Diagnosis

Diagnosis: Chest X-ray

2010-08-22T04:56:00.000-07:00

Diagnosis: Chest X-ray: "What is a chest X-ray? A chest X-ray is a radiology test that involves e xposing the chest briefly to radiation to produce an image o..."

electrogastrogram

2010-08-22T04:51:00.001-07:00

What is an electrogastrogram?

An electrogastrogram is similar to an electrocardiogram (EKG)

of the heart. It is a recording of the
electrical signals that travel through

the muscles of the stomach and control the
muscles' contraction.

When is an electrogastrogram used?

An electrogastrogram is used when there is a suspicion that

the muscles of the stomach or the nerves
controlling the muscles are not working normally.

Usually this suspicion arises when there
is a problem with recurrent nausea and vomiting, signs

that the stomach is not emptying food
normally. If the electrogastrogram is abnormal,

it confirms that the problem
probably is with the stomach's muscles or the nerves that control the muscles.

The electrogastrogram can be
considered an experimental

procedure since its exact role in the
diagnosis of diseases of the stomach has not been defined yet.

How is an electrogastrogram done?

For an electrogastrogram, several electrodes are taped onto the abdomen over

the stomach in the same manner as
electrodes on the chest for an electrocardiogram. The electrodes

sense the electrical signals coming
from the stomach's muscles, and the signals are recorded on a computer for
analysis

. Recordings are

made both fasting and after a meal
with the patient lying quietly. The study takes two or three hours.

How are the results of the electrogastrogram
evaluated?

In normal individuals there is a regular electrical rhythm

generated by the muscles of the
stomach--just as in the heart--and the power (voltage)

of the electrical current increases after
the meal. In patients with abnormalities of the muscles

or nerves of the stomach, the rhythm often
is irregular or there is no post-meal increase in electrical power.

Are there any side effects of an
electrogastrogram?

There are no side effects. The study is painless.

Are there alternatives to the electrogastrogram?

No, there are no alternatives; however, other studies, for example,
antro-duodenal motility studies

or gastric emptying studies may give
additional information since abnormal electrical activity of the

stomach often results in abnormal muscular
activity and reduced emptying of food from the stomach.

Osteomyelitis

2010-08-22T04:50:00.003-07:00

What is
osteomyelitis?

Osteomyelitis is infection in the bone. Osteomyelitis can

occur in infants,
children, and adults. Different types of bacteria typically

affect the
different age groups. In children, osteomyelitis most commonly occurs at the

ends of the long
bones of the arms and legs, affecting

the
hips, knees, shoulders, and wrists. In adults, it is more common in the bones of
the spine (vertebrae) or in the pelvis.

What causes osteomyelitis?

There are several different ways to develop osteomyelitis.

The first is
for bacteria to travel through the bloodstream (bacteremia) and spread

to the bone,
causing an infection. This most often occurs when the patient has an infection
elsewhere in the body,

such as
pneumonia or a urinary tract infection, that spreads through the blood to the
bone.

An open wound over a bone can lead to osteomyelitis. An open fracture where the
bone

punctures
through the skin is also a potential cause.

A recent surgery or injection around a bone can also expose the bone to bacteria
and lead to osteomyelitis.

Patients with conditions or taking medications that

weaken their immune
system are at a higher risk

of developing
osteomyelitis. These include patients with cancer, chronic steroid use, sickle
cell disease,

human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV), diabetes, hemodialysis, intravenous drug users,
and the elderly.

Definition Health insurance

2010-08-22T04:50:00.001-07:00

Definition

Health insurance
helps protect you from high medical

care costs. Many people in the United States get a

health insurance policy through their employers. In most

cases, the employer helps pay for that insurance. Insurance through employers is

often with a managed care plan. These plans contract

with health care providers and medical facilities to provide

care for members at reduced costs.

You can also purchase
health insurance on your own. It usually costs you more than employer-based insurance.

People who meet certain requirements can qualify for
government health insurance, such as Medicare and

Medicaid. If you do not have health insurance, you must pay your medical
bills directly or rely on health care providers or organizations that donate care.

