Natural Resources In Nepal

Geography

2011-09-23T09:42:00.000-07:00

China and India.
Cities: Capital--Kathmandu (3 districts) (pop. 2.2 million est.). Other cities--Biratnagar, Patan, Pokhara, Birgunj, Dharan, Nepalgunj.
Terrain: Flat and fertile in the southern Terai region; terraced cultivation and swiftly flowing mountain rivers in the central hills; and the high Himalayas in the north. Eight of the world's ten highest peaks are in Nepal, including Mount Everest. Kathmandu, the capital, is in a broad valley at 1,310 meters (4,300 ft.) elevation.
Climate: Ranging from subtropical in the south to temperate in the hills to arctic at high altitudes. The monsoon season is from June to September, during which showers occur almost every day, bringing 75 to 150 centimeters (30-60 in.) of rain.
Time zone: Nepal is 10 hours and 45 minutes ahead of Eastern Standard Time and does not observe daylight saving time.
People
Nationality: Noun--Nepali (sing.) or Nepalese (plural). Adjective--Nepalese or Nepali.
Population (2009 estimate): 29.3 million.
Annual population growth rate (2007 estimate): 2.132%.
Population breakdown/distribution (from 2001 census): Rural (86%); female (50%); in the southern Terai region (49%); in the hills (44%); in the mountains (7%). The next census will be done in 2011.
Ethnic groups (caste and ethnicity are often used interchangeably): Brahman, Chetri, Newar, Gurung, Magar, Tamang, Rai, Limbu, Sherpa, Tharu, and others.
Religions (from 2001 census): Hinduism (81%), Buddhism (11%), Islam (4%), and others (4%). The next census will be done in 2011.
Languages: Nepali and more than 100 regional and indigenous languages.
Education: Years compulsory--none, although education is free through Grade 8. Attendance--primary 84% (86% male, 82% female), secondary 43.5% (46% male, 41% female). Literacy--57% (among youth age 15-24: 85% male, 73% female).
Health: Infant mortality rate (2008 estimate)--41 deaths/1,000 live births. Life expectancy--67 years.
Work force: Agriculture 73.9%; non-agriculture 26.1%.

PRESENT CONDITION OF NATURAL RESOURCES O OF NEPAL

2011-09-23T09:39:00.001-07:00

Present condition of natural resources of Nepal
Well, Nepal is rich in natural resources. So many beauty of nature are here like beautiful flower, birds, animals, & so on. Sweet song of birds, different type of flower, deer on grassland, etc are the most beautiful scene of nature. Man is inseparable from nature. No life is possible without nature. But now all the resources have been destroying day by day. All the resources have been used haphazardly which makes destruction on nature. Habitats of wildlife are destroyed for new settlement. Due to the rapid growth of population natural resources are used haphazardly. Many species of birds, animals, insects, etc are decreased because of deforestation. All the trees are cut down for different propose and use. Water resources are polluted due to lack of proper management of sanitation. Many water resources are destroyed because of lack of forest. About 25/26 years ago 53.5percent of the total area of Nepal was covered with forest. But today only 37 percent of land is covered with forest. Soil is also loosing its fertility power due to use of more pesticide & insecticide. Thus, we can say that present conditions of natural resources of Nepal are in danger. So, we must protect it to save our life.

SOLUTION OF DESTRUCTION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Obviously, we all know that, the natural resources of Nepal have been decreasing day by day. The destruction of natural resources is affecting us deeply. And this is main obstacle of our country. Hence, to be getting rid of it, we must observe some measures.

First of all, we must educate and aware people about the population balance, otherwise, the over population will not let us to stop destruction of natural resources. After the control of population, we can easily handle other problem,

If we control the pollution, then we can avoid the destruction of environment and natural resources. We can establish industrial areas. We can use scientific and modern technology to improve agricultural sector. If we improve it we can improve our economic conditions.

CAUSES OF DESTRUCTION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

There are so many reasons that causes the destruction of natural resources such as the destruction of forest, poaching of valuable and rare wild animals and vegetation are going on. The rapid growth of population and their demands for housing and for other activities is causing deforestation and deforestation is directly related with the destruction of natural resources.
We all know that Nepal is economically a poor country. And Nepalese are based upon agro-bases economy. But due to the lack of capital and technology, Nepal is not capable to do the best agriculture. Hence, the agriculture based economy is destroying the natural resources.
Population made by artificial machine and vehicles is also affecting the natural resources. Such as polluted air

IMPORTANCES OF NATURAL RESOURCES

IMPORTANCES OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Natural resources are our common and public property which is free gift of nature for our goodness. Soil, forest, minerals, wildlife, etc are the natural resources. No life can exist without it. So, to survive we must protect the natural resources. Natural resources are most important resources because all the things which are essential to be alive are found in nature. Like fuel, wood fruits, gold, silver, water etc, are the resources which are used often for our daily life. Water is most important resources which make all living being alive. Similarly forest is also the habitat of wild life as well as it provides fuel to cook, wood for buildings and furniture, and also makes rain on time which helps to keep balance on environment. It is also important for developmental work such as using wood for bridge, water for hydro electricity and so on. There is also great possibility of tourism which help to solve the of unemployment.

ANIMALS AND BIRDS RESOURCES OF NEPAL

2011-09-23T09:38:00.001-07:00

Animals and birds resource of Nepal
Animals and birds are also the resources of nature. They cannot live without nature. They love to be free and visit on nature. There are so many species of animals and birds are found in nature or forest. Due to presence of different climate and forest animals & birds are found on varieties. Cow is the national animal of Nepal. Similarly, lophoforus is the national bird of Nepal. Different animals and birds are found on different place according to climate where they had habit to live. They can’t exits on different climate from their habitat. Forest is the main shelter of animals & birds. So, it is important to protect the forest to make wildlife alive. Wildlife is important to maintain balance on environment. Crow, parrot, pigeon, sparrow, etc. are the some name of birds of Nepal. Cow, goat, deer, tiger, horse, etc. are the name of animals of Nepal.

MINERALS, MINES AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION

2011-09-23T09:15:00.000-07:00

All the mineral resources that occur in the country are owned by the state. DMG under the Ministry of Industry is the responsible government authority which is conducting systematic geological mapping and mineral exploration activities in the country since last five decades. In course of time DMG has been successful to identify a number of metallic, nonmetallic/ industrial and fuel mineral deposits/ prospects/ occurrences and prove some economic and sub-economic mineral deposits and also promote few mineral based industries like cement, agrilime, marble, talc, dead burnt magnesite, zinc-lead, coal, gemstones, pottery etc. Few small to medium scale mines of limestone, magnesite, marble, talc, coal, peat, clay, salt, talc, mica, quartz crystals, semiprecious and precious stones, dimension/ paving stones, roofing slates are in operation by the private entrepreneurs after obtaining the licenses from DMG. There are over 29 limestone quarries from which limestone are supplied to cement industries. Six gem mines are in operation and few gem industries, which do cutting and polishing of semiprecious and precious stones from Nepal and abroad are established. Construction aggregates, sand, gravel, dimension stone, decorative stones, paving stones and roofing slates are the other important mineral resources which have high demand for infrastructural development works. Metallic minerals like, iron, copper, lead, zinc, cobalt, nickel, gold, are known from different parts of Nepal but they are not yet mined. Only Two placer gold mining license has been issued to private sector but till this time they did not show any production. A private Company did detail exploration of Thoshe iron deposit in Ramechhap and now in the process of obtaining mining license from DMG. It is envisaged that if the GON give high priority to exploit mineral resources with liberal policy, within next few years time some more industrial minerals, base metals, precious metals, gemstones, coal and petroleum deposits will be proved, a number of mines will be operated and more mineral based industries and petroleum industries will be established in Nepal.

Department of Mines and Geology administrates and fully exercises the Mines and Mineral Act (2042BS) and Regulation (2065BS). Under the existing Rules and Regulations DMG issue both Prospecting and Mining Licenses to the interested investors (national/ international) and regularly inspects and monitors the mining activities carried out by the private lease holders. In FY 2066/67 about 80 mines/ quarries (for 12 different mineral commodities) excluding the licenses issued by District Development Committees (DDC) are in operation. Similarly 451 prospecting licenses for prospection/ exploration of 21 mineral commodities are issued (DMG/ Planning section). In this FY 2066/67 DMG has collected around Rs2,00,00,000.00 as royalty/ revenue from this sector. From petroleum companies the government receives about Rs.2,55,60,000.00/year only from surface rental of lease area (7 blocks), taxes etc. Once the more mines come in operation, mineral industries are established and petroleum is discovered in the country many people will have job opportunity and all these will contribute substantially in national GDP.

6. INVESTMENT OPPORTUNITY IN MINERAL AND MINING SECTORS

There are ample opportunities for the investors to invest in the commercially viable mineral commodities that deserve investment. Some of the proved economic mineral deposits have been developed and are being used in industries like cement, industrial lime, agriculture lime, dead burnt magnesite, talk (in paper, soap) and marble industries. Some small-scale industries are using local limestone, dolomite, quartz, talc, clay, coal, peat, precious and semiprecious stones, brine water (salt) etc. There is a high demand of construction materials such as aggregate, dimension stones, paving stones, slates, boulders, gravel and sand. Investment in these resources is highly rewarding.

2011-09-23T09:14:00.001-07:00

Construction Minerals (Materials)

Rocks are the main construction materials since the Stone Age. Some of the rocks like marble, basalt, granite and red sandstones are used in decoration; phyllite, slates, flaggy quartzite and schist are used for roofing; limestone, dolomite, quartzite, sandstone are used for aggregate in various construction works, road paving and flooring. Vast quantities of river boulders, cobbles, pebbles and sands are mined as construction materials/ aggregates. DMG (Y.P. Sharma et al 1988) has evaluated such materials (Boulders = 347,006,000m³, Cobbles = 214,261,000m³ and Pebbles = 229,205,000m³) in the Major Rivers of Terai region.

Fuel Minerals

Coal: In Nepal low to medium grade coal occurrences/ deposits are known in four stratigraphic positions e.g. (i) Quaternary lignite (ii) Siwalik coal (iii) Eocene Coal and (iv) Gondwana coal. Peat/ lignite in Kathmandu valley is mined and used mainly in brick burning. Siwalik coal is not economically attractive because of scattered small lenses. Eocene Coal occurs as irregular seams confined to orthoquartzite in Tosh, Siuja, Azimara and Abidhara in Dang, Sallyan, Rolpa, Pyuthan and Palpa districts. Small scale 20 coal mines are in operation in these districts. In addition to that 49 prospecting license are also issued by DMG. Present Coal production in Nepal is insignificantly small (150 -250mt/ day).

Petroleum and Natural Gas: A number of Oil and Natural gas seeps are recoded in a stretch of about 14km in Padukasthan, Sirsethan and Navisthan area in Dailekh and only gas seeps in Muktinath in Mustang. GON/DMG/Petroleum Exploration Promotion Project (PEPP) are giving high priority to explore and promote petroleum exploration in Nepal since 1982. DMG/ PEPP were able to identify 10 prospective blocks in the southern parts of the country. Shell Company of Netherlands conducted exploration in Block no.10 in eastern Nepal. It has drilled a well up to 3520m deep but the hole appeared dry. Since last few years Texana Resources Company of USA and Cairn Energy PLC of UK have initiated the exploration works in Block no 3 & 5; and 1, 2, 4, 6 & 7 respectively. The possibility of finding oil in some of these blocks appears fairly high.

Prospective blocks for Petroleum and Natural Gas exploration in Nepal

Methane gas deposit in Kathmandu Valley is known since long time. It dissolves in water type biogenic gas. DMG explored this gas in 26 sq. km area in Kathmandu valley by exploration drilling of over 14 drill holes up to 570m depth and proved 310 million cubic meter methane gas deposit. The gas occurs at different depth from 120m to 300m. Its average calorific value is 7200kcal/m3. A model gas plant is set in Tripureshor/ Teku. Feasibility study has confirmed that the gas can be used for industrial and household purpose and the reserve is sufficient to supply gas to 21,000 families for about 30 years. The GON/ DMG is inviting for potential investor to come forward with the suitable proposal to develop the gas wells and commercialize this gas deposit for the benefit of the people.

Geothermal Hot Springs: During preliminary study 23 geothermal hot springs are identified. Most of them are found to be associated with Main Central Thrust (MCT) and confined to the river banks e.g. in Mahakali, Karnali, Tila, Kaligandaki, Myagdi Khola, Marshyangdi, Trishuli, Bhotekoshi Rivers, and in Kodari. The temperature of the hot spring water ranges from 40^o to 115^oC. It can be utilized for heating, drying fruits, hot water bath to heal skin disease.

Radioactive Minerals like uranium are known from Sindhuli, Makwanpur, Kathmandu and Baitadi districts. There is a high possibility to find such minerals in the granitic terrain (granite, gneiss and pegmatite) in the Higher and Lesser Himalayan region and from the Siwalik sandstone. Uranium is a major source of fuel for the production of Nuclear energy.

Gemstones

2011-09-23T09:13:00.001-07:00

Semiprecious stones like tourmaline, aquamarine/ beryl, garnet, kyanite, amethyst, citrine, smoky quartz (quartz crystals); and precious stones like ruby, sapphire etc. are known only from few districts.

