski, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Ecocinema&lt;/i&gt;, p.165) &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’environnement sous-marin n’existe plus
sans doute à nos yeux comme un élément à part, un monde dont l’altérité serait
radicale, et il serait au contraire devenu le prolongement de notre monde
social et de ses structures.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le cinéma s’est attaché, par ailleurs, à
délimiter un territoire et à fixer le cadre de la représentation&amp;nbsp;: champ
et hors-champ, valeurs de plan, mouvements de caméra, sont quelques- unes des
figures rhétoriques de l’ordre visuel du cinéma. La position de la caméra et
ses réglages délimitent la portion de réel inscrit dans le cadre et enregistré
sur le support. La technique du cinéma est alors une manière de retranscrire la
vision du paysage comme la retranscription de l’espace mental de l’opérateur
(ou du réalisateur). Le cinéma utilise pour cela les mêmes codes esthétiques
que le dessin ou la peinture, et l’imagerie de synthèse ne fait qu’appliquer
ceux du cinéma, en y ajoutant les constructions imaginaires permises par les
algorithmes. C’est ainsi que l’on peut voir émerger des paysages, aux contours
réalistes ou purement utopiques, et qui peuplent désormais les productions
cinématographiques à grand spectacle. Les plongées dans le monde du silence
rejoignent alors les voyages interstellaires dans la fabrique de l’imaginaire
contemporain.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6qDaTH5jlVpKZCq2GBtviVHzkmsJ4thyakZJCzp0WQj8TymaDse2KkZk_e4qUcXuh_wQuhN_wMrQ_YR4rvuhv3ryGobCcx-7AM92hd2O1Dyb6I9dQY5S7VsfrVyRUjrMz0NKmsne64RtE/s1600/IMG_0136.JPG&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1600&quot; data-original-width=&quot;1200&quot; height=&quot;400&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6qDaTH5jlVpKZCq2GBtviVHzkmsJ4thyakZJCzp0WQj8TymaDse2KkZk_e4qUcXuh_wQuhN_wMrQ_YR4rvuhv3ryGobCcx-7AM92hd2O1Dyb6I9dQY5S7VsfrVyRUjrMz0NKmsne64RtE/s400/IMG_0136.JPG&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Mais avant cela, il convient de retracer
l’histoire des dispositifs optiques et des systèmes d’enregistrement qui seront
utilisés à partir de la fin du 19&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle. Il faut aussi expliquer
les principales difficultés auxquelles les opérateurs sont confrontés lorsqu’il
faut utiliser des appareils de prise de vue sous l’eau&amp;nbsp;: les
caractéristiques de diffusion et d’absorption de la lumière&amp;nbsp;; l’influence
de l’eau et de la pression sur les équipements&amp;nbsp;; la maniabilité des
équipements par les scaphandriers, etc. On comprend alors l’influence que les
techniques utilisées ont pu avoir sur la perception du monde sous-marin par les
spectateurs.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il faut aussi examiner la relation qui
existe entre les territoires du monde subaquatique et leur représentation par
le cinéma, car ceci implique qu’on puisse expliquer les techniques employées et
les limites que le milieu marin impose à ces techniques.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpLast&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La perception du paysage sous-marin, sa
cartographie et sa reconstruction ultérieures par les moyens du cinéma, passent
donc par la compréhension de plusieurs éléments qui sont&amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les limites de la vision humaine&amp;nbsp;;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les capacités des appareils et des
systèmes utilisés pour effectuer ces représentations&amp;nbsp;;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpLast&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’intégration de nouvelles technologies
qui doivent permettre d’en cartographier l’étendue et les reliefs&amp;nbsp;:
acoustique sous-marine, audiovisuel, reconstruction numérique (VR,
photogrammétrie…)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il est possible de retracer l’histoire de ces
techniques dans leur application à la reconstruction du paysage sous-marin et
de souligner les évolutions actuelles qui voient l’utilisation simultanée de
plusieurs niveaux de données dans la cartographie d’un littoral, par exemple.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Au final, il s’agit d’expliciter le rôle
de «&amp;nbsp;la machine dans le jardin de Neptune&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn5&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref5&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn5;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[5]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
Une compréhension de la nature et de la forme des paysages marins passe
nécessairement par l’évaluation à la fois historique et technologique des moyens
utilisés pour les représenter. Le rôle des explorateurs et hommes de science
ayant utilisé ou même développé ces techniques est essentiel pour la
compréhension du contexte socio-culturel lié à la découverte des mondes
subaquatiques.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il est important de mettre en lumière
les différents modes d’appréhension du paysage par le système visuel humain,
avant même de le mettre en relation avec les techniques utilisées pour sa
représentation. Parmi ces techniques, la 3D stéréoscopique connait un renouveau
notoire, avec des applications en réalité virtuelle (VR) qui demandent une
explication des principes et des fondements physiologiques sur lesquels elle
repose. La stéréoscopie, en particulier, décrite par Charles Wheatstone en
1838, est le fondement de la vision en trois dimensions (c’est-à-dire incluant
la perspective et la perception de la profondeur) chez les humains, les
prédateurs et les oiseaux. Cette démarche implique bien une description
nécessaire de l’environnement perçu. Il convient donc de décrire cet
