Human Resources

LOCAL GLOBALIZATION- a new idea of HRM for a company operating within a single country.

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A NEW IDEA OF HRM FOR A COMPANY OPERATING WITHIN A SINGLE COUNTRY

All of us heard about a concept of GLOBALIZATION for long time. This is often discussed about or for the MNCs (Multinational Companies). But the idea of 'Local Globalization' came into my mind while researching about HRM of a company which operates within a single country, but has got lots of branches in different areas of the country. Well, I will not go further into this, because some of us may not have clear idea about the 'Globalization' of HRM. So, I will try to highlight some information on 'Globalization' first and then discuss on my new idea of 'LOCAL GLOBALIZATION' of HRM.

GLOBALIZATION
Lots of scholars and Gurus have said about the 'global village' concept. It is often practiced and discussed for the MNCs, as I said before. MNCs have different numbers of working sites in different countries. So, to run the function of the MNCs, Globalization is a must. From the host or head-office; whatever you call it, operations are controlled all over the world. In these sorts of situations, HRM has got very vital role. like,

Firstly, to tackle cultural shock.
To train the EXPATRIATES for local language, policy, laws.
How to work within a multinational or diversified employee environment.

etc. You can list hundreds of them. But my main point is, I want to give you simple idea that while MNCs work in

a Global environment, they have to be highly supported by IT, HRM and other technical things: which gives them a chance to cut the cost and increase net profit. In simple word, when a system or business operating globally like a single unit, you can simply define this idea as 'Globalization'.

LOCAL GLOBALIZATION

its too late, i will write tomorrow about this.

Training Evaluation

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Hamblin (1970; cited by Blanshard and Montgomery 1978) defined evaluation as obtaining information on effectiveness of training and assessing it. He differentiated between ‘Evaluation’ and ‘Validation’. ‘Evaluation’ is a process where ‘validation’ is a result. But The Training Support Unit and Branch 6 (TSD) HM Customs & Excise Training Service Division (1992) argued that evaluation of training is simply measuring the results of training. Evaluation process should start during the Need Analysis stage. Training is planned and designed to achieve expected outcomes. But sometimes it may not be possible to achieve expected result because of different reasons and this process of comparing the outcomes of training programme with training objectives is evaluation. Rightly said about training evaluation,

“...Any attempt to obtain information (feedback) on the effects of a training programme, and to assess the value of training in the light of that information.” (Hamblin, 1974; cited by Bee and Bee 1994, p. 174)

Importance of Training Evaluation

Most of the organization needs to analyse the contribution and effectiveness of the training programme. It may be necessary to identify the quality of the existing training programme. These can be achieved through evaluation. Evaluation can facilitate with reviewing training policy, which will affect subsequent stages of next training programmes. If the trainer can see the result of performance, then they can measure performance, can set targets and can feed back the results of performance into the training (King 1964). It is an important management tool to control the effectiveness of training. Blanshard and Montgomery (1978) suggested getting the feedback of trainees’ performance through evaluation process. As a whole, training evaluation process has great impact on the entire training process.

Training Evaluation Process

Cole (1993) defined evaluation as part of the control process of training. He emphasized to set the standards of training. The more accurately the standards can be set, will be easier to evaluate the training.

Levels of Training Evaluation

Most of the authors divided evaluation into different levels. Centre of Social Development (CSD) (nd; cited by Blanshard and Montgomery 1978) divided evaluation into four levels:

a. REACTION LEVEL: it is immediate information collected from trainees.
b. LEARNING LEVEL: it is carried out after completion of the training on competences learned by the trainees.
c. JOB BEHAVIOURAL LEVEL: it is carried out after a gap of time after completion of training. Information regarding changed learning on workplace is collected here. This information should be collected through observing staff and from asking superiors.
d. ORGANISATION LEVEL: the effect of changed job behaviour by the trainees is evaluated here. But difficult to calculate. Because of its wide range of factors involvement. Where trainees may be one of factors for outcomes.

Hamblin (1974; cited by Blanshard and Montgomery 1978) divides above stated 4th level into Organisational and Ultimate Value level. He suggested identifying changes in the way of organisation works and the extent it achieved its ultimate goals.

