Art & Ideas

Sunset Song by Lewis Grassic Gibbon

2014-08-11T17:15:00.000+01:00

Sunset Song by Lewis Grassic Gibbon

The critic William Malcolm suggests that in choosing a female protagonist for Sunset Song, Gibbon was ‘deliberately challenging the status quo’. This brief article explores this proposition.

Before assessing the validity of Malcolm’s statement, it’s important to consider what he, or we, might mean by the status quo, at least as far as this relates to writing. It seems reasonable to look at the work of some earlier Scottish novelists to identify any broad themes that emanate from their work, and which define Scottish writing. Certainly it’s easy to associate writers such as Sir Walter Scott and Robert Louis Stevenson with tales of male heroics and adventure, though neither of these authors wrote exclusively about Scotland. Many of their most remembered novels do have gothic overtones but that tends to be borne out of the evil that dwells within the hearts of men; the bleakness of the setting is used more to reinforce that theme – it’s not there to illustrate the harshness of Scottish life. Of Gibbon’s peers the two most worthy of mention in this context are Ian Maclaren and George Douglas Brown – since Gibbon makes reference to both of their work. Maclaren’s collection of short stories, Beside the Bonnie Brier Bush (1894), is an example of the kailyard novel. Kailyard novels emerged at the end of the nineteenth century and are notable for their sentimental depiction of rural life in Scotland, and their avoidance of the reality of the harshness faced by some Scots. In a way they are the latter-day equivalent of today’s classic shortbread tin illustration. Brown’s The House with the Green Shutters (1901) is at the other end of the spectrum and was a far more truthful depiction of the reality of Scottish rural life. In these stories the protagonist was a male character. In the final paragraph of the first chapter of Sunset Song Gibbon gives us a clue that he sees the novel representing life somewhere between these two extremes: ‘…fathered between a kailyard and a bonny brier bush in the lee of a house with green shutters.’

So, on the simple measure that Scottish novels tended to have a male as the central character, Gibbon was challenging the status quo. My own view is that making the main protagonist a woman isn’t really challenging the status quo. It’s worth remembering that female protagonists weren’t new to literature generally. Jane Eyre and Elizabeth Bennett are two obvious examples. Female protagonists created by male authors – such as Medea and Tess – are also in evidence, though they are fundamentally tragic characters. But to suggest that he selected Chris as his central character just to challenge the status quo would be to trivialise his motive for doing so. There’s more to it than simply ‘cocking a snook’ at his contemporaries. I think the challenge to the status quo is in the way the female protagonists thinks and acts. In Sunset Song, Gibbon wanted to make some clear points about the reality of rural life in Scotland and some wider statements about social structures. In his contribution to the Writers’ International Controversy in 1935 he described himself as a revolutionary writer and stated that, ‘…all my books are explicit or implicit propaganda’. Sunset Song falls into the implicit category. It’s reasonable to conclude that he didn’t want Sunset Song to be seen as an overtly political novel, and didn’t allow Chris’ character to be distorted by any political bias. I think that having a female protagonist was instrumental in helping him to achieve this. In fact, it’s arguable that Gibbon wanted his book to reach as wide an audience as possible – a not unnatural aspiration among authors – and chose to write in a style that blended traditional Scots and standard English, thus making it accessible to many more readers. In the remainder of this essay I’d like to explore some reasons why I believe a female protagonist was essential to get across at least some of the essential points that Gibbon wanted to make.

Sex, and the treatment and description of sex is one of the most controversial features of this novel. There are a number of scenes where sex is examined in detail and implicitly. These include instances where Chris examines her body in the mirror, when she stripped to help her mother wash the blankets (and was admonished by her father), her first kiss with her classmate Margaret, and where a casual labourer offers to ‘deflower’ her. These are all fairly minor incidents and on their own wouldn’t raise too many eyebrows. The suggestions of incest though really do challenge the status quo of Scottish writing, and indeed western societies, at that time. The first of these instances occurs when Chris snuggles up to her brother Will in bed after John Guthrie had beaten him. There is no suggestion that anything other than a snuggle took place but it is undoubtedly unusual behaviour for teenage siblings of any generation. Later in the story, after the death of Chris’s mother, her father John Guthrie is on his deathbed and asks Chris to lie with him – ‘You’re my flesh and blood, I can do with you what I will…’. One of the most poignant sexual moments occurs on the evening of Ewan’s return from military training. After arriving late and drunk, he verbally abuses Chris and his own son, before making love to her in a rough and uncaring manner. The narrative describing this event is brief but illustrates the horror felt by Chris – ‘…memory of the foulness something cold and vile…’, ‘…his beast-like mauling…’, ‘…burned and danced on that mirror that wheeled and wheeled in her brain.’. Chris again sees herself in the mirror, but this time she’s being ‘raped’ by her husband. I use inverted commas here only because I’m not sure it would be considered rape in these times. The simple point is that these sexual references would have less meaning and impact if seen through the eyes of a male. In our society, sex is not a threat to men. They are the predators and women the victims. (Ewan had already kissed her violently before they were properly introduced and would have done more if she hadn’t escaped his clutches.) Gibbon wouldn’t have been able to explore this aspect of sexual relationships if the story was focused on a male character. These incidents would simply not be able to be described with the same level of emotion. By choosing a female protagonist Gibbon can critique male domination and male domestic and sexual violence in a graphic and shocking way — undermining the masculine hegemony of society.

One of the themes of Sunset Song is change, and that means changes to the land, to society and to people. All of this change is shown through the perspective of Chris. We learn through the narrative that there are two sides to Chris; the Scottish Chris experiences a strong physical connection to the land and this aspect of her character eventually triumphs. We meet Chris as a young teenager torn between her two selves, her education and ability helps her to develop a keener sense of herself, she begins to discover the physical side of herself. When her parents die she becomes, through necessity, first stronger (she’s able to stand up to her father better) then more independent (after his death she decides to remain at Blawearie). Eventually she gets married and gives birth and experiences the pain of the death of someone she loved. In the novel Gibbon sets these changes in Chris with different phases of the agricultural cycle, with each chapter representing a different phase of Chris’s life. For example in Seed-Time she marries Ewan and falls pregnant, and in Harvest she gives birth to her son. At the same time we see changes in the land beyond the agricultural cycle: the cutting down of the trees for the war industry, the violent death of the horses, and the motor car ‘pushing’ the people off the road − and John Guthrie being evicted from his home after an incident with a motorist. The way events unfold creates a strong link between what happens to Chris and what happens to the land. In this way their fates are bound together. And like the land, a woman’s body is capable of producing new life. It’s hard to see that this parallel would work with a male protagonist.

Some commentators, including film director Terence Davies, see Chris as an allegorical figure for Scotland. Douglas Gifford, former Professor of Scottish Literature at the University of Glasgow, endorses this view and attributes this to Gibbon being influenced by nineteenth-century European novels where women were seen as, ‘carriers of the identity and soul of their country’. As mentioned earlier, some writers had put a female figure at the centre of their novel, though in none of these examples was that character in any way representing her nation. Chris is decidedly different as she clearly has a strong physical connection with the land. Her independence means she stands apart from the traditional female character, and certainly the other females in Sunset Song, and at times occupies a space traditionally held by men – for example when she takes over the lease of Blawearie on her father’s death. What’s more, her dual identity mirrors the conflict over the cultural identity of Scotland. The fact that she chose to become Scots Chris rather than English Chris serves to reinforce her position as a symbolic figure for the country. Without thinking too hard it seems that a male could easily represent the land, but the idea of a female character had already been well established in history and in art in that role. Britannia is a name which dates back to Roman Britain. It is depicted as a woman carrying a shield and a trident and has come to personify the British Isles. Similarly in France it’s a female figure, Marianne, who represents the state and the values of the country. Interestingly, in Cloud Howe, the sequel to Sunset Song, Chris’ husband calls her Chris Caledonia.

Finally, we’re left with the question, ‘Would Gibbon have better achieved his aims if the protagonist had been male?’ If we take the broadest theme of the novel to be change, which of the current male characters would best represent that? Certainly not John Guthrie, he’s there to portray the longstanding chauvinistic attitudes of males in the north-east. Chae is already a more rounded likeable character, while Long Rob, while equally likeable, is a man who goes back on his principles even though he knows they have merit. Ewan is the only other main character who undergoes any sort of personal change: he goes from loving Chris to abusing her, and finally realising the error of his ways and loving her again. However, his personal tale is a bleak message.

In this paper I’ve tried to identify some reasons why Gibbon chose a female protagonist for Sunset Song, beyond the simple act of challenging the status quo. The female character works well in exposing a female perspective on sex and how it could be a violent experience for women; a far cry from the romantic Scotland of the kailyard novels. We also considered the idea of change in the land being mirrored by the changes in a woman’s development and how a female figure has artistically been more relevant as being representative of the land. No doubt it was within Gibbon’s ability to write this story with a male protagonist but I suspect it would be a very different novel than Sunset Song.

To Autumn by John Keats

2013-04-25T22:44:00.002+01:00

Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness!
Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun;
Conspiring with him how to load and bless
With fruit the vines that round the thatch-eaves run;
To bend with apples the mossed cottage-trees,
And fill all fruit with ripeness to the core;
To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shells
With a sweet kernel; to set budding more,
And still more, later flowers for the bees,
Until they think warm days will never cease,
For Summer has o'erbrimmed their clammy cells.

Who hath not seen thee oft amid thy store?
Sometimes whoever seeks abroad may find
Thee sitting careless on a granary floor,
Thy hair soft-lifted by the winnowing wind;
Or on a half-reaped furrow sound asleep,
Drowsed with the fume of poppies, while thy hook
Spares the next swath and all its twined flowers;
And sometimes like a gleaner thou dost keep
Steady thy laden head across a brook;
Or by a cider-press, with patient look,
Thou watchest the last oozings, hours by hours.

Where are the songs of Spring? Ay, where are they?
Think not of them, thou hast thy music too, -
While barred clouds bloom the soft-dying day
And touch the stubble-plains with rosy hue;
Then in a wailful choir the small gnats mourn
Among the river sallows, borne aloft
Or sinking as the light wind lives or dies;
And full-grown lambs loud bleat from hilly bourn;
Hedge-crickets sing, and now with treble soft
The redbreast whistles from a garden-croft;
And gathering swallows twitter in the skies.

An analysis of To Autumn by John Keats

“To Autumn” by John Keats is a striking depiction of one man’s love of the season autumn. The poet reflects on the beauty through the use of imagery and word choice. Throughout the poem the writer reveals a personal theme of his common appreciation for simple things and also the cycle of nature. The poem is broken up into three stanzas, each dealing with a different aspect of the season. Stanza one stresses the abundance of nature and that there is a certain surfeit. The penultimate stanza describes the leisurely feel of autumn and the final section deals with the comforting sounds which can be heard.

Word choice is successfully used by the writer to convey the attractive features of autumn. Striking images of the fruit and overflowing trees give the season a dreamy quality which the writer adores. This is used alongside the description of the harvest which shows the writer eulogizes.

“Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness…fill all fruit with ripeness to the core; to swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shells”

The first line sets the scene perfectly as the poet uses sibilance to give autumn an authentic lushness. It is effectively used as it establishes with the reader exactly how Keats envisions the season. “mists” adds to the dreamy aura the writer wishes to create and this comforts the reader as it is a pleasant image. “fruitfulness” and “ripeness” initiate the sense of the surfeit and that autumn is bursting with fruit. The use of “swell” and “plump” emphasize the grandness of the whole period as all of nature is in its prime.

Relaxing words are used in the second stanza to enlighten the reader into the restful attitude of autumn. Moving images are also created which gives the season a romantic feel.

“Thee sitting careless on a granary floor…thy hair soft-lifted by the winnowing wind…half-reap’d furrow sound asleep… thou watchest the last oozings hours by hours”

The sight of someone sitting carelessly on a “granary floor” is a very calming image that symbolizes the whole laidback feel to autumn itself. This is then followed by the dreamlike image of the wind flowing through hair which is effective as it is also a soothing vision. The use of alliteration “winnowing wind” reinforces this perfectly. “half reap’d sound asleep” underlines the casual attitude as the harvest is only half done and the use of “sound asleep” highlights the easygoing approach to life at this time of year. The final phrase deals with the slow process of making cider. “oozing” exemplifies this as it is a gradual operation which symbolizes autumn’s lethargic angle on life. “hours and hours” finishes this section off supremely as it conveys a very long time which is what autumn is genuinely all about.

The final stanza dealing with the sounds of autumn is full of descriptive words on the sounds made by animals in autumn. They range from happy tuneful sounds to the “mourn” of gnats.

“And full-grown lambs loud bleat…Hedge-crickets sing…The red-breast whistles…And gathering swallows twitter”

The “loud bleat” of the lambs is comforting as it suggests they are happy and having fun. The fact that they are lambs also adds to this pleasurable image as they represent new life and possess cheerful personalities. “The hedge-crickets sing” is enjoyable as it connotes the idea of a tune. The high pitched noise a cricket makes is never charming but the writer makes it seem pleasant. The “whistle” from the red-breast and the twittering of the swallows are background noises which would be coming from above; boost the joyful atmosphere to help create a whole round pleasing experience for anyone in the surrounding area.

Keats cleverly uses imagery to demonstrate his admiration of his favorite time of year. With the use of powerful images and striking visions his adoration of autumn is effectively conveyed.

“And sometimes like a gleaner thou dost keep steady thy laden head across a brook”

The simile “like a gleaner” personifies a tree as an elderly woman who would be weighed down by tools and fruit. They are similar in that the tree will be burdened with an excess of fruit causing it to bend over the burn. This allowed me to visualize the impact of the surfeit as it is straining trees and adds to the full feel of nature at this time of year.

The imagery used in the final stanza further describes the sounds made by nature.

“Then in a wailful choir the small gnats mourn”

The fact that the gnats are in a “choir” exemplifies the amount of them which creates another image of nature being at its fullest. They are mourning as it is coming to the end of autumn which symbolizes the writer’s sadness for leaving the season for winter. “mourn” also implies death which would be evident at the end of autumn as all the leaves and fruit fall off the trees.

In conclusion, Keats uses cunning phrases and words to create his depiction of autumn. The reader is made fully aware of his love for the season and every aspect of it. It is evident that the poet enjoyed writing the poem which in turn aids the readers’ appreciation of the text.