Tourmaline: Five distinct types of tourmaline are known from Nepal (Basset 1978). Gem quality distinct multihued tourmaline (elbaite) of Hyakule and Phakuwa; pink, bright green, light orange sometimes with repeated color banding, olive green with amber colored core are known from Hyakule, Eastern Nepal. Small-scale mines of aquamarine, beryl, tourmalines are in operation. Pegmatites of Langtang valley (Rasuwa) and Naje (Manang) are also promising for beryl/ aquamarine and tourmaline. Two tourmaline mines are in operation in Daha area in Jajarkot.

Beryl/ Aquamarine of Taplejung (Ikabu, Lodantar) area are high prized. Similarly hambergite, danburite, and ijolite are the important gemstones that are found in Nepal. In Taplejung beryl and aquamarine mines are in operation where as the tourmaline mines are still in development stage. Gem quality clear blue aquamarine of Phakuwa (Sakhuwasabha), aquamarine/ beryl and few green colored tourmalines from Naje and few other localities in Manang district (Tamrakar, 1990, and Einfalt et al, 1995), western Nepal are reported. Lekhpatan and Tikachaur in Jajarkot; Jagat, Panchmane, Kagtigaon, in Kathmandu; Baguwa, Tarkeghyang, Nibuwagaon in Sindhupalchok are the other known places for Beryl.

Garnets are recorded from strongly tectonized lenses and pods of chlorite-biotite-garnet schist within high-grade metamorphic rock sequence mainly in the Higher Himalayan region. Deep red or red colored almandine, hessonite and pyrope garnet are mined mainly in Sankhuwasabha and Taplejung districts. Small-scale garnet mines were in operation in Budhekhani, Bhote Khola, Hanglaung, Khining, Sunamla, and Swachi Khani in Sankhuwasabha district.

Kyanites are known mainly from Dolakha, Sankhuwasabha, Taplejung, Rasuwa, Dhadhing and Jajarkot Achham districts. Four small-scale kyanite mines are in operation in Daha and Suneri in Jajarkot and Barah of Aachham districts. Elongated tabular inky blue kyanite crystals are cut for gems.

Rubies and Sapphire: Gem quality but generally small crystal of light red to red ruby and light to dark blue colored sapphire are known from in Chumar, Ruyil (Dhadhing) and Lari/ Ganesh Himal (Rasuwa). They occur in highly tectonized intensely folded en-echelon lenses of sacchoroidal dolomite within the high-grade metamorphic rocks close to MCT.

Quartz Crystals (Rock Crystal): Two small-scale quartz crystals mines are in operation from pegmatites in Khejemi/ Sirku (Taplejung) and Raluka (Nuwakot). Quartz crystals are also known from different parts of Jajarkot, Dailekh, Dhadhing, Rasuwa, Nuwakot, Sakhuwasabha, Ilam and Taplejung districts. Only colored verities e.g. mainly amethyst, citrine and smoky quartz are cut for gems.

4.2.3 Decorative and Dimension Stones

Marble: Pink, gray and white colored marble deposit (1.63 million ton) is located in Godavari, Lalitpur district. Based on this deposit Godavari marble industries (Pvt.) Ltd. is established. Its annual production capacity is about 80,000m2 polished marble slabs. It is producing about 50,000m2 to 70,000m2 polished marble slabs and some crazy marble, chips and aggregate as bi-products. Based on Anekot (Kavre) marble deposit Everest marble and allied industry is in operation. Recently Nawadurga Marble Industry Pvt. Ltd is developing marble quarry in Chhatre Deurali in Dhadhing.

Granites are known from, Makwanpur (Palung and Ipa), Sindhuli, Udaypur, Dadeldhura in the Lesser Himalaya. Course grained, massive granites are used as decorative and dimension stones. Granites are also known from the Higher Himalayan and Inner Himalayan (Tethys) region.

Quartzite is a hard metamorphic rock which consists of mainly quartz. It is abundantly known from many districts like Taplejung, Ilam, Panchthar, Solukhumbu, Dhankuta, Ramechhap, Sindhupalchok, Makwanpur, Dhadhing, Nuwakot, Tanahun, Kaski, Syangja, Parbat, Baglung, Beni, Dang, Sallyan, Rolpa, Rukum, Jajarkot, Achham, Doti, Bajhang, Bajura, Dadeldhura, Baitadi, Darchula and few other districts.

Slate is the common roofing and pavement material that is extensively mined from different parts of Dhankuta, Sindhupalchok, Ramechhap, Nuwakot, Sindhupalchok, Dhadhing, Baglung, Parbat, Jajarkot, Achham, Doti, Dadeldhura, Baitadi, Bajhang, Bajura and many other districts since historic time.

Nonmetallc Minerals

2011-09-23T09:12:00.000-07:00

A number of Nonmetallic minerals like magnesite, phosphorite, talc, limestone, dolomite, quartz, mica, clay, silica sand, gemstones, decorative and dimension stones, construction materials etc. are known from different parts of the country. Some of the important ones which are explored up to certain stages are briefly described.

Nonmetallic/ Industrial Minerals

Limestone: Over 1.298 billion metric tons of cement grade limestone deposits are already known from the Lesser Himalayan region only. Exploration of limestone by DMG, in the past was able to identify a number of large to small size limestone deposits. Based on some of the proved limestone deposits few cement industries are already in operation/ production, few others are under construction and quite a few others are in the pipelines. Present domestic cement production could fulfill about 40 - 50% of the total internal demand. 6 new cement industries named Sibom, Sonapur, Ghorahi, Rolpa, Bishal and Nigale cement industries Pvt. Ltd. are under construction and they will start cement production very soon. Therefore, establishment of more cement factories based on own limestone resources is rewarding. Some of the main limestone deposits are Sindhali & Galtar (Udaypur), Bhainse, Okhare and Nibuwatar (Makwanpur), Jogimara & Beldada (Dhadhing), Chovar, Bhattedanda (Llitpur), Balthali & Nandu (Kavre), Kakaru Khola (Sindhuli), Galtar (Udayapur), Kajeri (Salyan), Nigale (Dhankuta), Chaukune and Lakharpata (Surkhet), Gandari (Dang), Narapani and Supa Khola (Arghakhanchi), Diyarigad (Baitadi) and few other place in Lalitpur, Kavre, Khotag, Udayapur, Syangja, Palpa, Arghakhanchi, Dang, Pyuthan, Sallyan, Rolpa, Rukum, Bajhang, Baitadi and Darchula districts. Preliminary studies indicate that there is a possibility to find more than 2.5 billion tons of cement grade limestone deposits only in the Lesser Himalaya. 29 mining licenses and 196 prospecting licenses of limestone have been issued by DMG to private sectors

In many cases Dolomite and limestone occur together. From geological mapping it is known that over 5 billion tons (possible) of dolomite occur mainly in Dhankuta, Khotang, Udayapur, Sindhuli, Dolakha, Kavre, Kathmandu, Makwanpur, Dhadhing, Syangja, Palpa, Baglung, Gulmi, Arghakhanchi, Dang, Pyuthan, Sallyan, Rolpa, Rukum, Jajarkot, Surkhet, Dailekh, Jumla, Achham, Doti, Bajhang, Bajura, Baitadi and Darchula districts in the Lesser Himalayan and in some parts of Higher Himalayan region. Most of them are not yet explored in detail and still do not know their grade and quality to utilize as raw materials for industries.

Phosphorite is one of the main raw materials to manufacture chemical fertilizers like fused magnesium phosphate, triple super phosphate etc. Present annual demand of chemical fertilizer in Nepal is about 150,000mt/ year. Except one or two fertilizer blinding plant no fertilizer plant based in the local phosphatrite minerals exist in the country. Phosphorite (0.7 - 0 4.7m thick bed) is confined to massive cherty and stromatolitic dolomite of Pre-Cambrian to Lower Paleozoic age that occur in Dhik Gad, Junkuna, Morgaon, Sanagaon and Dhaubisaune areas in Baitadi, Far-western Nepal This phosphorite consists of 5–32 % P2O5. Similar (1 to 23m thick) stromatolitic phosphorite band is also traced at Tarugad, Juilgad, Goichan - Kandechaur area in Bajhang and further east to Bajura. Detrital phosphorite fragments (<1mm - 1.5cm) are recorded from Eocene argillaceous limestone lenses and beds in Sewar Khola (Dang) and Mari Khola (Pyuthan). P2O5 content in them is <5% to 10% (Kaphle & Pradhanang 1985). However, the phosphorite fragment itself revealed up to 25% P2O5. Exploration of phosphorite in the vicinity of MBT was able to trace few phosphatic rocks consisting of <5% P2O5. Only few phosphatic nodules/ lenses consist of up to 22% P2O5 in Takure, Barahakshetra, Tawa Khola (Kazitsyn, 1970); Gawar Khola, Sewar Khola in Midwestern Nepal and in Khulia Khola (Kaphle 1997) in Far-Western Nepal.

Magnesite: 180 million tons (66 million tons of high grade, MgO content 88 to 96% loss free basis) of magnesite deposit in Kharidhunga, Dolakha; 20 million tons of mediums to low-grade magnesite deposit in Kampughat in Udayapur district; and few small size magnesite occurrences from Palpa, Baitadi and Dolakha have been identified. Kharidhunga magnesite an open cast mine (Fig.2) has been developed to exploit magnesite as a raw material for Dead Burnt Magnesite (DBM) plant located in Lamosanghu. Some technical problems appeared during test production of DBM.

Talc: Occurrences of talc bands, lenses, veins and pockets are known in magnesite, dolomite and chloritic talc schist in different parts of Lalitpur, Dolakha, Sindhupalchok, Dhadhing, Chitwan, Tanahun, Kaski, Syangja, Surkhet, Bajhang, Bajura, Baitadi and Darchula districts. DMG has issued 25 prospecting and 6 mining license to the private sector. Khari Dhunga talc mine is in operation since more than 2 decade.

Mica: Several but comparatively small occurrences of mica (muscovite and biotite) books are known from different parts of Nepal. But mineable coarse size mica books are recorded only in complex pegmatite Langtang (Rasuwa), Bhumidanda and Kharanetar (Nuwakot), Chaukibhanjyang (Kathmandu), Nibuwagaon (Sindhupalchok), Lekhpatan, Fulbari and Tikachaur (Jajarkot), Khaptad (Bajhang), Baskot and Bhasukan (Doti), Fikal (Ilam), Chilingdin (Panchthar), Rangmale, Akabu/ Sainsabu, Dobal Pokhari, and Khanigaon (Taplejung), Phakuwa and Hyakule (Sankhuwasabha) etc..

Ceramic clay/ Red clay: Irregularly distributed scattered pockets of kaolin are known from Daman (Makwanpur), Panchmane (Kathmandu), Dalchhap and few other places.

Red clay from Panchkhal (Kavre), Lamosure (Hetaunda), Trijuga/ Beltar (Udayapur), Chidika (Arghakhanchi), Guttu (Surkhet) are used in cement factory. Clay from Thimi/ Bhaktpur is used in small-scale pottery industries. Huge amount of siltyclay deposits in different parts of Kathmandu valley is used to manufacture bricks. In villages it is also used in house wall painting. DMG has issued four prospecting and seven mining licenses.

Pyrite is mainly used to extract sulphur and manufacture sulphur compounds e.g. sulphuric acid, ferus sulphate etc. It is rarely used as iron ore where no other iron ore is available. Pyrite is abundantly found in Bering Khola (Ilam), Chhirling Khola (Bhojpur), Pandav Khani (Baglung), Meddi and Bamangaon (Dadeldhura), and many other places mainly in almost all polymetal sulphide deposits.

Silica Sand: About 11.9 million tons of sand suitable for glass industry has been proved in Karra Khola near Hetaunda in Makwanpur district. There is a possibility to find similar sand deposits in similar deposition environment (e.g. in Dudhaura Khola) in other parts of Nepal.

Barites are known from Khanidanada (Pyuthan), Barghare (Makwanpur), Dhokadhunge (Rolpa), Phakuwa (Sankhuwasabha), Urathi, (Baitadi). True picture of barite resource is still unknown.

Graphite is one of the significant mineral in metamorphic terrain in Lesser Himalayan regions. They are reported from Ilam, Dhankuta, Sankhuwasabha, Nuwakot, Sindhupalchok, Dadeldhura etc.

Calcite deposit as such in large size is not identified, however, minor calcite veins and lenses are recorded mainly in carbonate rocks. Calcites are known at few places as stalactite and stalagmite and dog tooh spar in some of the limestone cavities/ caverns. Small scale calcite mine is under development in Nibuwagaon. (Makwanpur).

Diatomite is reported from Chobhar, Thimi Bode and few other places in Kathmandu valley. Small scale mining of diatomite is in operation in Thimi and Bode of Bhaktapur district.

Salt: Brine water that occurs in Narsing Khola (Mustang), Chhiding Khola and Chharkabhot (Dolpa) are tapped and dried for common salt production. Brine water of these area contains 1.5 to 3% NaCl, where as incrustation contains of 72.8% NaCl and 24.5% KCl.