War, Bird and Rackham (nd; cited by Cole 1993) suggested an on-going process for evaluating training. These are:

a. Context evaluation- deals with information regarding training needs and objectives.
b. Input evaluation- evaluates the effectiveness of training resources, like staffs, different training aids etc.
c. Reaction evaluation- assesses the information about trainees’ reaction about training programme.
d. Outcome evaluation- evaluates results in immediate, inter-mediate and ultimate levels of training.

Difficulties with Evaluation Measurement

According to Blanshard and Montgomery (1978), sometimes numerical figures fails to show the results of training effectively, because of the information remains subjective. Other side of the evaluation cannot be expressed with numerical figures. It should be assessed by intuition. Again it is difficult to express result with this way. It will be more effective to use both the techniques. Quantitative techniques provide standard to compare and other one can interpret the figures.

Factors Affecting Training Evaluation

While evaluating a training programme, certain factors need to be assessed with great importance. According to Kruse et al. (1994) important factors are:

a. Contribution of the training to company’s aim.
b. Cost effectiveness.
c. Effectiveness of training methods.
d. Compare the outcome with training objectives.
e. Effectiveness of training design.
f. Effectiveness of training delivery and trainer.
Evaluation ex-ante, during the training and ex-post.

Training Delivery

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After planning the training programme, delivering the training is important and critical step. A well-planned training can be wasted because of its improper delivery. Certain factors need to be examined and planned while selecting the delivery methods. These are discussed below.

Training Provider

Training can be part-time or full-time; day or evening or mixture of any. Training can be provided internally and/ or externally. External training can be provided by colleges or private contractors. They provide NVQs as qualifications. Internal provider can provide company specific dedicated programmes. Again some of the national standard supervisor training programmes can be run internally with company’s internal assessors.

Who Should Do the Training?

This is one of the crucial decisions to make sometimes. Staff Training Working Group of the Distributive Trades EDC (1971) defined manager as anyone who leads a team; it may be supervisor, department manger or simply anyone. That is a topic to raise questions about. Practically that may not be true. Sometimes supervisor may train staffs; even an old experienced staff may train new staffs. So, the above statement may create lots of confusion. Even if we consider managers to train staffs, it is important to find out what the reasons are. Some companies hire trainer for the businesses. Why do they do that? The answer of these is important to select a trainer.

Manager as Trainer

Professional trainers are there to train staffs. But some cases, managers are responsible for training the staffs. Managers have practical knowledge on everything within the store and they are capable to know the abilities and needs of every staffs (Staff Training Working Group of the Distributive Trades EDC 1971). Instead of having some advantages, there are some disadvantages. If managers act as trainer, they need to sacrifice their time from managing business and other activities.

Training the Trainer

Though managers can act as trainers, but they need to be trained on different aspects of training. Professional trainer is already trained to perform as trainer. There is cost involve in training the managers to be trainers. It is important to explore the cost while selecting the trainer.

Designing a Training Programme

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Cole (1993) suggested considering the following factors while designing the training programme.

a. What training.
b. When and How to provide.
c. Where and by whom to provide.
d. Cost of training.

There are some stages while designing an effective and systematic training programme. These are discussed below:

Pre-design Consideration

Miles (1981; cited by Bunker et al. 1987) suggested if the training programme is large or/ and duration is too long, it is better to separate the people to conduct training and to run administration of training. Davis (1974; cited by Bunker et al. 1987) suggested keeping a ratio of one staff member for every 10 trainees maximum. The important issue is to give both trainer and the trainee with adequate opportunities to train and to learn in an effective environment. It is important to know the training briefly, for both trainee and trainer, before start of the training (Bunker et al. 1987). It helps to share needs and expectations of both trainee and trainers. If the trainees know what they are going to get, it will be more helpful.

Designing

Mature trainees should have a chance to learn by themselves, participating through many ways during the training and if trainer put themselves in trainees shoes, they can design the training more effectively. While designing, it should be kept in mind that participants must have maximum chance to get them involved in various activities. It will help to build up their leadership quality (Bunker et al. 1987). Type, duration, intensity of the events should be kept in mind while designing to make it more attractive and enjoyable. Trainees need to have motivation while training and a well designed training programme must obtain that quality. The training environment which includes place of training, trainer and other trainees’ behaviour has great impact on learning outcome.