environnement puisque «&amp;nbsp;ce qui doit être perçu doit être précisé avant
même de parler de sa perception. Ce n’est pas le monde de la physique mais le monde
au niveau de l’écologie&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn6&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref6&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn6;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[6]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpLast&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On peut alors esquisser différents axes
de recherche autour de la question de la naissance et de l’évolution du genre
du cinéma subaquatique&amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;1.&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Caractériser
le personnage de l’explorateur, cet aventurier des temps modernes, qui parcourt
les océans et se met en scène à travers les récits filmés de ses voyages&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn7&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref7&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn7;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[7]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
Ou comment les voyages d’exploration deviennent une sorte d’utopie maritime au
20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt; siècle, caractérisée par la tentative de définir de nouveaux
modes d’existence, à la fois en rupture avec et dans la logique de l’expansion
du modèle occidental.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;2.&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Vérifier
une hypothèse&amp;nbsp;: montrer comment, au tournant des années 1950, apparait une
nouvelle manière de documenter la vie dans les océans. On s’intéressera aux
conditions, et aux moyens matériels, qui permettront le développement d’un
genre cinématographique, qui n’est plus relié à la recherche océanographique
proprement dite, qui&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;va progressivement
évoluer vers une prise de conscience des problèmes posés par les pollutions
marines et s’assigner, de manière très visible, des objectifs écologiques&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn8&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref8&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn8;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[8]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Quels sont les axes de
développement de ce cinéma et quels sont ses rapports avec l’écologie
scientifique proprement dite&amp;nbsp;?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Quels sont les moyens mis en
œuvre&amp;nbsp;? On réalise dans cette partie une première histoire des appareils
de plongée et des dispositifs de prise de vues sous-marines&amp;nbsp;: depuis
l’appareil photographique sous-marin de Boutan et jusqu’au scaphandre autonome
de Le Prieur. L’exploration des abysses, réalisée à l’aide de bathyscaphes ne
permet pas cependant de filmer en toute liberté sous l’eau. On est pourtant à
une époque, dans l’entre-deux guerres, où l’imaginaire des profondeurs acquiert
un nouveau statut grâce à la littérature et au cinéma des studios. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Au cours des années 1940 sont
tournés les premiers films réellement subaquatiques. A partir de la mise au
point du scaphandre autonome&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn9&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref9&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn9;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[9]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;,
commence la véritable histoire du cinéma sous la mer.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Quels sont les principaux thèmes
des films tournés sous la mer ou autour de l’environnement marin&amp;nbsp;? On peut
d’une certaine manière séparer entre le genre documentaire proprement dit et le
film de fiction. Il convient aussi effectuer une périodisation, car les moyens
matériels utilisés et les constructions narratives ont évolué, de manière
importante, depuis les débuts du cinéma.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On distinguera ainsi entre&amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les types de narration&amp;nbsp;: qui
raconte, comment, pourquoi…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La forme du récit&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn10&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref10&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn10;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[10]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ce qui est donné à voir et à
entendre&amp;nbsp;: l’image et son évolution (technique, esthétique), l’introduction
du son (différenciation entre point de vue et point d’écoute, les sons propres
et les sons reconstruits, l’invention d’un imaginaire auditif, les créations
musicales et leur influence dans la construction d’un imaginaire mental des
profondeurs, etc.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Les moyens matériels mis en œuvre&amp;nbsp;:
humains, techniques et financiers.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’évolution du discours implicite sur
les valeurs portées par les explorateurs, et tel qu’elle se traduit dans le rapport
à la mer et ses habitants. Cette évolution est particulièrement apparente dans
plusieurs productions remarquables des dernières décennies du 20&lt;sup&gt;ème&lt;/sup&gt;
siècle. Elle peut permettre, en particulier, de comparer les discours apparents
dans &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le Monde du Silence&lt;/i&gt; (1956) et
les productions plus récentes de l’équipe du Commandant Cousteau, par exemple.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La manière dont on passe du récit