Metallic Minerals

2011-09-23T09:10:00.001-07:00

Metallic minerals are very much used in various purposes in day to day life. They are mostly extracted from their respective ores. Gold, platinum, silver and copper also occur as native state. A numbers of metallic ore minerals are known from different parts of Nepal only the important ones are briefly described.

Iron (Fe) is the principal metal which is used extensively in infrastructure development works, to manufacture heavy machinery equipment, arms, agricultural tools etc. Iron ores like magnetite, hematite, limonite/goethite occurrences/ prospects/ deposits are known from more than 85 localities. Some of these ores were extensively mined and smelted in different parts of Nepal since more than 150 years till 1951 (2007BS) but not a single iron mine is in operation at present. The well known iron ore deposits are Phulchoki (Lalitpur), Thoshe (Ramechhap), Labdi Khola (Tanahun), Jirbang (Chitwan), Dhuwakot (Parbat), Purchaundi/ Lamunigad (Bitadi), Dahabagar, Kachali, and Ekghar/ Khanigaon (Bajhang). Iron prospects and old workings are also known from different parts of Baitadi, Bajhang, Jajarkot, Rolpa, Surkhet, Myagdi, Baglung, Parbat, Chitwan, Ramechhap, Okhaldhunga, Taplejung etc. Phulchoki iron deposit still remained untransformed into commercialization due to its location in the environmentally sensitive area and shortage of power like electricity and unavailability of good quality coal in Nepal and few other reasons. Thoshe iron deposit was mined in small scale during Rana's time for almost 100 years. But it was totally closed after 2007BS. DMG (Kaphle & Khan 1995, 1996, 2006) did the assessment of this prospect and calculated geological reserve of about 10.5 million ton iron ore.

Copper (Cu) is another important metal which is mainly used in electrical industries to produce electrical and electronic equipments, copper wires, crafts, making alloys, utensils, and other household purposes. It was mined traditionally in Nepal since historic time but at present there is no running copper mine. The common copper ore found in Nepal are chalcopyrite, and few malachite, azurite, covellite, cuprite, bornite, and chalcocite. Copper ore occurrences/ prospects/ deposits are known from more than 107 localities in the country. Small scale copper mines were in operation in Gyazi (Gorkha), Okharbot (Myagdi) and Wapsa (Solukhumbu) till to the last decade and they were able 20 to 50mt finished copper per year. Other copper prospects/ deposits like Kalitar (Makwanpur), Dhusa (Dhadhing), Wapsa (Solukhumbu), Bamangaon (Dadeldhura), Khandeshori/ Marma (Darchula), Kurule (Udayapur), Bhut Khola (Tanahun), Pandav Khani (Baglung), Baise Khani (Myagdi), Chhirling Khola (Bhojpur) Janter Khani (Okhaldhunga) are the major ones. Old workings are also known from different parts of Darchula, Bajhang, Bajura, Parbat, Baglung, Myagdi, Gulmi, Tanahun, Gorkha, Makwanpur, Kavre, Ramechhap, Okhaldunga, Dhankuta, Solukhumbu, Ilam and Taplejung districts. Among them Siddhi Khani (Ilam), Mul Khani (Gulmi) Ningre (Myagdi) are the important ones. 42 exploration licenses for copper exploration have been issued by DMG (source DMG, FY2066/67).

Zinc (Zn) and Lead (Pb) occurrences/ prospects/ deposits are reported from more than 54 localities in different parts of Nepal. In most cases their ore minerals e.g. Sphalerite and Galena are associated like in Ganesh Himal area (Rasuwa), Phakuwa (Sankhuwasabha), Labang- Khairang (Makwanpur), Pangum (Solukhumbu), Salimar valley (Mugu/ Humla), Daha Gulzar (Darchula), Phulchoki (Lalitpur), Sisha Khani and Kandebas (Baglung), Dhuwakot (Parbat), Barghare (Makwanpur), Khola Khani (Taplejung) etc. Most of them are known as old workings. Among them only Ganesh Himal Zinc - Lead deposit (Lari and Suple) has been proved as an economic deposit and mine development work has been completed by Nepal Metal Company since long time before but there is no production as yet.

Cobalt (Co) prospects are not as common as iron, copper, lead and zinc in Nepal. Cobaltite, erythrite and absolite are the common ore of Cobalt. Few old workings for cobalt are known from Netadarling & Tamghas (Gulmi) and Samarbhamar (Arghakhanchi). They are also recorded from Lamadanda (Dhadhing), Nangre (Kavre), Bhorle (Ramechhap), Bauli Gad (Bajhang) etc. There is no cobalt mine at present.

Nickel (Ni) occurrences are reported from few polymetallic deposits like in Bamangaon (Dadeldhura), Bering Khola (Ilam), Bauligad (Bajhang), Khopre Khani (Sindhuli) and oldworkings from Nangre, Nigre and Bhorle (Kavre) area. The main ore of this metal is niccolite and pentlandite which are mainly associated with chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite and pyrite.

Gold (Au) is a precious metal which has a very good worldwide market. It is widely used in making coins, ornaments, jewelry, dental appliances, electroplating, metal coating and many other purposes. In Nepal alluvial/ placer gold are frequently wined by local dwellers (Botes) from the river gravel/ sediments deposited by the rivers like Mahakali, Chamliya, Jamari Gad, Seti, Karnali, Bheri, Rapti, Lungri Khola & Phagum Khola (Rolpa), Kaligandaki, Myagdi Khola, Modi, Madi, Marshyangdi, Trishuli, Budhigandaki, and Sunkoshi along their high and low flood plains as well as in their terraces. Primary gold occurrences are known from Lungri Khola area (Rolpa); Bangabagar, Gorang & Jamari gad (Baitadi); Bamangaon (Dadeldhura) but they are yet to be evaluated by detail exploration.

Silver (Ag) is generally associated with zinc-lead ore and in gold. In Nepal minor amount of silver is reported in the zinc + lead ore of Ganesh Himal (Rasuwa), Barghare (Makwanpur), and polymetal sulphide of Bering Khola (Ilam), cobalt ore in Netadarling (Arghakhanchi) and Samarbhamar (Gulmi).

Tin (Sn) mineralizations are normally reported in the vicinity of granitic rocks. Cassiterite is the main ore which is recorded mainly at Meddi and Ganera (Dadeldhura); and Mandu Khola area (Makwanpur). In-situ cassiterite mineralization and cassiterite rich floats are seen in Meddi Khola. But it does not appear as economic deposit.

Tungsten (W) is a very important element which is used in electric bulbs, making hard high speed cutting steels and tungsten cable, drilling bits, armory etc. The common ores of tungsten are Scheelite and Wolframite. In Nepal tungesten ores like scheelite occurrences are known from Bamangaon polymetal sulphide deposit and few other places in Dadeldhura and Makwanpur districts.

Minor occurrences of Molybdenum (Mo) are reported from Khari Khola (Solukhumbu), Bamangaon (Dadeldhura), Bauli Gad (Bajhang), Lungri Khola (Rolpa), Samarbhamar (Arghakhanchi) and Chau Khola (Makwanpur). Molybdenite is the chief ore mineral.

Ilmenite and Rutile contains Titanium (Ti). Minor amount of Chromium (Cr) and titanium (Ti) are detected from the Iron ore of Thoshe (Ramechhap) and Bauligad (Bajhang). Rutile grains are commonly recorded in the heavy concentrate samples from the major rivers of Nepal.

Uranium (U) and Thorium (Th) are the two known radioactive elements in Nepal. Radioactive minerals like autonite are recorded from Thumki, Jagat, Panchmane, Gagalphedi and Chunikhel in Shivapuri area in Kathmandu. Few other ores of uranium like uranitite, tyuamunite, carnotite and cofinite are known from Tinbhangale, Chandi Khola and Chiruwa Khola (Makwanpur); Buka Khola (Sindhuli); Mardar Khola and Panpa Khola (Chitwan); Jamari Gad, Bangabagar, Baggoth, Gorang (Baitadi); and traces in different section of Chamliya River (Darchula). Among them Gorang and Tinbhangale prospects appear interesting.

Bismuth (Bi) is reported from Bamangaon polymetal sulphide deposit in Dadeldhura; and Baraghare and Mandu Khola area in Makwanpur district. It is mainly used to make alloys with antimony, lead, tin and cadmium, in medicine and cosmetic items.

Cinnabar is the chief ore of Mercury (Hg). It is reported from Tirche Pani/ Taruka. Talalov (1972) reported cinnabar from the heavy concentrate sample from Khimti River and Zinc-lead ore from Pangu.

Lithium (Li) occurrences are known from the pegmatites of Hyakule and Phakuwa (Sankhuwasabha district). Petalite and Spodumene are the main ores of lithium. Lepidolite (mica) appears to be the source of lithium in Pegmatite.

Berilium (Be) can be extracted from beryl and aquamarine which are known from the pegmatites of Khaptad, and different parts of Manang, Kathmandu, Nuwakot, Rasuwa, Phakuwa, Hyakule, Ilam and Taplejung districts.

Arsenopyrite and realgar is the main sources of Arsenic (As) which occur mainly in polymetal sulphide deposits e.g. in Bamangaon and Bering Khola. Occasionally arsenopyrite is also the pathfinder for gold mineralization.

In addition to above mentioned metals/ Metallic ore minerals, minor occurrences of Antimony (Sb) Tantalum (Ta), Niobium (Nb), Lanthenum (La), Celenium (Ce), Cadmium (Cd), Titanium (Ti), Venedium (V), and Mercury (Hg) are also reported from different parts mostly as associated minerals. Tentalum and Niobium are traced form in the pegmatites and Granites of the Lesser Himalaya. Chemical analysis of some of the muscovites from pegmatites of Phakuwa (Sankhuwasabha) has indicated up to 140ppm Ta.

All these information indicate that Nepal is potential for metallic minerals. But the exploration activities in the past have revealed that most of them are sub-economic to none economic deposits. Now the price of many metals has gone up significantly. Therefore, further detail investigations in the known areas, evaluation of specific deposits and exploration in the new geologically prospective areas may lead to find the potential economic deposits of metallic minerals.

MINING HISTORY

2011-09-23T09:09:00.003-07:00

A number of small scale historical iron, copper, lead, zinc, cobalt, nickel mines and many slate, quartzite, dolomite and limestone quarries were in operation in many districts. Old working pits, audits, smelting places, scattered slag and remnant of mine materials are the solid proofs of such mining activities in the past. In many cases the name of the village is derived after the particular mines e.g. Taba Khani, Phalam Khani, Shisa Khani, Sun Khani etc. But at present almost none of these old workings/ mines are in operation due to various reasons. Therefore reassessment and evaluation of such deposits/ mines by DMG or any private sector are extremely warranted for further exploration and mining. One of the examples is Thoshe iron old working which was reassessed by DMG and later explored in detail by a private company and now it is in the process of mine development to exploit iron ore in near future.

3. MINERAL RESOURCES IN DIFFERENT GEOLOGICAL ZONES

Geology of Nepal is very complex because of continues geodynamic process in the Himalayan region and that resulted many thrusting, faulting, folding and metamorphic effects. Nepal Himalaya can be divided into five distinct morpho-geotectonic zones from south to north. From mineral resources point of view, the southernmost Terai Plain is potential for gravel, sand, ground water, petroleum and natural gas. The Sub Himalaya (Churia/ Siwalik foot hills) is the potential area for construction materials, radioactive minerals, petroleum, natural gas and minor amount of coal. Similarly, Lesser Himalaya (The Mahabharat Range including midlands) is promising for metallic minerals mainly Iron, copper, lead, zinc, cobalt, nickel, tin, tungsten, molybdenum, gold, uranium rare metals etc.; industrial minerals like magnesite, phosphorite, limestone, dolomite, talc, clay, kaoline etc.; gemstones like tourmaline, aquamarine/ beryl, garnet, kyanite, etc; fuel minerals e.g. coal, lignite, methane gas, petroleum and natural gas, hot springs and radioactive minerals; and voluminous construction materials crushed gravel as well as river boulders, gravel; sand some of the areas in Higher Himalaya are highly promising for precious and semiprecious stones, marble and metallic minerals like lead, zinc, uranium, gold etc. Tibetan Tethys zone is prospective for limestone, gypsum, brine water (salt) and natural gas. However, because of rugged topography, difficult mountain terrain, complex geology, lack of infrastructures and financial constrain exploration and exploitation of these mineral resources in Nepal is still challenging.

4. MINERAL DEPOSITS, MINES AND THEIR PRESENT STATUS

Geological investigations and mineral exploration activities carried out mainly by DMG, UNDP/DMG/MEDP projects, GSI and very few private entrepreneurs were able to identify more than sixty six mineral commodities (metallic, nonmetallic/ industrial, gemstone, fuel mineral deposits/ prospects and construction materials/ minerals) in Nepal. DMG has provided 452 prospecting licenses for the exploration of 21 mineral commodities and 80 mining licenses for mining 12 mineral commodities in different parts of the country.

