Hotel Management and Hospitality Education Resource

BASIC COOKING PRINCIPLES

2026-10-18T05:38:25.051+05:30

Hotel Management · Food Production · Unit 3

🔥 Basic Cooking Principles, Stocks & Sauces

Heat transfer, cooking methods, stocks, thickening agents, mother sauces and deglazing - explained simply.

🗺️ Unit at a Glance

🔥1. Heat TransferConduction, convection, radiation

🍳2. Cooking MethodsMoist, dry, fat based, microwave

🍲3. StocksTypes, components, method, storage

🥄4. ThickeningsRoux, slurry, liaison and more

🥫5. SaucesMother sauces, derivatives, modern sauces

🍷6. DeglazingPan sauces from fond

🔥 1. Heat Transfer

Cooking is simply moving heat into food. Heat travels in three ways:

💡 Most cooking uses more than one type at once. A roasting oven uses convection (hot air), radiation (hot walls) and conduction (pan to food).

🍳 2. Cooking Methods

💧 Moist Heat Methods

Cooking in water, stock or steam. Food stays soft and juicy; no browning.

Method	Temperature	Details and examples
Boiling	100°C	Rapid bubbles; rice, pasta, potatoes, eggs
Simmering	85 to 95°C	Gentle bubbles; dal, stocks, soups
Poaching	70 to 85°C	Barely moving liquid; eggs, fish, fruit
Steaming	100°C steam	Idli, dhokla, momos, vegetables (keeps nutrients)
Blanching	Boiling water then cold water	Peeling tomatoes, setting green colour
Stewing	Simmering, covered	Small pieces cooked in the sauce itself

🔥 Dry Heat Methods

Cooking with hot air, radiant heat or metal surfaces, with no added liquid or fat. Gives browning and a roasted flavour.

Method	How it works	Examples
Roasting	Hot air in an oven or on a spit	Roast chicken, roasted vegetables
Baking	Enclosed oven, mostly for flour products	Bread, cakes, biscuits
Grilling	Heat from below (bars, charcoal)	Kebabs, steaks, tikka
Broiling / Salamander	Heat from above	Gratins, browning cheese
Toasting	Dry heat for colour and crispness	Bread, nuts, spices
Tandoor	Clay oven, very high radiant heat	Naan, tandoori roti, tandoori chicken

🛢️ Dry Heat Using Fat

Method	Fat used	Examples
Shallow frying / Pan frying	Little fat, to half the food's height	Cutlets, omelette, parathas
Deep frying	Food fully covered; 175 to 190°C	Pakoda, samosa, French fries
Sautéing	Small amount of fat, high heat, constant tossing	Mushrooms, sauteed vegetables
Stir frying	Wok,

ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE OF MODERN KITCHENS AND AIMS & OBJECTS OF COOKING FOOD

2026-10-17T07:00:09.740+05:30

Hotel Management · Food Production · Unit 2

🍳 Kitchen Organisation, Aims of Cooking & Role of Ingredients

Brigade, ethics, cooking methods, safety, waste segregation, fats, flours, sugar and water - explained simply.

🗺️ Unit at a Glance

👨‍🍳1. Kitchen OrganisationBrigade and duties

🤝2. EthicsWorkplace etiquette

🎯3. Aims of CookingSenses, outcomes, techniques

♻️4. Safety and WastePrecautions, segregation

🧈5. Fats and Raising AgentsShortenings, leavening

🌾6. Flour, Sugar, WaterTypes and uses

👨‍🍳 1. Organisation of Modern Kitchens

A brigade is a team where every cook has a clear role. Escoffier created the classical brigade so work flows without confusion, delay or duplication.

Duties and Responsibilities

Chef	Role
👑 Executive Chef / Chef de Cuisine	Head of kitchen: menu planning, costing, purchasing, hiring and training, quality control
🥈 Sous Chef	Second in command: runs the kitchen day to day, supervises staff, stands in for the head
🥣 Saucier	Sauces, sautes, gravies and stews
🐟 Poissonier	Fish and seafood dishes
🍗 Rotisseur / Grillardin	Roasts, grills and fried items
🥗 Garde Manger	Cold kitchen: salads, cold cuts, pates, buffet display
🍰 Patissier	Bakery, pastries, desserts
🔄 Tournant / Roundsman	Relief chef who fills in at any section
🧑‍🍳 Commis	Trainee who assists a Chef de Partie and learns the section

💡 Modern staffing: smaller teams. One cook often covers several stations, supported by a purchasing and stores team, stewarding, a dedicated pastry section and often a nutritionist or food-safety officer. Hotel size, cuisine and menu decide the structure.

🤝 2. Professional Ethics and Etiquette

⏰PunctualityReport on time, in full uniform.

🧼GroomingClean uniform, short nails, covered hair.

🙏RespectAddress seniors properly; no shouting or abuse.

👥TeamworkCommunicate clearly, say "Yes Chef", help colleagues.

📋HonestyFollow SOPs and recipes; no wastage or pilferage.

🔒ConfidentialityNever share recipes or guest details outside.

🎯 3. Aims of Cooking

Make food safe (kills germs)Easier to digestImprove flavourImprove textureImprove appearanceAdd variety

👀 Cooking and the Five Senses

👁️SightColour, shine and plating.