Women's Health

2010-08-22T04:49:00.001-07:00

Women's Health

Disease Prevention in Women Slideshow

Medical Author: Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD

Medical Editor: William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR

Introduction

Women and men share many similar health problems but women also have their own
health
issues, which deserve special consideration.

Today women's health is coming to be viewed as a distinctive field. Why should
it be separate
from the rest of health? The answer is two-fold.
An area devoted to women's health:

1. Makes finding
information about women's health matters faster; and it

2. Focuses directly on
topics that are major health concerns for women.

Women's lives have changed over the centuries. Historically, life was
particularly difficult for
most women. Aside from the numerous dangers and
diseases, women became wives and mothers often when they
were just emerging from their own childhood. Many
women had a multitude of pregnancies which may or
may not have been wanted. In the past, childbirth
itself was risky and not infrequently led to the death
of the mother. Most women in the past did not live long
enough to be concerned about menopause or old age.

In 1900, a woman's life span was about 50 years. Now, in the new millennium,
life expectancy for
American women is 82 years of age, and continuing to
rise. Not only are women living longer, but they also have the
possibility of enjoying a better quality of life
throughout their span of years. But to do this, it is essential that women take
charge of their
own bodies and comprehend how they can maximize
their health. It is also helpful that men
understand and are supportive of the health
concerns of the women.

Gynecology is the primary branch of medical science concerned with women's
health.
The word "gynecology" is a word consisting of "gyneco,"
meaning "woman," and "logic," meaning "knowledge." Taken together, it is "woman
knowledge."

It is important that every woman has access to knowledge related to the spectrum

of women's health issues, not only about her
reproductive system, but about all aspects of her body (as below):

* General Health and Wellness

* Female Anatomy

* The Female Reproductive System

* Female Hormones

* Diseases More Common In Women

* Cancer In Women

* Women's Cosmetic Concerns

* Menstruation

* Sexuality

* Fertility, Birth Control and Infertility

* Pregnancy

* Motherhood

* Menopause

* The Mature Woman - Post Menopause

* Find a local Obstetrician-Gynecologist in your town

General Health and Wellness

There is credible information available to women not only on
such problems as eating disorders, stress, alcoholism,
addictions, and depression, but also on basic topics
such as good nutrition and exercise. For example,
it is beneficial that a woman maintain her optimum weight. If a woman's waist
size measures more than 35 inches (89 cm),
she is more likely to develop heart disease, high
blood pressure, and diabetes.
Eating sensible meals, eliminating after- dinner
snacks, and making physical activity a part of daily life
are significant ways to help control weight and lower
the risk of a long list of health problems.

Smoking is detrimental to a woman's health (or to anyone else's). Unfortunately,
women continue to
smoke despite the known health risks. Even though
the number of women smoking is declining, still about
19% of women in the U.S. were smokers in 2003. Women
are smoking in spite of the well-publicized risks
of lung disease including cancer, heart disease, and
innumerable other health problems now linked to smoking.

Drinking an excessive amount of alcohol is also harmful to health. Although
women typically begin drinking at a later age than men and tend to
drink somewhat less, women need lower doses of alcohol
before developing alcohol-related medical problems such as cirrhosis and
hepatitis.

Women should be aware that they metabolize a number of drugs differently than
men.
In some cases and for some medications, the rate
may be slower, and in other cases, faster.
It is, therefore, essential that women are well
informed about the kinds and correct dosages of drugs they are taking.

What does AIDS stand for? What causes AIDS?

2010-08-22T04:48:00.002-07:00

What does AIDS stand for? What causes AIDS?
AIDS stands for "acquired immunodeficiency syndrome."

AIDS is a disease that weakens the immune system to the point where an
affected person is vulnerable to a wide range
of infections and cancers that result in death if not treated
. AIDS is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The virus is
spread through contact with infected blood or secretions. At first (stage 1 HIV infection),
there is little evidence of harm. Over time, the virus attacks the immune system, focusing on special

cells called "CD4 cells" which are important in protecting the body from infections and cancers,

and the number of these cells starts to fall (stage 2). Eventually, the CD4 cells fall to a

critical level and/or the immune system is weakened so much that it can no longer
fight off certain types of infections and cancers. This advanced stage of infection (stage 3)

with HIV is called AIDS.