The Horses by Edwin Muir

2013-04-25T22:43:00.000+01:00

Barely a twelvemonth after
The seven days war that put the world to sleep,
Late in the evening the strange horses came.
By then we had made our covenant with silence,
But in the first few days it was so still
We listened to our breathing and were afraid.
On the second day
The radios failed; we turned the knobs; no answer.
On the third day a warship passed us, heading north,
Dead bodies piled on the deck. On the sixth day
A plane plunged over us into the sea. Thereafter
Nothing. The radios dumb;
And still they stand in corners of our kitchens,
And stand, perhaps, turned on, in a million rooms
All over the world. But now if they should speak,
If on a sudden they should speak again,
If on the stroke of noon a voice should speak,
We would not listen, we would not let it bring
That old bad world that swallowed its children quick
At one great gulp. We would not have it again.
Sometimes we think of the nations lying asleep,
Curled blindly in impenetrable sorrow,
And then the thought confounds us with its strangeness.
The tractors lie about our fields; at evening
They look like dank sea-monsters couched and waiting.
We leave them where they are and let them rust:
'They'll molder away and be like other loam.'
We make our oxen drag our rusty plows,
Long laid aside. We have gone back
Far past our fathers' land.
And then, that evening
Late in the summer the strange horses came.
We heard a distant tapping on the road,
A deepening drumming; it stopped, went on again
And at the corner changed to hollow thunder.
We saw the heads
Like a wild wave charging and were afraid.
We had sold our horses in our fathers' time
To buy new tractors. Now they were strange to us
As fabulous steeds set on an ancient shield.
Or illustrations in a book of knights.
We did not dare go near them. Yet they waited,
Stubborn and shy, as if they had been sent
By an old command to find our whereabouts
And that long-lost archaic companionship.
In the first moment we had never a thought
That they were creatures to be owned and used.
Among them were some half a dozen colts
Dropped in some wilderness of the broken world,
Yet new as if they had come from their own Eden.
Since then they have pulled our plows and borne our loads
But that free servitude still can pierce our hearts.
Our life is changed; their coming our beginning.

An analysis of The Horses by Edwin Muir

“The Horses” by Edwin Muir is a powerful poem written in a specific poetic form. It is a saga of a disturbed future in which a nuclear war has taken place and horses have arrived to replace machinery. It deals with the contrasting themes of destruction and hope and is set on a remote island in Scotland. The use of the saga form along with word choice and imagery helps the reader to appreciate the feelings conveyed by the poet.

In the first section, the poet establishes the saga form. A biblical and archaic register is present right from the beginning with the use of the word “twelvemonth” in the first line to set the tone of the saga. This is used alongside “covenant” in the fourth line which initiates an old atmosphere as it is a bible reference. This again is in sync with the saga form created by the poet. A euphemism is used, “that put the world to sleep” to nullify the event although the reader is aware of the devastating effects of a nuclear war. This is also ironic as being put to sleep is associated with animals that are suffering and not human beings.

The second section of the poem deals with the flashback to the seven days war. Further biblical references are used at the start with the association with Genesis; on the second day…On the third day… On the sixth day”. This connotes the idea that the war is the reversal of creation and it might be God’s way of destroying a civilization that had gone wrong. An eerie mood is created in the following lines by the shocked silence: “We listened to our breathing and were afraid”. This underlines there fear of the world being plunged into a sudden silence that meant they could hear themselves breathing. The syntax also plays a big part in this section as it indicates halts in the narration which keeps in with the mood. The shortness of line seven suggests a gulp before the narrator can continue and the caesurae in lines ten and eleven connote the narrator’s inability to believe this could happen. The enjambment of “Thereafter nothing” also emphasis’s the finality of the words, hence there is nothing left. The warship and plane are used as symbols of war to show the destruction at this point. The idea of the “Dead bodies piled on the deck” also adds to the eerie tone as it is a disturbing image. In line twelve the personification of the radio’s as “Dumb” forms them into a symbol of the technology of man which is partly responsible for the war in the first place. The end of this section introduces a sadder and reflective tone with the vivid image of the nations lying dead, unburied: “curled blindly in impenetrable sorrow”. “Curled” suggests the fetal position − which is the way people naturally fall if they feel threatened − to imply the idea of fear. This is used alongside “blindly” which is ironic in that man’s moral blindness has caused the war in the first place. However a consequence is that people would become blind from the blast, so blindness was both cause and result.

The penultimate section discusses the arrival of the horses and their meaning. The start refers back to the saga register with the used of the phrase “…that evening late in the summer”. This is used to remind the reader the poem is being told from a survivor’s point of view. The juxtaposition of the phrase is used to show that the horses have only come when society has realised its mistake and is willing to start over again. This is further stressed by the line layout which suggests that a period of time has passed for lessons to be learned. The horses’ approach is very important as the reader uses emotive language, first sound then sight: “distant tapping…deepening drumming…hollow thunder”. This crescendo of noise emphasises the power of the coming horses and their striking confidence. The simile “like a wild wave charging” underlines the sheer strength of the horses with their manes combined to form crashing waves on the shore. The following similes contribute to the strangeness of the horses as seen by society: “As fabulous steeds set on an ancient shield or illustrations in a book of knights”. This sets up the horses as symbols representing the old ways of the people and as though the horses are back to give the community a second chance at life setting up a time before technology ruined mankind. The horses are then personified as “stubborn and shy” to give the idea that they were sent by ancestors to add to the fact that they are back to help. The use of the word “colts” adds to this new generation as the horses will continue to breed which will start new life.

The epilogue hosts the oxymoron “free servitude”. This emphasises the horses’ free spirit, unexploited by humans but they still serve them by ploughing fields and pulling carts. The phrase “our life is changed” is also used to show how an effect has been made by the horses for the better as “their coming our beginning” is also used. This stresses that society believes they have been given another chance and will use it instead of destroying it like the last time.

In conclusion, Muir has used the saga form to create a believable story in which a nuclear war has destroyed the world by the technologies of mankind. The solution he offers suggests he believes humans should depend more on nature and less on technology. Man is forgiven in the poem to show he believes God is compassionate and should be loved.

My Last Duchess by Robert Browning

2013-04-25T22:42:00.000+01:00

That's my last Duchess painted on the wall,
Looking as if she were alive. I call
That piece a wonder, now: Fra Pandolf’s hands
Worked busily a day, and there she stands.
Will’t please you sit and look at her? I said
“Fra Pandolf” by design, for never read
Strangers like you that pictured countenance,
The depth and passion of its earnest glance,
But to myself they turned (since none puts by
The curtain I have drawn for you, but I)
And seemed as they would ask me, if they durst,
How such a glance came there; so, not the first
Are you to turn and ask thus. Sir, ’twas not
Her husband’s presence only, called that spot
Of joy into the Duchess’ cheek: perhaps
Fra Pandolf chanced to say “Her mantle laps
Over my lady’s wrist too much,” or “Paint
Must never hope to reproduce the faint
Half-flush that dies along her throat”: such stuff
Was courtesy, she thought, and cause enough
For calling up that spot of joy. She had
A heart—how shall I say?—too soon made glad,
Too easily impressed; she liked whate’er
She looked on, and her looks went everywhere.
Sir, ’twas all one! My favour at her breast,
The dropping of the daylight in the West,
The bough of cherries some officious fool
Broke in the orchard for her, the white mule
She rode with round the terrace—all and each
Would draw from her alike the approving speech,
Or blush, at least. She thanked men,—good! but thanked
Somehow—I know not how—as if she ranked
My gift of a nine-hundred-years-old name
With anybody’s gift. Who’d stoop to blame
This sort of trifling? Even had you skill
In speech—(which I have not)—to make your will
Quite clear to such an one, and say, “Just this
Or that in you disgusts me; here you miss,
Or there exceed the mark”—and if she let
Herself be lessoned so, nor plainly set
Her wits to yours, forsooth, and made excuse,
—E’en then would be some stooping; and I choose
Never to stoop. Oh sir, she smiled, no doubt,
Whene’er I passed her; but who passed without
Much the same smile? This grew; I gave commands;
Then all smiles stopped together. There she stands
As if alive. Will’t please you rise? We’ll meet
The company below, then. I repeat,
The Count your master’s known munificence
Is ample warrant that no just pretence
Of mine for dowry will be disallowed;
Though his fair daughter’s self, as I avowed
At starting, is my object. Nay, we’ll go
Together down, sir. Notice Neptune, though,
Taming a sea-horse, thought a rarity,
Which Claus of Innsbruck cast in bronze for me!

An analysis of My Last Duchess by Robert Browning

“My Last Duchess” by Robert Browning is a powerful dramatic monologue dealing with the exploits of the Duke of Ferrara. The poet uses this form along with characterisation to provoke the reader into feeling angry towards the Duke. Throughout the poem, a theme of relationship is revealed which contributes to the successful portrayal of a horrible man.

The dramatic monologue form is effective in provoking the reader into feeling anger as the Duke reveals more about himself than he realises. Through his constant speech the Duke’s real personality is made clear:

“That’s my last duchess painted on the wall, Looking as if she were alive.”

The fact that the Duke refers to the lady as “my” and not her real name shows that he believed he owned the woman and that she was his to control. The word “last” is ambiguous in that it could mean the lady was the Duke’s final Duchess, which would be ignorant of the Duke as he is entertaining a representative of what he hopes is his next wife’s father. It could also mean that the woman was literally his most recent wife which suggests there has been more than one. This in turn reveals the Duke’s weakness for women and that he has to have a wife at all times. Further anger is felt by the reader through the Duke’s striking arrogance which he reveals unwittingly:

“Somehow – I know not how – as if she ranked My gift of a nine hundred-years-old name With anybody’s gift.”

This exemplifies the Duke’s inflated ego as he believes that making the woman a Duchess was the best thing that ever happened to her. He resents her casual attitude to this and feels she did not show enough appreciation for him choosing her. He refers to the title as a “gift” which shows he thought of it as a present which possibly won her heart.

Browning also uses characterisation to make the reader angry towards the Duke. The Duke shows his bizarre controlling angle on the subject of the duchess through the curtain. He keeps the picture of her behind a curtain which he can control. This symbolises how he wishes the marriage was; him having complete power over whom the Duchess saw and who saw her; and what she could see also.

“But to myself they turned (since none puts by The curtain I have drawn for you, but I)”

He is delighted at having authority over her which reveals his whole attitude towards women in that he feels men are superior. At this point the main theme is declared which sets up the rest of the poem as the reader is now fully aware of the Duke’s attributes. The following lines are a gradual build up towards the climax.

The Duke has a distorted way of looking at the woman’s attractive aspects. He sees her positive features as not acceptable which leads up to her consequent murder:

“…She had A heart – how shall I say? – too soon made glad, Too easily impressed; she liked whate’er She looked on, and her looks went everywhere.”

Her charming nature is a problem to him as he feels she will be pleased by anyone she meets. This reinforces the Duke’s jealousy which he cannot seem to grasp. It ends up in eventual death of the woman which makes the Duke feel happier but leaves the reader even more inflamed.

The climax of the poem is apparent when the Duke announces that he ordered the lady’s death. His attitude shortly after this is so shocking that the reader is forced to feel annoyance:

“…This grew; I gave commands; Then all smiles stopped together. There she stands…”

The use of the two semi-colons is very effective as it creates suspense filled pauses while the reader contemplates what actually happened. The result is so atrocious that this is where the reader feels the most exasperation for the Duke; this is conveyed by the use of the synecdoche “smiles” which sums up the Duchess’s personality in a word; and also the shortness of the phrase, to create a powerful impact. The Duke’s progression into “There she stands” carries on his remorseless attitude as he acts as though there is nothing strange about his actions. The Duke’s greed is then explored as he leads the envoy away from the painting:

“…No just pretence Of mine for dowry will be disallowed; Though his fair daughter’s self, as I avowed”

This underlines the Duke’s need for a wife, money. With a wife comes a dowry. The Duke has recognized this and therefore wishes to seize the opportunity to make himself better off. The fact that he does not mention his possible forthcoming wife is used to the same effect as the first line. He believes he has the right to own women and that post marriage, they will belong to him.

In conclusion, through the dramatic monologue form which reveals the Duke’s true character, the reader is forced to feel anger towards him which in turn creates a successful portrayal of a detestable man. The theme of relationships between men and woman is also made aware through this realistic depiction to establish an altogether controversial yet enjoyable poem.

A Clockwork Orange by Anthony Burgess

2013-04-25T22:35:00.002+01:00

An examination of how effectively the theme of violence is illustrated through the development of the protagonist Alex.

In Anthony Burgess highly controversial novel 'A Clockwork Orange' the theme of violence is portrayed through the development of the protagonist Alex to capture the reader’s interest. 'A Clockwork Orange' is set in a disturbing future created by the author. The story follows the life of the troubled boy Alex and his development into adulthood.

At the start of the novel Alex is a very disturbed character. Alex and his ‘droogs’ see a sport in rape, theft and violence. An example of this is when Alex enjoys using an extravagant weapon relating to his bizarre use of language; using the word "tolchocked" instead of punched.

"Well, then she had to be tolchocked proper with one of the weights for the scales, and then a fair tap with a crowbar they had for opening cases, and that brought the red out like an old friend."

The "red" he is referring to is the woman's blood and he appears glad to see it. The use of the simile "like an old friend" reinforces this as it suggests the idea that he has some fascination with blood and loves to make people bleed just so he can see it. It also stresses that it’s not the first time he has seen it and he has developed a strong relationship with it. There are further references to blood as his friend;

"...then out comes the blood, my brothers, real beautiful"

This amplifies his love for making people bleed which illustrates how much of a perturbed individual he is. The lustful tone gives Alex a maniac-like quality which is evident throughout. The only explanation for his violent manner is that he enjoys the experience of it. He finds violence without meaning, disgusting and is angered when his friends commit acts which are uncharacteristic. This is his way of finding a moral excuse for the brutal acts which he commits. The reader holds no sympathy for Alex during this part of the novel as he commits unprecedented attacks even though he feels they have a purpose.

Being the leader of the gang, Alex holds a certain authority over his friends which he has to hold by going the extra step in their violent acts. He is the person to decide whether they beat someone; or where they will go to look for trouble.