👃SmellAroma of tempering and baking.

👅TasteSweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami.

✋TouchTexture: crisp, soft, creamy, chewy.

👂SoundThe crunch of a papad, the sizzle of a tadka.

Outcomes of the Cooking Process

Change	What happens	Example
Gelatinisation	Starch swells in hot water and thickens	Roux, custard, rice
Coagulation	Proteins set when heated	Boiled egg, paneer
Caramelisation	Sugar browns with heat	Caramel, fried onions
Maillard reaction	Sugar and protein brown together	Roast meat, bread crust
Softening	Cellulose breaks down	Boiled vegetables
Nutrient change	Some vitamins are lost; some nutrients become easier to absorb	Boiling spinach

Techniques Used in Cooking

Method	Techniques
🔥 Dry heat	Roasting, grilling, baking, toasting, tandoor
💧 Moist heat	Boiling, simmering, poaching, steaming, blanching
🛢️ Fat based	Shallow frying, deep frying, sauteing, stir frying
🔀 Combination	Braising, stewing, pot roasting

🦺 4. Safety Precautions and Waste Segregation

Wear correct uniform and non-slip shoes; keep floors dry and clean.
Use dry cloths for hot pans; turn pan handles inward.
Keep knives sharp and store them safely; use machines with guards.
Know where the fire extinguisher, first-aid box and exits are.
Use colour-coded boards and store raw and cooked food apart.

♻️ Waste Segregation

🟢Green binWet waste: peels, leftovers, tea leaves

🔵Blue binDry waste: paper, cardboard, plastic, glass, metal

🔴Red / Black binHazardous and sanitary waste (colour rules vary by local authority)

💡 Used cooking oil should never go down the drain. Collect it in sealed containers for authorised disposal.

🧈 5. Role of Ingredients

Fats and Oils (Shortenings)

A shortening is a fat that makes baked goods tender by coating flour proteins so long, tough gluten strands cannot form (it "shortens" them).

🍞TenderisingSoft crumb, crumbly pastry

🫧AerationCreaming traps air in cakes

😋FlavourRichness and mouthfeel

🥐FlakinessFat layers in puff pastry

🍳Heat mediumFrying, sauteing

📦Shelf lifeKeeps baked goods moist

Fat	Source	Approx. smoke point
Butter	Milk cream	150 deg C
Ghee	Clarified butter	about 250 deg C
Refined sunflower / groundnut oil	Seeds / nuts	about 230 deg C
Olive oil (extra virgin)	Olives	about 190 deg C
Margarine / vegetable shortening	Hydrogenated vegetable oils	varies
Lard	Pig fat	about 190 deg C

💡 Smoke point is the temperature at which fat starts to smoke and break down. Deep frying needs a high smoke point.

🎈 Raising Agents

Type	Examples	How it works
🦠 Biological	Yeast, sourdough	Fermentation makes CO2 gas
🧪 Chemical	Baking powder, baking soda, ammonium bicarbonate	Acid plus base releases CO2
💨 Physical	Steam, whisked air, creaming, folding, lamination	Trapped air or steam expands in heat

💡 Baking soda needs an acid (curd, lemon, buttermilk). Baking powder already contains the acid, so it only needs liquid and heat.

🌾 Flour

Flour	Features	Uses
All-purpose (maida)	Refined, white, medium protein (10 to 11%)	Cakes, biscuits, naan, sauces
Whole wheat (atta)	Has bran and germ; fibre-rich, nutty	Roti, paratha, brown bread
Multigrain	Wheat blended with oats, ragi, soy, etc.	Health breads, rotis
Millets (ragi, jowar, bajra)	Gluten free, high fibre and minerals	Roti, porridge, dosa, cookies
Gluten free (rice, besan, corn, almond, buckwheat)	For coeliac and gluten-sensitive guests	Batters, pancakes, pakoda, baking

💡 Gluten is the stretchy protein network formed when wheat flour meets water and is kneaded. It gives bread its chew.

🍬 Sugar

Importance: sweetness, browning, tenderness, moisture, preservation (jams), food for yeast, stabilising whipped egg whites.

Types: granulated, caster, icing, brown, jaggery, honey, liquid glucose, invert sugar.

Cooking stage	Temperature	Used for
Thread	105 to 110 deg C	Syrups, gulab jamun syrup
Soft ball	112 to 116 deg C	Fudge, fondant
Firm ball	118 to 120 deg C	Caramels
Hard ball	121 to 130 deg C	Nougat, marshmallow
Soft crack	132 to 143 deg C	Toffee
Hard crack	149 to 154 deg C	Brittle, lollipops
Caramel	160 to 177 deg C	Caramel sauce, flan

💧 Water

pH measures acidity (below 7) or alkalinity (above 7). Pure water is about 7.
Hard water (rich in calcium and magnesium) slows cooking of dal and beans; soft water suits tea and baking.
Uses:

INTRODUCTION TO COOKERY

2026-10-17T06:55:27.291+05:30

Hotel Management · Food Production · Unit 1

👨‍🍳 Introduction to Cookery

Hygiene, safety, ethics, culinary history and Ayurveda – explained simply with infographics.