HIV
is a very small virus that contains ribonucleic acid (RNA) as its genetic material. (Animal
cells, plant cells, bacteria, parasites, and some viruses use deoxyribonucleic
acid [DNA] as their primary genetic material rather than RNA.) When HIV infects animal cells, it uses a

special enzyme, reverse transcriptase, to turn (transcribe) its RNA into
DNA which, in turn, directs the formation of HIV RNA that can

be used to form new HIV. This is different from the way human cells reproduce

(directly transcribing their DNA into RNA), so HIV is classified as a "retrovirus."
When HIV reproduces, it is prone to making small genetic mistakes o
r mutations, resulting in viruses that vary slightly from each other.
This ability to create minor variations allows HIV to evade the body's

immunologic defenses, essentially leading to lifelong infection, and has made
it difficult to make an effective vaccine. The mutations also allow HIV to become resistant to medications.

Heart disease

2010-08-22T04:48:00.000-07:00

Introduction to heart disease?

The heart is like any other muscle, requiring blood
to supply oxygen and nutrients for it to function.

The heart's needs are provided by the coronary

arteries, which begin at the base of
the aorta and spread across
the surface of the heart, branching out to all
areas of the heart muscle.

The coronary arteries are at risk for narrowing as cholesterol deposits,

called plaques, build up inside the artery. If the
arteries narrow enough,
blood supply to the heart muscle may be
compromised (slowed down),
and this slowing of blood flow to the heart
causes pain, or angina.

A heart attack or myocardial infarction occurs when a plaque ruptures,
allowing a blood clot to form. This completely
obstructs the artery
, stopping blood flow to part of the heart muscle,
and that portion of muscle dies.

What are the risk factors for heart disease

Risk factors for heart disease include:

Smoking

High blood pressure (hypertension)

High cholesterol

Diabetes

Family history

Peripheral artery disease

Obesity

What are the symptoms of heart disease?

The typical symptoms of coronary artery disease
are associated chest pain with shortness of breath.
Classically, the
pain of angina is described as a pressure or
heaviness behind the breast bone with radiation
to the jaw and down the arm accompanied by shortness
of breath and sweating. Unfortunately,
angina has a variety of presentations, and there may
not even be specific chest pain.
There may be shoulder or back ache, nausea,
indigestion or upper abdominal pain.

Women, the elderly, and people with diabetes may have different perceptions
of pain or have no discomfort at all. Instead,
they may complain of malaise or fatigue.

Healthcare providers and patients may have difficulty understanding each other
when
symptoms of angina are described. Patients may
experience pressure or tightness but may
deny any complaints of pain.

People with coronary artery disease usually have gradual progression of their
symptoms over
time. As an artery narrows over time, the symptoms
that it causes may increase in frequency
and/or severity. Healthcare providers may
inquire about changes in exercise tolerance
(How far can you walk before getting symptoms? Is it
to the mailbox?
Up a flight of stairs?) and whether there has
been an acute change in the symptoms.

Once again, patients may be asymptomatic until a heart attack occurs. Of course,
some
patients also may be in denial as to their
symptoms and procrastinate in seeking care.

Chest X-ray

2010-08-22T04:46:00.003-07:00

What is a chest X-ray?

A chest X-ray is a radiology test that involves e
xposing the chest briefly to radiation to produce an image

of the chest and the internal organs of the chest.

An X-ray film is positioned against the body opposite

the camera, which sends out a very small dose of a radiation

beam. As the radiation penetrates the body, it is absorbed in
varying amounts by different body tissues depending on the tissue's composition

of air, water, blood, bone, or muscle. Bones, for example, absorb much

of the X-ray radiation while lung tissue

(which is filled with mostly air) absorbs very little, allowing most

of the X-ray beam to pass through the lung.