d’aventures, caractéristique du documentaire marin des années 1950 à une forme
de récit aux consonances ouvertement préservationnistes, dans laquelle le
discours écologique devient désormais le fondement et la justification de l’équipée
et de sa représentation par les moyens du cinéma.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpLast&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On assiste ainsi, dans ces films, à
l’apparition d’une transformation de la relation entre humains et animaux
marins, au rebours de l’identification anthropomorphique, et dans une tentative
de penser l’animal dans son altérité radicale. Cette dernière proposition me
semble être une piste de recherche intéressante dans la perspective d’un
travail qui chercherait à approfondir la question de la représentation des
animaux marins à l’écran&amp;nbsp;: je la traiterai comme une partie autonome, mais
je pense qu’elle pourrait s’intégrer dans le corps du texte et permettre
d’avancer dans cette direction des relations entre cinéma et écologie qu’il me
parait important de développer&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn11&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref11&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn11;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[11]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;De nouveaux axes de recherche s’éloignent cependant
de cette vision «&amp;nbsp;romantique&amp;nbsp;» du cinéma sous-marin et utilisent des
ressources techniques très perfectionnées&amp;nbsp;: c’est l’archéologie
sous-marine, en particulier, avec la modélisation informatique et l’utilisation
des robots sous-marins pour filmer à des profondeurs dépassant les capacités
des plongeurs, c’est l’exploration des abysses à l’aide de véhicules robotisés
(ROV), etc.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;times new roman&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Enfin, comme je l’annonçais plus haut, il me semble
difficile de faire une histoire du cinéma sous la mer sans traiter la question
de la représentation des animaux marins à l’écran. Cette problématique traverse
en effet toute l’histoire de la relation des sociétés humaines à l’univers
marin et, surtout, depuis les développements modernes de l’océanographie et de
la biologie marine. On pourra faire débuter cette histoire avec les premières recherches
de Marey (1890), alors que les premières œuvres de fiction représentant des
animaux marins soient plutôt à mettre au crédit de Georges Méliès (1902), même
s’il ne s’agit pas de cinéma subaquatique à proprement parler. Ce sont des
questions que j’essaierai de traiter ailleurs.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;mso-element: footnote-list;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;
&lt;hr align=&quot;left&quot; size=&quot;1&quot; width=&quot;33%&quot; /&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn1&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref1&quot; name=&quot;_ftn1&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn1;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;calibri&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; Par un
monde occidental j’entends les pays situés dans la sphère d’influence,
politique et culturelle, de l’Europe et des Amériques, au moins jusqu’en 1950.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn2&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref2&quot; name=&quot;_ftn2&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn2;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;calibri&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; Voir
«&amp;nbsp;Le Mystère des Abysses&amp;nbsp;» (1993) de Jean-René VANNEY, et bien
d’autres ouvrages.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn3&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref3&quot; name=&quot;_ftn3&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn3;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;calibri&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; H.G. WELLS,
&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;In the Abyss&lt;/i&gt; et &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;The Sea Raiders&lt;/i&gt;, in «&amp;nbsp;The Plattner Story and Others&amp;nbsp;»,
Methuen &amp;amp; Co. (1897).&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn4&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref4&quot; name=&quot;_ftn4&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn4;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;calibri&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[4]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; On
notera tout de même &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;The Deep&lt;/i&gt;, par
Peter Benchley (1976) et &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Abysses &lt;/i&gt;(titre
original&amp;nbsp;: &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Der Schwarm&lt;/i&gt;) par
Frank Schätzing (2004).&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn5&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref5&quot; name=&quot;_ftn5&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn5;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;calibri&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[5]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; Pour paraphraser
le titre du livre dirigé par Helen Rozwadowski et David Van Keuren (2004).&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn6&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref6&quot; name=&quot;_ftn6&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn6;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;calibri&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[6]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; J.J.