🗺️ Unit at a Glance

🧼1. HygienePersonal, food, environment

🥼2. UniformProtective clothing

🔪3. SafetyHandling equipment

🤝4. EthicsAttitude & personnel

🏭5. ProductionIndustry & cookery origins

🕉️6. Indian CuisineHistory, Ayurveda, vegetarianism

🧼 1. Hygiene

Hygiene = practices that keep people, food and surroundings clean to prevent illness. In a kitchen, poor hygiene means food-borne disease, lost guests and legal trouble.

🧍 Personal Hygiene

Bath daily; keep hair covered and nails short, clean, unpolished.
Wash hands with soap for 20 seconds – before work, after toilet, after touching raw food, waste, face, phone.
No jewellery, no smoking/spitting/chewing in the kitchen; cover cuts with a blue waterproof plaster (blue is easy to spot if it falls in food).
Report illness (diarrhoea, fever, infections) – never work while sick.

💡 Remember: Hands are the #1 carrier of germs in a kitchen.

🍲 Food Hygiene

Buy from reliable suppliers; check freshness on receiving.
Follow FIFO (First In, First Out) in storage.
Separate raw and cooked foods; use colour-coded chopping boards.
Cook, hold and chill at correct temperatures.

🏠 Environmental Hygiene

Clean-as-you-go; sanitise surfaces, floors and equipment.
Proper waste disposal – covered bins, emptied often.
Pest control (rats, cockroaches, flies), good ventilation, lighting and drainage.

Cleaning steps:1 Scrape→2 Wash→3 Rinse→4 Sanitise→5 Air-dry

🥼 2. Uniform & Protective Clothing

Item	Purpose
👨‍🍳 Chef's cap / toque	Keeps hair out of food; absorbs sweat
🧣 Neckerchief	Absorbs sweat from the neck
🥼 Double-breasted white jacket	White shows dirt; thick cotton insulates; can be reversed to hide a spill
🧻 Apron	Protects uniform from spills and heat
🩳 Checked trousers	Checks hide stains; loose-fitting for comfort
🧤 Oven cloth / side towel	Handling hot pans – always dry, never wet
👞 Safety shoes	Closed, non-slip, protect from hot spills and dropped knives

💡 Wet cloth conducts heat and causes steam burns – always use a dry cloth.

🔪 3. Safety in Handling Kitchen Equipment

🔪KnivesKeep sharp; cut away from body; never catch a falling knife; carry pointing down; wash separately.

🔥Gas & HeatCheck for leaks, light match first, turn handles inward, never leave unattended.

⚡ElectricalDry hands, switch off before cleaning, check wiring, earth all machines.

🛢️Hot OilNever overfill; never add water; use a lid (not water) on an oil fire.

⚙️MachinesUse guards, get trained, unplug before cleaning blades.

🧯FireKnow exit routes and extinguishers; keep a first-aid box stocked.

Fire Extinguisher Guide

Type	Use on
💧 Water	Paper, wood, cloth (NOT oil/electrical)
🫧 Foam	Oil, fat, flammable liquids
☁️ CO₂ / Dry powder	Electrical and oil fires
🧺 Fire blanket	Small pan fires, burning clothes

💡 Remember PASS: Pull pin → Aim at base → Squeeze handle → Sweep side to side.

🤝 4. Attitude & Personnel Ethics

⏰PunctualityReport early and ready.

🙋DisciplineRespect seniors, follow SOPs and recipes.

👥TeamworkKitchens run on a brigade – help colleagues.

🎯HonestyNo wastage, theft or shortcuts on quality.

🧠Willingness to learnAccept feedback, stay curious.

😊Guest focusConsistent quality, positive attitude under pressure.

🏭 5. Food Production

Food Production Industry

The food production department prepares food for hotels, restaurants, catering, airlines, railways, cruise ships, hospitals and institutions. It works with Food & Beverage Service, Stores, Purchase and Housekeeping.

Traditional Cookery & Origin of Modern Cookery

Traditional cookery = regional, hand-made, slow methods passed down through families. Modern cookery = scientific, systematic, using technology and standard recipes.

Pre-historic era – Fire discovered; roasting meat over open flame.

Ancient civilisations – Egyptians (bread, fermentation), Greeks and Romans (banquets, spices, first cookbooks).

Middle Ages – Feasts in royal courts; spice trade shapes flavour.

16th–17th century (France) – Catherine de' Medici's chefs bring Italian refinement; La Varenne writes Le Cuisinier François.

19th century – Marie-Antoine Carême ("king of chefs") codifies sauces and grande cuisine.

Late 19th–20th century – Auguste Escoffier creates the kitchen brigade, simplifies menus, writes Le Guide Culinaire.

Today – Nouvelle cuisine, molecular gastronomy, sustainability and fusion.

🇮🇳 6. Indian Culinary History

Indus Valley (c. 3000 BCE) – Wheat, barley, lentils, spices, clay ovens (tandoor-like).

Vedic period – Milk, ghee, grains, honey; food linked to rituals and Ayurveda.

Maurya and Gupta periods – Rice, pulses and vegetarianism spread (Buddhist and Jain influence).

Medieval / Mughal era – Biryani, kebabs, kormas, dry fruits, rich gravies, dum cooking.

Portuguese, Dutch, British – Chilli, potato, tomato, cashew, tea; vindaloo, cutlets and club cuisine.