"I eased up and put the brake on, the other three were giggling like bezoomy...I got out of the auto, ordering my droogs to shush their giggles and act like serious,"

This demonstrates how serious Alex takes these matters and underlines that he is the most mature of the four boys, although it is in a perverse way. The use of the word "ordering" reinforces his natural leadership qualities and the authoritative tone stresses his directive aspects. Alex enjoys having the last blow in a fight or being against the leader of another gang. This shows his authority as he will finish off the person and will be remembered for what he did. He delights in fighting Billyboy who is the leader of the rival gang.

"It was stinking fat Billyboy I wanted now, and there I was dancing around with my britva like I might be a barber on board a shop on a very rough sea...it was real satisfaction to me to waltz - left two three, right two three - and carve left cheeky and right cheeky, so that like two curtains of blood seemed to pour out at the same time"

This powerful image expresses how mad and inclined to be a megalomaniac Alex is, that he has to be the leader. "it was real satisfaction" reveals how much he enjoys attacking the controller of the other gang. The bizarre waltz he participates in conveys his sense of artistic pride and again shows he believes violence is and art form. His fascination with blood is again expressed here as he is ecstatic at the image "curtains of blood". It is used effectively as the curtains are coming down his face which conveys the idea that it is the end and Alex has won.

The key incident which halted Alex's feats was when he was caught by the police killing a lady.

Alex is sentenced to fourteen years in prison for his crime but only completes two. In prison, Alex is subjected to advances from homosexuals and attacks from brutal wardens. This marks a change in his character as now he is the victim of violence.

"being in this grahzny hellhole and like human zoo for two years, being kicked and tolchocked by brutal bully warders and meeting vonny like criminals, some of them real perverts and ready to dribble all over a luscious malchick like your story-teller."

The use of the phrase “human zoo” conveys the idea that the prison is more of an asylum as people are being treated like animals. “hellhole” adds to this as it gives it demonic-like qualities. Alex seeks refuge in the prison chapel where he confines in the bible. He enjoys reading about the sex and violence of the old testament but finds the new testament boring. The prison chaplain enjoys Alex's company and lets him pick the music for the services. After two years Alex is given the chance to be free in return for being the first subject for the Ludovico Technique. This will involve him being brain-washed so he can no longer commit any acts of violence, rape or theft. Alex appears more obedient at this point as he is prepared to go along with anything that will get him out. The reader is suspicious at this point at to why the technique is practised on a boy instead of a more suitable, adaptive subject.

The process is successful and Alex can no longer even think of doing anything wrong or he will be sick. The reader feels sympathy towards Alex at this point as he is totally out of control of his actions which is a thought that the reader can relate to as being very uncomfortable. Alex is now very vulnerable and suffers an attack from a group of old men.

"He and his friends beat me and kicked me and thumped me. They stripped me and tore out my teeth. They laughed at my blood and my moans. They kicked me off home, dazed and naked."

This allows the reader to see Alex and his reactions at the receiving end of violence and we can see he is very unhappy about it. We sympathise with Alex here as he realises he has down wrong in the past and wants to take it all back and become a better person. At the end of the book when Alex has been cured and has grown-up, he wishes to settle down like a normal person who is no longer fuelled by violence or any other aspect of his previous brutal persona.

"And all it was was that I was young. But not now as I end this story, brothers, I am not young, not no longer, oh no. Alex like groweth up, oh yes."

To conclude, through the development of Alex's character where he has been both a victim of it, and the cause of it, the writer has maintained a persistent theme of violence. This is portrayed effectively through Alex, as the reader experience's feelings of disgust then sympathy for him. Justice has been reached in the end - although at a hard price - to show the writer believes in forgiveness and that people can change. Alex has been a perfect example of this.

Roman baths

2011-06-28T23:39:00.000+01:00

Today we take a bath (mostly privately) to clean ourselves, and visit the baths (or the swimming or leisure pool as it’s now more likely to be called) as a leisure activity. We also visit theatres, go out to meet friends for a chat and a drink or a bite to eat, make a visit to the library or spend some time in the gym. In imperial Rome, all of these activities could be achieved with one single visit to the baths.

Roman baths were distinctly different from the baths we know today and played a central role in the social life of the day. And given that entry was inexpensive, or sometimes free, they were affordable by most levels of society except, obviously, slaves. The evidence for this lies in the grandeur and extravagance of the buildings themselves, their abundance in Rome and in the writings of various Roman statesmen, philosophers and historians over a period of several centuries.

We’ll come to this evidence later but in the meantime it’s worth looking at the development of this social phenomenon. Like many things Roman, baths, and communal bathing, looks to have been adopted from the Greek way of life and in the days of the Roman republic baths were relatively modest structures known as balneae. These could have been privately owned or served as a community or municipal washing place. But these were generally no more than a simple place for bathing (washing) and did not offer the wealth of activities that would come later.

The earliest large scale common baths in Rome is thought to have been built by the emperor Agrippa in 25 BCE. Known as thermae, these baths were much larger than the earlier balneae and contained a number of different sized pools of varying temperature – the frigidarium (cold), the tepidarium (warm) and the caldarium (hot). Successive emperors, including Nero, Titus, Domitian, Comodus, Caracalla, Diocletion (who built the largest of the thermae in the centre of Rome) and Constantine, would establish new baths – each trying to outdo the last in terms of grandeur and offering low cost or free entrance to curry favour with the voting population. These new marvels weren’t restricted to Rome and began popping up right across the Empire, from northern Africa to southern Britain. Lucian, who lived from roughly 125-180 CE, describes with flowing complements a new public baths in Hippias or the Bath. He mentions the highly lighted retreats, capacious locker rooms, a high hall finished in marble with marble statues and even another hall, “the most beautiful in the world”, as if such a thing could exist. Regrettably Lucian’s description reads more like an advertorial than an honest appraisal. However, it does get across the lengths the patrons of new baths would go to in order to impress.

With the successive building of new thermae, these attractions began to offer more in the way of non-bathing facilities. Before bathing, visitors could even work up a sweat in the gym or in the exercise area (the palaestra). The bathing ritual was more complex than our own today and would involve being covered in oil, sweating the dirt out in the laconium (a sauna type room), having the dirt and oil scraped from your body using a curved wooden or metal tool known as a strigil, taking a variety of baths and finally having some scented oil rubbed into their bodies by a masseur. Seneca, who somewhat puzzlingly claims to have lived above a public baths, declares himself irritated by the small of a masseur’s hand pummelling the shoulders of a bather. Admittedly, it’s hard to imagine a large group of bathers, who could number more than 1,000 at the larger baths, being anything other than noisy.

Bathing over, male bathers in particular would get on with the job of socialising with their friends. The options open to them, depending on the size of the baths, would have included a visit to the library, watching a live theatre or sporting performance or taking a leisurely walk in the gardens. Of course, drinks and snacks would also be available. But socialising was the main attraction and there would be the opportunity to meet friends and be introduced to new people, conduct business, catch up with the latest news and communicate your own and, of course, to show off.

In the years of the empire, mixed gender bathing was outlawed or at the very least frowned upon. It was prohibited by both Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius though the fact that they had to prohibit mixed bathing lends credibility to the belief that it happened. Interestingly, when Vitruvius, a Roman writer, architect and engineer who died around 15 BCE, writes that, “the hot baths for men and for women are adjacent and planned with the same resources.” (This would make heating the pools easier). It is therefore possible that mixed bathing was anticipated but remember he was writing at the very beginning of this social phenomenon so attitudes could easily change when mixed bathing was found to be unworkable. The Roman working day began at sunrise and continued until around 2pm. In the morning, while the men were at work, the baths were available exclusively for women. When the working day was over it was the men’s’ turn to use the facilities and it remained a male domain for the rest of the day. This male only environment provided an excellent income opportunity for prostitutes. There may also have been some overnight facilities for travellers. And if Martial’s witty epigrams are to be accepted as a reflection of the truth, we can also surmise that nude bathing was at least tolerated if not the norm. In one self deprecating poem he writes, “You never invite anybody, Cotta, unless you have bathed with him.” “I used to wonder why you never asked me to dinner. Now I know that you didn’t like me in the nude.”

At the same time, there is some evidence that women’s bathing was not an entirely chaste exercise. Ovid, in The Art of Love, writes, “The public baths provide plenty of private fun for girls – while their guardians sit outside”. And Martial notes in Epigram 11.75, “Your slave goes into the bath with you, Caelia, covered with a brass sheath”.

Fabulously decorated thermae weren’t exclusively public places and wealthy, elite Romans could have their own personal baths – though obviously not quite on the same scale. In a letter to Gallus, Pliny describes the bathing facilities at his Laurentine home. He lets us know he has a cooling room with two curved baths, an oiling room, a furnace room, an antechamber and two rest rooms. He tells us they are beautifully decorated in a simple style and lead to a heated swimming pool which is much admired. We can only assume it was admired by guests. On the evidence of this letter it appears Pliny used his bathing facilities not just for his own relaxation but also for the entertainment of guests. But having your own private baths didn’t exclude the elite from also attending the public ones, particularly if it presented an opportunity to ingratiate yourself with voters. Titus was known to attend the public baths to court popularity and, later, Hadrian presented one man he met at the public baths with a slave and money for his maintenance, so that the man wouldn’t be forced to clean himself.

Among the largest of the thermae was the Baths of Caracalla, built by the emperor Marcus Aurelius between 211 and 216 CE. Situated on the outskirts of Rome on the Appian Way, the whole complex, including the extensive gardens, occupied around 30 acres. The bathing buildings, which incorporated the exercises areas, various pools, rooms for socialising, a library and other rooms, covered about the same area as four modern day football pitches, and could hold an estimated 1,600 bathers. The large outdoor swimming pool was comparable in size to today’s Olympic-sized pools but was only around one metre in depth.

It does seem strange to us that bathing, and by that I mean washing oneself, would be a communal activity since for us it is usually a private one. But surely the idea of not bathing, or only bathing once or twice a year, as people were doing in nineteenth century Britain, seems stranger still. Looked at on a purely pragmatic and logical basis, the idea of Roman communal bathing seems less repellent than its nineteenth century alternative. However, we know these days that public bathing areas can be a perfect breeding ground for bacteria. In fact, in a letter to Rosianus Geminus, Pliny explains that his doctors are unwilling to let him have a bath at a time when he was suffering from a fever. Perhaps physicians even then had noticed a link between the baths and the spreading of disease though some other evidence seems to be to the contrary. Celcus, who lived at the beginning of the first century CE, recommends the baths as a place where people with, “some parts of the body weak”, can achieve some relief. Though he also recommends the avoidance of moonlight.

But ‘modern’ Roman baths weren’t universally popular among the elite and Seneca in particular reveals some criticisms of them in a letter to Lucilius, written sometime between 63 and 65 CE. Having visited the home of Scipio Africanus (who had lived there several hundred years earlier), Seneca contrasts what he sees as Scipio’s primitive but practical bathing room with the more elaborate bathing establishments of his own time. Seneca sees the only purpose of bathing being to wash off the dirt and sweat of honest labour. Of modern bathers he states, “…men are dirtier creatures now than they ever were in the days before the coming of spotlessly clean bathrooms”. Here Seneca is clearly not referring to the lack of physical cleanliness, but rather to the array of strong smelling scents favoured by men who attend the baths. He may also be making some oblique reference to the baths being a place where underhand business or political transactions took place. If this is the case then it is hardly surprising. When Seneca wrote his letter Rome, particularly its politicians, had a reputation for political (and actual) backstabbing. If those politicians were now spending more time at the baths than they were at the senate, it’s only natural that the ‘politicking’ would take place there. Perhaps though he was also referring to the prostitutes who plied their trade at the baths.

Roman thermae were very much a city within a city. At a time when popular entertainment choice and locations for socialising were far more limited than they are today, they must have presented fabulous entertainment for every visitor. Certainly they seemed to offer a great deal of choice and a surely a cooler afternoon than would be found in the hot sun of the Colosseum or the Circus Maximus. The very size of these baths, the sheer number of them (there were several hundred in Rome alone), the fact that they were present in all lands conquered by Rome and the number of references to bathing in writings of the time, gives us strong reason to believe that bathing was a central part of Roman social life.

The birth of Roman history

2011-06-28T23:31:00.001+01:00

When Romans began writing about their history they were influenced by contemporary issues. Let me give you a few reasons why this might be true.

Though the Roman Republic dates back to 510BCE, it was much later before conflicts with other states, including Greece, Carthage and Macedon, would influence their culture. One aspect of this influence, particularly through regular contact with Greece who by the time of the Pyrrhic War (280-275 BCE) had a well developed sense of their own identity, was the recognition of the need to protect and project a strong sense of what being Roman actually meant. The strongest power in the Mediterranean needed some means to define itself to its own citizens and others. To do this, Romans, individually, had to create a body of work that glorified their past and exemplified their values. This could be one reason why the development of the writing of Roman history found its origin in the middle of the second century BCE – a need to record the greatness of the Republic, and later the Empire. Of course the general lack of writing (and reading) skills could also account for the virtual lack of written Roman history before that time.

So, if Roman historiography wasn’t necessarily borne out of an academic desire to record past events, how likely were those Roman writers of history to be influenced by the need to meet some other, non-academic, objective through their work? There is evidence that some writers of Roman history were influenced in their writing by their own perspective on Rome and even Rome’s perspective on them writing about Rome.

Let’s start by looking at some work by Sallust who lived between 86 and 34 BCE. It’s important to know a little about Sallust’s background before considering his work. He was a Quaestor and a Tribute but was expelled from the Senate in 52 BCE. He went on to become Governor of Africa Nova but was believed guilty of extortion and only Caesar’s intervention saved him from prosecution.(Though he does suggest his retirement was deliberate, ‘I had determined to pass the remainder of my days unconnected with public life). He then retired from public life to concentrate on writing. He was undoubtedly indebted to Caesar. It’s inconceivable that Sallust’s view of recent Roman history wasn’t tainted by his own personal position and the treatment he had received from his peers. He had held high office, twice, and had twice been removed. He had always put himself forward as being anti-aristocracy yet his behaviour as governor suggests he had abused his power and wealth in the way of the very aristocrats whose rule he sought to see ended. We therefore have to question Sallust’s impartiality when he writes about events and people who oppose his view.