What is a shadow on a chest X-ray?
Due to the differences in their composition (and,
therefore, varying degrees of penetration of the X-ray beam),

the lungs, heart, aorta, and bones of the chest each can be distinctly

visualized on the chest X-ray. The X-ray film records these differences
to produce an image of body tissue structures and these are shadows seen
on the X-ray. The white shadows on chest X-ray represent more dense or
solid tissues, such as bone or heart, and the darker shadows on the chest X-ray represent air filled tissues, such as lungs.

Diagnosis: Health insurance

2010-08-22T04:46:00.001-07:00

Health insurance,
like other forms of insurance, is a form of collectivism

by means of which people collectively pool their risk, in this

case the risk of incurring medical expenses. The collective is usually publicly

owned or else is organized on a non-profit basis for the members of the pool,

though in some countries health insurance pools may also be managed by for-profit companies.

It is sometimes used more broadly to include insurance

covering disability or long-term nursing or custodial care needs. It may be provided through a

government-sponsored social insurance program, or

from private insurance companies. It may be purchased on a group basis (e.g., by a firm to cover its employees)

or purchased by an individual. In each case, the covered

groups or individuals pay premiums or taxes to help

protect themselves from unexpected healthcare expenses.
Similar benefits paying for medical expenses may also

be provided through social welfare programs

funded by the government.

By estimating the overall risk of
healthcare expenses, a routine finance structure (such as a monthly premium or annual tax)
can be developed, ensuring that money is available to
pay for the healthcare benefits specified in the insurance

agreement. The benefit is administered by a central organization such as a government agency, private business, or not-for-profit entity.[1]

H1N1 influenza

2010-08-22T04:45:00.001-07:00

What is swine flu (novel H1N1 influenza A swine flu)?

Swine flu (swine influenza) is a respiratory disease
caused
by viruses (influenza
viruses) that infect the respiratory tract
of pigs and result in nasal secretions, a
barking-like

cough, decreased
appetite,
and listless behavior. Swine flu produces
most of the same symptoms in pigs as
human flu produces in people. Swine flu

can last about one to two weeks in pigs that survive.

Swine influenza virus was first isolated from pigs in
1930 in the
U.S. and has been recognized by
pork producers and veterinarians to cause
infections in pigs worldwide. In a number

of instances, people have developed the swine flu
infection
when they are closely associated with pigs (for
example, farmers, pork processors), and likewise,
pig populations have occasionally been infected
with the human
flu infection. In most instances, the
cross-species infections (swine virus to man;
human flu virus to pigs) have remained in local areas
and have not caused national or
worldwide infections in either pigs
or humans. Unfortunately, this cross-species situation
with influenza viruses has had the potential to
change. Investigators think the 2009
swine flu strain, first seen in Mexico,
should be termed novel H1N1 flu since it is mainly
found infecting people
and exhibits two main surface antigens, H1
(hemagglutinin type 1) and N1
(neuraminidase type1). Recent investigations show the
eight RNA strands from novel H1N1 flu have
one strand derived from human flu strains, two
from avian (bird) s
trains, and five from swine strains.

Why is swine flu (H1N1) now infecting humans?

Many researchers now consider that two main series
of events can lead to swine flu (and also

avian or bird flu)
becoming a major cause for influenza illness in
humans.
First, the influenza viruses (types A, B, C) are
enveloped RNA
viruses with a segmented genome; this means the viral
RNA genetic code is not a single strand of RNA but exists
as eight different RNA segments in the influenza
viruses. A human (or bird) influenza virus can infect
a pig respiratory cell at the same time as a swine

influenza virus; some of the replicating RNA strands
from the human virus
can get mistakenly enclosed inside the enveloped swine
influenza virus. For example, one cell could contain eight swine flu and eight
human flu RNA segments.
The total number of RNA types in one cell would
be 16; four swine and four human flu
RNA segments could be incorporated into one
particle, making a viable eight RNA segmented
flu virus from the 16 available segment types. Various
combinations of RNA segments can result in a new
subtype of virus (known as