Events or Methods to Use

While designing training programme, a flow should be maintained towards training objectives. Difficulty level within the activities should be increased. It is fruitful to keep the training simple.

A training session may have more than one activity. According to Rae (2001), a well constructed problem solving exercise can increase the ability to analyse, problem solving, team development, planning and execution, communication etc. A solved or unsolved problem can be given to the trainees to solve. It will increase their ability to think beyond their knowing.

In case of activities during the training, there are lots of activities which can be planned for training programme. It is on to the designer to choose the right one at the right place. Kruse et al. (1994) suggested a list of activities which is attached as appendix ( VI ).

Timing

Some activities or events during the training programme will take some time. According to Rae (2001), often time allocation during designing the training programme is forgotten. It is important to allocate the timescale during designing training programme; so that all the contents are covered within the framed time limit.

Grouping

Normally during a training programme, groups or sub-groups needed to be formed for many reasons. It can be random selection. But if it is demanded to form groups very frequently during the training, Rae (2001) suggested forming a system of rotation before the training starts. It will decrease the possibilities of confusions and chaos.

Resources

It is suggested to use training aids, but it should be relevant and useful. Resources needed for a successful training programme, should be planned and arranged before. It will facilitate smooth running and less chance of intervention during the training programme.

Final Preparation

At the end of the preparation, it may be necessary to include some briefs or instruction sheets for the programme. It is very important to make these documents well enough so that trainees cannot use it as a reason of failure.

Different Costs of Training Programme

While carrying out planning of a training programme, different costs related to the programme need to be catered for. It should meet the company policy and objectives; and it will be helpful during the evaluation process. Different types of cost are listed below:

· Training costs

· Wage costs

· Journey expenses

· Continuation expenses

· Other costs

Different Types of Training

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Initially training has two categories; On-the-job training and Off-the-job training. This type of training can be in-house or external. There are different infrastructure can be used, like on-the-job, residential and training centres. There are both advantages and disadvantages for them. It is important to concentrate on that and to select the right one required for the training programme. A list of infrastructure and their advantages/ disadvantages suggested by Kruse et al. (1994) is attached as appendix ( IV ). Cole (1993) broke down off-the-job as external and in-company figure (2.8).

Figure (2.8): Different types of training methods (Cole 1993, p. 320)

Following are the widely used on-the-job training approaches.

a. GAFO (Go Away and Find Out).

b. Coaching.

c. Mentoring.

d. One-to-one instruction.

e. Computer-based training.

Different Factors to Remember While Planning Training Programme

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The concept of designing a training programme is changing frequently, because of the changing demand of certain factors. So, before discussing the process of designing training programme, it is important to highlight about different factors related to this.

Role theory

Role theory helps to differentiate between training within a company and training in impartial territory. In a training programme, trainees need to perform routine jobs and the role ‘trainee’ is superimposed on that role. So he needs to perform two roles at a time. Esty (1987) said, fully different experience can be seen when the training takes place outside the company boundaries. Their job roles become less powerful and ‘trainee’ roles become significant. Sometimes because of their different roles both trainees and trainers cannot express themselves independently, especially if the training is on worksite.

Trainer and Trainee Relationship

Sometimes trainers try to impose their power; sometimes trainers try to be extra authoritative and do not tolerate errors (King 1964). If an individual does not make mistake, then it is not possible to experience the mistakes, then that person’s learning cannot be fulfilled. Sometimes trainers forces trainees to imitate them, rather than to explore their own ideas. As a result, trainees cannot come out of the box and exercise their own concepts.

Trainer Exchange

Young (2000) stated about movement of students, teachers and other officials among the educational institutions within Europe for Leonardo Da Vinci programme. Outcome of that programme was that they could exchange their ideas and good practices including review and updates of the training programme contents. They could implement those back in their institutions as per requirement. It enriched them with new methods, additional resources. It improved their motivation and self-confidence. It helped a lot to work as a team and implements back those to own place.