In his first published work, The Conspiracy of Cataline, he declares his mind to be, ‘uninfluenced by hope, fear, or political partisanship’.Admittedly he does treat Cicero unnaturally fairly considering they had actively opposed one another during Sallust’s political career. However, it is his account of Caesar’s actions that lay open the question of his impartiality. According to Sallust, on the question of the guilt of Lentulus and others, Caesar delivers a long speech proposing a humanitarian approach and warning against unconstitutional action. Cato’s equally long response convinces the Senate that execution is the appropriate action. In this way Sallust portrays Caesar’s statesmanlike qualities and ensures that any remaining Cataline supporters are aware who should be blamed for the death of the prisoners. It’s not surprising that Sallust should show support for Caesar in this way. After all it was Caesar who supported Sallust during his political career and saved him from prosecution over the Africa Nova affair. Indeed, later in this story Sallust praises Caesar for his generosity, munificence, humanity and benevolence, among others.

While Sallust’s account of Cataline’s conspiracy was, almost, contemporary and he would have personally known many of the characters involved, his record of the Jugurthine war was written more than 60 years after the event. It may be natural to anticipate a greater degree of impartiality here and though he does cover the facts well, his invective remarks concerning the ruling classes remain obvious. In his introduction he makes a direct reference to the ineffectiveness of some members of the senate, ‘…more good will arise to the state from my retirement, than from the busy efforts of others.’ His vitriol is not restricted to his own views which flow clearly from the introduction. In his reports of a number of speeches given by Marius, both before and after his election as consul, he invariably includes lengthy attacks on the aristocracy. Sallust’s account of the war was published in 41-40 BCE, a few years after the murder of Caesar. He quite clearly uses the writing of history to reflect on and attack the classes of Roman citizen he blames for unrest in Rome at the time of the war and later for the murder of Caesar.

Horace was a very different type of Roman historian. While well educated, he never enjoyed the political success of Sallust but his relative wealth and ability to write poetry brought him into contact with important people of his time including Augustus. While Horace’s poetry was written for performance, the clear delineation between fiction and non-fiction we know today was not so easy to define in those days. Horace referenced known historical events, people and facts. To contemporary Roman society, Horace was writing about history – albeit what appears now to be a strange mixture of fact and belief. Horace writes his history with a message – not just a catalogue of events. Horace’s Odes were written from 23-13 BCE, corresponding broadly with the rule of Augustus. Reading his Ode 3.6, we can see that he makes reference to great generations of Romans who have developed and protected their state. He contrasts this with what he sees as a general decline in standards through the loose behaviour of women – granting favours when lamps are removed – the complicity of their husbands and the neglect of religion, ‘the temples and crumbling shrines of the Gods’.These references in the poem display broad support for legislation introduced by Augustus around that time. This legislation sought to promote a return to traditional values through the outlawing of sex outside marriage (for women). Augustus also introduced a programme of restoring temples throughout Rome. In this poem, Horace uses lessons from history to support the actions of Rome’s current ruler.

But perhaps one of the most blatant examples of historical writing being used to glorify a contemporary leader can be found in Virgil’s Aeneid. Like Horace, Virgil’s career spans the turbulence of the fall of the Republic and the ‘election’ of Augustus as emperor. Indeed, Augustus was known to be a patron to Virgil. The Aeneid follows the same general style and themes as earlier work by Homer. It concerns Aeneis, a Trojan hero, in his adventures across Asia and northern Africa before settling in Rome. Virgil’s poem is mythical, though it does include references to real people and places. There are a number of episodes in the poem that mix mythology with reality. For example when Aeneis meets his father, Anchises, in Hades, Anchises introduces his son to his and Rome’s future. Anchises points out Augustus in a long line of illustrious leaders of Rome and refers to him as, ‘son of a god’. In this way, Virgil makes a clear blood link between Augustus and Romulus, seen as one of the traditional founders of Rome, and himself the son of Mars. And just as Romulus (and his brother Remus) created a new city, Augustus with his various reforms was creating a new Rome, free from the decline and decadence which had brought it to its knees.

One other example where Virgil ‘uses’ history to justify later events, can be found in the episode where Dido, queen of Carthage, falls upon Aeneis’ sword and kills herself. Her grief and suicide, caused by Aeneis’ departure for Rome is cited by Virgil as the catalyst for the Punic wars. Of course the Punic wars came some 1,000 years after the events depicted in Virgil’s poem and had more to do with Rome’s need to secure its trading position than revenge for a spurned queen.

These are just a few example of how the writing of Roman history would take on contemporary themes and indeed be used to glorify contemporary leaders and justify their behaviour. This is not to say that Roman historians (and poets) are exclusively guilty of subverting the truth. As already mentioned, Sallust’s work for example contains a great deal of hard facts. The feature that makes Roman history stand out in this way is that virtually all history was written by politicians or those close to them, which is only natural since they are the best educated. Modern historical writings by political figures frequently suffer from similar flaws.

What’s the point of the Acropolis?

2011-06-28T23:20:00.000+01:00

The Acropolis in Athens was considerably more than a city of functioning buildings, although it is was that as well. Its buildings, and their adornment, makes it function as it does – demonstrating the values held by Athenians, a showcase for their achievements and as a means of sustaining Athens as a major force to be reckoned with. In every sense the Acropolis is a conscious programme of display but in every sense there is also a purpose behind this programme. I will now attempt to justify this statement.

But first we need to narrow the field. The Acropolis covers a large area and contains numerous buildings. So we will concentrate on the Parthenon only.

Before we look at the design of the building, I’d like to consider some of the factors which would have been an influence on its construction and on the construction of the Acropolis generally.

Location

The Acropolis is situated atop a large outcrop of rock in the centre of what is now modern Athens. This makes it an ideal place to repel any attacks and with some little fortification the Acropolis becomes easy to defend. This elevation means that it can be seen from a great distance. Indeed, the glint of the sun on the spear of the statue of Athena Promachos could be seen by sailors rounding Cape Sounion to the south of Athens. Given that this is 40 odd miles away, it could be possible if conditions were right. Being seen is only half the benefit though. The ability to see your enemy approaching from far off is a great advantage.

Persian influence

The Greeks had waged war with the Persions since the middle of the sixth century BCE until they were defeated by Cimon at Eurymedon in 467 BCE. It’s inconceivable that after some 100 years of conflict both sides wouldn’t be in some way influenced by their opponent. The Greeks regarded Persians as barbarian and mocked their culture of wearing finery and ‘showing off’ their wealth. Another way of looking at this is illustrating your success. At the time when the building of the Parthenon commenced in 447 BCE, the Persians were beaten. The Parthenon is a reminder of that success. This is particularly true given that many of the earlier buildings on the site were destroyed by the Persians when they sacked the city in 480 BCE.

What defines Greek?

Athenians already had strong ideas on their own identity through issues such as democracy, citizenship and laws which discouraged marriage with ’foreigners’. The Persian wars also helped raise awareness of what being Greek meant. Fundamentally, it was the opposite of barbarianism, a closer affinity with the gods and a sense of cultural unity. And like all cultures, they needed a physical symbolic presence which celebrated their ‘Greekness’. The Acropolis provides a focal point for this unity.

Civic development

The earlier Acropolis buildings of the sixth century BCE, commissioned by Peisistratus, were built to create employment for the urban poor and build a beautiful city that would create more jobs, foster patriotism and attract wealthy foreigners. Any right thinking public official would agree that finding ways to create wealth in a city is a prime requirement to ensure its continued prosperity. It’s not unnatural then that when Pericles commenced his rebuilding programme in 447 BCE he would have had similar thoughts in mind. His aim was to create the ’school of Greece’and clearly this would not be achievable with a series of lacklustre buildings.

As a building the Parthenon does carry several functions. It is a religious centre. Not simply a place for worship and sacrifice, but also a ‘home’ for Athena, the goddess whom the Athenians believed was their protector and foster mother. Inside the temple stood a large statue of Athena – a wooden structure covered in plates of gold and ivory. Today we imagine this as gaudy and obscene. But there is no denying that it’s sheer size and the fact that it was made from such expensive materials, would have ensured that it made a significant impression. The Parthenon was more than a temple. A smaller room at the west of the building was the treasury for Athens. Since Athens had taken over protection of the treasury of the Delian League in 454 BCE, the need for protection of this wealth was essential; there were many who believed Athens should not be responsible for these funds. The ‘fortified’ site of the Acropolis would have provided as secure a place as any for storing wealth. In Pericles’ funeral oration he states, "even the gold ornaments of Athene ... contained forty talents of pure gold and it was all removable". Perhaps he considered the statute to be a part of the treasury.

Finally it’s worth saying something about the building itself. The Parthenon was the largest building of the Acropolis – the base at the top step of the stylobate measured around 70 metres by 31 metres – and one of the largest of the temples in ancient Greece. Apart from the roof, it was built entirely of marble. It is an example of Doric order of architecture, arguably the finest example from that period.

More than its size though is the level and intricacy of its decoration which sets it apart – it is the most highly decorative building on the site. The metopes, a series of panels that run around the building just below roof level, form an exceptional sculptural decoration. On the east they depict the battle between the Olympian gods and the Giants. The south metopes show the battle between the Lapiths and Centaurs. On the west there are scenes from the invasion of Athens by the Amazons while the north contains scenes from the Trojan War. The sculptures on the metopes are created in high relief. By placing themselves at the same physical level as their gods, the Athenians give us a clear indication of their belief in their own superiority over other cultures. It’s hard to deny that in many respects this is true.

The Parthenon frieze sits at the same height as the metopes but is around the interior wall. Sculpted in low relief, this shows a long procession of people, horsemen, musicians and others. Though there is no ancient record of the meaning of this frieze, today it is generally regarded as the march to the Panatheniac Games, held every four years as part of a larger religious festival.

The most striking exterior design aspect of the Parthenon is the pediments. The east pediment shows the birth of Athena while the west shows the battle between Athena and Poseidon to become the protector of Athens. What is quite remarkable about these sculptures it their quality and attention to detail. Even the reverse of the figures, which can not be seen from the ground, are finished to a high degree. This illustrates the quality of Athenian craftsmanship which was around at that time.

In conclusion, the Parthenon is, even by our standards today, a fabulous building. It does have a practical purpose. But it is also extremely intricate in its design. And this design also has a purpose – to illustrate the values, culture, power and wealth of Athens. And in promoting this conscious programme of display to firmly position Athens as the greatest cultural centre of its time.

The role of the gods in Homer’s Odyssey

2011-06-28T00:00:00.000+01:00

The Odyssey of Homer is generally considered to date from somewhere around 750 BCE and depicts events some 400 to 450 years earlier at the end of the Trojan War. It relates the story of Odysseus’ nostos (homecoming after the war) and eventual slaughter of the suitors who have abused his home.

In my view, the gods and their actions are central to the plot of this poem and they most definitely enhance the overall effect of they poem. The gods have significant influence on the actions of the central mortal characters, and the poem’s conclusion. Of course I’m making this assertion from the perspective of a twentieth century reader. It would be improper to assume the audience in 850 BCE would necessarily hold the same view as me. However, I believe that without the gods, this tale would be no more than a run of the mill, albeit well told, adventure yarn.

There are two key points that need to be appreciated; the Odyssey is a work of fiction and the Greek gods cannot be compared with the gods worshipped today.

The Odyssey is not a true story. It is a fantastical adventure story. It may have been based on some factual characters but its events are fictitious. None of us today would believe that Odysseus had blinded Polyphemus – the remains of a race of one-eyed cyclops has never been found. Nor would we believe that he was caught between the Scylla and Charybdis for broadly similar reasons.

It’s also important to put the Greek gods into some sort of perspective. They are not the same as the gods worshipped in developed societies today. Most modern religions have one god – invariably the embodiment of perfection, absolute wisdom and power. The ancient Greeks had a great number of gods and they were not universally so perfect. They frequently exhibited human frailties such as anger, jealousy, desire etc. But they had powers beyond that of mortals. In some ways they are the early equivalent of twentieth century super heroes – powerful and flawed. While Christians believe that God works in mysterious ways, ancient Greeks more closely linked the acts of their gods to the errors of humans.

There are four gods who are instrumental to the plot of the poem and others who play a lesser role. Poseidon causes Odysseus to be caught in a storm one more than one occasion – seeking revenge on Odysseus for blinding his son Polyphemus – and destroys Odysseus’ ship which leads to him being stranded on the island of Ogygia. Zeus also sends a thunderbolt which kills many of his colleagues, and it is Zeus whose decision signals the beginning of Odysseus’ return home. Kalypso imprisons Odysseus on the island for many years with the intention that he should become her husband. Pallas Athene is the god who plays the most active role in the poem. First (as Mentes), she counsels Telemachos to seek news of his father, and later she aids Odysseus by disguising him and, at various times, confusing his enemies and manipulating the perception of others. Of course she is also influential in persuading Zeus to allow Odysseus to leave Ogygia. Without the actions of the gods I have described here, the Odyssey would be quite the epic poem it is. It’s inconceivable to imagine how all of these events could have taken place without some immortal intervention.

Of course the very poem itself, though narrated by Homer, is told through him by a muse – ‘Tell me, Muse, of the man of many ways’. Muses are ‘goddesses upon whom poets – and later other artists, philosophers and intellectuals generally – depended for the ability to relate their works’. In this way, the complete poem is only capable of being told by the grace of a god.

We have established that the gods are important from the perspective of the development of the plot. But what other non-physical influences do they exert – for example over the behaviour and beliefs of the mortals in the tale? While we don’t know for certain that Greeks who lived during the ‘dark ages’ truly believed in these gods, we do know that the mortals characterised in the poem hold great store in the influence of the gods. They believe that everything that happens is in some way the will of the gods, and there is plenty of evidence of this scattered throughout the poem. For example when Telemachos tells Mentes (Athene) that it is the gods’ ‘evil intention’ that has caused his father’s absence. And when Menelaos relates the tale of his wanderings to Telemachos, he lays the blame for his inability to make a speedy return home squarely at the feet of the gods. They also believe that they require to pray to the gods to bring about the good fortune they need, such as when Odysseus prays to Athene to allow him to be ‘loved and pitied’ by the Phaiakians. And they make sacrifices (hecatombs) to please the gods. Interestingly, Penelope’s suitors make sacrifices and prayers – to bring misfortune and death to Telemachos and Odysseus – to the same gods who are helping the pair. Meanwhile Penelope and Telemachus don’t eject the suitors from Odysseus’ house partly for fear they may anger the gods because they will be seen as bad hosts.