Modern India – Regional revival, fine dining, fusion and global popularity.

Region	Signature Features
North	Wheat, dairy, tandoor, rich gravies (Punjab, Mughlai)
South	Rice, coconut, tamarind, curry leaf, fermented batters
East	Fish, mustard oil, sweets (Bengal, Odisha)
West	Seafood, jaggery, diverse veg (Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa)

🌿 Ayurveda & Food

Ayurveda ("science of life") sees food as medicine and balances three doshas.

Six Tastes (Shadrasa)

Sweet (Madhura)Sour (Amla)Salty (Lavana)Pungent (Katu)Bitter (Tikta)Astringent (Kashaya)

Foods are also classed as Sattvic (pure, calming – fruits, grains, milk), Rajasic (stimulating – spicy, fried) and Tamasic (heavy, stale). A balanced meal includes all six tastes, eaten fresh and in season.

🥗 Vegetarianism

Rooted in India's religious and ethical traditions (ahimsa – non-violence): Jainism, Buddhism, Hinduism and Sikh traditions.

Type	Eats	Avoids
Lacto-vegetarian	Plants + dairy	Meat, fish, eggs
Ovo-lacto vegetarian	Plants + dairy + eggs	Meat, fish
Vegan	Plants only	All animal products
Jain	Plants (no root vegetables)	Meat, onion, garlic, potato

Why it matters for chefs: a good menu offers veg options, uses separate utensils and cooking surfaces, and labels allergens and ingredients clearly.

📝 Quick Revision

Danger zone: 5–63°C. Wash hands 20 sec. Use FIFO.
Escoffier = brigade system; Carême = grande cuisine.
Three doshas, six tastes, three gunas (Sattvic, Rajasic, Tamasic).
Safety first: dry cloths, no water on oil fire, knives pointing down.

Likely exam questions: Explain personal hygiene. List protective clothing and uses. Role of Escoffier. Explain Ayurveda's influence on Indian food.

SAUCES

2013-11-05T17:17:00.001+05:30

Sauces are liquids or semi-liquid mixtures. A keen sense of smell, delicate sense of taste, a light, strong hand for the blending-all contributes to the perfect sauce. Long ago, Grimande de la royere, philosopher and gastronomer wrote: “the sauce is to culinary art, what grammar is to language.” A perfect sauce has a colourful appearance, is glowing in its rich smoothness, its texture is that of velvet, and it has a definite taste. It has a natural flavour and complements the food it accompanies, rather than mask its taste. It provides moisture, colour and shine to food.

IMPORTANCE OF SAUCES IN FOOD PRODUCTION

1. It provides moisture, colour and shine to food.

2. Enhances flavours, Sauce add flavour to the dish.

3. Some sauces help in digestion, e.g. Mint sauce, apple sauce etc.

4. Add colour to food.

5. Enhance nutritional value of the dish.

6. Sometimes gives the name to the dish.

7. Served as an accompaniments, sometimes gives a contrast taste to another food.

8. Dresses and complement food that needs some additional quality and makes the food more palatable.

THE STRUCTURE OF SAUCES

The major sauces we consider here are made of three kinds of ingredients.

1. A liquid, the body of the sauce

2. A thickening agent

3. Additional seasoning and flavouring ingredients

Liquid A liquid ingredient provides the body or base of most sauces. Most classic sauces are built on one of five liquids or bases. The resulting sauces are called leading sauces or mother sauces.

· White stock (chicken,veal,or fish)—for velouté sauces

· Brown stock—for brown sauce or espagnole

· Milk—for béchamel

· Tomato plus stock—for tomato sauce

· Clarified butter—for hollandaise

Thickening Agents A sauce must be thick enough to cling lightly to the food. Otherwise, it will just run off and lie in a puddle in the plate.

Other Flavouring Ingredients although the liquid that makes up the bulk of the sauce provides the basic flavour, other ingredients are added to make variations on the basic themes and to give a finished character to the sauces.

THICKENING AGENTS

1. Roux is a cooked mixture of fat and flour, measured in equal parts by weight (not volume).

The fats to use:

· Clarified Butter: The best fat. Makes the "cleanest" sauce.

· Margarine: Most commonly used in food service, not as good as clarified butter but less expensive with a "butter" taste.

· Animal Fat: Use what is appropriate for the dish. Duck fat, however, is mild and can be used with other meats.

· Shortening/Vegetable Oil: Leaves a "fuzzy" taste. The melting point is higher so these fats leave tiny particles of "un-liquefied" fat in the sauce and are detectable on the tongue.

There are three basic types of roux, each contain the same basic ingredients but differ in coloration which is a result of the cooking process. The darker the roux the longer it has been cooked

· White Roux

· Blond Roux

· Brown Roux

PROCEDURE:

· Heat/melt the fat over a low heat.

· Add the flour ALL AT ONCE.

· Stir constantly until desired colour is reached.

2. BEURRE MANIE.

· This is an equal mixture of Flour & Butter.

· Kneaded together and then whisked into the liquid in small quantities, thickening as it cooks out.

· This is also known as a cold roux or pounded butter.

3. STARCHES.

· Corn flour, Arrowroot, Potato Flour, Rice Flour & Barley Flour.