Vocational Training

Vocational training formed with a view to prepare a trained, competent labour market for the country. It operated parallel with normal educational system and played a vital role for the distribution of knowledge, qualifications and competencies all over the organisation. Vocational training focuses deeply on key assignments or project areas.

National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs)

Regular training on a specific job is not preferable now. Rather, providing general competences to perform in varying occupational situations is preferred. National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs) worked towards this goal. NVQs are broad, across and focus on present and future task functions of the job. It works towards achieving a minimum standard to perform the job. It breaks down the tasks and focuses on training of each element of the tasks.

Training Rationale

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Concept of training is changing every day. Designing a training programme is of great importance and sensitive issue. Most important characteristic of an employee of a modern firm is to be capable of planning, organising and work independently (Education, Training, Youth, European Commission 1995). They try out new way of work, learn from their experiences and spread their knowledge quickly to the rest of the organisation. If the training is wrongly designed or planned, it may act as a virus within the company. If employees are trained wrongly, it is going to affect the whole organisation. That is why, an effective, rightly designed and well delivered training programme is very important for any organisation.

Training Rationale, Planning, Design and Delivery

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This is the fourth and one of the most important parts of the training cycle of the ‘systematic training cycle’. This is the stage where everything is put together and brought them to reality. It is the part to become a success or failure.

Training Objectives

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Objective is a very simple term with a straight forward meaning.

“Objectives (Or goals) specify what is to be achieved and when. They do not specify how the required results are to be obtained” (Heery and Noon 2001, p. 241)

So far the definition of ‘training objective’ is concerned; most of the authors while defining training objectives said almost the same thing. But Bee and Bee (1994) argued that training objectives does not deal with training process, rather concerned about the outcome of the training. So, objectives are the set outcomes or results to be achieved.

Different types of training objectives

Though objectives can be expressed in an easy and simple way, but it can be categorised. It is very important to differentiate among them. King (1964) stated ‘long-term’ objectives covers almost all sectors of the company for years; whereas, ‘short-term’ objectives changes from time to time and from area to area. In addition to these, Davis (1974; cited by Bunker et al. 1987) suggested about behavioural objectives and Lippitt and Schindler-Rainman (1975; cited by Bunker et al. 1987) emphasized on the importance of selecting different types of learning objectives. These behavioural and learning objectives can be part of both short and long term objectives.

Buckley and Caple (2000) broke it down further. They said that the end performance which target population have to achieve at the end of the training programme as ‘terminal objectives’. Then they added another two terms i.e. ‘enabling’ and ‘lesson’ objectives. ‘Enabling objective’ is the sub-objectives of the terminal objectives. If all the enabling objectives are achieved than terminal objectives are achieved. ‘Lesson objectives’ are sub-objectives of ‘enabling objectives’. Like before, if all the lesson objectives are achieved than enabling objectives are gained. They tried to break down the objectives into elements in different levels and it helps to find and establish objectives effectively. Trainer will have the opportunity to go in details within the objectives for designing the training programme.

Importance of training objectives

Many companies may not give importance to training objectives, even if they have one. All the companies, consciously or unconsciously, have training objectives; brief or wide, stated or unstated (King 1964). But consciously prepared training objectives facilitate management to assess all the factors related to training and opportunity to modify if needed. It is of no use to run a training programme without objectives. It cannot justify its success or failure (Staff Training Working Group of the Distributive Trades EDC 1971). Importance of training programme must be communicated through all level of the company and everyone should be convinced about the benefits of the training programme. They stated objectives as a set standard or target against which evaluation can be taken place.

Forming Training Objectives

The importance of training objective has to be realized by the top management of the organization. They are the initiator of forming objectives for training.

“A belief in the power of training at top level will ensure not only that training is carried out, but also that it is EFFECTIVE” (Staff Training Working Group of the Distributive Trades EDC 1971, p. 91).

Doe (1976) suggested to answer what trainee wants to achieve, how, how much and how well wants to achieve. A training objective has to be very clear, attainable, comprehensible and realistic. It should not be there because one has to be there; rather it should be there because of its importance and everyone responsible should work towards achieving it.