All told, the relationship between mortals and gods is not a straightforward one. All mortals worship and revere gods. Some gods bear ill will towards some or all mortals while others, Zeus in particular, adopt a more balanced approach. Others still have favourites among mortals and Odysseus was clearly favoured by Athene, and Kalypso for that matter. But it is this very lack of universally predictable behaviour by the gods (they can blow hot and cold) which creates the dynamic, and dramatic, tension between gods and humans. Without this tension, without the inclusion of the gods, the story of Odysseus’ nostos would be a very different tale. It may have had similar themes – mans struggle against the forces of nature and other men – but would have lacked the fantastical qualities which give it greater depth. And, importantly, it would be much less than the astonishing tale which it is.

A Doll's House by Henrik Ibsen

2011-06-27T23:46:00.000+01:00

An analysis of A Doll's House by Henrik Ibsen

A Doll’s House is set during the late nineteenth century. The action takes place in the home of a middle class family over the Christmas period. The central characters are Torvald and Nora Helmer (husband and wife), Dr Rank (a family friend), Christine Linde (an old friend of Nora’s) and Nils Krogstad (an employee of Torvald’s and the person who Nora has borrowed money from). The main plot revolves around Torvald’s (anticipated and eventual) ‘discovery’ that Nora has borrowed money from Krogstad, Torvald’s reaction to this and Nora’s subsequent response to Torvald’s behaviour. The events which take place were significant for their time for two principal reasons; the borrowing of money by a woman without her husband’s agreement which was illegal - it only became legal in this country in 1880 (Scotland) and 1882 (England and Wales) – and the growing interest in the women’s suffrage movement.

Before answering this question fully, we should consider the broad themes which define a woman’s position in Victorian societies, principally the middle classes, and above. Firstly, a married woman was not expected to work. Instead the husband would be the sole breadwinner while the wife concerned herself with looking after the home. This might mean managing the servants rather than carrying out household chores. As already stated, a woman was not permitted to own property beyond her own personal possessions. A woman was not permitted to vote and, crucially, was expected to be subordinate to, and obey, her husband. In essence, conditioning, morals, values, expectations and even legislation in Victorian times did not create an environment where women were able to feel ‘free’. A woman who was able to be herself in that society, would have to be able to experience the opposite of all of these things.

Perhaps one of the most obvious dramatic techniques evident in this play, and analogous with the lack of freedom for women, is the setting. All of the action takes place in one room of the Helmer’s home. Apart from a few moments at the beginning of Act 3, when Nora is at a party and Mrs. Linde and Krogstad are together, Nora spends most of her time in the room. Every other character in the story is free to move in and out of the room as they please. Nora is very much a captive of the room and in a sense it is like a prison to her. Nora’s idea of freedom changes as the plot develops. Initially she associates freedom with financial good fortune – Torvald’s salary increase and the repayment of Krogstad’s loan.

“Free. To be free, absolutely free. To spend time playing with the children. To have a clean, beautiful house, the way Torvald likes it.”

But when her actions are discovered and Torvald fails to support her, her idea of freedom changes to mean independence from Torvald and from the constraints placed on her by society. In the final moments of the last act, Nora breaks free from her ‘prison’ when she leaves Torvald and their children. Closing the door behind her offstage symbolizes her release and the beginnings of her new life.

Money is a recurring theme throughout the play, indeed money is the catalyst which brings Nora and Torvald’s relationship to an end. As a bank manager, Torvald’s primary professional concern is to protect the bank’s money. The bank represents establishment and Torvald is its representative. He is therefore a custodian of (male) established values, particularly as they relate to money but also as they relate to every other aspect of a male dominated society. Nora on the other hand is portrayed, initially at least, as flighty with regard to money. Early in Act one she asks Torvald for money – under the pretence that it would be his gift to her at Christmas. Our early impression then is that she is totally dependent on Torvald for money. In fact Torvald controls Nora with the money he provides. It is not until later that we learn Nora has borrowed money from Krogstad and understand that some of the money she gets from Torvald is used to repay this debt. We also discover that Nora has taken on work –

‘Last winter I was lucky enough to get a lot of copying to do’ (P13)

- in order to earn extra money to repay Krogstad. In these ways we see that left to her own devices Nora is capable of independent action which in her view represents the right thing to do under the circumstances. Judged on today’s standards there are few who would disagree with this. While her actions may have been legally (borrowing money) and socially (working) corrupt, we find the first evidence that she is quite capable of being herself. Though she is unable to share her actions with Torvald, she takes some considerable pleasure in the knowledge that she has ‘saved’ her husband and expresses joy in having been able to earn some money –

‘It was like being a man.’ (P13)

From the very first scene when Torvald and Nora are together, Torvald indulges in a raft of name calling. In the early part of the play these names include ‘squirrel’, ‘skylark’ and ‘featherhead’. By the end of the play, once he has discovered that Nora has borrowed money, his name calling indicates anger at her actions, ‘a thoughtless woman’, ‘blind, foolish woman’ and also (after he reads Krogstad’s second letter) sympathy for her position, ‘frightened little singing bird’ and ‘little scared darling’. In many instances Torvald precedes his name calling with the possessive “my”. The names used and the ownership insinuation indicate that he does not see Nora as his equal. In his view she remains his possession; a trophy created for him and partly by him and existing to bring him pleasure and to reinforce his status.

Further evidence of Torvald’s control can be found in her having to hide her macaroon and the fact she is not allowed access to the key for the mailbox. We see him exert his power over her as he insists she practice the tarantella until she reaches his standards of perfection – although from Nora’s perspective she was happy that he was diverted from looking in the mailbox. And later he drags her away from the party before she was ready to go. Her dancing arouses him sexually and it is through his need to satisfy his own selfish desire that he deprives others of her company. In these ways we can see that Nora is forced to obey her husband against her own will.

One final dramatic technique used is the characterisation of the central male figures: Torvald, Dr Rank and Krogstad. When we first meet Torvald and Dr Rank we associate them with all that is normal, upright, noble and good about important men in society. They represent what we regard as the establishment. Torvald has a responsible job, he is a serious man who takes his work seriously, he provides well for his wife and family. But soon we begin to see the cracks in his make up; when Nora calls him petty and Krogstad addresses him by his first name he becomes angry; when he learns of Nora’s borrowing he refuses to stand by her as he sees that this would harm his image and discredit him in the eyes of his staff; and when Krogstad returns the bond he quickly reverses his tune and acts as if everything is normal again. In these ways Torvald is exposed as vain, egotistic and spineless. Dr Rank fares little better. As a doctor he is naturally viewed as an upstanding member of the community but secretly he holds sexual desires for his friend Nora which he reveals to her in a clumsy fashion. He also suffers from a syphilis related illness which he blames on his father. However it is entirely possible that he contracted syphilis through his own actions as it was not uncommon for even wealthy unmarried men to visit prostitutes in Victorian days. Unlike these two, Krogstad is initially portrayed as an unsavoury character and is described by Dr Rank as ‘morally sick’. However it is Krogstad, a man who has previously been rejected by society for his crime, who shows the greatest humanity of the three in his forgiveness of Mrs. Linde and in releasing Nora of her debt to him.

While the relationship between the two central characters is certainly one of master and servant, the developing relationship between Mrs. Linde and Krogstad is more evenly balanced. Theirs is a more mature bond based on a genuine liking and respect for one another. Though Mrs. Linde rejected Krogstad in the past, she was behaving merely as society would have expected her. Ibsen uses their relationship to illustrate how a marriage in a modern society should be. However, their relationship is not the point of the play. It is through the breakdown of Nora and Torvald’s relationship we learn of the forced dependency of women on men, the control exercised by men over women and the physical conditions which prevent a women from being herself in society at that time.

The Eolian Harp by Samuel Taylor Coleridge

2011-06-27T23:36:00.000+01:00

My pensive Sara! thy soft cheek reclined

Thus on mine arm, most soothing sweet it is
To sit beside our Cot, our Cot o'ergrown
With white-flower'd Jasmin, and the broad-leav'd Myrtle,
(Meet emblems they of Innocence and Love!)
And watch the clouds, that late were rich with light,
Slow saddening round, and mark the star of eve
Serenely brilliant (such should Wisdom be)
Shine opposite! How exquisite the scents
Snatch'd from yon bean-field! and the world is hushed!
The stilly murmur of the distant Sea
Tells us of silence.

And that simplest Lute,
Placed length-ways in the clasping casement, hark!
How by the desultory breeze caress'd,
Like some coy maid half yielding to her lover,
It pours such sweet upbraiding, as must needs
Tempt to repeat the wrong! And now, its strings
Boldlier swept, the long sequacious notes
Over delicious surges sink and rise,
Such a soft floating witchery of sound
As twilight Elfins make, when they at eve
Voyage on gentle gales from Fairy-Land,
Where Melodies round honey-dripping flowers,
Footless and wild, like birds of Paradise,
Nor pause, nor perch, hovering on untam'd wing!
O! the one Life within us and abroad,
Which meets all motion and becomes its soul,
A light in sound, a sound-like power in light,
Rhythm in all thought, and joyance every where
Methinks, it should have been impossible
Not to love all things in a world so fill'd;
Where the breeze warbles, and the mute still air
Is Music slumbering on her instrument.

And thus, my Love! as on the midway slope
Of yonder hill I stretch my limbs at noon,
Whilst through my half-clos'd eye-lids I behold
The sunbeams dance, like diamonds, on the main.
And tranquil muse upon tranquillity;
Full many a thought uncall'd and undetain'd,
And many idle flitting phantasies,
Traverse my indolent and passive brain,
As wild and various as the random gales
That swell and flutter on this subject Lute!
And what if all of animated nature
Be but organic Harps diversely fram'd,
That tremble into thought, as o'er them sweeps
Plastic and vast, one intellectual breeze,
At once the Soul of each, and God of all?
But thy more serious eye a mild reproof
Darts, O belovéd Woman! nor such thoughts
Dim and unhallow'd dost thou not reject,
And biddest me walk humbly with my God.
Meek Daughter in the family of Christ!
Well hast thou said and holily disprais'd
These shapings of the unregenerate mind;

Bubbles that glitter as they rise and break

On vain Philosophy's aye-babbling spring.
For never guiltless may I speak of him,
The Incomprehensible! save when with awe
I praise him, and with Faith that inly feels;
Who with his saving mercies healéd me,
A sinful and most miserable man,
Wilder'd and dark, and gave me to possess
Peace, and this Cot, and thee, heart-honour'd Maid!

An analysis of The Eolian Harp by Samuel Taylor Coleridge

Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s ‘The Eolian Harp’ is a poem of medium length, stretching to 64 lines. This is a descriptive poem, where the focus is on aspects of the lute and the poet rather in relating any tale. It could also be described lyrical as it expresses so much about his personal feelings and, indeed, has narrative elements in the story about going up the hill and the change of mind at the end. The subject of the title is a smallish ornamental harp which ‘plays’ ‘music’ when wind blows across the strings. The subject of the poem is less straightforward and though the first dozen lines suggest it to be no more than a simple love ballad, the main body of the poem takes on an allegoric approach where the harp represents the poet and the wind which causes it to play is a metaphor for God’s breath. The narrator is the author himself, speaking to Sara, who we can safely take to be his lover, “And thus, my Love!” (line 33), “heart-honour’d Maid!” (line 64), and who indeed is almost certainly Coleridge’s own wife to be Sara Fricker.

On first reading this is not an easy poem to read or to comprehend. The reading difficulty comes through the non-existence of any rhyming scheme —the absence of stanzas is also a challenge. This type of writing might be said to tend to the prosaic but it remains a poem in free verse. At a stretch it is almost possible to identify a single rhyming couplet in lines seven and eight (eve and be) but given that this is a solitary instance it is more likely to be borne out of necessity, or even mischief on the part of the poet, rather than any serious attempt at rhyme . There is little evidence of any pattern at the beginning of the lines either although the at the start of lines seven to ten there is evidence of sibilance (a repetition of the ‘s’ sound) with the words ‘Slow, Serenely, Shine and Snatch’d’. Comprehension is not aided by the fact that the poem is not broken down into regular stanzas. The poem can be divided into five distinct verse paragraphs which end at lines 12, 33, 43, 48 and 64. As we can see from the numbering here these sentences are not of similar length and in fact the first sentence ends in the middle of line 12 rather than the end as all others do. Comprehension is further confused by the excessive use of exclamation marks - 13 in total - some of which appear unnecessary, for example after “field” and “hush’d” in line 12. However there are others (after ‘opposite’ in line nine and ‘wrong’ in line 17) which seem to be more grammatically correct since the following word starts with a capital letter thus indicating a new sentence. It could be that Coleridge has used this technique for the same reason a composer of music might use scherzo to indicate excitement - he is after all young and in love – rather than to challenge the reader and poetic convention.

There is however a rhythm to the poem and this is constant throughout every almost every line. The rhythm used is iambic pentameter – each line being composed of ten syllables with stress on alternate syllables. This structure is occasionally broken, for example in lines four, 23, 25, 39 and 47 where there are 11 syllables in each line though there is no clear pattern emerging.

Enjambment (where the phrase runs on to the next line) and caesura (where some punctuation causes us to pause in the middle of the line) are both used liberally throughout the poem. Again these contribute to the difficulty of a first reading of this poem.

Looking at the first section (up to line 12), as already mentioned, it appears on the surface to be little more than a simple love ballad. However, as early as line four, ‘With white-flower’d Jasmin, and the broad-leav’d Myrtle’, which he describes as emblems of innocence and love, Coleridge has introduced links to heavenly beings. Jasmin (Jasmine) comes from the Persian Yasmin meaning ‘gift of god’ and Myrtle was sacred to the goddess Aphrodite in Greek mythology. Coleridge capitalises the words Innocence and Love (line five), Wisdom (line eight), Sea (line 11) and Silence (line 12) and through this elevation, gives them life. So we can see already that there is some deeper meaning and purpose in this poem.

The second, and longest, verse paragraph (lines 12 to 33 introduces the harp, ‘And that simplest Lute, plac’d length-ways…’ moving the theme away from his love for Sara and providing an evocative description of the harp. Referring first to the ‘desultory breeze’ (line 14) there is a suggestion of aimlessness in the way the harp relies on the wind to feed its musical inspiration and in the next line the ‘coy maid half-yielding’ implies the sense of the harp as a helpless object at the mercy of the random breeze.