GIBSON, «&amp;nbsp;The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception&amp;nbsp;», p.2, LEA
Publishers (1986)&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn7&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref7&quot; name=&quot;_ftn7&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn7;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;calibri&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[7]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; Jean
GRIFFET, «&amp;nbsp;Aventures marines&amp;nbsp;», L’Harmattan, Paris &lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;(1995).&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn8&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref8&quot; name=&quot;_ftn8&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn8;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;calibri&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[8]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; David
INGRAM, «&amp;nbsp;Green screen. Environmentalism and Hollywood cinema&amp;nbsp;»,
University of Exeter Press (2015), p.13. Voir aussi Sean CUBITT et al., Derek
BOUSE, Pat BRERETON, Scott McDONALD, etc.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn9&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref9&quot; name=&quot;_ftn9&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn9;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;calibri&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[9]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; Yves Le
Prieur et Georges Comeinhes inventent le scaphandre autonome, Jacques-Yves
Cousteau et Emile Gagnan le perfectionnent et en permettent la diffusion à
grande échelle.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn10&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref10&quot; name=&quot;_ftn10&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn10;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;calibri&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[10]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; Voir
par exemple, Francis VANOYE&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;Récit écrit, récit filmique&amp;nbsp;»,
Armand Colin (2005).&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn11&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref11&quot; name=&quot;_ftn11&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn11;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;calibri&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[11]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; Je ne
prétends à aucune originalité ici, cette thématique étant déjà largement traitée
par les auteurs anglo-saxons. On peut citer, entre autres&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;Ecocinema
theory and practice&amp;nbsp;», dirigé par Stephen Rust, Salma Monani et Sean
Cubitt (Routledge, 2013).&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;b style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: medium; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj1DaeKMvKmkPnB2kcI1c7noMK1lr4VFZZrOQZpgTjWBCZignE531RzVUFZ_RUVS2xLrWYAjsXY36c08GCFKur792P72___W9GWaPmlrwzlw9ZlgcGmfCMq_BHKMElXovXXQ4h3I_XbWKEI/s1600/thumb_11926_film_film_big.jpeg&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; data-original-height=&quot;659&quot; data-original-width=&quot;1000&quot; height=&quot;419&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj1DaeKMvKmkPnB2kcI1c7noMK1lr4VFZZrOQZpgTjWBCZignE531RzVUFZ_RUVS2xLrWYAjsXY36c08GCFKur792P72___W9GWaPmlrwzlw9ZlgcGmfCMq_BHKMElXovXXQ4h3I_XbWKEI/s640/thumb_11926_film_film_big.jpeg&quot; width=&quot;640&quot; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le
Monde du Silence&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt; est, bien entendu, le film qui a fait
la réputation de Jacques-Yves Cousteau et de son équipe. Il a aussi lancé la
carrière de Louis Malle, qui avait à l’époque quitté l’IDHEC pour se joindre à
l’équipage de la &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Calypso&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormalCxSpLast&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: medium; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Au-delà de la
critique élogieuse ou de l’indignation, on peut s’interroger sur ce que
représente ce film au regard d’une possible historiographie de l’image
sous-marine. Il faut donc :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;1.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;span&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le situer dans son époque&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;2.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;span&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;S’intéresser à ce qu’il montre et à la
manière dont il le montre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpLast&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;3.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;span&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Evaluer ce qu’il a pu représenter pour
l’exploration sous-marine et, d’une manière plus générale, pour la relation des
humains avec l’environnement marin&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 17.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: medium; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il
est utile, tout d’abord, de donner des indications concernant la production et
les spécifications techniques les plus courantes&amp;nbsp;(renseignements