Similarly geological, aeromagnetic and seismic survey conducted by DMG/ Petroleum Exploration Promotion Project (PEPP) and foreign Oil Companies like Shell Netherlands were able to trace some promising sites for petroleum and natural gas in southern part of the country mainly in the Terai and Siwalik Foothills. Gas and oil seepages in Padukasthan, Sirsasthan etc. in Dailekh and gas seeps in Muktinath in Mustang are the indications of the existence of oil and natural gas in Nepal. Existance of oil in Potwar in Pakistan in the west and Aasam in India in the east is another indicator that there is also high possibility of similar oil pools in the similar geological environment/ lithological horizons in Nepal. On this basis ten prospective blocks for exploration of petroleum and natural gas are identified. Two of them have been leased by Texana Resources Co. (USA), and five blocks by CAIRN Energy PLC. (UK). Both the companies did some preliminary field works and lab tests/ works but still they are reluctant to conduct extensive exploration field works.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

2011-09-23T09:09:00.001-07:00

Nepal lies in the central part of 2500km long Himalayan belt. Almost 83% of Nepalese territory is mountainous. It is an underdeveloped country with vast natural resources like Water, Minerals, Forest, varieties of Agricultural products and Medical herbs. For the economical development of the country exploitation and proper use of such valuable resources especially mineral resources is very important. The mountainous region and the geological environment there in is suitable for metallic, nonmetallic/ industrial and fuel mineral deposits as well as huge amount of construction materials and dimension/ decorative stones. Continues efforts are extremely necessary to find out more mineral deposits, timely exploitation of these known resources and make multiple uses of these mineral commodities for the benefit of the people.

Minerals are the nonrenewable natural resources. Sustainable development of such resources helps to strengthen the economy of the country. Mineral exploration activities were in peak during 1974 - 1980 when DMG and UN funded Mineral Exploration Development Project was in action. All these investigation/ exploration activities in the past were able to delineate quite a few prospective areas and also able to identify some economic and sub-economic mineral deposits in different parts of the country. Government of Nepal should give high priority to explore, evaluate and sustainable development of industrial minerals, high price metals, base metals, fuel minerals, precious and semi precious stones. It should also invite potential investors/ companies (national and International) to invest in mineral and mining sector and establish mineral based industries by giving some incentive in the beginning. Now many private investors are showing their interest and taken 451 exploration licenses for 21 minerals and 80 mining license for 12 mineral commodities (except river gravel and sand mines) from DMG. Few cement, marble and DBM/ talc, industries have been established but none of them are in regular production due to some disturbances. Only some limestone for cement, and very few coal, semi-precious stones, lead and zinc, talc, clay mines are in operation. Exploration of oil and natural gas by foreign companies, first by Shell Netherlands (now left) and later by Texana Resources Co. (USA) and CAIRN Energy PLC (UK) have taken some areas on lease but the work progress is not satisfactory. Mineral resources play vital role in industrial development and over all increase in the national GDP. Present contribution to national GDP from minerals and mine is about 0.5% and on the whole from Minerals mines and mineral based industries sector is just around 2.4 % which is not encouraging but could go above 10% or more if we can utilize existing mineral resources. Once mining activities start natural environment will be slightly damaged but it should be minimize by immediate rehabilitation of the mined area.

Nature resource - Nepal - The biggest natural museum in the world:

2011-09-23T09:07:00.001-07:00

Nature resource - Nepal - The biggest natural museum in the world:

Nepal covers a span of 147,181 sq. kilometers ranging from altitude of 70 meters to 8,848 meters. Mountains, mid hills, valleys and plains dominate the geography of landlocked Nepal that extends from the Himalayan range in the north to the Indo-Gangetic lowlands in south. Mt. Everest, the highest point of the Himalayas is in Nepal.

Physical features also include green paddy terraces, wind-swept deserts, dense forests and marshy grasslands. The country is well endowed with perennial rivers, lakes and glacial lakes that originate in the Himalayas. Twenty percent of the land in the country is used for agriculture, where 0.49 percent is used for permanent crops, mainly rice.

Climatic conditions of Nepal vary from one place to another in accordance with the geographical features. In the north summers are cool and winters severe, while in south summers are sub tropical and winters mild.

The variety in Nepal's topography provides home to wildlife like tigers, rhinos, monkeys, bears, yaks, leopards and different species of insects and birds. Nepal is a home to almost 10 percent of the world's bird species among which 500 species are found in the Kathmandu Valley.

The country has managed to preserve some endangered species of Asia in its extensive parks and protected natural habitats. The most abundant natural resource in Nepal is water. Other resources found here are quartz, timber, lignite, copper, cobalt, iron ore and scenic beauty.

A List of Major Mountains of the Himalayas

2011-09-23T09:04:00.001-07:00

a view of Himalayas from the space

Meaning of Himalayas

Himalayas is a group of mountainous regions located in South Asia - Pakistan, India, Bhutan, Tibet, and Nepal. It dominates the list of highest mountains in the world! Himalayas includes the highest mountain Mt. Everest of Nepal (8850m / 29035ft). Himalaya of Nepal means, the Himalayan mountains located in this country. In sanskirt Himalayas means "abode of snow". Himalayas not only includes the snow-capped heavenly mountains but also the surrounding green and scenic valleys which lie in its path and on it's base, which people often forget. You will often hear the word Himal, which is a Nepali word, a short term popularly used for the snow-capped mountains or just for the word Himalaya. Himals are national assets of Nepal.

The Must Knows...

Nepal has more than 200 mountains over 6000 meter height
Himalayas of Nepal is known as the rooftop of the world. Because half of the highest mountains of the Himalayas are located in Nepal. Also the world's highest mountain (Mt. Everest) is also located in Nepal
Nepal is known as a Himalayan Country
Journey to Himalayas begins from Nepal, as Nepal is the central location of the Himalayas
Himalayas are regarded as the most beautiful part of the earth which is often accurately named as the Clouds of The Earth or as The Location Where The Earth Meets The Sky, which is more evident as we see the earth and Himalayas from the space above.
Himalayas is the King of Mountains. It has more tallest mountains than any other regions of the planet
Over a 1000 mountain expeditions takes places every year in Nepal, each expeditions carrying an average of 30 people, more than 80% of those expeditions are towards the Himalayas

Are you in it ?

A List of Major Mountains of the Himalayas

By default, table is sorted by mountains located in Nepal. Click on the column heading to sort the data.
Click on the thumbnail to view larger photo which will open in a new window.

Priority & endangered species

2011-09-23T09:03:00.000-07:00

Why cactus and cod?

The plight of polar bears, pandas, and other large iconic mammals is generally well known, at least in industrialized countries.

But most people don't stop to consider whether the fish they eat, the house plants they buy, or the herbal tea they drink comes from a threatened species, or whether taking it from the wild harmed its habitat or another species.

Most people also don't realize that hundreds of millions of plants and animals are harvested from the wild each year, from thousands of species.

We want to make sure that cacti, cod, and all other species involved in wildlife trade are harvested sustainably and in a way that doesn't hurt other species or their wider ecosystem.

WWF is focusing efforts on a select group of priority species that are especially important, either for their ecosystem...

Species forming a key element of the food chain
Species which help the stability or regeneration of habitats
Species demonstrating broader conservation needs

...or for people

Species important for the health and livelihoods of local communities
Species exploited commercially
Species that are important cultural icons.

These species fall into two groups:

Flagship species – iconic animals that provide a focus for raising awareness and stimulating action and funding for broader conservation efforts
Footprint-impacted species – species whose populations are primarily threatened because of unsustainable hunting, logging or fishing.

Strategially focusing efforts on these species will also help conserve the many other species which share their habitats and/or are vulnerable to the same threats.

       
RhinosThere are five species of rhinceros. The black rhino and white rhino in  Africa and the greater one-horned rhino, Javan rhino, and Sumatran rhino  in Asia. WWF works in Africa and Asia to protect rhinos and their  habitat. 

nepal and its plants

2011-09-23T09:01:00.000-07:00

Nepal is a narrow, rectangular country at the heart of the Himalaya. Bounded by the cold, arid Tibetan Plateau to the north, and the hot, humid Indian plains to the south, Nepal is famous for its culture and spectacular mountain scenery. Eight of the world's ten highest peaks are found within its borders, including the highest point on earth, Sagarmatha, 8,848 m (Mount Everest, 29,028 ft). Nepal is also home to an amazing diversity of plants: from stunted alpines battling with the harsh environments of the frozen mountains, to mighty trees of the steamy lowland jungles down at around 60 m, and all within 150 km (see Fact File for country statistics).

Botanically Nepal forms a transition zone between the plants of the western Himalaya (including western Asiatic and Mediterranean elements) and the eastern Himalaya (with many Sino-Japanese elements). Adding variety to the mix are Tibetan Plateau (Central Asiatic) plants from the north and humid tropical species of the lowland plains (Terai) from the Gangetic plains of India and further a field into Indochina. Central to this is the Himalayan range itself, a unique series of mountain chains formed by geologically recent mountain building events. These young massifs contribute to the diversity of plants, and have provided barriers to and corridors through which plants migrated during the ice ages.

Nepal has a monsoon climate, with the wet season starting in June when heavy rains of the south-west monsoon arrive. The High Himalaya range blocks the northwards passage of the moist airs, increasing rainfall in Nepal and keeping the areas beyond in deep rain shadow. These same mountains also act as a barrier to the cold fronts sweeping across from central Asia, protecting Nepal and northern India and giving them warmer winters. The high mountains, deep river valleys and lowland plains combine with the effects of the summer monsoon and dry winter to form bewildering array of habitats in what is a relatively small country: Nepal is smaller than the UK, and barely larger than the 'boot' of Italy. Existing checklists for Nepal record some 6000 species of flowering plants (about 4 times as many the UK) and about 530 ferns. However, botanical exploration has really only extended beyond the capital Kathmandu since the 1950's, and botanical experts estimate that over 6600 species will be listed for Nepal when the poorly known remote regions are fully explored.

flora of nepal [top]
It is estimated that 246 flowering plant species are endemic to (only found in) Nepal (Shrestha & Joshi, 1996). Nepal's importance to world conservation is further highlighted by the international recognition of the Himalayan Region as one of the World's top 20 hottest global biodiversity hotspots: a region for which Nepal is a major component. Like most of the Himalaya (Bhutan is the exception), much of Nepal has been greatly modified by man over the last four to five thousand years, and little of the original forest remain. Conservation is a high priority for HM Government of Nepal, both locally and internationally, and Nepal is signatory to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). The formulation and implementation of successful conservation measures depends upon accurate and well-communicated information on plant diversity. Floras (a comprehensive account of all the plants found within a country) provide the fundamental knowledge needed for this, but, unlike surrounding countries, Nepal does not have a Flora. The Flora of Nepal project is addressing this urgent need with Nepalese botanists working with an international team of scientists on the production of a Flora of Nepal.

plants and people in nepal [top]
Since ancient times, the people of Nepal have depended upon plants and plant products as a mainstay of everyday life. Today, almost 90% of Nepalese rely on subsistence agriculture, with plants performing a vital role as arable crops, fodder, fruit and vegetables, fuel, building materials and medicines. Nepal is a multiethnic and multilingual country, with more than 60 different ethnic groups speaking about 75 languages. As one would expect, associated with this is a great diversity in plant lore. However, with increasing urbanisation and uptake of modern medicines and agricultural practices, much of this indigenous knowledge is now dwindling and largely only retained by village elders. There is real danger that this will be lost to future generations, and ethnobotanists are busy documenting the wealth of indigenous knowledge for posterity. So far over 1500 plants (1434 flowering plants, 65 ferns and their allies, and 8 conifers and their allies) have been recorded as having at least one use, including more than 650 used as food plants and over 1000 species of wild plants used for medicine.

plants of nepal website [top]
This Plants of Nepal website aims to provide accurate and reliable information about the great diversity of plants found in the Kingdom of Nepal. The intended audience is expected to be equally diverse, from school children to those at universities, the general public and professional researchers alike. The style and presentation reflects this, and although many people in Nepal can access the Internet, bandwidth is often very limited, so graphics are used sparingly. Associated websites include:

Flora of Nepal
Darwin Initiative projects in Nepal
East Himalaya gazetteer of plant collecting localities
Botanical exploration in Nepal

For further information explore the linked pages and see the bibliography of literature and online resources.

These pages are written using frames and basic javascript. This may cause alerts in some browsers and in these cases the scripting should be allowed. Scalable fonts are used, if these are too small to read then they can be enlarged using your browser settings (e.g. the View: Text Size menu in Internet Explorer).

Nepal - a rich country of water.

2011-09-23T08:58:00.000-07:00

Rivers of Nepal
The Fastest Running Rivers in the world!
Raft here or Invest in a Hydro power Project!

Nepal - a rich country of water.

Introduction

Nepal's most possessed natural resource is water. A land-locked country it may be, but the country is blessed by snow-capped mountains which feed Nepal land. Rivers are not only for rafters but also for businessmen. More than 80% of Nepal's electricity is generated by rivers. Snow-capped Himalayas are the main sources of Nepali rivers. Nepal has altitude ranging from 60 meter to all the way upto 8848 meters (Mt everest), the highest altitude of the earth. Some of the fastest running rivers in the world are located here.
There are three major rivers in Nepal namely Kosi River, Gandaki River and Karnali River which lie across east to west running from north to south. Surroundings of most rivers are in their natural settings. Nepali rivers are paradise to River Rafters who just can't have enough of angry and mad rivers. Need we mention Himalayan Water? It's all here in this beautiful country. No matter how many rivers you have rafted here, there is always a river waiting to be explored.