But Coleridge quickly finds beauty and joy in the sounds produced, ‘a soft floating witchery of sound’ (line 20), ‘gentle gales from Fairy-Land’ (line 22) and ‘joyance every where’ (line 29). By the end of this section he also acknowledges the symbiotic relationship between the wind and the harp, ‘the mute still air is Music slumbering on her instrument’ (line 32/33). Again the careful use of capitalisation at Melodies (line 23) and Music (line 33) gives a different meaning to these words, making them nouns and giving them a sense of physical presence. In lines 23 to 25 Coleridge likens the melodies to ‘birds of Paradise’, ‘hovering on untamed wing’. Birds were well represented in Romantic poetry of that period and were at times used to represent the poet looking down on the world and expounding a view which was not seen by the, flightless, remainder of humankind. This is the first indication that the poet sees a likeness in his own situation to the relationship that exists between the wind and the harp.

In the following section Coleridge moves the focus firmly to himself. We see this in line 35, ‘I stretch my limbs’. Here he considers the impact of his own relationship with nature seeing parallels between the way his musings are created in the presence of natures forces, ‘sunbeams dance, like diamonds’ (line 37), and the sounds of the harp produced by nature’s wind.

The fourth verse (lines 44-48) contains a revelation. The poet ponders whether or not it can be the case that all of nature is in a sense one great harp or even a multitude of different harps each reacting to the wind. Further, that the wind is more than a random movement of air but it has some purpose and direction. He sees nature and God as the same thing, ‘one intellectual breeze, At once the Soul of each, and God of All?’ (line 47/48). It is interesting that Coleridge chooses to end here with a question mark. In asking a question he suggests some doubt. It may be that he doesn’t think this is the case at all or that to be openly seen holding such a belief may be seen to be seditious.

In the final passage Coleridge returns to his address to Sara. In a sense he shrugs of his poet’s garb and recognises that since it is his desire to live in a world with her, he must acknowledge and enjoy the worldly pleasures that God has created.

To understand and appreciate this poem fully it is useful to have some understanding of Pantheism, a belief system of which Coleridge was a major proponent. This is particularly true in coming to understand Coleridge’s apparent climb down in the final passage. In simple terms, Pantheism is the identification of God with all that exists. Pantheists would believe in the idea of an abstract god rather than an individual deity which serves as the central focus of worship. This abstract god would encompass and include everything which was known on earth and indeed the universe itself. Therefore God, from the perspective of a pantheist, would include all aspects of nature including man. This of course would make man equal with God since man was part of God and vice versa. While this may be a suitable platform for a poet to work in – the idea of being an ‘equal’ with God allows the poet to act as a conduit for God – it poses difficulties in defining relationships with others who hold different, traditional, views. Because of his love for Sara, Coleridge is prepared to put aside his beliefs, ‘biddest me walk humbly with my God’ (line 52), as he realises that this sacrifice will be a small price to pay for the pleasure it will bring. Coleridge rounds off the poem with a reaffirmation of his acceptance of God in the recognised form for that age and concludes with an acknowledgement that in accepting God he has become himself improved, ‘his saving mercies healed me,…and gave me to possess Peace’ (lines 61-63).

As already stated, this is not an easy poem to engage with on a first reading but on closer analysis layers of meaning become more apparent. In structuring the poem in an arguably awkward way (no rhyme scheme, irregular length passages and a welter of punctuation), Coleridge has forced us to examine it with greater deliberation. In this way the techniques used have been effective not only in providing a challenging piece of work but also one where, after some investigation, we are able to understand the poet’s joy with his life.

Great Expectations by Charles Dickens

2011-06-27T22:57:00.000+01:00

An analysis of Great Expectations by Charles Dickens

Originally published in serialised form during 1860 and 1861, the timeframe for Great Expectations begins a few years after the start of the nineteenth century and ends around 1840. It is therefore appropriate to consider that this novel deals with contemporary issues from sometime around 1800 to no later than 1860. There is enough corroboration in the text – for example when Pip receives the two one pound notes – to suggest that these dates are broadly accurate.

Perhaps one of the most prominent social issues of these times was the treatment of debtors. Debtor’s prisons and the Poor Law can be traced back to the early 1600s. Though an amendment to the Law was made in1834, this did little to improve the conditions in prisons but rather changed the focus of responsibility. Dickens had first hand experience of the conditions of these institutions when his father was imprisoned at Marshalsea debtors' prison in 1824 and fighting the causes of poverty and oppression was a feature of his personal and literary life. In Great Expectations Pip visits Newgate Prison, which housed both debtors and other criminals during the time in question, with Wemmick. Though he gives no great description of the conditions there, the little that is described paints a bleak picture, ‘At that time, jails were much neglected….felons were not lodged and fed better than soldiers (to say nothing of the paupers)…’. Near the end of the novel Pip is threatened with a spell in debtors’ prison himself before Joe settles his debts. Prisons, and the life of prisoners, is a central theme in the story with the prison ship located not far from Pip’s childhood home and his various encounters with Magwitch.

It is also appropriate to consider the type of novel under consideration and whether indeed it is fitting that it should deal with contemporary issues. Arguably, the realist novel - a style of literature that seeks to represent the familiar or typical in real life, rather than an idealised, formalised, or romantic interpretation of it– lends itself most readily to being used to make links to circumstances happening in the real world at the time of writing. I say this because the very essence of realism serves to engender the belief in the reader that the events described could actually happen. It seems only natural then that to link elements of the story to current social or moral issues, events, beliefs, political climates etc., would help to reinforce that sense of realism. Conversely the gothic novel relies to a far greater extent on the reader’s capacity to at least temporarily suspend disbelief. This does not necessarily mean to say that a gothic novel cannot contain reference to current issues but it may be less effective if it were to use supernatural, and thus unbelievable, events to act as a basis for comment on real social issues.

The question really is whether or not the narrative techniques found in a realist novel best serve the purpose of comment on social issues. Great Expectations uses first person narrative with the central character, Pip, telling the story as he remembers it. This form of storytelling is frequently referred to as bildungsroman, and shows the development of the main character over time from childhood to adulthood. Direct speech, which is used liberally throughout, makes us feel as though we are there and being spoken to, and validates Pip’s impressions of minor characters, even the caricatured ones. In the early parts of the novel there are elements of comedy; Pip and Joe’s secret teasing of Mrs Joe, Pumblechook’s pomposity and Mr Wopsle’s thespian antics. There is a great level of detailed description applied to many of the characters, to locations, situations and even apparently trivial objects such as Tickler, one of Mrs Joe’s means of exerting her authority over Pip. All of these techniques bring the reader’s mental picture of the story into sharper focus giving us a well defined canvas on which we can envisage the characters in their setting. To all intents and purposes this could be a real story, if we can conveniently ignore the enormous raft of coincidence which ties some of the characters together and Pip’s verbatim recall. But it is only when we believe that that the story is anchored to reality, we can take on board the themes and ideas it presents – and these could easily be contemporary social issues among others – and similarly anchor them firmly in what we see as the real world. Since a non-realist novel by its very nature takes us away from reality, it is therefore a less effective vehicle for the deliberation of the reality of social issues.

Certainly Great Expectations is fundamentally grounded in the real world and follows many of the characteristics of a realist novel. The background settings of London and Kent are not fictional locations. A number of recognisable streets and landmarks in London such as Barnard’s Inn and Temple are referenced. Even the churchyard which forms the opening scene was based on a Kent churchyard which Dickens is understood to have visited. The central character, while not necessarily following a classical heroic mould, is nonetheless on a journey of moral improvement. While some may argue that Magwitch was a tyrannical figure more at home in a gothic tale the reality is that only in the opening few pages did he really pose any threat to Pip. The threat of Magwitch sustained through volumes one and two were more closely linked to Pip’s fertile and boyish imagination rather than any physical presence. The story is told in its proper linear chronology. Though Great Expectations is related sometime after all of the action has taken place, there are no unexplained or unexplainable gaps in the timeline and no flashbacks. While there is a continuing theme of guilt and shame (for example Pip’s feelings of responsibility for his sister’s death and his abandonment of Joe) the clear messages which Pip embraces at the end of the story are those of love, friendship and the sense of wellbeing that comes through good honest work. Generally speaking the story also deals only with real and intelligible things which we can understand and relate to. Admittedly there is a mild reference to the supernatural when Pip imagines he sees the body of Miss Havisham hanging by the neck in the disused brewery.But little is made of this incident and its absence would not materially affect the plot or its meaning. In any case it is not beyond the bounds of possibility that an individual in the real world may mistakenly believe that they have seen an apparition. There have been plenty of stories in the media of such events over the years to make this a significantly less than unique event.

However, like much of Dickens’s other work, Great Expectations does not fit squarely into the category of realism and leans to some extent on gothic and comic or satiric traditions. Evidence of the gothic influence lies in the setting; the almost primeval marshes of Kent and the sound of gunfire on the prison ship echoing across the darkness, the fire in the forge, the dark and shadowy streets of London at night, the unlit rooms and corridors at Satis House and its overgrown and neglected garden. As far as characterisation is concerned, the early introduction to Magwitch, where Pip describes his physical appearance, the way he walks across the marshes and the way he eats, also has gothic overtones. Even his name has more than a suggestion of menace to it – could mag be an abbreviation of magic and witch be the merchant of same?

On balance, Great Expectations is not a realist novel in its purest sense but is probably closer to this genre than any other. It has a cast of well defined and believable, albeit at times over-caricatured, characters and thus, I believe, provides a powerful medium for the discussion of contemporary issues.

Some thoughts about the sixties

2011-03-17T22:28:00.000+00:00

There’s been a great deal written, said, portrayed, discussed and debated about the about the period we know as ‘the sixties’ which, for the purpose of this exercise we will define as the years 1958-1973. The very fact that this decade has left such an apparently indelible mark in the minds of so many does seem to suggest that something special or different happened at that time. But was Arthur Marwick’s statement that “the sixties was a period of exceptional social and cultural change”, justifiable? And we are faced with a fundamental problem. How exactly do we define exceptional without studying every other decade in history?

Putting this basic issue to the side for the moment we can still examine a selection of events from the sixties to determine their impact at that time and also their longer term influence. Here we will look at events from three perspectives; history, history of science and art history. The question is, were the events of the sixties a mere fad or do they influence society and its culture today?

History
There will inevitably be a number of historical events in every decade which influence society at that time and whose effects will continue to be felt either expressly or influentially for many years. Similarly there will be events which appear significant but later lose their importance. I have chosen two subjects which I think illustrate this point.
1 – Communication
Although the first BBC television broadcast was made in 1936, and television ownership had been widespread in the United States throughout the 1950s, it was not until the sixties that television made any great impression in UK homes. Foreign travel was still expensive and television was able to bring new ideas and cultures into British living rooms. It also brought news in a new format, in words and moving pictures. (Arguably this already existed through news films in cinemas but these were not up to date and smacked of propaganda.) Television brought comedy, drama, sport, music and a whole raft of entertainment, education and information into people’s homes in a way that had never been done before. In the sixties it brought people a new awareness of the world around them. Today communication and television are still an enormous and greater influence in every part of our lives and contribute a great deal to our social and cultural development.
2 – The Space Race
On 20 July 1969 Neil Armstrong, an American, became the first man to stand on the surface of the moon. The Apollo programme had been launched in 1963 with the singular aim of landing humans on the moon. The Russians had already sent the first man into orbit around the earth and it was felt important that America reach the moon before their rivals claimed it in the name of communism, which was at that time seen as a real threat to the American way of life. At the time of the lunar landing there was unprecedented media coverage of the event – by that time it was possible to broadcast live television across the globe. While landing on the moon remains one of man’s greatest achievements, its significance is debatable. Beyond being a major media event, we have learned little that can change our lives on earth. In the short term it brought about a great sense of pride in the Americans, which would in some way be an indication of cultural change. The country had been embroiled in the Vietnam war which was not universally popular among its citizens. But in the longer term its social and cultural impact is minimal.

History of Science
1 – The scientific counter culture
Here we will focus primarily on events in the United States since they are well documented and different from events in the UK. Different in the sense that science in America was significantly more involved in the development of military equipment. Since the end of World War 2 the country had involved itself in major conflicts in Korea and Vietnam. The development of weapons systems, and hence military superiority, was a priority for successive US governments facing increasing criticism over the loss of American lives in ‘foreign’ wars and the perceived threat from Russia. Even during World War 2 the Americans realised that science and technology could win wars with the development of the atomic bomb.
As a result of the US government’s substantial budgets and endless quest for superior weapons, the franchise of a number of academic scientific institutions was transformed. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology in particular benefited from government funding in return for undertaking weapons based research throughout the 1950s and 1960s.
In the late 1960s a scientific counter culture emerged when students and academics alike staged protests against what they saw as the overemphasis in the development of military technology at academic institutes. These protest, and ensuing debates, which involved universities across the US, did, to some degree, have their desired effect in that the close links between academic institutions and government weapons research was lessened – for a while at least.
The government realised that academics were unreliable as development partners. Instead they switched their allegiance and much of their funding to commercial organisations for whom the morality of weapons development plays a less significant role.
It may be correct to define the impact on these events on academic institutions as being exceptional as they helped define the relationship between government and academia. However, in terms of social and cultural impact, these events have had literally no lasting effect. Today there is a volume of evidence which supports close links at the highest levels between the US government and military developers and manufacturers. Military research, development and production continue apace.

2 – The contraceptive pill
“The Pill” is an oral contraceptive, for women, developed during the 1950s. It was first used in America in 1960 and in the UK the following year. On it first introduction its use was primarily by, and in some places restricted to, married women who wished to limit the size of their family. But it was possible for single women to be prescribed the pill and today its use in the UK is widespread being available without prescription via family planning clinics.
The pill is an example of a scientific development which has had a significant immediate and long lasting impact on our culture. It played a role in the sexual liberation of women in the sixties. It gave single and married women the power to enjoy a sexual relationship without the fear and responsibility of an unwanted pregnancy. Similarly, the pill has led to a reduction in the number of abortions. While these are no longer illegal there is still some slight stigma attached to abortion in the UK and it also raises other moral questions.
The pill continues to this day to be a popular form of contraception in the UK. The national Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles completed in 2000, found that around 80 per cent of British women use the pill at some time between the ages of 16 and 24.
It has not been without its detractors - principally the Catholic Church and some of the more extreme anti-abortion groups.
But overall it is reasonable to say that the pill is an example of a scientific development which has resulted in exceptional cultural (giving women a greater sense of sexual freedom) and social (impacting on population statistics) change.