recueillis sur IMDB et dans le livre de Franck Machu&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn1&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref1&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn1;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;) :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 35.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Du point de vue de la production&amp;nbsp;:
le film a été produit par la Société de production de Cousteau, à
l’époque&amp;nbsp;: Les Requins Associés. Sont venues s’y ajouter les Sociétés
Filmad et Titanus, ainsi que le Poste Parisien pour le mixage audio.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 35.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il a été entièrement tourné en mer,
principalement&amp;nbsp;: Mer Rouge, Méditerranée, Golfe Persique, Océan Indien&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 35.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le film a été coréalisé par Jacques-Yves
Cousteau et Louis Malle et écrit par JYC&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 35.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On voit y apparaitre et jouer leur rôle
pratiquement tous les membres de l’équipage de la &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Calypso&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 35.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le producteur exécutif est Maurice Ichac&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 35.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La musique a été composée par Yves
Baudrier&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 35.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’image est signée par Philippe Agostini
(pour les scènes sous-marines) et Louis Malle&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 35.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le montage a été l’œuvre de Georges
Alépée&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 35.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Effets spéciaux par Robert Noël&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 35.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Lumière et équipements mis en œuvre par
Edmond Séchan et Cousteau&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 35.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Chef d’orchestre&amp;nbsp;: Serge Baudo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpLast&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 35.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La première projection publique a eu
lieu au Festival de Cannes, le 26 mai 1956&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 17.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: medium; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Pour
la technique proprement dite&amp;nbsp;: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 35.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On retiendra que le film a été tourné
avec des caméras Eyemo 35mm Bell &amp;amp; Howell, modifiées et intégrées dans des
caissons PVC munis d’un hublot frontal&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 35.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La pellicule couleur utilisée est de l’Eastmancolor
16 ASA et, malgré la très grande ouverture permise par les optiques Cooke, il
faudra souvent un ajout de lumière artificielle (qui servira aussi à corriger
la dominante bleue des fonds marins)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 35.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On utilise aussi des scooters
sous-marins, Laban en ayant modifié un pour l’équiper d’un hublot sur le nez,
ce qui lui permettait de recevoir une caméra embarquée.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 35.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La durée finale du film est de 86
minutes (1 heure 26)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 35.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le format du négatif est le 35mm pour un
rapport image de 1.37&amp;nbsp;: 1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 35.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Longeur totale de pellicule
imprimée&amp;nbsp;: 2270 mètres&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 35.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le laboratoire qui a effectué le
traitement&amp;nbsp;: GTC à Joinville&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 35.85pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;1.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;span&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;L’époque&amp;nbsp;: les années 1950 sont
cette époque de l’après-guerre qui voit s’installer dans le monde occidental le
rapport hédoniste aux vacances, à la mer et, pour certains, à l’exploration de
nouvelles contrées et de nouveaux modes de vie. Selon Jean Griffet,
«&amp;nbsp;l’observation du nombre de récits d’aventures et de chasse sous-marines
publiés fait apparaitre une densité maximale entre 1946 et 1960… Les
aventuriers partent donc avec des rêves. Ils quittent aussi le port avec des
projets&amp;nbsp;: explorer des îles, le fond de la mer, traverser les océans à la
voile.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn2&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref2&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn2;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: medium; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;En
réalité, c’est depuis le début du siècle que le rapport à la mer se transforme.