· These are used as a thickening agent.

· Arrowroot & cornflower are the most commonly used.

· The starch must be mixed with cold water before adding to the hot liquid

4. Egg yolks and Cream (LIAISON): They are used differently in different recipes. In classical cooking, a liaison is a mixture of egg yolks and cream, used to enrich and lightly thicken a sauce or other liquid. Egg yolks have the power to thicken a sauce slightly due to the coagulation of egg proteins when heated. Caution must be used when thickening with egg yolks because of the danger of curdling.

Procedure for Using a Liaison

· Beat together the egg yolks and cream in a stainless-steel bowl. Normal proportions are 2 to 3 parts cream to 1 part egg yolks.

· Very slowly add a little of the hot liquid to the liaison, beating constantly. This is known as tempering.

· Off the heat, add the warmed, diluted liaison to the rest of the sauce, stirring well as you pour it in.

· Return the sauce to low heat to warm it gently, but do not heat it higher than 180°F (82°C) or it will curdle. In no circumstances should it boil.

· Hold for service above 140°F (69°C) for sanitation reasons, but lower than 180°F (82°C).

5. Breadcrumbs

6. Blood: jugged hare

7. Agar agar: seaweed

8. Gelatine

9. Curd etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF SAUCES

1. MOTHER SAUCES these are the main basic sauces from which all the other sauces are derived.

• Béchamel (classic white sauce): Sauce consists of milk and thickened with white roux. Béchamel sauce is named after “Marquis Louis de Béchamel”

• Espagnole (brown sauce): Espagnole meaning “Spanish” in French was the original brown sauce and still is one the glories of the French kitchen.

• Velouté( white stock sauce): It literally means velvet. It is a very light blond coloured sauce, made from chicken, fish, or veal stock, thickened with a blond roux.

• Tomato (classic tomato sauce): The traditional French tomato sauce is thickened with a roux.

• Hollandaise (butter sauce): A warm emulsified sauce is based on egg yolk and clarified butter. Hollandaise is French word meaning “Dutch Style”. This sauce is a versatile sauce and is served as a topping on a dish and gratinated to give colour.

• Mayonnaise (cold sauce): It is a cold emulsified sauce based on egg yolk. If it is not handled carefully it will separate giving a curdled appearance.

2. PROPRIETARY SAUCE these sauces are industry made.

• Soya sauce

• Worcestershire sauce

• H.P. Sauce

• Barbeque Sauce

• Ketchup

3. CONTEMPORARY SAUCE these sauces are simple, less rich and easy to prepare. These are more likely to be specifically tailored to be given food or techniques.

• Beurre Blanc

• Pesto Sauce

• Compound Butter

REASONS FOR CURDLED HOLLANDAISE AND MAYONNAISE SAUCE

Hollandaise Sauce

· Store for long time.

· Cook on high temperature.

· Un proper mixing.

· Egg yolk to chill.

Mayonnaise Sauce

· Chilled Ingredients.

· Un proper mixing.

· Expose sauce to low/ high temperature.

· Egg yolk is too old.

· Oil added rapidly.

HOW TO RECTIFY CURDLED HOLLANDAISE AND MAYONNAISE SAUCE

Hollandaise Sauce

· Add a spoon full of hot water into the emulsion and whisk again.

· Whisk one egg yolk with a little warm water on a double boiler and add the curdled sauce in a thin stream to form an emulsion.

Mayonnaise Sauce

· Add vinegar and whisk.

· Add 1 tsp hot water and whisk.

· Start with fresh egg yolk and add the curdled sauce in a thin stream to form an emulsion.

Difference between sauce and gravy

Sauce is a French word taken from the Latin Salus, meaning salt. No surprise given that salt is used to enhance the flavour of food. There are hundreds of sauces that fall under five main categories. They are béchamel (milk based) example Alfredo sauce, espagnole (brown stock based) example Mushroom sauce, veloute (white stock based) example Lyonnaise sauce, tomato (tomato based) example Marinara sauce and emulsified (hollandaise and mayonnaise) example Béarnaise sauce, tartar sauce. As you can see each of these sauce categories begin with a fundamental base. An all inclusive quality cook book will provide you with the ingredients and methods for which to prepare these sauces.

Gravy on the other hand takes its characteristic flavour from the fat and juices (drippings) of a roasted piece of meat. Once the roast is done and removed from the pan, skim off the majority of the fat. Place the roasting pan on the stove on medium heat. Sprinkle or dust with all-purpose flour and mix well to create what is known as roux. Add hot vegetable water or broth and simmer until gravy is smooth in texture and there is no longer an uncooked flour taste. Season with salt and pepper and you have the perfect gravy

Derivatives of Basic Sauces

BROWN OR ESPAGNOLE SAUCE

Demi-Glaze 50% of brown stock + 50% (Fr. Demi-glace) of brown sauce Reduced to half.

Bercy Demi-glaze + meat glaze + minced shallots + white wine + sliced bone marrow.

Madeira Demi-glaze + Madeira wine.

Chasseur Minced mushrooms, sautéed chopped shallots +, white wine reduced + demi-glaze + butter + chopped parsley.

Devil (Diable) Chopped shallots + white wine + vinegar + Peppercorns, salt, reduced + demi-glaze strained + chopped parsley (prominent flavour of pepper).