antigenic shift) that may
have the ability to preferentially infect humans but still show
characteristics unique to the swine influenza virus
(see Figure 1). It is even possible to include
RNA
strands from birds, swine, and human influenza
viruses into one virus if a cell becomes
infected with all three types of influenza (for
example, two bird flu, three swine flu, and three
human flu RNA segments to produce a viable eight-
segment new type of flu viral genome). Formation of a
new viral type is considered to be antigenic shift; small
changes in an individual RNA segment in flu viruses are
termed

antigenic drift and
result in
minor changes in the virus. However, these can
accumulate over time to produce enough minor
changes that cumulatively change the virus' antigenic
makeup over time (usually years).
Second, pigs can play a unique role as an intermediary
host to new flu types because
pig respiratory cells can be infected directly
with bird, human, and
other mammalian flu viruses. Consequently,
pig respiratory cells are able to be infected

with many types of flu and can function as a
"mixing pot" for flu RNA segments (see Figure 1).
Bird flu viruses, which usually infect the
gastrointestinal cells of
many bird species, are shed in bird feces. Pigs can
pick these
viruses up from the environment and seem to be
the major way
that bird flu virus RNA segments enter the mammalian
flu virus population.

Figure 1.

Nipple (Breast)

2010-08-22T04:44:00.000-07:00

What is the breast?

The breast generally refers to the front of the

chest and medically specifically to the

mammary gland.
(The word "mammary" comes from "mamma," the Greek

and Latin word for the breast, which derives from the
cry
"mama" uttered by infants and young children, sometimes
meaning "I want to feed at the breast.")

How is the mammary gland designed?

The mammary gland is a milk-producing structure that is

composed largely of fat cells (cells capable of storing
fat).
The fat deposits are laid down in the breast
under the influence of the female
hormone

estrogen. Just as the
surge of

estrogens at adolescence
encourages
this process, androgens, such as

testosterone, discourage
it.
Within the mammary gland there is a complex network

of branching ducts (tubes or channels). These ducts
exit from sac-like structures called lobules.
The lobules in the breast are the glands that can
produce milk in
females when they receive the appropriate hormonal
stimulation.
The breast ducts transport milk from the lobules out to
the nipple.
The ducts exit from the breast at the nipple.

Picture of the anatomy of the breast

How are human breasts different from those of other
primates?

Human breasts function somewhat differently than those
of
other primates. In other primates, the breasts
grow only when the
female is producing milk (lactating). When the
non-human primate
female has weaned her young, her breasts flatten
back down. In
humans, the breasts develop at adolescence usually well
before
any

pregnancy has occurred
and the breasts stay enlarged throughout the remainder of life.

night sweats

2010-08-22T04:43:00.001-07:00

Introduction

Doctors in primary care fields of

medicine often hear their patients

complain of night sweats as they are

common. Night sweats refer to any excess sweating

occurring during the night. However,

if your bedroom is unusually hot or you

are using too many bedclothes, you may begin

to sweat during sleep - and this is normal. In

order to distinguish night sweats that arise from medical

causes from those that occur because one's surroundings are too warm

, doctors generally refer to true night sweats as severe hot flashes

occurring at night that can drench sleepwear and sheets, which are

not related to an overheated environment.

In one study of 2267 patients visiting

a primary care physician, 41% reported

experiencing night sweats during the previous month,

so the perception of excessive sweating at night is fairly common.

It is important to note that flushing (a warmth and redness of the face or

trunk) may also be hard to distinguish from true night sweats.

What are the causes of night sweats?

There are many different causes of night sweats.

To determine what is causing night sweats in a

particular patient, a doctor must obtain a

detailed medical history and order tests

to decide if an underlying medical condition is

responsible for the night sweats.

The following are some of

the known conditions that can cause night sweats.

Menopause

The hot flashes that accompany

the menopausal transition can occur

at night and cause sweating. This is a very common

cause of night sweats in perimenopausal women. It is important to

remember that hot flashes and other symptoms of the perimenopause can precede

the actual menopause (the cessation of menstrual periods) by several years.

arthritis

2010-08-22T04:42:00.001-07:00

What is arthritis? What causes arthritis?

Arthritis is a joint disorder featuring inflammation. A joint is an area of the

body where two different bones meet.