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: medium; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Jacques-Yves
Cousteau et Frédéric Dumas montrent dans leur livre, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le Monde du Silence&lt;/i&gt; (1953), ce que pourrait être le style de vie et
le rapport à la nature qu’ils s’attacheront à représenter, avec l’équipe de la
Calypso, dans le film éponyme.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: medium; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il
faut aussi situer le film par rapport aux contraintes économiques que connait
sa production&amp;nbsp;: campagne de prospection pétrolière pour BP puis, en 1954,
signature d’une convention de financement avec l’Education Nationale et le
CNRS. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: medium; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le
tournage commence donc en 1954, en Mer Rouge…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;2.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;span&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le film&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: medium; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On
doit noter certains apports du film, tant sur le plan technologique que sur
celui de l’inventivité cinématographique&amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Le scaphandre autonome, le scooter
sous-marin ou la cage à requins&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Des caméras sous-marines dans des
caissons imperméables conçues par l’ingénieur chimiste André Laban, tandis que
le professeur Harold Edgerton met au point un appareil de prises de vue
automatique&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn3&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref3&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn3;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;D’autre part, il s’agit d’un film qui
montre surtout une aventure humaine&amp;nbsp;: des explorateurs audacieux, des
hommes au travail. Les cinéastes (Cousteau et Malle) n’hésitent pas à se filmer
eux-mêmes et à présenter leur matériel de prise de vues. André Bazin le
reconnait dans cette double articulation (film et hors film)&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;Il
est parfaitement permis de reconstituer la découverte d’une épave… Tout au plus
peut-on exiger du cinéaste qu’il ne cherche pas à cacher le procédé. Mais on ne
saurait le reprocher à Cousteau et Malle qui, plusieurs fois au cours du film,
présentent le matériel et se filment eux-mêmes en train de filmer.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn4&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref4&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn4;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[4]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;La séquence d’ouverture elle-même
tranche d’ailleurs avec toute la production documentaire de l’époque. Sans
musique ni commentaires, avec seulement le bruit de l’expiration des plongeurs,
elle nous fait découvrir «&amp;nbsp;l’homme poisson&amp;nbsp;» de Jean Painlevé ou le
«&amp;nbsp;surhomme aquatique&amp;nbsp;» d’André Bazin&amp;nbsp;: les plongeurs, torche&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn5&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref5&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn5;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[5]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; à
la main, descendent au fond de l’abîme, dans lequel on a l’impression qu’ils
vont se perdre et disparaitre, un nuage de bulles envahit l’écran puis
successivement, en même temps que le début de la musique, apparaissent&amp;nbsp;:
le titre du film, les réalisateurs, l’équipe technique… La musique disparait et
on retrouve les plongeurs au fond, en train de filmer. Commentaire&amp;nbsp;:
«&amp;nbsp;A 50 mètres de la surface, des hommes tournent un film… Munis de
scaphandres autonomes, ils sont délivrés de la pesanteur. Ils évoluent
librement.&amp;nbsp;Etc.&amp;nbsp;» On remarque la mise en abyme.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;D’autres séquences accentuent le
caractère didactique du film&amp;nbsp;: rencontre avec des pêcheurs grecs, ce qui
est l’occasion de mettre en avant la supériorité du scaphandre autonome par
rapport à l’antique scaphandre à casque et tuyau raccordé à la surface.
Explication concernant la «&amp;nbsp;maladie des caissons&amp;nbsp;» et les accidents
de décompression. On assiste ainsi à la reconstitution (un brin humoristique)
d’un accident de décompression et au traitement du scaphandrier souffrant dans
un caisson de décompression.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Viennent ensuite des séquences plus
controversées&amp;nbsp;: récupération des coraux à la dynamite, causant un
véritable carnage parmi les poissons, sur fond de musique aux accents
triomphants, et pour toute explication (en off)&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;c’est la seule
méthode qui permette de faire le recensement de toutes les espèces
vivantes&amp;nbsp;». En l’occurrence elles ne le sont plus tellement.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;-&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Séquence particulièrement
pénible&amp;nbsp;(vers le milieu du film)&amp;nbsp;: l’agonie du petit cachalot, heurté
par la Calypso, dont les flancs déchirés par l’hélice du navire laissent
échapper un flot de sang. L’animal est achevé par Falco et Dumas. Les requins
arrivent. Le commentaire de Cousteau est ici édifiant&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;Pour nous
plongeurs, les requins c’est l’ennemi mortel&amp;nbsp;». Puis description de la
curée des requins, filmée par Dumas, qui se trouve dans une cage immergée.