Art History
Joseph Conrad once described art as “an assault on the senses”. Here he was describing art in its various forms – painting, music, sculpture, writing etc. Certainly this seems like a reasonable definition though perhaps “a planned and deliberate assault on the senses” would be better since it excludes, for example, a car crash.
Here though we will discuss only the art of painting and how, or if, its development during the sixties had any real impact.
By its very nature art is a challenging subject for the artist and the viewer. Throughout the long history of art there have been a number of movements – such as dada, expressionism and surrealism – which have challenged what has come before. But was the sixties any different and did the movements which came to prominence then have any wider social and cultural impact beyond the art establishment? The art establishment is arguably part of a culture itself but not necessary representative of wider public views and opinions, so lets conveniently wash over that point. But to answer the broader question, lets look at two artists who enjoyed some significant popularity, notoriety and commercial success during that period.

1 - Andy Warhol
Warhol is synonymous with the pop-art movement, using art to reflect popular culture in a manner which arguably mocked art itself.
Warhol’s most famous works took everyday objects such as a tin of soup or coke bottle, or iconic figures such as Che Guevara and Marilyn Monroe and repeated them on the canvas in a simple grid arrangement. While this was certainly a challenge to the art establishment it was an equal challenge to the non-expert in understanding why this would be classified as art – particularly when he had simply taken recognisable objects and duplicated them. However, in every sense, Warhol’s work, or at least his more famous works, did produce an assault on the senses.
His work also differed from mainstream art in his use of materials. Much of his work did not consist of paint on canvas but instead used a silkscreen printing process – in a sense, manufactured art. Warhol didn’t just influence the content of art, he influenced its production as well.
Warhol’s longer term influence on the world of art and artists can still be felt today. For example Tray Emin’s ‘My Bed’, which was a controversial winner of the 1999 Turner Prize, uses a collection of everyday objects.
It is hard though to relate the work of any pop artist of the sixties to any exceptional, or even unexceptional, social change. His ‘Red Race Riot’ of 1963 may have highlighted racial inequality but did not provoke a riot and nor did it become a symbol of any racial equality movement, though it’s unlikely that was ever Warhol’s intention.
Culturally though pop-art has helped to bring art closer to people who had previously associated the subject with older paintings. In some ways it made art more accessible to a wider audience by providing instantly recognisable objects and opened the door for mimicry of Warhol’s style – Warhol could have no qualms with this as he had simply and literally mimicked what he had seen to create his art.

2 – Mark Rothko
Mark Rothko was a proponent of the Abstract Expressionism school of art which began in America in the 1940’s before flourishing later in the 1950s and throughout the 1960s. Abstract Expressionism is characterised by the use of colour and brushstrokes on a large canvas to create an emotion rather than people and objects to create a ‘picture’.
Abstract Expressionism was never a popular movement in the way that pop-art grabbed the public’s attention. It expressed the introverted emotions of the artists, glorified its own creation and was generally inaccessible to the masses. It is difficult to see that it has led to any social or cultural change at the time – where it may have had some ‘in-thing’ value – and certainly its legacy is not significant today beyond cheap imitations on the walls of provincial coffee shops.

Conclusion
As indicated at the beginning, there will never be a clear answer to the question of whether or not the sixties was a period of exceptional social and cultural change. My own belief is that it was no more and no less exceptional than many other ‘decades’ which could be studied. It’s possible to pick any period in history and suggest that it had its own unique characteristics which brought about social and cultural change, for example, the industrial revolution in the late eighteenth century, Live Aid in 1985 and the Wall Street crash of 1929.
What is exceptional about the sixties though is that it signalled a sea change in attitudes towards the establishment and authority and ‘legitimised’ the moral right of every person to protest against the things they disagreed with. In this sense it was exceptional and its impact can be felt today when we see protests and marches against our own elected governments, consumer watchdogs telling people how to stand up for themselves against big organisations and the power of communication giving every man a voice that can be heard.

The character of Medea

2011-03-17T21:44:00.001+00:00

Medea is a character from Greek mythology who features in the story of Jason and the Golden Fleece. In the play by Euripides we come across Medea some time after she has married Jason and has moved with him to Corinth where she has borne him two sons. We know already from tales set before this time that Medea is capable of murderous acts. She was complicit in the murder of her own brother in an act which would help Jason escape with the Golden Fleece.

Medea was in fact a well established character in Greek mythology and so her background, personality and previous activities may well have been known by the audience. She is a citizen of Colchis who moves to Corinth where she is viewed as an outsider. Medea is a story of moral decline, though it could be argued that since she had previously been involved in the murder of her brother and others then this decline had already begun before the start of the play.

Our introduction to Medea in this play is given by her children’s nurse and tutor. Here were are presented with the tale of a woman who has been wronged by her husband. This opening section serves to fill us with sympathy for Medea and the position she now finds herself in. “…to come here with this man who now spurns and insults her.”, “Poor woman! Has she not stopped crying yet?”. Medea herself, as yet unseen, reinforces the hopelessness of her position through her wailings from indoors, ”Come, flame from the sky, pierce through my head! What do I gain from living any longer?”. We are presented initially with the image of a woman who is distraught.

When Medea first appears on stage however, she seems far from the wretch we have imagined, “She is not shaken with weeping, but cool and self-possessed.”, and gives a considered speech to her audience. We now see a woman who is very much in control and is capable of manipulating Creon to allow her to stay another day in Corinth. It is after Creon departs that we see the turning point and the first signs of plotting in Medea, “Come! Lay your plan, Medea; scheme with all your skill.” And it is after she has secured her future with Aegeus that we learn the full horror of her plots, “I will kill my sons.” At this stage we feel a marked change in our view of Medea. Gone is the pity we felt when she was scorned by her husband. Now we are seeing a woman who is prepared to take the lives of her own children to satisfy her need for revenge.

Though she rationalises the murder of her children as the only way to truly punish Jason, it is still not an act which comes easy to her. She is filled with doubt, “Women, my courage is all gone. Their young, bright faces – I can’t do it.” , but, on learning of the death of the princess and her father, her resolve is clear, “…come, take the sword; take it, and forward to your frontier of despair.”

If it is possible to come away with a view of Medea as anything other than a murderer, then it would be a hugely ambitious woman who would stop at nothing to satisfy her own selfish desires. The character we are left with at the end of the play is very far removed from the broken woman we met at the start. She has secured her own future with Aegeus yet by her own act ensured there would be no future for her own sons. In the same way she had previously ensured a future for herself and Jason which had involved the death of family members.

The development of Eliza Doolittle

2011-03-17T21:34:00.000+00:00

George Bernard Shaw’s 1912 play Pygmalion draws its influence from Ovid’s story of the same name – the tale of a sculptor who creates an ivory statue of a woman, falls in love with her, convinces Venus to bring her to life and marries her.

But Shaw’s Eliza Doolittle is very unlike the lifeless statue of Ovid’s play. Though only in her late teens or early twenties, she is an independent woman – supporting herself with a job as a flower girl – in an era when women’s independence was a topical issue. The changes we will see in her are illustrated in the way she dresses, the way she speaks, the things she says, her poise and grace and finally her own view of herself.

While Eliza was a ‘new’ creation based on a much older tale, the audience of her time would be able to assimilate some sort of background for her since her social class is self evident. She is a female who finds herself unfamiliar territory. The play deals, broadly, with feminist issues.

When we are first introduced to Eliza we are not introduced by name. She is merely referred to as the flower girl. Indeed throughout much of act one all of the characters are referred to by description rather than name.

On first hearing Eliza speak, we are given indication of her social standing, “Nah then, Freddy: look wh’ y’ gowin, deah.” Her occupation as a flower girl, working on the streets of Covent Garden during the evening, coupled with her broad cockney pronunciations clearly betrays her working class status. The second piece of dialogue from Eliza, “Ow, eez, ye-ooa san……ye-oo py me f’them?” is so clearly unintelligible that Shaw makes an apology to the reader. It is interesting to note that despite her accent and pronunciation, Eliza is easily understood by the mother and daughter she addresses though they are well spoken themselves.

These encounters in act one are enough to give us the impression of Eliza as a common working girl with little education. However she is clearly no fool and is able to defend herself against veiled accusations of soliciting. Similarly, she can be polite when she thinks it will influence a sale as illustrated in her request to Colonel Pickering, “Buy a flower, kind gentleman. I’m short for my lodging.”

The first indication of Eliza’s strong will and determination to better herself comes in act two when she turns up at Professor Higgins’ house and demands to be taught how to speak properly. Later in this act we see the first evidence of transformation in Eliza, at least with regard to her physical appearance. After having a bath she re-enters the action dressed in a Japanese kimono. This physical improvement alone is enough to surprise and amaze both Higgins and Pickering. In fact, the physical transformation is such that her own father fails to recognise her until she speaks.

The first real evidence, and real test, that Eliza has improved herself through Higgins’ teachings comes in act three which, for the first part, is set in the home of Mrs Higgins. Here Eliza manages to carry herself off well for the most part in the face of a broadly unsuspecting audience. There is noticeable improvement in her diction. For example she greets Mrs Higgins and the others perfectly well, “How do you do, Mrs Higgins?” However her choice of subject matter for small talk is not what would normally be expected and there is still evidence that she has merely taken some cockney phraseology and improved to pronunciation, “It never did him no harm what I could see. But then he never did keep it up regular.”

The real test for Eliza comes later in this act – and some good time later in her development – when she attends an embassy reception. Here she has to fool a former pupil of Higgins which she does successfully. Eliza has little to say in this scene beyond two conversations with Higgins and Pickering. The evidence of her transformation comes in the remarks made by other characters and the description of her greeting to the hostess, “With a beautiful gravity that awes her hostess”.

While in Higgins’ eyes Eliza’s transformation is complete at this stage, it clearly is not as far as she is concerned. Her ensuing arguments with Higgins, and words of gratitude to Pickering, tell us that Eliza is more acutely aware of her own position in society, the challenges she faces and the realisation that her development has more to do with Pickering’s involuntary teachings than elocution lessons. Shaw could easily have wrapped Pygmalion up with a fairy tale ending but chose instead to challenge us to think about what would happen to Eliza next. The uncertainty of her future perhaps reflecting the uncertainty that a woman of her standing would have faced in British society at that time.

The postscript to the play, written sometime later, gives us Eliza’s future as being married to Freddy and opening a flower shop. This is only one possible ending but does allude to the fact that Eliza, and Freddy for that matter, continue to change and develop and eventually enjoy some financial success with their business.

The Death of Socrates by Jacques-Louis David

2011-03-16T23:38:00.000+00:00

Jacques-Louis David was an artist who painted on the neo-classical style - taking sources from Roman and Greek art, literature and philosophies and using them as subjects to depict contemporary issues. He was active and popular before, during and after the French Revolution.

In The Death of Socrates he shows Socrates in his prison cell reaching out to accept the chalice of hemlock which will end his life. The painting is lit from the left and front though it is unclear where this light may be coming from since prison cells are, ordinarily, poorly lit.

Socrates himself is well lit and is the only figure dressed in white. In contrast the other figures are less well lit and are in the darker areas of the picture. This lighting effect gives Socrates a godlike quality, suggesting that though it is he who is about to die, his beliefs and principles will remain. Additionally, though Socrates is clearly an older man – thought to be around 70 when he died – he has the athletic and strong body of a younger man. This reinforces the vitality and the strength of his ideas. The open shackle on the floor, which presumably once held Socrates captive, again helps to reinforce the idea of Socrates personal freedom and the freedom which his ideas represent. An excellent use of symbolic imagery.

The vanishing point of the pictures lies just above the head of Plato who is seated at the foot of Socrates’ bed. While most of the other figures appear to be struck with grief over Socrates’ impending death, Plato’s posture implies a feeling of unhappy acceptance – his impotence unable to affect change – perhaps an acceptance that his great teacher is making the right decision to take his own life rather than flee.

The background to the picture is rather plain, much like The Oath of the Horatii and The Lictors Returning to Brutus the Bodies of his Sons, other neo-classical paintings by David completed within two years either side of The Death of Socrates. This serves to focus the viewer’s attention on the characters and reminds us that it is the action and qualities embodied in the figures that are the important thing here and not the setting.

The painting was completed in 1787, two years before the “start” of the Revolution. One message the painting portrays is martyrdom. Socrates was famously a martyr for his beliefs and was sentenced to death by the Athens government. David is supporting the principle that individuals should be able to speak out and act against a corrupt or oppressive government and that freedom was the ability to think and act for yourself. In this way he was clearly a supporter of revolutionary principles.

Rousseau’s states in his social contract

2011-03-16T23:22:00.000+00:00

According to Rousseau’s philosophies there are two potential ‘states’ in which people can exist – a state of nature and a civil state. Perhaps the civil state breaks down into two further options – legitimate authority and illegitimate authority. But lets ignore that minor complexity for the moment.

In a state of nature there are no laws, rules or moral codes which control the actions or thoughts of individuals. It follows then that in a state of nature there can be no such thing as civil disobedience since it would be impossible to determine if this had occurred.

Rousseau proposes a civil state where all individuals would act in accordance with what he describes as the General Will. In answering the question, “can civil disobedience be legitimate?”, it is important to understand what Rousseau means by the general will, and, therefore, legitimate state. Rousseau argues that if any individual applies reason to any question, they will come up with the same answer as any other individual. However, that reason, at all times, must be geared towards providing the best solution for the state – and in doing so provide the best solution for each individual who makes up the state. It follows then that all people, when faced with the same question and applying the same reason, will reach the same conclusion – like a mathematical problem.

Civil disobedience does not necessarily relate to violent action against the state and could occur when an individual reached a conclusion which did not agree with the majority and was prepared to act against it, i.e. it was against the general will.

There are three instances when such civil disobedience can occur:

A - When a person reasons in accordance with the general will but reaches the “wrong” conclusion. If this was a genuine error then it could not be considered civil disobedience. It could be a result of misunderstanding, inability to reason or whatever but if the person genuinely wanted to conclude in accordance with the general will and was willing to accept their misjudgement then there is no disobedience.

B – Where a person reasons in accordance with the aims of the general will but reaches a conclusion which does not correspond with that of others. Further, the person truly believes they are right and followers of the general will are wrong.

C – Where a person has reasoned in accordance with their own particular will, i.e. to satisfy a personal need rather than the wider need of all the people.