Is There a Training Needed?

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Training may not always be the right answer for a business need (Bee and Bee 1994). Smith and Delaheye (1998, p. 9; cited by Bee and Bee 1994) argued about the word ‘training’ in the TNA. They proposed to avoid the word ‘training’ and to perform a Need Analysis. Lack of skills or knowledge may one of the reasons of ‘performance gap’ (Regalbuto 1992, p. 30; cited by Bee and Bee 1994); there may be other reasons that may not be related to training at all. Buckley and Caple (2000) suggested a very simple model (figure: 2.7) to differentiate between the performance problems and their solutions. This agreed with most of the authors who argued that training is not the only solutions for all performance problems.

Figure (2.7): Filtering process to find solutions to performance problems (Buckley and Caple 2000, p. 32)

Setting Priorities for training

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It may not be necessary to perform training on all the gaps in performance. It is important to prioritise. This will identify what training should be carried out, which order and what can be left out for the future or can be avoided. Bee and Bee (1994) suggested giving emphasis on the following factors while prioritising.

a. Importance of the training needed on the business.
b. Urgency of the training.
c. Impact on business in future for performing or not performing the training programme.

While prioritising the ‘needs information’ gathered from training needs analysis, responsible management needs to be very careful and intelligent. Because, any wrong decision at present may create bigger problem; where it may be more difficult to change or may take more time with big losses.

Training Needs for Doing Things Differently

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It might be necessary to perform jobs in a different way; it is different and more difficult to identify the situation. It is recommended to act on the following steps before deciding for training. It may be possible to solve the problems without training (The Training Support Unit and Branch 6 (TSD) HM Customs & Excise Training Service Division 1992):

a. New procedure or reviewed tasks.

b. Corrections of task guidelines.

c. Change of equipment.

d. Reorganising staffs.

e. Delegating.

f. Change of working hour.

g. Seminars for management.

h. Reviewed communication system.

i. Change of selection process.

Training Gap

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‘Training gap’ can be found through comparing required competencies in job specification and what competencies target population already have (Buckley and Caple 2000). After this trainer will have an idea that what should be the target contents of the training. Cole (1993) suggested the same. He said that shortfall of employee knowledge, skill, understanding, attitudes comparing required standard for the role or demands of any changes, indicates training need. He expressed this through following figure:

Hierarchical Task Analysis

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Through Key Task analysis, main tasks can be identified. But to carry out TNA, more details of those tasks needed to be identified. According to Buckley and Caple (2000), Annett and Duncan (1967) developed ‘Hierarchical Task Analysis’ technique. It can be used in wide range of tasks analysis. It breaks down the main tasks into sub-tasks and each sub-task into more elementary tasks and so on. It identifies each task as what to perform and how to perform. Figure (2.5) will illustrate this:

Figure (2.5): Hierarchy of Tasks (Buckley and Caple 2000, p. 74)

This type of task analysis is better to use because of its wider uses. It is not restricted to any particular level or occupational group(s).

Key-Task Analysis

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According to Buckley and Caple (2000), key-task analysis deals with finding out main or primary tasks performed within the job. They suggested that this type of analysis is carried out mainly with managerial and supervisory positions. Output of key-task analysis is a job description, which indicates main tasks need to perform. If managers want to select job specification, key task analysis should be done first.

Performance Appraisal Systems

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Performance appraisal systems have some characteristics and benefits of it (Bee and Bee 1994). These are,

a. It should take place by regular meetings between manager and employee.

b. It reviews and assesses employee’s performance on the job.

c. Identifies any action needed to improve performance.

d. It is a tool to identify training needs.

e. Provide information for succession planning (Cole 1993).

Quality of performance appraisal systems may be in question because of its subjectivity (Bee and Bee 1994). But they referred it as the principal way of identifying training needs. Bratton and Gold (1994) said that performance appraisal is an ‘information-processing system’. Through appraisal error, effectiveness, weaknesses can be identified. Randell (1989; cited by Bratton and Gold 1994) suggested a performance control approach to appraisal (figure 2.4).