Commentaire&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;Tous les marins du monde détestent les requins… Les
plongeurs eux sont déchainés. Rien ne peut retenir une haine ancestrale. Chacun
cherche une arme, n’importe quoi, pour cogner, crocher, hisser…&amp;nbsp;». Après
la mort et la curée autour du cadavre du petit cachalot, on assiste donc au
massacre des requins qui sont harponnés par l’équipage, puis hissés à bord pour
être achevés à coups de hache ou de marteau.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: medium; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ces séquences seront-elles aussi très
critiquées, surtout depuis l’extension du discours «&amp;nbsp;préservationniste&amp;nbsp;»
aux médias télévisuels&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;– c’est-à-dire,
depuis le milieu des années 1975 environ –&lt;span style=&quot;mso-spacerun: yes;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;et on voit bien que des questions telles que celles relatives à la
protection des environnements marins et de la biodiversité ont marqué, depuis, le
discours général concernant les représentations de la nature&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn6&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref6&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn6;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[6]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
On comprend bien qu’il ne serait plus possible aujourd’hui de tourner un film
qui montrerait, de manière aussi crue, l’extermination de groupes entiers
d’animaux marins…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 35.7pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;3.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Que
représente ce film pour l’historiographie des débuts du cinéma
subaquatique&amp;nbsp;?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 35.7pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: medium; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;On retiendra tout d’abord que, dans &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le Monde du Silence&lt;/i&gt; on voit représentée,
dans un long métrage, la mise en œuvre d’équipements spécifiques permettant la
plongée en eaux profondes&amp;nbsp;: le scaphandre autonome Cousteau-Gagnan, le
scooter des mers et même la cage à requins qui connait là ses premières
utilisations. Mais ce film permet aussi d’innover en matière de techniques
cinématographiques, on l’a vu plus haut. Toutes ces questions relèvent
davantage de l’histoire des techniques.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 35.7pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Il reste que &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le Monde du Silence &lt;/i&gt;est avant tout un défi humain, comme le note
très justement Florent Barrère, mais qu’il est aussi le résultat d’une
construction scénaristique, dans laquelle composition et montage jouent
pleinement leur rôle. Ainsi lors de la découverte de l’épave d’un cargo coulé,
dont la soi-disant exploration par un plongeur supposait en fait non seulement
la présence de plusieurs caméras, mais un véritable découpage comme en
studio&amp;nbsp;: «&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-fareast-language: FR;&quot;&gt;Cette séquence est visiblement agencée, jusque dans la
classique attente&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt; spectatorielle&lt;/i&gt;.
Ainsi, avant que l’épave ne soit découverte&lt;b&gt; &lt;/b&gt;(un cargo anglais coulé en
1942 dans le canal de Suez), aucune étape ne nous sera épargnée : localisation
de l’épave par écho sonar, puis par la chambre d’étrave ; raccord regard de
Frédéric Dumas sur l’épave, par le hublot de la Calypso&lt;b&gt; &lt;/b&gt;; et enfin mise
à l’eau de toute l’équipe de plongée ! Un ensemble de rivets scénaristiques
nous rappelle à l’ordre : nous n’assistons pas à la découverte d’une épave,
mais à sa mise en scène… Ainsi, le plongeur solitaire du &lt;i&gt;Monde du silence&lt;/i&gt;
ne se retrouve jamais face au bloc réel de l’épave, mais se faufile à travers
les indices narratifs de sa présence : la puissante ancre rouillée&lt;b&gt; &lt;/b&gt;; la
longue chaîne enfouie dans le sable ; la proue sombre du navire à contourner de
quelques coups de palme ; et enfin la vieille cloche qu’il faut détartrer au
couteau de sa moisissure marine.&amp;nbsp;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftn7&quot; name=&quot;_ftnref7&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn7;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-fareast-language: FR;&quot;&gt;[7]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 35.7pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: medium; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-fareast-language: FR;&quot;&gt;Il serait donc réducteur de considérer les productions
sous-marines (et marines) de Cousteau et de quelques autres
«&amp;nbsp;pionniers&amp;nbsp;» comme le résultat d’un travail de documentation
effectué par des équipes qui seraient avant tout constituées par des plongeurs,
des techniciens ou même des scientifiques et qui ne seraient qu’accessoirement
des cinéastes.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpLast&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 35.7pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-fareast-language: FR;&quot;&gt;Le Monde du
Silence&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-fareast-language: FR;&quot;&gt; indique en fait clairement l’émergence d’un genre cinématographique, qui
existe déjà dans les faits, mais qui acquiert là une pleine reconnaissance de
la part du public, surement, mais aussi de la part des professionnels du
cinéma.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;mso-element: footnote-list;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;hr align=&quot;left&quot; size=&quot;1&quot; width=&quot;33%&quot; /&gt;



&lt;div id=&quot;ftn1&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref1&quot; name=&quot;_ftn1&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn1;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;Franck Machu, &lt;i&gt;Un
cinéaste nommé Cousteau: une œuvre dans le siècle&lt;/i&gt; (Monaco, Monaco: Éd. du
Rocher, 2011).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn2&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref2&quot; name=&quot;_ftn2&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn2;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Jean Griffet, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Aventures marines. Images et pratiques&lt;/i&gt;,
p. 56, L’Harmattan, Paris, 1995.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn3&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref3&quot; name=&quot;_ftn3&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn3;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;Harold E.