A joint functions to move the body parts

connected by its bones. Arthritis literally

means inflammation of one or more joints.

Arthritis is frequently accompanied by joint pain.

Joint pain is referred to as arthralgia.

There are many types of arthritis (over 100 identified, and the number is
growing).

The types range from those related to wear

and tear of cartilage (such as osteoarthritis) to

those associated with inflammation resulting from

an overactive immune system (such as rheumatoid arthritis).

Together, the many types of arthritis make up the

most common chronic illness in the United States.

The causes of arthritis depend on the form of arthritis.

Causes include injury (leading to osteoarthritis), metabolic abnormalities

(such as gout and pseudogout), hereditary factors, the direct

and indirect effect of infections (bacterial and viral), and a misdirected

immune system with autoimmunity (such as in rheumatoid

arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus).

Arthritis is classified as one of the rheumatic diseases.

These are conditions that are different individual illnesses,

with differing features, treatments, complications,

and prognoses. They are similar in that they have a tendency

to affect the joints, muscles, ligaments, cartilage, and tendons,

and many have the potential to affect other internal body areas.

What are arthritis symptoms and signs?

Symptoms of arthritis include pain and limited function of joints.

Inflammation of the joints from arthritis is characterized by joint stiffness,
swelling, redness,

and warmth. Tenderness of the inflamed joint can be present.

Many of the forms of arthritis, because they are rheumatic diseases, can cause
symptoms affecting

various organs of the body that do

not directly involve the joints. Therefore,

symptoms in some patients with certain

forms of arthritis can also include fever

, gland swelling (swollen lymph nodes),

weight loss, fatigue, feeling unwell, and even symptoms

from abnormalities of organs such as the lungs, heart, or kidneys.

high blood pressure

2010-08-22T04:41:00.000-07:00

What is high blood pressure?

High blood pressure (HBP) or hypertension means high pressure (tension)

in the arteries. Arteries are vessels that carry blood from the pumping heart to
all the tissues and

organs of the body. High blood pressure does not mean excessive emotional
tension,

although emotional tension and stress

can temporarily increase blood pressure

. Normal blood pressure is below 120/80; blood pressure between

120/80 and 139/89 is called "pre-hypertension",

and a blood pressure of 140/90 or above is considered high.

The top number, the systolic blood pressure,

corresponds to the pressure in the arteries as the heart contracts and

pumps blood forward into the arteries. The bottom number, the diastolic
pressure,

represents the pressure in the arteries as the heart relaxes after the
contraction.

The diastolic pressure reflects the lowest pressure to which the arteries are
exposed.

An elevation of the systolic

and/or diastolic blood pressure increases the risk of developing heart (cardiac)

disease, kidney (renal) disease, hardening of the arteries (atherosclerosis or
arteriosclerosis),

eye damage, and stroke (brain damage). These complications of hypertension are
often referred

to as end-organ damage because damage to these organs is the end result of
chronic

(long duration) high blood pressure. For that reason, the diagnosis of high
blood pressure is

important so efforts can be made to normalize blood pressure and prevent
complications.

It was previously thought that rises in diastolic blood pressure

were a more important risk factor than systolic elevations, but it is now known

that in people 50 years or older systolic hypertension represents a greater
risk.

The American Heart Association estimates high blood pressure affects
approximately one in three

adults in the United States - 73 million people. High blood pressure is also

estimated to affect about two million American teens and children,

and the Journal of the American Medical Association reports that many

are under-diagnosed. Hypertension is clearly a major public health problem.

Diagnosis

Diagnosis: Chest X-ray

electrogastrogram

Osteomyelitis

Definition Health insurance

Women's Health

Women's Health

What does AIDS stand for? What causes AIDS?

Heart disease

Chest X-ray

Diagnosis: Health insurance

H1N1 influenza

What is swine flu (novel H1N1 influenza A swine flu)?

Why is swine flu (H1N1) now infecting humans?

Nipple (Breast)

What is the breast?

How is the mammary gland designed?

How are human breasts different from those of other primates?

night sweats

arthritis

high blood pressure

How are human breasts different from those of other
primates?