Figure (2.4): A performance control approach to appraisal (Randell 1989; cited by Bratton and Gold 1994, p. 173)

Performance appraisal system is useful tool for managers to identify, assess the effectiveness of performance. Through Ranndel’s (ibid.) performance control approach various areas of training can be covered; like reviewing job description, objectives, evaluation. What kind of performance appraisal can be used will depend on the environment and needs of work; but it is very useful for processing training needs analysis.

Management Information System (MIS)

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Management information system (MIS) is one of the different tools of gathering information regarding training needs. Bee and Bee defined MIS as a system which provide,

“...the right information in the right form at the right time, so enabling the manager effectively and efficiently to do his/ her job” (Bee and Bee 1990, p. 3; cited by Bee and Bee 1994, p. 46).

They did not differentiate among the types of information MIS should provide. But whatever may be the information, it has to be available to the manager at the right form at the right time. It facilitates managers to analyse and take decisions properly. In case of training needs analysis or planning, MIS plays a vital role for the training professionals. It can provide necessary information regarding employees and business.

Incidents for Training Needs

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There may be some identification of training needs from ‘one-off’ incidents (Bee and Bee 1994). This does not take place often, but needs to include in training needs. Again, some regular incidents may demand TNA. These can be written down in incident book.

Succession Planning

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According to Armstrong (1991, p.479; cited by Bee and Bee 1994), succession planning aims at filling out management vacancy which may be created by various reasons and to keep a pool of prepared managers to fill new positions in future. By the above statement, it is clear that succession planning is very important to training needs analysis. Wallum (1993, p. 43; cited by Bee and Bee 1994) illustrated that it should not be limited to the managerial roles; it should consider senior or any other key job holders. Bee and Bee (1994) suggested that it can be used in organisational level, occupational level; but while using in individual level, they limited it to management staffs. They added that it is not only limited to future needs only, it can be used for immediate demands of the business like transfer or death of managers etc.

If the concept of succession planning is narrowed down to operational level and the importance of it to training needs analysis of supervisors’ training needs, figure (2.3) can be drawn:

Figure (2.3): Relation between HRP and Succession Planning

Through HRP staffs’ information are organised and successor pool is created through succession planning.

Human Resource Planning

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Human resource planning is-

“...to ensure adequate numbers of competent personnel in particular occupations, at given times, consistent with, and related to, the overall business strategy” (Boydell 1990, p. 16; cited by Bee and Bee 1994, p. 23).

It is important to have training related information of all the employees within the organization, for deciding on current or future training needs. Kruse et al. (1994) suggested making a list of internal potential of human resources, their functions and job requirements. Human resource planning (HRP) is great tool for gathering information while performing TNA. Different target population will have different training needs, which can be collected form HRP. Again it helps the training department to work with the business’s strategy. Past training history is an essential part.

Obtaining Information to Determine Training Needs

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Staffs, management, external consultants, meetings (Kruse et al. 1994) could be sources of collecting information. It is possible that through interview, questionnaire, observation, case study analysis, someone can collect information. Identification of required knowledge, skills and attitudes for TNA will depend on the knowledge or efficiency of the person undertaking this process. Again, it is needed to set a timescale and standard of competence required.

Bee and Bee (1994) suggested a series of sources from where training professionals can collect information while performing TNA.

Figure (2.2): Sources of information required for TNA (Bee and Bee 1994, p. 152)

Sources stated in figure (2.2) are universally used to collect information, though other methods can be used.

Job Specification

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A job specification for any role identifies the required competence for performing the role. It gives a guideline for the expected qualification of an employee. According to Buckley and Caple (2000), following benefits can be achieved from a job specification:

a. Relevance of training provided.

b. Training content requirements.

c. Checklist to identify individual training needs.

d. Selecting training method(s) to follow.

A job specification identifies about the competencies required by the job holder (Bee and Bee 1994). If it is a new job role than the whole sets of competencies can be identified as ‘gap in competencies’. If otherwise, a part of competencies may be identified as a ‘gap in competencies’.