Map of Rivers

Quick Facts on Rivers and Relevant

Nepal is a mine of water. In Nepali "Nepal Pani Ko Khani Ho", this statement is taken literally. (Translation : Pani - water, Khani - Mine), This is a very popular phrase used and honored by Nepalese everyday. Nepal is a rich country of water.
Nepal's Total Area is 147,181 sq km of which land is 143,181 sq km and water is 4,000 sq km - source CIA the World Fact Book. So 3% of Nepal is water which includes rivers, lakes, and ponds
Arun River of Nepal shares the name of Arun River of United Kingdom, isn't that interesting ?
Karnali is Nepal's largest and longest River.
Nepal is a mountainous country, most of its rivers have mountains as the source.
Nepal is prone to natural disasters like floods and land and slides. Major Rivers continue to shift their path and go deeper.
World's 39th longest River Ganges starts from the Himalayas of Nepal. The river is 2510 K.M
Nepal's about 70% of the population is in Rural Areas. Less than 20% of Rural people have access to Electricity.
80% of Nepalese depend on Agriculture. Rivers are a good source to Agriculture business.
More than 220 billions cubic meters of water run through Nepal every year.
8 of the 10 snow-capped and highest mountains in the world are located in Nepal. Nepal Himalaya is the source of most rivers of Nepal
The largest river in the world is Nile River which is 6516 Kms
All major rivers start from Tibet, transverse through Nepal, then join Ganga River of India before finally meeting the heavenly sea.
Of all the rivers in the world having more than 600 miles (965.60 km) in length, 90% are located in the United Sates of America
Water is the #1 natural resources of Nepal. The others are quartz, timber, hydro power, lignite, copper and cobalt.

List of Major Rivers (this table is being populated, so please check-back later for more data here...)

Name of River	River Length (Runoff)	River Originating Location / Altitude	Remarks
Arun River Nepal	L	A	tribe indigenous to northeastern Nepal, living west of the Arun River in the area drained by the Sun Kosi River.
Bagmati River	L	A	Remarks
Dudh Kosi River	L	A	Remarks
Kali Gangaki River	Length (Miles / Kilometers)	Highest Point (Feet / Meters)	Remarks / Notes
Kankai Mai River	L	A	Remarks
Karnali River	Length (Miles / Kilometers)	Highest Point (Feet / Meters)	The biggest and the largest river of Nepal which provides tons of rapids for river-rafters and awesome side-trip for eco-tourists
Kulekhani River	L	A	Remarks
Lothar Khola River	L	A	Remarks
Narayani	L	A	Remarks
Koshi River	L	A	Remarks
Mahakali River	L	A	Remarks
Mahananda River	L	A	Remarks
Sapt Koshi	L	A	Remarks
Mahananda River	L	A	Remarks
Mahananda River	L	A	Remarks
Sharada Khola	L	A	Remarks
Seti River	130 Miles (210 Km)	15419 ft (4700 M)	The only river that remains to follow without causing any harm to land. Everything in its path to the right or left is as it is as given by the Nature!
Tamur River	L	A	Remarks
Trisuli River	L	A	Remarks

footnote: L,A and remarks are being updated, please stay with us...

Rivers and Fun

Rafting is a popular sport of Nepal. You probably already know about the number one sport of Nepal, don't you ? Here is the answer if you need! Nepal's rivers are mad, fast and furious, they provide tons of river fun. But don't be scared, some rivers are here for the easy riders too. Unspoilt Magnificent Natural surroundings add to the beauty of these rivers which will multiply your fun. Rafting is more about getting closer to the heavenly Shangrila of Nepal than losing paddles in the water! Do rafting here, you will be glad you did it. Just make sure you get hold of the right guys. Visit our Web Directory - List of Exclusive River Rafting Operators >> and Learn all about Rafting Sport of Nepal here >> It is worth carrying a water-proof camera, safety jackets, first-aid kits, tents and camps but you can leave all to our professional companies too. This sport did not become popular over-night, its popularity does say a lot about how well Nepal is prepared to take you to the rivers.

Rivers and Hydro-power Business in Nepal

"Hydro power could help alleviate poverty" -- United Nations

Many of Nepal's rivers such as the Karnali, Seti, and Gandaki are fueled by the Himalayas. These rivers rush through 8848m altitude from sea level to 60m. Extreme elevation of the land helps these rivers fly! And they carry water to generate more than 90,000 mW of electricity. Currently Nepal produces less than 2% of it's capacity. So why hasn't anything been done to get closer to 98% of this open business ?
Many small sized hydro power plants are being currently setup. Lack of infrastructure such as roads, government policy, war and conflict in the region has slowed down many projects.

In Nepal, there are more plans than actions. There are plans to elevate poverty, such plans go through numbers like these.. Plan 1 to Plan 20. There are also plans to setup hydro-power projects to make nepal sufficient of electricity and also earn foreign revenue by selling it. Hydro power Plans have similar numbers like Plan 1 and Plan 2 and so on. They are as boring as the talks of political leaders. Everybody loves pointing their fingers at the other Government, and Every Government operates for about an year before it is replaced by another. When the new Government comes to office, they argue why plan-numbers were not long, so they add Plan 21 through Plan 9999 before saying good bye! In last 10 years alone, Nepal had more than 10 different governments, about one new government per year.

In case you were interested, there are hydro-power plans for upto year 2030, by which they believe Nepal will produce enough electricity for the entire country as well as start making some money by selling it!

2011-09-23T08:56:00.000-07:00

Paragliding in Nepal:

A Paraglider is a foot-launched, ram-air, aerofoil canopy which flies with the energy of wind, gravity and pilot's power to steer. It descends due to gravity and ascends due to air pressure. With the help of air pressure, pilot decides when and where to fly, soar, dive and eventually land it safely. Adventure seekers seek depths and space where ever they can find. In Nepal, you have breathtaking depth of 700 meter or higher for the unparalleled Shangri-La that lies beneath the Himalayan range offering a scenic ecstasy of the valleys and lush green jungles combined with an infinitive visibility of the crisp clear Himalayas all around you, all ready to add another dimension in your flight adrenal.

Best Time ?

November, December and January are the best three months for Paragliding in Nepal. Superb weather and excellent mountain visibility can be expected during those months. Best location for para gliding is the Annapurna region, also known as the arms of Pokhara valley. Locations around the Phewa Lake are also popular, one such is the Sarangkot hill which provides breath-taking views above the Pokhara city.

With nothing to carry, and with a Nepali paragliding instructor, you can take the following popular courses or if you decide to do it on your own, just add the ownership/rent cost of paraglide, transportation cost and any tourism fees as charged by Nepal Tourism Ministry.

How much will it cost ?

(a) Fewa Lake View: View the lake and mountains from Fewa Lake in Pokhara. Cost is from US$ 50 to US$ 75 per person.

(b) Pokhara and beyond : Fly to the north of Pokhara and go from a valley to another and to another, and finally return back to Pokhara for US$ 100 to US$ 150 rate.

Bungee Jumps

Heard of the highest mountain on earth? Now hear of the longest free-fall on earth! It's here in Nepal!! Drop into one of the world's wildest and beautiful rivers for a 500ft (150m) depth of free fall. Bungee Takes place on a 166m-wide steel suspension bridge over the Bhoti Kosi River which is about 3 hours drive from Kathmandu. Most jumpers go on for an River Rafting adventure on the Bhote Kosi river the next day for over 80 challenging rapids.

Elephant Polo

Come December every year, Nepal brings a flock of polo enthusiastics. The Headquarter of World Elephant Polo Association is located at Chitwan, Nepal. World's Elephant Polo Association (WEPA) was born in Nepal, at Tiger Tops Jungle Lodge in the Royal Chitwan National Park which is located south west of Nepal.

The game is much like the horse polo. Usually there are nine elephants on the field (each team has four elephants, and one for the empire), each player sits behind an experienced elephant driver, players communicate with the driver to steer the elephant. This game originated from Nepal, is now played in many countries.

Useful Resource

ElephantPolo.Com : Rules - Elephant Polo Rules from the Association
CorkScrew-Ballon.com : Polo- Report on 2001 Series in Nepal
Tickle-and-Ivories.com : Photos - Photo Gallery of Elephant tournaments in Nepal
ElephantVoices.Org - Information on Elephants including their voices

Horseback Riding

Horse riding is another popular choice for touring in various hill regions of Nepal and Tibet especially in places where there are no other modes of transportation. Popular horse riding programs are of 8 to 13 days, and routes include

Panauti to Nagarko
Panauti - Nagarkot - Dhulikhel - Panauti
Tour of Pokhara City
Pokhara to Ghorepani
Dakshinkali - Nagarkot
Mustang Valley

Horseback riding can also be mixed with trekking. Some folks may prefer to trek for a few days and then horse-ride the rest of the journey. Not all travel companies offers horseback riding services, so ask with your travel agent for this service. Horseback riding in higher mountains is not a recommended sports.

Jungle Safari Background Information

2011-09-23T08:55:00.000-07:00

Jungle Safari Background Information

Nepal has 14 national parks and wildlife reserves most of which have dense tropical jungles teeming with diverse wildlife and exotic birds. Ride on elephant back or drive your four-wheeler to view wild animals in their natural habitat or you might escape for a canoe rides on the jungle rivers. One can also have a memorable nature walks, bird watching excursions, village and cultural tours. Chitwan, the home of Nepal's wildlife, has over 43 species of animals. It is also popular Safari destination in the region.

Learn in detail about the Jungle Safari in Nepal:

What is Jungle Safari all about?

When you visit a new country, you often meet new people and new places. Ever wondered meeting new Animals and natural beauty? Jungle Safari let's you do just that! It is also a way to pay your respect to the animals by indulging in this outback adventure sports which brings you closer to the nature. When you visit Nepal, add the Jungle Safari in your `To-do List'. You won't regret it.

Jungle Safari - The fourth most popular adventure sports in Nepal:

The outdoor adventure sports into the wilderness to see wild animals, birds and natural beauty. You ride on an elephant's back or on a four wheeler jeep accompanied by a fully trained guide (also known as expert Naturalist) for the love of nature and animals.
In Nepal, Chitwan and Bardiwa are two hot dishes on the menu. Pick Chitwan as this has Nepal's most popular National Park offering excellent opportunity to see Royal Bengal Tigers, One horned Rhino, Crocodile and thrilling wilderness experience into its deep and thick jungle and this park is the easiest one to reach among all others.
Pick Bardia also, as this is another National Park, which offers excellent jungle Safari Adventure. Here too, you can ride on an elephant or a take four wheel to discover some of Nepal's unspoiled natural habitats.
Most jungle Safari consists of canoe rides on the jungle rivers, nature walks, birds watching excursions and quick tours around the villages to discover unique culture and traditions of the local village people. There are also scheduled cultural-musical programs performed by the villages, which are also in the Jungle Safari itinerary
Chitwan and Bardiwa have excellent accommodation and tourist facilities right next to the jungle so one can start then relax at ease.

National Parks in Nepal:

Most Safari begins in a park, hence its worth noting here, the national parks of Nepal; they are the places to go for Safari. Whichever you decide to see or feel, Nepal has ideal Safari destinations for you, some are located at higher altitude while others at lower altitude. Here is the list, have a look...

National Parks	Area (sq km)	Location & Altitude (meters)	Remarks
Chitwan	932	Terai	Thick jungles and teeming wildlife including one horned Rhino, and Bengal Tigers. Sal forest makes the 70% of its area. Best Visit: All around the year
Rara	106	1800 to 4048	Has the country's biggest lake (10.8 sq km) Pinus, Rhododendron (Guranse in Nepali), Himalayan cypress, pine forests. Musk deer, black bear, mallard, merganser cock and other birds. Best Visit: Oct to Dec or Mar to May.
Suklaphant	155	Far-West of Nepal	View the largest herd of swamp deer in the world and an infinity of open grass lands! Best Visit: Feb to March
Everest (Sagarmatha)	1148	extreme	Includes the Mt. Everest peak (8848 Meters), Impeyen pheasant (the national bird of Nepal), Himalayan tahr, goral, serow. Obviously excellent mountain views from here.
Shey-Phoksundo	3555		Includes snow leopard, blue sheep, Impeyan pheasant (danphe), blood pheasant, and cheer pheasant. Best Visit : March to May
Bardiwa	368	Terai, 152 to 1441	70% of the park is Sal Forest. Rhinoceros, elephant, tiger, black buck, swamp deer. Also found are the gharial crocodile, marsh mugger crocodile and Gangetic dolphin. Best Visit: All time
Parsa	499	Terai	Chir pine, sissoo (Dalbergia sissoo), silk cotton forest, elephant, tiger, leopard, sloth bear, blue bull, and wild dog, over 280 species of birds, many species of snakes.
Makalu - Barun	2330	435 to 8463	Most visitors are the trekkers and mountaineers due to relatively extreme location. 30 rhododendrons color the hillsides, over 3000 species of flowering plants, red panda, musk deer, Himalayan Leopard, over 400 bird species.
Langtang			Dog red panda, pika, muntjac, musk deer, Himalayan black bear, Himalayan tahr, ghoral, serow. Breathtaking views of the Himalayan range.