BECHAMEL SAUCE

Scotch egg Thin Béchamel sauce, mixed with hard-boiled yolk, sieved, garnished with white of eggs cut into strips.

Mornay Béchamel + Parmesan and Gruyere + cream + egg yolks.

Cream Béchamel + fresh cream + butter.

Soubise Béchamel + sautéed, minced onions + pepper + nutmeg and strained.

Parsley Béchamel + fresh cream+ butter + chopped and blanched parsley.

Mustard Béchamel + fresh cream + butter + mustard (also prepared with Hollandaise).

Anchovy Béchamel + anchovy essence+ anchovy fillets + cream + butter + lemon juice (also prepared with fish veloute).

Onion sauce Béchamel + minced onions cooked in milk + seasoning + nutmeg.

CHICKEN VELOUTE

Allemande Chicken veloute + egg yolks+ mushroom trimmings + cream + juice of lemon.

Supreme Chicken veloute + white wine + parsley + shallots + mushroom trimmings and strain. Add fresh cream + yolk of eggs + juice of lemon.

Mushroom Sauce Supreme + sliced button mushrooms.

Hongroise Chicken veloute + paprika + white wine + cream.

Ivory Sauce Supreme + meat glaze.

Aurore Chicken veloute + tomato sauce + butter.

Curry sauce Dices of onions + apples sautéed in butter + curry powder + coconut milk + add veloute + strain.

FISH/MEAT VELOUTE

Shrimp Fish veloute + fish fumet + cream+ shelled shrimp tails + shrimp butter.

Normande Fish veloute + mushrooms + oyster liquor + fish fumet + finish with egg yolks, cream + shelled shrimp tails + shrimp butter.

Bercy Allemande sauce + chopped shallots + white wine + meat glaze + butter, garnished with dices of marrow and chopped parsley.

TOMATO SAUCE

Bretonne Tomato sauce + sauteed chopped onions + white wine reduced, strained + butter + chopped parsley.

Provencale Thin tomato sauce + sautéed sliced mushrooms + chopped parsley + garlic + tomato concasse + sugar.

Portugaise Tomato sauce + white wine + tomato concasse + garlic.

Italienne Tomato sauce + demi-glaze + chopped shallots + mushrooms +lean ham + fine herbs.

Barbecue Tomato sauce + ketchup + vinegar+ sugar.

HOLLANDAISE

Mousseline Hollandaise sauce mixed with stiffly whipped cream.

Maltaise Hollandaise sauce + zest + juice of blood oranges.

Noisette Hollandaise + nut brown cooked butter.

Bearnaise Hollandaise sauce + chopped tarragon + chervil.

Choron Bearnaise sauce + tomato puree.

Foyot Bearnaise sauce + meat glaze.

Mustard Hollandaise sauce + mustard

MAYONNAISE

Chantilly Mayonnaise + lemon juice instead of vinegar, mixed with whipped cream.

Gribiche Mayonnaise + chopped hard boiled eggs + mustard, garnished with chopped gherkins, capers, chervil, tarragon.

Cambridge Pounded hard-boiled eggs +anchovy fillets + capers +chervil+ tarragon + chives +vinegar + Cayenne pepper, addoil gradually as for mayonnaise, strain + chopped parsley.

Gloucester Mayonnaise + sour cream + lemon juice + chopped fennel + Worcestershire sauce.

Remoulade Mayonnaise + mustard garnished with capers, parsley, gherkins, chervil, tarragon and finished with anchovy essence.

Andalouse Mayonnaise + tomato puree garnished with sweet capsicums.

Tartare Mayonnaise + hard yolk of eggs, garnished with finely chopped onion and chives.

Green sauce Mayonnaise sauce mixed with puree of blanched herbs, spinach, water parsley, chervil, tarragon. Pass through very fine sieve.

Vincent Half tartare sauce + half green sauce mixed together.

Thousand Island Dressing Mayonnaise + hard-boiled eggs + tomato ketchup + chopped gherkins + onions + pimentos, olives + paprika powder.

Cocktail Mayonnaise + tomato ketchup +Worcester sauce + tabasco +cream+ lemon juice.

Important Questions

1. Define Sauces. Classify Sauces with an example of each.

2. Give Recipe of 2 liter white sauce

3. Name the basic / leading / mother sauces giving two derivatives of each with ingredients.

4. What is the Importance of the sauces in food production.

5. What are the method of correcting curdled mayonnaise and hollandaise sauce.

6. Give reason for the curdling of hollandaise and mayonnaise sauce.

7. Write the basic components of Hollandaise sauce.

8. What are the ingredients used in thousand island sauce.

9. What are the ingredients used in tartare sauce.

10. Difference between sauce and gravy.

11. Explain contemporary and proprietary sauces.

12. Explain thickening agents.

Assignment No:

1. Give recipe for the following:

· Béchamel Sauce

· Veloute sauce

· Espagnole Sauce

· Tomato Sauce

· Hollandaise Sauce

· Mayonnaise sauce

2. Define Sauces. Classify Sauces with an example of each.

3. Explain thickening agents.

4. What is the Importance of the sauces in food production?

5. What are the method of correcting curdled mayonnaise and hollandaise sauce?

6. Give reason for the curdling of hollandaise and mayonnaise sauce.

SOUPS

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Soups are a liquid food that is derived from meat, fish, poultry, and Vegetables. Soups are most often served at the beginning of a meal or as the main course for lunch or a snack. The term soupe originally referred to the slice of bread upon which the contents of a cooking pot (potage) were poured. When referring to soups, it is important to know that all soups will fall into three broad categories.