According to Rousseau, people taking action as a result of both B and C would constitute civil disobedience. His solution in both instances would be not to tolerate this disobedience and to force people to agree with the general will.

I would agree with Rousseau in relation to civil disobedience fuelled by personal desire (example C). In these circumstances it is morally (and perhaps sometimes even legally) incorrect to implement decisions which have benefits for only a small proportion of the population and inherent detriment to the population in general. For example, conspiracy theorists would have us believe that the war in Iraq is promoted largely by US arms manufacturers and has little benefit for the indigenous populations of Iraq, America and other countries. While the situation is infinitely more complex, there is undoubtedly some truth in these theories and the interests of leading US political figures in arms and oil companies is well documented. However, Rousseau could quite easily argue that if all interested parties (individuals) had access to all of the facts, they may well reason that this is the general will. Sadly it’s a hard one to put to the test.

However, I would argue with Rousseau in his treatment of civil disobedience of the type outlined in example B. Rousseau proposes that the majority is always right. This is not correct. Majority views can easily be the product of misunderstanding, miscommunication, propaganda or whatever. Eighty years ago the majority of people didn’t link smoking with cancer, etc. The main point though is that Rousseau’s treatment of ‘dissidents’ is wholly at odds with his own position as a reformer. He is, until his ideas are widely accepted, the minority. He cannot give himself the right to challenge established and popularly held beliefs without also allowing others that luxury. It’s perhaps telling that no actual state has adopted the General Will as a guiding principle.

It is this latter point which exposes the biggest frailty in Rousseau’s philosophies – that he believes everyone should agree with him.

The importance of the games in Roman society?

2011-03-16T22:35:00.000+00:00

From the number of paintings and drawings, sculptures, mosaics and other artefacts which have existed since the days of the Colosseum and have been produced since that period, it is reasonable to assume that the games formed a significant part of Roman life. Undoubtedly they had a major impact in those who were alive at the time, whether spectators, participants or critics, and with more than 150 Roman amphitheatres stretching across Europe and Northern Africa, there were opportunities for millions of people to see the games during centuries of Roman supremacy. Sadly, there were also many thousands killed through participation.

Equally, they have been an influence on art and artists through the ages and even to the modern day where popular film culture lets us imagine what it was like to be at the very centre of the games.

Whatever the Roman games mean to us today, they had a very different meaning to ancient Roman society and it is that meaning, or indeed those meanings, which I would like to discuss here. First of all though, it is important to remember that ancient Rome was not a classless society. It was more akin to 18th century Britain or modern day India in that there were layers of society determined principally by wealth or status. We should therefore consider the meaning of the games from the perspective of those who provided them and those who attended. Also we should consider the meaning of the word Games. Today we associate the word games with sport but this is not the case with Roman games. They served a wider social and political purpose so any comparison with what we regard as games today is invalid. Having said that, and in the absence of what we know as organised sporting events, the games would have been considered sport by many Romans and non-Romans.

At the very highest level of Roman society, the Emperor, the games were his “gift” to the people of Rome and were a means by which he could show his generosity. Much of the income derived by Rome was wealth captured from the taking of land and the overthrow of other peoples so perhaps the provision of free games for the people somehow balanced the enormous wealth enjoyed by emperors. However, it would be wrong to necessarily confuse this apparent generosity with philanthropy. Emperor Augustus for example cites in his Res Gestae Divi Augusti, “I gave three gladiatorial games in my own name and five in that of my sons or grandsons”. Hosting the games was therefore also a way for an emperor to be remembered for his generosity – and to reflect his grandeur and power.

The games would also provide an excellent opportunity for propaganda and for the emperor to engender public support for his position. Roman politics were renowned for their Machiavellian tendencies so any emperor would do well to find favour with the public. With such large crowds attending, this would be an opportunity for the emperor to increase his popularity and thus diminish the likelihood of any factions within the Roman senate attempting to overthrow him.

The games also provided opportunities for other noted public figures to show generosity. Though their shows would not be allowed to be as lavish as those of the emperor, they served the purpose of showing support for the emperor and perhaps secured a place in finer Roman society.

As far as the people of Rome were concerned the games were, on the surface, much like modern day sports events. There is more to it than watching people and animals being killed. There is the atmosphere of the amphitheatre, seeing the emperor and the characters in the arena – some of whom would have been famous gladiators – meeting with friends. We must remember that at that time in history there were no other major spectator enabled events (our equivalents, the modern Olympic Games and Football World Cup are products of the 20th century). As a result, the Games filled a much needed space in what could have been for some Romans an uninspiring social calendar.

It is hard for us today to understand what the attraction of these apparently bloodthirsty games would have been to ordinary people. We do not instinctively associate the people of Rome with violent behaviour. Though Rome was a conquering nation their legacy to the modern world reaches far wider than these seemingly brutal acts. To understand the motivation of the crowd, who by many accounts enjoyed the Games, it is helpful to refer to The story of Alypius by St Augustine. Here Alypius is taken to the Games by some friends under duress. He is expecting to be appalled by what he sees but instead is enthralled. This parable serves to illustrate how the madness of crowds can be such an influencing factor in the behaviour of ordinary citizens who attended the Games.

Beyond meeting the popularity needs of the emperor and the entertainment needs of the people, the Roman games served two other important social functions.

The first of these was to provide a means of disposing of prisoners who had been condemned to death. These prisoners may have been criminals, perhaps defeated enemies who did not acknowledge Rome’s superiority or Christians who posed a threat to the stability of Roman rule. Whatever their crime, the arena provided a public venue for their slaughter. However, in some instances they were given a chance to redeem themselves through bravery in battle (which could be among themselves or against savage animals). In such instances the crowd would participate in the determination of their fate. In this way the responsibility for killing prisoners of all types was one which was shared by all of Roman society.

The second function was to clear areas of land of dangerous animals so that it was fit for habitation. For example, it is recorded that at the hundred days’ festival a total of 9,000 animals were killed. The Romans believed that such wholesale slaughter of wild animals, some of species that posed no threat to human life, was a necessary exercise to create more usable land in the Empire.

Whatever our own personal view of the Games is today, it is sure to be one which would provoke reaction – whether horror at their brutality or fascination at the extent of the spectacle, or both. However it is evident from what we know of them that if they existed today, they would have an important place in our emotions. In the same way, they must have held an important place in the mind of all Romans and even though many contemporary writers were mildly scathing in their description of the events they remained, in some form, a feature of Roman life for some 500 years.

A brief analysis of the functionality of the Colosseum in Rome

2011-03-16T22:23:00.000+00:00

Image: Jon Whiles / FreeDigitalPhotos.net

Did the Colosseum in Rome fulfil its function as a games arena? I think it did – here are a few reasons why

Location – it’s located in a broadly central position in the city making it accessible by large numbers of the population. It’s large and highly visible so it attracts attendance.

Size - it was significant in size, holding in the region of 50,000 spectators. This meant that the games could be enjoyed by many and the sheer size of the crowd, when full, would enhance the overall atmosphere.

Access - there were a total of 76 entrances around the Colosseum’s perimeter. These were numbered suggesting some kind of ticketing system may have been in operation. These numbered entrances would do much to control the crowds and avoid bottlenecks when large numbers were arriving or departing. The large number of stairways evenly spread across the structure provides access to its different levels. Those numerous points of access allowed people to move about freely.

Seating - the Colosseum provided seating for 45,000 spectators. This meant that the vast majority of spectators had at least some level of comfort to watch what could be a lengthy event in high temperatures. Seating is also a health and safety measure - we know from our own recent experience of disasters at football ground that fully-seated stadiums have less potential for crushing injuries in crowds. Additionally, seating was arranged to reflect status – and important issue in Imperial Rome.

Shape and structure - the Colossuem is oval in shape. All viewing positions face on to the arena which sits in the centre of the building. The weight of the building was supported by large piers and arches which were around the outside of the building and below the spectator areas. This meant that all spectators had an uninterrupted view of the arena; though those at the top of the structure were significantly further from the action than others.

Shade - Italy is a warm country and the lack of a permanent roof would mean that, at some times of the day, spectators would be exposed to the heat and glare of the sun. There is some evidence of supports for a temporary cover which would reduce this potential discomfort.

Facilities for spectators - similarly there is evidence that water was made available in the building through a series of pipes leading to fountains on the landings. This would mean that spectators would have access to refreshments if required.

Facilities for performers - there is a labyrinth of passages and rooms below the floor of the arena providing facilities for the management of prisoners and animals who formed and integral part of the event.

Meeting areas - since the Roman games were very much a social event, the Colosseum also provided cloistered areas on three levels where people could meet and talk, away from the noise of the games and glare of the sun.

Silent Noon by Ralph Vaughan Williams

2011-03-01T23:08:00.000+00:00

A very brief analysis of Silent Noon by Ralph Vaughan Williams

Silent Noon by Ralph Vaughan Williams is a musical interpretation of the sonnet of the same name by Dante Gabriel Rossetti. The sonnet is reproduced below. It describes a quiet time spent by two lovers in a field in the countryside on a summer’s day.

The piece begins with a brief piano introduction. The piano is the only musical instrument used throughout. There are three beats to the bar though the composer uses syncopation (one and, two, and three) which creates a sense of movement - necessary in the earlier part of the piece (lines one to four of the sonnet) where a simple repeating chord pattern is used. Syncopation may also have been felt necessary by the composer to compensate for the fact that sonnets were spoken rather than sung pieces and therefore don’t have the rhyming structure that song lyrics would have.

The solo male voice dominates much of the piece while the timbre of the piano is at times distant as if it is being played somewhere farther away. It is the voice that carries the whole of the song using changes in pitch, tempo and dynamics to add variety and interest to what is in part a fairly repetitious tune.
There is a quite dramatic change to the piano melody at line five of the sonnet and lasting to around the end of line 11. This passage has a moderately livelier feel to it reflecting perhaps the movement of the kingcups, cow-parsley, hawthorn and dragon fly. This is in sharp contrast to the stillness experienced by the lovers as they lie together in the grass.

Your hands lie open in the long fresh grass, -
The finger-points look through like rosy blooms:
Your eyes smile peace. The pasture gleams and glooms
'Neath billowing skies that scatter and amass.
All round our nest, far as the eye can pass,
Are golden kingcup-fields with silver edge
Where the cow-parsley skirts the hawthorn-hedge.
'Tis visible silence, still as the hour-glass.

Deep in the sun-searched growths the dragon-fly
Hangs like a blue thread loosened from the sky: -
So this wing'd hour is dropt to us from above.
Oh! clasp we to our hearts, for deathless dower,
This close-companioned inarticulate hour
When twofold silence was the song of love

DG Rossetti

Since there's no help, come let us kiss and part

2011-03-01T23:01:00.000+00:00

Since there's no help, come let us kiss and part
A brief analysis of the sonnet by Michael Drayton

Since there's no help, come let us kiss and part,
Nay, I have done: you get no more of me,
And I am glad, yea glad with all my heart,
That thus so cleanly I myself can free.
Shake hands for ever, cancel all our vows,
And when we meet at any time again
Be it not seen in either of our brows
That we one jot of former love retain.

Now at the last gasp of Love's latest breath,
When his pulse failing, Passion speechless lies,
When Faith is kneeling by his bed of death,
And Innocence is closing up his eyes,

Now, if thou wouldst, when all have given him over,
From death to life thou might'st him yet recover.

Michael Drayton’s sonnet, “Since there’s no help, come let us kiss and part”, follows the basic Shakespearian sonnet structure, consisting of fourteen lines of verse broken into an octave followed by a sestet. The rhyme scheme is ABAB CDCD EFEF GG. It is written as iambic pentameter - ten syllables per line and five stresses on alternating syllables. The turn is clearly identifiable at the start of line nine by the use of the word “Now” and becomes more evident through the change in tone and speaker.

It’s possible that the octave is spoken by a man to the woman who he has loved on the termination of their relationship. Line one is fairly gentle suggesting that they could have been the actual words which he used. The use of caesura - the dash at the end of this line - causes the reader to pause as the remaining seven lines spiral towards vitriol and near bitterness. This tone here suggests that these lines may be his thoughts rather than his words to her. He has clearly found the relationship oppressive or unsatisfactory in some sense. The one incidence of enjambment occurs between lines seven and eight increasing the pace at the end of the octave and allowing the speaker to almost spit out his words.

The sestet is spoken by someone who is a friend of the man - who is now on his deathbed or gravely ill - and takes the form of a plea to the woman to come and see her former lover with the objective of reviving him. The sestet makes greater use of imagery, suggesting that “Love”, “Passion”, “Faith”, and “Innocence” have physical rather than emotional values. Caesura is used again at the beginning of line 13. The indentation coupled with the dash slows the reader down and let’s us imagine the friend speaking slowly and sincerely in in a final plea for reconciliation.

Wheatfields by Jacob Isaacksz van Ruisdael

2011-03-01T22:44:00.000+00:00

A brief analysis of the painting Wheatfields by Jacob Isaacksz van Ruisdael, painted around 1670.

Wheatfields is a largish landscape depicting the final stage of a man’s journey home to be met by his wife and child. The title may at first reading seem to be somewhat of a misnomer since more than half of the picture area is represented by the sky and the subject matter appears to be the reuniting of a family. However the title does reflect the setting and is given prominence by the brightness of the fields themselves.

The artist’s viewpoint is mildly elevated, causing him to look down on the foreground and giving the impression of being slightly above the characters on the roadway – though sharing the same path.

The painting is lit by the evening sun from the artist’s left and is set in early autumn when crops are fully grown and the leaves on the trees are turning brown.

The vanishing point lies around the gap in the wall and can be determined by following the lines of the roads, the edges of the wheatfield on the left and the coastline on the left. The right hand area gives fewer clues to the vanishing point.

Beyond the golden yellow of the field, the colour range is fairly narrow; the foreground consisting mainly of brownish greens and the top two thirds limited to blue, white and shades of grey.

Tonal range is wider. There is lightness in the sky and the fields, and the viewer’s eye is drawn to the lightness of the path separating the man and his family and the building partly obscured by the trees – showing us his route and ultimate destination. Other areas of the painting are relatively dark though not sufficient to obscure their detail.

In terms of effect, the painting suggests a homecoming. Though we cannot see the faces of the woman and child we must assume they are pleased to see the returning man since they have troubled themselves to come to meet him. He doesn’t appear to be wearing a worker’s clothing and is carrying a large parcel, suggesting that he may have been away for some time.