It can be explained through following equation:

(COMPETENCIES REQUIRED IN JOB SPECIFICATION) – (POTENTIAL PERFORMER’S PRESENT COMPETENCIES) = GAP IN COMPETENCIES

It can be modified for the new job role as,

(COMPETENCIES REQUIRED IN JOB SPECIFICATION) = GAP IN COMPETENCIES

A model of personalized file of ‘job specification’ is attached in appendix ( II ).

Sometimes employees need to perform some extra tasks which may not be listed in formal job description; they may need extra competences to perform those. Considering this issue, above specified equation can be stated as,

(COMPETENCIES REQUIRED IN JOB SPECIFICATION + COMPETENCIES REQUIRED TO PERFORM EXTRA TASKS WHICH IS NOT SPECIFIED IN JOB DESCRIPTION) – (POTENTIAL PERFORMER’S PRESENT COMPETENCIES) = GAP IN COMPETENCIES

TNA Process

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It is important to assess the following two questions continuously (Bee and Bee 1994):

a. What performance changes needed to meet the business needs?

b. Whether those performance changes best met by a training intervention?

Stages in the Analysis of Training Needs

Employees need to perform different things or to do things differently (The Training Support Unit and Branch 6 (TSD) HM Customs & Excise Training Service Division 1992). When it become necessary to create a new job or/ and to bring change into an existing job or/ and to add new things to an existing job, ‘different things’ needed to be done. On the other hand, when new procedures, new working practices, new rules/ legislation/ policy, new targets, new specific problems (present or future) occurs, things needed to be done differently, i.e. present jobs needed to be done in different way.

Kruse et al. (1994) suggested a systematic way to carry out TNA. They said to select the Objectives and Scope for TNA, to carry out task analysis, collect information from different sources, to interpret data and information, to identify the needs or/ and causes and priorities. Bee and Bee (1994) suggested that precisely specified training needs leads more focused training. It will ensure training in a cost-effective way. In this process job specification is the starting point of needs analysis.

Training Needs for Doing Different Things

To perform TNA for doing different things, areas like job specification, different information sources for training needs, task analysis, training gap etc need to be discussed.

Different Level of TNA

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Bee and Bee (1994) identified following levels as the common structure for classifying methods of identifying training needs:

a. Organisational Level- identifies training needs for the organisation.

b. Occupational/ Group Level- identifies training needs for particular occupation or group.

c. Individual Level- identifies training needs for individuals.

These are mutually dependent in carrying out TNA; one leads to another. There are another two types of training needs analysis (Boydell 1990; cited by Bee and Bee 1994):

a. Present needs- it deals with current objectives, eg. TNA for current job or immediate change in working environment.

b. Future needs- it deals with long(er) term objectives. eg. TNA for future jobs, future strategically changes in business or long-term environmental changes.

To make it more effective TNA both present and future needs of training should be carried out in all three levels and it should be carried out very often.

Training Needs Analysis

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This is the second part of the training cycle of the ‘systematic training approach’. Without this stage, it is almost impossible to find out about the needs, contents and other important factors of the effective training programme. Successful completion of this stage leads to form specific objectives for the training programme.

What Training Needs Analysis (TNA) is

Richter (1986) defined ‘training needs analysis’ as a process which is ongoing, watchful to changes and to react to opportunities for improvement. According to The Training Support Unit and Branch 6 (TSD) HM Customs & Excise Training Service Division (1992), TNA is the end result of the process to examine the effectiveness of present and future requirements of training for both individuals and organizations. Heery and Noon (2001) stated Training Needs Analysis as the technique of assessing the ‘gap’ of skills, knowledge of the employees.

So, TNA can be said as a process to find out the ‘gap’ of competency(ies) required performing a job by an individual; and an organisation as a whole.

Importance of TNA

It helps to find out ‘gap’ between required and present competence of job holder. It guides to select content of training programme. Collected information can be used for future purposes. It helps to set objectives of the training. Lippitt and Schindler-Rainman (1975; cited by Bunker et al. 1987) suggested involving outsiders for TNA and information should be checked by insiders. This will eliminate any biasness. Again Davis (1974; cited by Bunker et al. 1987) recommended several methods for better data. TNA helps to collect right needs for training and if it is not done properly, it will result training programme a total waste; even training department, managers, and staffs will be confused.