Plants of Nepal

2011-09-23T08:51:00.001-07:00

Rhododendron Rhododendron blooms during the springs (Mar to May) in Higher elevation Rhododendron's Nepali Name is Lali Guranse or just Guranse in short Rhododendron is the National Flower of Nepal adding beauty to the Himalayas of Nepal Over 30 species are found in Nepal	Orchids What is orchids? Orchids are flowering plants having the most diverse and species than any other plants. There are about 25000 species of orchids in the world 319 species of orchids are found in Nepal	Flora Nepal has more than 6000 species of plants About 245 species of plants are only found in Nepal In Nepal, a total of 118 ecosystem, 75 vegetation and 35 forest types have been identified so far. Nepal is well known for its forests which attract biologists and geologists for research and study

Cordyceps sinensis

Other Major Herbs and Medicinal Plants found in Nepal:

Aconitum Spp
Picrorrhiza scrophularaeflora
Swertia multicaulis
Rheum emodi
Nardostachys jatamansi
Ephedra gerardiana

Most rural people in Nepal depend on natural medicines, knowledge of their use is passed on from one generation to the next.

Banyan Tree

Banyan tree is the national tree of India - Nepal's next door neighbor.
Many common sitting grounds known as Chautaris (Meaning of Chautari)are made at the foot of This tree. The other famous trees for Chautaris are the Peepul trees.
Paste made of Roots of Banyan trees is said to condition hair and skin.
"Banyan tree is the Embodiment of Laxmi" - According to Hinduism

Peepul Tree

Peepul is worshiped as a trinity of the almighty Hindu Lords Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma
"Lord Buddha meditated and received enlightenment in 483 BC under a Peepul Tree" - According to Buddhism
Peepul tree are part of many hindu temples.
Leaves are used in Hindu religious procession such as doing a Puja
Peepul Tree can be found all over Nepal.

Animals

Rhino

One Horned Rhino are abundant in Nepal - their famous place to live on the Earth!
They are 5 to 6 feet tall, males slightly larger then females, and they weigh upto 6000 pounds (2700 kg)
They are the only mammal on the planet with a horn on it's nose!
Rhino is one of the endangered species. Humans continue to kill Rhino for smuggling its horn which is said to have medicinal values.

Bengal Tigers

Bengal Tigers love Nepal land - more than 80% of the population live in Nepal.
Bengal Tigers are one of the most endangered species, today they can be found in less than 15 countries.
Less than 5000 Bengal tigers are surviving on the planet. (Source : WWF Nepal, 2006)
The image on the right is an illustration of a paw of a bengal tiger - a remarkable and lovely image for animal lovers.

Cow

Cow is a sacred animal, also the national animal of Nepal
Cows are worshiped special during festivals such as Tihar
Cow's dung and Urine are used during Puja (Act of honoring, respecting or worshiping Gods)
Killing or Eating Cow Meat is a Felony in Nepal

Looking ahead

2011-09-23T08:50:00.001-07:00

Nepal's decisions on development policy and economic management at all levels urgently need to take more systematic account of environmental concerns. Traditional economic assumptions about the sources of growth or comparative advantage, which often shape donors' perceptions of the most critical needs and the most suitable instruments for addressing them, need to be modified to incorporate more realistic notions of opportunity cost and economic prices. Calculations of economic prices must take account of the external effects of the proposed interventions over space and time--over and above the traditional method of calculating marginal costs. Resource degradation problems should be a central concern in the design of both macroeconomic and sectoral policies. Here the Bank could make a major contribution.

For the Bank, financing projects without regard to an overall strategy is not an effective way to press for the changes in government policy, institutions, and individual behavior that are required for better resource management in Nepal. Program lending has a potentially bigger impact on the way sectors are managed and on policies and regulations that affect economic incentives. The expectation of an extended structural adjustment period (10-20 years) provides a context for the Bank and other donors to work with the government to produce a national strategy for resource management in which project lending and policy change can reinforce one another. To this end the Bank should:

- Help the Government prepare a Consultative Group Meeting for the agricultural/rural sector to seek a consensus among government agencies, donors, and concerned NGOs, on what can be done, who will do it, and how.

- Require more careful analysis of the effects of macroeconomic instruments, including those being supported by structural adjustment lending, on natural resource use.

- Encourage the modification of Nepal's national accounting system to reflect changes in natural resource allocation and use. At present, it does not and thus gives a false sense of progress for the economy.

- Assess proposed public investments and expenditure allocations not only on their own merits but also from the broader perspective of the whole portfolio, tracing how its components affect one another. Also assess these proposals from the point of view of their contribution to the sustainability of Nepal's development.

- Consolidate efforts already underway to formulate macroeconomic and sectoral adjustment policies that are mutually consistent. At present, macroeconomic policies (concerned mainly with growth) and sector policies (focusing more on sustainable development) are often conceived separately, increasing the risk that they will contradict each other.

- Consider new lending instruments to accommodate a resource management program that yields its main results only over a long period. Without a significant change in this regard, the tendency will remain to allocate scarce resources to ameliorate short-term problems--as a result, attempts to bring about sustainable development will fail.

Box 1: Factors in resource degradation

Many aspects of Nepal's resource use and institutional structure took a long time to be documented and thus to be featured in discussions of possible policies and programs. Opinions still differ about the main causes of environmental degradation, with some observers claiming that at least 70 percent of the erosion in the hill country each year is inevitable and due to natural geological factors. Many analysts stress the role of population pressure, land use legislation, and a weak public administration.

Population pressure: Aided by improved health care and malaria control, annual population growth increased from 1.4 percent in the 1950s to 2.6 percent now. Rapid population growth increased demands for fuelwood, timber, fodder, and land for grazing and food production. Forest reserves were reportedly halved between 1950 and 1980, and risk being completely exhausted by year 2000. As soil erosion accelerated, soil fertility declined, village water supplies were disrupted, and agricultural production decreased, reservoirs were silted up by the sediment brought down by rivers, water courses became unstable, and the increased run-off during the monsoon season caused catastrophic flooding in the plains.

Noting the pressure of population, commentators in the 1970s warned of an impending food crisis, and aid donors responded by emphasizing agricultural modernization. But although farm inputs rose as a result, yields improved little because extension services, along with the distribution of seeds and fertilizer, were inadequate. And although double cropping was extended to 80 percent of the cultivated land, livestock numbers were not commensurately reduced, and grazing pressures on forest fringes increased. By the 1980s, 40 percent of the labor that could have been used for farming was used for fuelwood collection; as a result, productivity had declined, real incomes from farming had fallen, and child nutrition had worsened.

Land use legislation: When it emerged from isolation Nepal had one of the most inequitable land tenure systems in Asia, and one that seriously hindered agricultural efficiency. Legislation to reduce the size of large farms, control rents, and improve security of tenure is said to have been ineffectual. Many tenants became landless laborers, not landowners.

As to public land, the Private Forest Nationalization Act of 1957 is blamed for much of Nepal's deforestation and the cycle of resource destruction that followed. Intended to ensure proper management and conservation of forests, it could not be enforced, and in practice replaced traditional systems of managing common lands with free access to them. Villagers had no incentives to protect forests. Forest legislation of the 1970s and 1980s recognized that sound forest management would have to rely on community involvement, but it contained loopholes that allowed villagers to cut trees, and did not affect the exercise of the traditional view that clearing land for agriculture was a way to obtain title to it. Land-use data for 1977-84 show a net decline in forest, shrub, and cultivated area and a net expansion of grasslands.

Public administration: The Nepalese administration has long been weak in development planning and implementation. Problems in the period reviewed included rapid turnover of senior decision makers, low staff morale, limited career prospects for mid-level staff, and uncertain job security. Decision making was over-centralized and coordination weak. Many senior officials reputedly knew little about rural Nepal. An attempt during the 1970s to strengthen decentralization through the panchayat system (village level organizations) merely reinforced the power of local elites. To promote efficient equitable growth through sustainable use of natural resources will require institutional reform at the national level.

Box 2: Scope of study

The study reviews Bank macroeconomic and sector work, the literature, and documentation and other assistance provided by the Nepalese government, the Bank, and other donors, to address the following questions:

- How are Nepal's various forms of capital used?

- How do income-earning activities affect the management of natural resources?

- How aware were the Bank and others of Nepal's resource management problems?

- How were management problems conceived, how were concepts and strategies evolved, and what recommendations were made to solve problems?

- What did other donors do?

- How was the Bank's thinking applied in operations, sector work, macroeconomic strategy, and support for institutional reform?

- What were the major findings and lessons? Did they help the Government to develop more effective strategies to avoid pervasive resource degradation?

The Bank's role

2011-09-23T08:49:00.001-07:00

1965-75: Early Bank lending financed mainly capital-intensive infrastructure projects, on the basic assumption that physical and financial capital were the factors limiting development, and that other forms of capital would naturally adjust. Agricultural operations tended to concentrate on maximizing land productivity through the provision of physical inputs such as fertilizer.

The first of the Bank's reports to address issues such as soil erosion and land degradation were produced in the course of agricultural sector work, mainly out of concern for agricultural productivity; some of the findings were incorporated into rural development and forestry projects. Lending on a limited scale, the Bank could not press for the improvements in resource management it had begun advocating in sector work. Nor was it Bank policy at the time to emphasize the policy context or the environmental implications of the projects undertaken.

1976-85: The Bank emerged as a major donor with a diverse portfolio that made it well placed to pursue a policy dialogue on broad resource management issues. During this decade, the Bank's own policies increasingly laid stress on the policy context for lending, on poverty, and on safeguarding the environment. Yet the design of its operations does not suggest much broadening of concern beyond the individual project level. Nor does the record suggest that the Bank forcibly argued for the changes being recommended in ESW.

1985-89: Several projects mark a significant move toward addressing resource management on a broader front: strengthening the National Planning Commission (1988), community forestry (1989), integrated watershed management planning associated with the Arun III hydroelectric dam, proposed changes in the structure of irrigation lending, and renewed emphasis on education.

The Bank's 1989 agricultural sector report made clear that fundamental problems of fragility, soil quality, and climate could no longer be ignored, and that the emphasis of Bank operations must shift away from providing physical inputs and toward education, development of institutional capital, and conservation of natural capital. This outlook, now pervasive in the Bank's ESW on Nepal, is not yet fully reflected in the Bank's lending.

The policy dialogue between the Bank and Nepal has improved as a result of the Bank's support for structural adjustment. In the course of SAL I (1986) the Bank obtained significant agreement among major donors on the priorities and conditions for institutional change. It also successfully pressed for policy changes in the budget, industry, trade, agriculture, and forestry, all of them with critical implications for resource management over the medium and long term. But much more needs to be done, as concerns the design of adjustment programs, public investment and expenditure reviews, and national environmental action plans, to incorporate natural resource management issues into plans for policy and institutional change.

Project difficulties. A high proportion of projects suffered from time and cost overruns. Almost always in these projects, the institutional apparatus has been weak and government commitment at the policy and implementation level has been inadequate.

With hindsight, the Bank underinvested in education and institutional development in Nepal. The infrastructure projects that dominated its early lending were relatively simple to implement. But even many of these began to fail for lack of institutional and human capital to manage and maintain them. Technical assistance has been used to help Nepal strengthen its development institutions and add to its human resources, but many of the TA initiatives have not been very successful either.

Bank-financed operations have been less than successful in dealing with the human and natural environment. For example, the Bank considered development in the Terai a key to Nepal's growth, but the attempt to establish settlement projects there failed, in the face of a host of problems related to environmental degradation and lack of government commitment, very high overhead costs, and unhelpful changes in the policy environment.

In preparing many of its projects the Bank tended to gloss over the difficulties in improving resource management in Nepal. Little is known about the behavior of natural and institutional systems and how they interact. Farming and forestry have minimal potential for growth. Possibilities for creating jobs outside these sectors are very limited. Bank President's reports on many of the projects reviewed imply that all uncertainties have been carefully weighed and can be managed by contingencies built into project design. But the outcomes of these projects show that more candid assessment of the obstacles, recognizing the history of constraints already encountered by the Bank and other donors, was needed.

Lack of strategic thinking. The Bank's country economic work gave little prominence to natural resource problems until quite recently. The policy dialogue with Nepal at the national and sector levels rarely addressed natural resource management issues comprehensively. Until quite recently, the choice of projects (among and within sectors) and the subjects of loan conditionality and policy dialogue show little concern with the recommendations for strategic thinking about resource management that were emerging from economic and sector work.

In Nepal, more than in many larger and more advanced borrowing countries, the Bank was a major source of ideas on resource development and management. But by not having a strategy of its own, it missed an important opportunity to create a consensus on policies or actions needed. Its reports were an important part of the development literature and were widely quoted. But those used in the policy dialogue with the government minimized the discussion of contentious issues on natural resource management. They also took little account of the findings of other donors, even though these were thoroughly documented in the Bank's country program papers.

Government agencies may not have been receptive to discussing resource management beyond the confines of projects in agriculture, forestry, hydroelectricity, water supply, and highways. For the Bank, indeed, an approach focusing on long-term goals would have called for more staff time for preparation and supervision, monitoring and evaluation, and economic and sector work, than compatible with normal coefficients for a lending program of Nepal's size ($35 million a year in the late 1970s).