Classification of soup

Thin Soup

Consommé (Consommé Brunoise)

Broth (Scotch broth)

Bouillon (Chicken tomato Bouillon)

Vegetable Soup (Clear Vegetable Soup)

Thick Soup

Cream Soup (Cream of Tomato)

Puree Soup (Puree of Green Peas)

Veloute (Chicken Veloute)

Bisques (Shrimp Bisque)

Chowders(Potato Chowder)

Speciality

National Soup (French onion soup, Minestrone)

Cold Soup (Gazpacho)

1. Thin soup or clear soups - These soups are all based on a clear, un-thickened broth or stock. They may be served plain or garnished with a variety of vegetables and meats

· Broth and Bouillon are two terms used in many different ways, but in general they both refer to simple, clear soups without solid ingredients.

· Vegetable soup is clear, seasoned stock or broth with the addition of one or more vegetables and sometimes meat or poultry products and starches.

· Consommé is a rich, flavoured stock or broth that has been clarified to make it perfectly clear and transparent.

The difference between a broth and a stock is that a broth, according to the most common definition, is made by simmering meat and vegetables, while a stock is made by simmering bones and vegetables. Because of this difference, a well-made stock is generally richer in gelatine content than a broth, because gelatine is derived from cartilage and connective tissue. A broth, on the other hand, usually has a more pronounced flavour of meat or poultry than a stock. A more neutral flavour is desired in a stock, which is used as the base for many sauces as well as soups. A broth, on the other hand, is an excellent choice as the base of a soup when a distinct meat flavour is desired.

HOW CLARIFICATION WORKS Well Flavoured, fat free stock is brought slowly to a boil a clarification mixture is whisked in. As the albumin in the egg whites and the ground meat in the clarification mixture cooks, it expands and rises to the top of the stock. It forms a gray froth of coagulated proteins which form a filter. This is known as RAFT. The consommé is left to simmer for approximately an hour. The mixture is not allowed to boil once the raft has formed. The strong rolling action would break the raft part.

2. Thick soups: Thick soups are opaque rather than transparent. They are thickened either by adding a thickening agent such as roux, or by pureeing one or more of their ingredients to provide a heavier consistency.

· Cream soups are soups that are thickened with roux, beurre manié, liaison, or other added thickening agents and has all the addition of milk / cream. Cream soups are usually named after their major ingredient, such as cream of tomato, cream of broccoli.

· Purees are soups that are naturally thickened by pureeing one or more of their ingredients. They may be made with dry legumes or from fresh starchy vegetables. Purees may or may not contain cream.

· Bisques are thickened soups made from shell fish. They are usually prepared like cream soups and are almost always finished with cream. At one time, bisques were thickened with rice, but today they are more frequently thickened with roux. Bisques are made basically like other cream soups, but they seem more complex because of the handling of the shellfish and the variety of flavouring ingredients often used. Expensive to prepare and rich in taste, they are considered luxury soups.

· Chowders are American soups made from fish, shellfish or vegetables. They usually contain milk and potatoes. Chowders are chunky, hearty soups that are so full of good things that they sometimes are more like stews than soups. Many types of chowder are simply cream soups or purée soups that are not puréed but left chunky.

· Velouté is made with a Blond Roux and flavoured stock, prepared in the same way as a Velouté sauce and Liaison is added to finish. A Liaison is Egg Yolks and Double Cream

3. Specialty soups this is a catch-all category that includes soups that don’t fit well into the main categories and soups that are native to particular countries or regions. Specialty soups are distinguished by unusual ingredients or methods, such as turtle soup, gumbo, peanut soup, and cold fruit soup.

Cold soups are sometimes considered specialty soups, and, in fact, some of them are. But many other popular cold soups, such as jellied consommé, cold cream of cucumber soup, and vichyssoise are simply cold versions of basic clear and thick soups.

Some of the international soups

· Minestrone Italy

· Green turtle soup England

· French onion soup France

· Cock-a-leekie Scotland

· Mulligatawny India

· Gazpacho Spain

· Paprika Hungry

· Manhattan clam chowder America

· Scotch broth Scotland

· Camaro Brazil

CONSOMMÉ (basic)

Consommé are clear soups made using beef, veal, poultry, and game or fish stocks. They are often made using a combination of beef or veal and poultry. Having clarified the soup the consommé should be fat free, crystal clear, amber in colour with good flavour. To avoid producing too dark a consommé a combination of white and brown stock may be used

Recipe of BASIC BEEF CONSOMMÉ

Ingredients:

· Brown stock 1.5 lt

· White of eggs 2

· Onions 50 g

· Celery 50 g

· Minced meat 500 g

· Carrots 50 g

· Leeks 20g

· Bouquet garni

· Salt to taste

Method

1. Place the minced meat in a saucepan; add the salt, whites of eggs and dices vegetables mixed thoroughly with a little cold stock.