Edgerton, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Photographing the Sea’s Dark
Underworld&lt;/i&gt;, National Geographic Magazine, vol. 107, n°4, avril 1955,
p.523-537&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn4&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref4&quot; name=&quot;_ftn4&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn4;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[4]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; André Bazin, &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Le Monde du Silence&lt;/i&gt;, in France
Observateur, p.38, Mars 1956.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn5&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref5&quot; name=&quot;_ftn5&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn5;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[5]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;Ce sont des
torches pyrotechniques incandescentes&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn6&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref6&quot; name=&quot;_ftn6&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn6;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[6]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Il y a, en
particulier, l’émergence de nouveaux champs d’investigation dans l’analyse du
film, qui mettent en avant les relations entre cinéma et écologie ou encore les
représentations des animaux à l’écran. Voir, par exemple&amp;nbsp;: &lt;i style=&quot;mso-bidi-font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;Ecocinema Theory and Practice&lt;/i&gt;, dirigé
par Stephen Rust, Salma Monani et Sean Cubitt (AFI/Routledge, 2013).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;ftn7&quot; style=&quot;mso-element: footnote;&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3824907278627072174#_ftnref7&quot; name=&quot;_ftn7&quot; style=&quot;mso-footnote-id: ftn7;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-special-character: footnote;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoFootnoteReference&quot;&gt;&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;[7]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;Florent Barrère, «&amp;nbsp;Éclipses – Revue de
Cinéma&amp;nbsp;: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;Revoir&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; Le Monde du
silence / Océans : Caméra abyssale&amp;nbsp;», consulté le 12 mai 2018,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blogger.com/%20http:/www.revue-eclipses.com/le-monde-du-silence-oceans/revoir/camera-abyssale-71.html.&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;
http://www.revue-eclipses.com/le-monde-du-silence-oceans/revoir/camera-abyssale-71.html.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoFootnoteText&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;
Florent Barrère&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/feeds/18717058854306796/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2018/05/a-propos-du-monde-du-silence-palme-dor.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/18717058854306796'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3824907278627072174/posts/default/18717058854306796'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://figurefond.blogspot.com/2018/05/a-propos-du-monde-du-silence-palme-dor.html' title='A propos du Monde du Silence, Palme d’Or à Cannes en 1956'/><author><name>Gestalt</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10962207802973660346</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFQRD6kaQLUr1OUFCHOR0VqUEPA0--dKvSXYzAg5UJQ0jQol9BgkX2GLgvMoTGRhoojVNzRfbkL-xTjTcSsJ4EzhOxXCrqqMJAg2A-bKdz9_mG632d3cuenkDsDa043g/s220/vertov.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj1DaeKMvKmkPnB2kcI1c7noMK1lr4VFZZrOQZpgTjWBCZignE531RzVUFZ_RUVS2xLrWYAjsXY36c08GCFKur792P72___W9GWaPmlrwzlw9ZlgcGmfCMq_BHKMElXovXXQ4h3I_XbWKEI/s72-c/thumb_11926_film_film_big.jpeg" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry></feed>