Had the Bank's policy analysis and dialogue fully reflected the debates on resource degradation, resource management, institutions, and aid in Nepal, research and data collection would have focused more on the key gaps in information about the economic, social, and institutional factors affecting the environment. The vital importance of links between poverty and resource degradation would have been recognized earlier, and a larger part of the lending program would probably have been in primary and secondary education, health, and population. More sustainable use might have been made of both financial and technical assistance.

Development, environment

2011-09-23T08:48:00.001-07:00

Ninety percent of Nepal's GDP and employment comes from agriculture, yet soils are very poor. The topography hampers the development of transport, communications, and a monetized economy. Population growth is 2.7 percent a year. Problems such as persistent soil erosion, high rates of sedimentation, increased flooding, and decline in water quality continue to intensify. Pressures of population and livestock on land, migration to fragile areas, and the extent of poverty are all implicated (see box). But so too are development policies and projects.

Six forms of capital participate in the development process-- human, natural, institutional, cultural, physical, and financial. Sustainable development comes from attaining a balance across the various forms of capital over space and time. In Nepal, the accumulation of physical and financial capital has been sought more aggressively than the acquisition of human and institutional capital or the conservation of natural capital. But as natural capital continues to deteriorate, the possibilities for sustainable development diminish.

Studies assessing natural resource degradation in Nepal appeared as early as 1959, but offered few suggestions for managing natural resources better. Bilateral donors were the first to develop programs in soil conservation, land management, afforestation, and livestock rationalization. Most of these programs were quite narrowly conceived and not pursued in the context of an overall understanding of causes and effects or of a broad donor/government development strategy. Nepal's early National Development Plans gave little attention to the environment and natural resources; most public investments were for roads and telecommunications. The Bank began to address environmental problems much later than Nepal's other donors and, even then, without an explicit statement of the problems.

The literature over two decades has severely criticized the way decisions were made and government policies formulated in Nepal, and how little international aid has done to bring about change. Between 1966 and 1989, donors committed more than $4.5 billion (1988 dollars) in grants and loans to Nepal for about 800 projects affecting the use of renewable resources. But much of this aid supported uncoordinated projects that duplicated or cancelled out each other's efforts. Proliferating projects and conflicting advice drained the government's managerial, technical, and financial resources. Donors noted Nepal's limited absorptive capacity but went on providing aid.

Natural Resource Management in Nepal

2011-09-23T08:47:00.000-07:00

Nepal's economic development depends critically on natural resources that are fragile and being rapidly degraded. In Nepal, the links between poverty, economic incentives, institutional weaknesses in government, and the destruction of land, water resources, and forests are more starkly visible than in countries where environmental damage is not, or not yet, so severe. A new OED study analyzes the projects, policies, and institutional reforms that have affected the management of Nepal's natural resources over 25 years (1966-89).

The study finds that despite $4.5 billion of aid for projects affecting natural resources, Nepal still has worsening environmental problems and no effective strategy to address them. The Bank's own assistance has done little to promote better natural resource management except within the sphere of the individual projects it has financed.

Yet, as resource degradation continues, the country's scope for improving living standards diminishes. Because better resource management will require not only financial investments but changes in policy, institutions, and individual behavior, environmental concerns urgently need to be incorporated into decision making at all levels.

2011-09-19T04:57:00.000-07:00

The Land

For a small country, Nepal has tremendous geographic diversity. It rises from less than 100 metres (328 ft) elevation in the tropical Terai—the northern rim of the Gangetic Plain, beyond the perpetual snow line to some 90 peaks over 7,000 metres (22,966 ft) including Earth's highest 8,848 metres (29,029 ft) Mount Everest or Sagarmatha. In addition to the continuum from tropical warmth to cold comparable to polar regions, average annual precipitation varies from as little as 160 millimetres (6.3 in) in the rainshadow north of the Himalaya to as much as 5,500 millimetres (216.5 in) on windward slopes.
Along a south-to-north transect, Nepal can be divided into three belts: Terai, Hill and Mountain Regions. In the other direction it is divided into three major river systems, from east to west: Koshi, Gandaki/Narayani and Karnali (including the Mahakali/Sarda along the western border), all tributaries of the Ganges. The Ganges-Yarlung Zangbo/Brahmaputra watershed largely coincides with the Nepal-Tibet border, however several Ganges tributaries rise inside Tibet.

The Terai Region

The Terai or Madhesh region begins at the Indian border and includes the southernmost part of the flat, intensively farmed Gangetic Plain called the Outer Terai. This is culturally an extension of northern India with Hindi, Awadhi, Bhojpuri and Maithili spoken more than Nepali, however it was annexed to Nepal by conquest and by treaty with the British.

The Outer Terai ends at the first range of foothills called the Siwaliks or Churia. This range has a densely forested skirt of coarse alluvium called the bhabhar along its base. Below the bhabhar, finer, less permeable sediments force groundwater to the surface in a zone of springs and marshes. In Persian, terai refers to wet or marshy ground. Before the use of DDT it was dangerously infested with malaria. Nepal's rulers used it as a defensive frontier called the char kose jhadi (twelve kilometer forest)

Above the bhabhar belt, the Siwaliks rise to about 700 metres (2,297 ft) with peaks as high as 1,000 metres (3,281 ft), steeper on their southern flanks because of faults known as the Main Frontal Thrust. This range is composed of poorly consolidated, coarse sediments that do not retain water or support soil development so there is virtually no agricultural potential. Hillside vegetation is limited to scrub forest and the area functions as a deserted buffer zone allowing the development of distinctive cultures in valleys and hills further north.

In several places beyond the Siwaliks there are dun valleys called Inner Terai (Bhitri Madesh) with productive soil. Among these are Dang and Deukhuri in western Nepal and the Rapti Valley (Chitwan) in central Nepal. Population in these valleys was historically limited by malaria and mainly of the Tharu ethnic group that has genetic resistance. Around 1960 DDT came into use to suppress mosquitos and the way was open to settlement from the land-poor hills to the detriment of Tharus.

The Terai ends and the Hills begin at a higher range of foothills called the Mahabharat Range.

The Hill Region

Situated south of the Mountain Region, the Hill Region (Pahar in Nepali) is mostly between 700 and 4,000 metres (2,297 and 13,123 ft) altitude. This region begins at the Mahabharat Range (Lesser Himalaya) where a fault system called the Main Boundary Thrust creates an escarpment 1,000 to 1,500 metres (3,281 to 4,921 ft) high, to a crest between 1,500 and 2,700 metres (4,921 and 8,858 ft). These steep southern slopes are nearly uninhabited, thus an effective buffer between languages and culture in the Terai and Hill regions. Northern slopes are gentler and moderately well populated.

North of this range, Nepali-speaking Hindus and Newar merchants who also speak Newari densely populate valleys suited to rice cultivation as high as 2,000 metres (6,562 ft). The increasingly urbanized Kathmandu and Pokhara valleys fall within this region. Indigenous janajati ethnic groups—natively speaking highly localized Tibeto-Burman languages and dialects—populate hillsides up to about 3,000 metres (9,843 ft). This group includes Magar and Kham Magar west of Pokhara, Gurung south of the Annapurnas, Tamang around the periphery of Kathmandu Valley and Rai and Limbu further east. Beyond microclimates suited to rice cultivation and proximity to water for irrigation, these cultivate maize, millet, barley and potatoes as staple crops. Temperate and subtropical fruits are grown as cash crops. Marijuana is grown and processed into Charas (hashish), but less than was produced before international pressure persuaded the government to outlaw it in 1976. There is increasing reliance on animal husbandry with elevation, using land above 3,000 metres (9,843 ft) for summer grazing and moving herds to lower elevations in winter. Outside the rice-growing lower valleys, hill populations suffer chronic food deficits. Many menfolk find employment in the Terai, in India or overseas to earn cash for imported grain. The Hill region ends dramatically where the main Himalayan Range abruptly rises thousands of meters.

The Mountain Region

Perspective view of the Himalaya and Mount Everest as seen from space looking south-south-east from over the Tibetan Plateau. (annotated version)

The Mountain Region or Parbat abruptly rises into the zone of perpetual snow along the Main Central Thust fault zone. South of this fault system, "hills" do not greatly exceed treeline at about 3,500 metres (11,483 ft). North of it the Himalayas rise as a virtual wall beyond the snowline at 5,000 to 5,500 metres (16,404 to 18,045 ft) to some 90 peaks over 7,000 metres (22,966 ft) and eight exceeding 8,000 metres (26,247 ft) including Mount Everest at 8,848 metres (29,029 ft) and Kanchenjunga at 8,598 metres (28,209 ft). Unlike the Mahabharats, the Himalaya are not continuous across Nepal. Instead there are about 25 subranges including the Kanchenjunga massif, Kumbu around Mt. Everest. Langtang north of Kathmandu, Annapurna north of Pokhara and Dhaulagiri further west, then Kanjiroba north of Jumla.

The main watershed between the Brahmaputra (called Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibet) and the Ganges system (including all of Nepal) actually lies north of the highest ranges. Alpine, often semi-arid valleys—including Humla, Jumla, Dolpo, Mustang, Manang and Khumbu-- cut between himalayan subranges or lie north of them. Some of these valleys historically were more accessible from Tibet than Nepal and are populated by people with Tibetan affinities called Bhotiya or Bhutia including the famous Sherpas in Kumbu valley near Mount Everest. With Chinese cultural hegemony in Tibet itself, these valleys have become repositories of traditional ways. Valleys with better access from the hill regions to the south are culturally linked to Nepal as well as Tibet, notably the Kali Gandaki Gorge where Thakali culture shows influences in both directions.

Permanent villages in the mountain region stand as high as 4,500 metres (14,764 ft) with summer encampments even higher. These peoples traditionally grazed yaks, grew cold-tolerant crops such as potatoes, barley, buckwheat and millet, and traded across the mountains, e.g. Tibetan salt for rice from lowlands in Nepal and India. Since trade was restricted in the 1950s they have found work as high altitude porters, guides, cooks and other accessories to tourism and alpinism.
Climate

Satellite image of Nepal in October 2002

Nepal has tremendous variation in climate. Its latitude is about the same as that of Florida so Terai land up to 500 meters (1,640 ft) has a fully tropical climate, with a subtropical zone extending up to 1,200 meters (3,937 ft) which is the lower limit of frost in winter. Warm temperate climates prevail from 1,200 to 2,400 meters (3,937 to 7,874 ft) where snow occasionally falls. Then there is a cold zone to 3,600 meters (11,811 ft) (treeline), a subarctic or alpine zone to 4,400 meters (14,436 ft) and fully arctic climate above that. Precipitation generally decreases from east to west with increasing distance from the Bay of Bengal, source of the summer monsoon. Eastern Nepal gets about 2,500 mm (98.4 in) annually; the Kathmandu area about 1,400 mm (55.1 in) and western Nepal about 1,000 mm (39.4 in). This pattern is modified by adabiatic effects as rising air masses cool and drop their moisture content on windward slopes, then warm up as they descend so relative humidity drops. Annual precipitation reaches 5,500 mm (216.5 in) on windward slopes in the Annapurna Himalaya beyond a relatively low stretch of the Mahabharat Range. In rainshadows beyond the high mountains, annual precipitation drops as low as 160 mm (6.3 in), creating a cold semi-desert.

Furthermore the year is divided into a wet season from June to September—as summer warmth over Inner Asia creates a low pressure zone that draws in air from the Indian Ocean—and a dry season from October to June as cold temperatures in the vast interior creates a high pressure zone causing dry air to flow outward. April and May are months of intense water stress when cumulative effects of the long dry season are exacerbated by temperatures rising over 40 °C (104 °F). Seasonal drought intensifies in the Siwaliks hills consisting of poorly-consolidated, coarse, highly permeable sediments that do not retain water, so hillsides are covered with tropical scrub forest that is extremely drought-tolerant. In fact outside marsh and riparian zones, most of Nepal's native vegetation is adapted to withstand drought, although less so at higher elevations where cooler temperatures mean less water stress.

The monsoon is preceded by a buildup of thunderstorm activity in the hills that helps farmers irrigate rice seedbeds. Sustained rain on average arrives in early June as rising temperatures over Inner Asia creates a low pressure zone that draws in air from the Indian Ocean, but this can vary up to a month. Significant failure of monsoon rains historically meant drought and famine while above-normal rains still cause flooding and landslides with losses in human lives, farmland and buildings. The monsoon also complicates transportation with roads and trails washing out while unpaved roads and airstrips may become unusable and cloud cover reduces safety margins for aviation. Rains diminish in September and generally end by mid-October, ushering in generally cool, clear, and dry weather, as well as the most relaxed and jovial period in Nepal. By this time, the harvest is completed and people are in a festive mood. The two biggest and most important Hindu festivals-- Dashain and Tihar (Dipawali)--arrive during this period, about one month apart. The postmonsoon season lasts until about December.

After the postmonsoon comes the winter monsoon, a strong northeasterly flow marked by occasional, short rainfalls in the lowlands and plains and snowfalls in the high-altitude areas. Precipitation varies from year to year but increases markedly with elevation. Adequate snowfall in the Himalaya is important for sufficient spring and summer meltwater for irrigation in the lower hills and valleys. At lower elevations, winter rainfall is needed for the success of winter crops such as wheat, barley and vegetables. In this season the Himalaya function as a barrier to cold air masses from Inner Asia, so southern Nepal and northern India have warmer winters than would otherwise be the case. April and May are dry and hot, especially below 1,200 meters (3,937 ft) where afternoon temperatures may exceed 40 °C (104 °F).
Environment

The dramatic changes in elevation along this transect result in a variety of biomes, from tropical savannas along the Indian border, to subtropical broadleaf and coniferous forests in the hills, to temperate broadleaf and coniferous forests on the slopes of the Himalaya, to montane grasslands and shrublands, and finally rock and ice at the highest elevations.

This corresponds to the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands ecoregion.

Subtropical forests dominate the lower elevations of the Hill Region. They form a mosaic running east-west across Nepal, with Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests between 500 and 1,000 metres (1,640 and 3,281 ft) and Himalayan subtropical pine forests between 1,000 and 2,000 metres (3,281 and 6,562 ft). At higher elevations, to 3,000 metres (9,843 ft), are found temperate broadleaf forests: eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests to the east of the Gandaki River and western Himalayan broadleaf forests to the west.

The native forests of the Mountain Region change from east to west as precipitation decreases. They can be broadly classified by their relation to the Gandaki River. From 3,000 to 4,000 metres (9,843 to 13,123 ft) are the eastern and western Himalayan subalpine conifer forests. To 5,500 metres (18,045 ft) are the eastern and western Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows.
River system

Nepal has three categories of rivers. The largest systems -— from east to west Koshi, Gandaki/Narayani, Karnali/Goghra and Mahakali -- originate in multiple tributaries rising in or beyond the high Himalaya that maintain substantial flows from snowmelt through the hot, droughty spring before the summer monsoon. These tributaries cross the highest mountains in deep gorges, flow south through the Middle Hills, then join in candelabra-like configuration before crossing the Mahabharat Range and emerging onto the plains where they have deposited megafans exceeding 10,000 km2 (3,861 sq mi) area.

The Koshi is also called Sapta Koshi for its seven Himalayan tributaries in eastern Nepal: Indrawati, Sun Koshi, Tama Koshi, Dudh Koshi, Liku, Arun, and Tamur. The Arun rises in Tibet some 150 km. beyond Nepal's northern border. A tributary of the Sun Koshi, Bhote Koshi also rises in Tibet and is followed by the Arniko Highway connecting Kathmandu and Lhasa.

The Gandaki/Narayani has seven Himalayan tributaries in the center of the country: Daraudi, Seti Gandaki, Madi, Kali, Marsyandi, Budhi, and Trisuli also called Sapta Gandaki. The Kali Gandaki rises on the edge of the Tibetan Plateau and flows through the semi-independent Kingdom of Mustang, then between the 8,000-meter (26,247 ft) Dhaulagiri and Annapurna ranges in the world's deepest valley. The Trisuli rises north of the international border inside Tibet. After the seven upper tributaries join, the river becomes the Narayani inside Nepal and is joined by the (East) Rapti from Chitwan Valley. Crossing into India, its name changes to Gandak.

The Karnali drains western Nepal, with the Bheri and Seti as major tributaries. The upper Bheri drains Dolpo, a remote valley beyond the Dhaulagiri Himalaya with traditional Tibetan cultural affinities. The upper Karnali rises inside Tibet near sacred Lake Manasarovar and Mount Kailash. The area around these features is the hydrographic nexus of South Asia since it holds the sources of the Indus and its major tributary the Sutlej, the Karnali -- a Ganges tributary -- and the Yarlung Zangbo/Brahmaputra. It is the center of the universe according to traditional cosmography. The Mahakali or Kali along the Nepal-India border on the west joins the Karnali in India, where the river is known as Goghra or Ghaghara.

Second category rivers rise in the Middle Hills and Mahabharat Range, from east to west the Mechi, Kankai and Kamala south of the Kosi; the Bagmati that drains Kathmandu Valley between the Kosi and Gandaki systems, then the West Rapti and the Babai between the Gandaki and Karnali systems. Without glacial sources, annual flow regimes in these rivers are more variable although limited flow persists through the dry season.

Third category rivers rise in the outermost Siwalik foothills and are mostly seasonal.

None of these river systems support significant commercial navigation. Instead, deep gorges create obstacles to establishing transport and communication networks and de-fragmenting the economy. Foot-trails are still primary transportation routes in many hill districts.

Nepal's towns, villages, rivers and peaks
River Management

All three categories are capable of causing serious floods, for example the West Rapti in the second category is called Gorakhpur's Sorrow for its history of urban flooding. Koshi River in the first category caused a major flood in August 2008 in Bihar state, India after breaking through a poorly-maintained embankment just inside Nepal.

Since uplift and erosion are more or less in equilibrium in the Himalaya, rapid uplift is balanced by annual increments of cubic kilometers of sediments washing down from the mountains, then on the plains settling out of suspension on vast alluvial fans or inland deltas over which rivers meander and change course at least every few decades, causing some experts to question whether manmade embankments can contain the problem of flooding. Traditional Mithila culture along the lower Koshi in Nepal and Bihar celebrated the river as the giver of life for its fertile alluvial soil, yet also the taker of life through its catastrophic floods.

Another approach would be to build large dams—in gorges crossing the Mahabharat Range or further upstream—with storage capacities measured in cubic kilometers to capture high flows during the monsoon when there is usually enough rainfall on the plains if not flooding, then releasing water for hydroelectric generation and irrigation especially during the hot and dry pre-monsoon "summer". Nepal would appear to have unusual potential given its average annual 150 cm. of precipitation and thousands of meters of relief between mountains and plains, but there has only been limited development of this potential for example on the Kali Gandaki north of Tansen.

Building dams in Nepal is controversial for several reasons. First, the region is seismically active. Dam failures caused by earthquakes could cause tremendous death and destruction downstream, particularly on the densely populated Gangetic Plain. Second, global warming has led to the formation of glacial lakes dammed by unstable moraines. Sudden failures of these moraines could lead to cascading failures of manmade structures downstream. Third, sedimentation rates in the Himalaya are extremely high, leading to rapid loss of storage capacity as sediments accumulate behind dams. Fourth, there are complicated questions of cross-border equity in how India and Nepal would share costs and benefits that have proven difficult to resolve in the context of frequent acrimony between the two countries.
Area and boundaries
Area
Total: 147,181 km²
Land: 143,181 km²
Water: 4,000 km²
Area - comparative
Roughly 1⅔ Tasmania's size
Roughly twice New Brunswick's size
Slightly less than twice Scotland's size
Slightly larger than Arkansas
Land boundaries
Total: 2,926 km
Border countries: China 1,236 km, India 1,690 km
Coastline
0 km (landlocked)
Maritime claims
None (landlocked)
Elevation extremes
Lowest point: Kanchan Kalan 70 m
Highest point: Sagarmatha (Mount Everest) 8,848 m
Resources and land use
Natural resources
Quartz, water, timber, hydropower, scenic beauty, small deposits of lignite, copper, cobalt, iron ore
Land use
Arable land: 21.68%
Permanent crops: 0.64%
Other: 77.68% (2001)
Irrigated land
11,350 km² (1998 est.)
Forests

25.4% of Nepal's land area, or about 36,360 km2 (14,039 sq mi) is covered with forest according to FAO figures from 2005. FAO estimates that around 9.6% of Nepal's forest cover consists of primary forest which is relatively intact. About 12.1% Nepal's forest is classified as protected while about 21.4% is conserved according to FAO. About 5.1% Nepal's forests are classified as production forest. Between 2000-2005, Nepal lost about 2,640 km2 (1,019 sq mi) of forest. Nepal's 2000-2005 total deforestation rate was about 1.4% per year meaning it lost an average of 530 km2 (205 sq mi) of forest annually. Nepal's total deforestation rate from 1990-2000 was 920 km2 (355 sq mi) or 2.1% per year. The 2000-2005 true deforestation rate in Nepal, defined as the loss of primary forest, is -0.4% or 70 km2 (27 sq mi) per year.

Deforestation is driven by multiple processes. In the hills, conversion of forests to agricultural land—even on steep hillsides via terracing—is historically important, but has lessened in recent decades due to a shortage of remaining suitable terrain in the hills while mosquito suppression having opened formerly malarial land for settlement in the Terai. As a result, forest land in the Terai is being cleared by settlers.

In the hills, greater contemporary impacts involve degradation of forests rather than outright clearing. Degradation is caused by harvesting firewood, and to a lesser extent wood for traditional architecture. These harvests are often carried to unsustainable levels. Trees are also severely damaged by intensive harvesting of leaves as fodder, especially in the driest months preceding the summer monsoon. Households typically keep at least one cow or buffalo for milk production and may also keep oxen for agricultural labor. In addition goats are herded as the main source of meat that is culturally acceptable to upper-caste Hindus.
FAO Forestry Department Nepal Country Page
Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation Nepal
Forestry Information in Nepal
Environmental concerns
Natural hazards
Severe thunderstorms, flooding, landslides, drought, and famine depending on the timing, intensity, and duration of the summer monsoons
Environment - current issues
Deforestation (overuse of wood for fuel and lack of alternatives); contaminated water (with human and animal wastes, agricultural runoff, and industrial effluents); wildlife conservation; vehicular emissions; High arsenic and microbiological levels in groundwater
Environment - international agreements
Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
Signed, but not ratified: Marine Life Conservation
Existing and proposed dams, barrages and canals for flood control, irrigation and hydroelectric generation
Geography - note
Landlocked; strategic location between China and India; contains eight of world's 10 highest peaks

Economy of Nepal

2011-09-18T21:57:00.000-07:00

An isolated, agrarian society until the mid-20th century, Nepal entered the modern era in 1951 without schools, hospitals, roads, telecommunications, electric power, industry, or civil service. The country has, however, made progress toward sustainable economic growth since the 1950s and is committed to a program of economic liberalization.

Nepal has used a series of five-year plans in an attempt to make progress in economic development. It completed its ninth economic development plan in 2002; its currency has been made convertible, and 17 state enterprises have been privatized. Foreign aid accounts for more than half of the development budget. Government priorities over the years have been the development of transportation and communication facilities, agriculture, and industry. Since 1975, improved government administration and rural development efforts have been emphasized.

Agriculture remains Nepal's principal economic activity, employing 80% of the population and providing 37% of GDP. Only about 20% of the total area is cultivable; another 33% is forested; most of the rest is mountainous. Rice and wheat are the main food crops. The lowland Terai region produces an agricultural surplus, part of which supplies the food-deficient hill areas.

Economic development in social services and infrastructure has not made dramatic progress due to GDP dependency on India. A countrywide primary education system is under development, and Tribhuvan University has several campuses. Please see Education in Nepal for further details. Although eradication efforts continue, malaria had been controlled in the fertile but previously uninhabitable Terai region in the south. Kathmandu is linked to India and nearby hill regions by road and an expanding highway network. The capital was almost out of fuel and transport of supplies caused by a crippling general strike in southern Nepal on February 17, 2008.
Major towns are connected to the capital by telephone and domestic air services. The export-oriented carpet and garment industries have grown rapidly in recent years and together now account for approximately 70% of merchandise exports.

Nepal was ranked 29th worst of 84 ranked countries (those with GHI > 5.0) on the Global Hunger Index in 2010, between Tanzania and Kenya. Nepal's current score of 20.0 is slightly worse than in 2009 (19.8) but better than its score of 27.5 in

Natural Resources In Nepal

Geography

PRESENT CONDITION OF NATURAL RESOURCES O OF NEPAL

SOLUTION OF DESTRUCTION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

CAUSES OF DESTRUCTION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

IMPORTANCES OF NATURAL RESOURCES

ANIMALS AND BIRDS RESOURCES OF NEPAL

MINERALS, MINES AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION

Gemstones

Nonmetallc Minerals

Metallic Minerals

MINING HISTORY

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Nature resource - Nepal - The biggest natural museum in the world:

A List of Major Mountains of the Himalayas

Meaning of Himalayas

The Must Knows...

Are you in it ?

A List of Major Mountains of the Himalayas

Priority & endangered species

Why cactus and cod?

Rhinos

nepal and its plants

Nepal - a rich country of water.

Rivers of Nepal The Fastest Running Rivers in the world! Raft here or Invest in a Hydro power Project! Nepal - a rich country of water.

Introduction

Map of Rivers

Quick Facts on Rivers and Relevant

List of Major Rivers (this table is being populated, so please check-back later for more data here...)

Rivers and Fun

Rivers and Hydro-power Business in Nepal

"Hydro power could help alleviate poverty" -- United Nations

Paragliding in Nepal:

Best Time ?

How much will it cost ?

Bungee Jumps

Elephant Polo

Useful Resource

Horseback Riding

Jungle Safari Background Information

Jungle Safari Background Information

Learn in detail about the Jungle Safari in Nepal:

What is Jungle Safari all about?

Jungle Safari - The fourth most popular adventure sports in Nepal:

National Parks in Nepal:

Plants of Nepal

Animals

Looking ahead

The Bank's role

Development, environment

Natural Resource Management in Nepal

Economy of Nepal

Rivers of Nepal
The Fastest Running Rivers in the world!
Raft here or Invest in a Hydro power Project!

Nepal - a rich country of water.