2. Gradually add the remainder of the cold stock. Bring to the boil slowly, stirring from time to time with a wooden spoon.

3. When just boiling remove spoon and allow to simmer gently for 2 ½ hours. Do not disturb the contents during cooking.

4. Strain through 4 layers of damp muslin.

5. Re boil and remove all fat with absorbent paper.

6. Correct the colour, seasoning and garnish as required.

Notes:

· To improve the quality and strength of this soup ½ brown stock and ½ chicken stock may be used.

· The stock for this recipe has been increased by 20% to allow for evaporation during the long cooking process.

· When large quantities are cooked a stockpot with a tap should be used to facilitate straining.

· Do not use vegetables such as cabbage, turnips, potatoes, swedes or parsnips when producing and clarifying consommé, as they will spoil the clarity and flavour. To some extent they may be used a garnish items. During the preparation, cooking and final stages of making consommé there are several faults, which may occur if proper care and attention is not paid to the recipes and methods used. These can be prevented by awareness and may or may not be rectified.

Consommé Variation :

Name Ingredients / Garnish

Consommé Royale	Dices savory egg custard
Consommé Julienne	Julienne of vegetables
Consommé Brunoise	Brunoise of vegetables
Consommé Celestine	Julienne of thin pan cake
Consommé Breton	Juliennes of celery, onion and leeks
Consommé Dubbary	Floweret’s of cauliflower
Consommé Florentine	Juliennes of blanched spinach
Consommé St. Germain	Fresh green peas
Consommé Cereals	Rice and barley
Consommé Madrilène	Flavoured with tomato and celery, garnished with tomato flesh

STANDARD PORTION SIZES

· Appetizer portion 6 to 8 oz (200 to 250 ml)

· Main course portion 10 to 12 oz (300 to 350 ml)

TEMPERATURE

· Serve hot soups hot, in hot cups or bowls.

· Serve cold soups cold, in chilled bowls or even nested in a larger bowl of Crushed ice.

Important Questions

1. Define Soups.

2. Classify soup with example in a chart form.

3. Give the recipe of 1 litre consommé.

4. Explain five consommé garnishes.

5. What are the ingredients used to clarify consommé

6. List the basic reason for cloudy consommé

7. What are the major compositions of the Soup?

8. What is a liaison and when is it added to soup.

9. Explain chowder and bisque.

10. Name six national soups giving the country of origin.

11. Difference between cream soup and puree soup.

VEGETABLE AND FRUIT COOKERY

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VEGETABLE AND FRUIT COOKERY

Vegetable: Vegetables refers to all plants or parts of plants which can be eaten raw, cooked or preserved in some form. Vegetable are of great important in our diet and especially with regard to the present trend when the people are shifting towards the vegetarian side. These plays a very important role in our diet properly choose, properly cooked or raw. They make an invaluable contribution towards the supply of vitamins and minerals. Whenever possible, we should serve two vegetable in our diet also salads should be given the importance and hence must be made in both the meals. Generally vegetables have high water content, which ranges from 70-90%.

The various components of vegetables are:

· Carbohydrates: carbohydrates are present in the form of starch, sugar, cellulose & pectin substances. Starch is the chief nutrients of roots & tubers & the content of sugar is highest in beetroot, carrots & turnips. Cellulose is a source of roughage and become coarse & tough with age.

· Minerals and vitamins: also the vegetable contain minerals and vitamins.

· There are certain elements in the vegetable which do not have a food value but constitute an important part of vegetable.

· Flavouring substances: many volatile and non-volatile acids contributed to the flavour.

· Pigments: four pigments are in the vegetables:

1. Chlorophyll: it is present in all green coloured vegetables such as cabbage, spinach, green beans, broccoli, peas etc.

2. Carotenoids: it is present in orange coloured vegetables such as carrots, pumpkins, sweet potatoes, corns, tomatoes etc

3. Flavons: it is present in white coloured vegetables such as cauliflower, turnips, potatoes, onion etc.

4. Anthocyanins: it is present in red & purple coloured vegetables. Beet roots, red cabbage (not tomatoes).

· Tannins: tannins are the complex organic compounds which are widely distributed in plants. They are responsible for astringent (sharp flavour) properties. Tannin is also responsible for discolouration in vegetable when they are cut or cooked.

NUTRITIONAL AND OTHER BENEFITS OBTAIN FROM VEGETABLES

Vegetables contains good amount of vitamins and minerals. All the green, yellow, orange vegetables are rich source of calcium, magnesium, potassium, vitamin B complex, Vitamin C, Vitamin A and Vitamin K .

Vegetable contain soluble as well as insoluble dietary fibres like cellulose , gums, pectin etc.

· Green Beans: Low in calories and contain no saturated fat but good source of vitamin, minerals and fibres.

· Cauliflower: Low in calories, low in fat and no cholesterol.

· Bell Pepper: Fresh bell pepper is rich source of vitamin C and also contains good level of vitamin A.

· Beet Root: Low in calorie and fat but rich in dietary fibres, Vitamins and minerals.

· Bitter Gourd: Rich in dietary fibres, minerals, vitamins and anti oxidant.

· Carrot: Rich source of carotenes and vitamin A.

· Cucumber: Cucumber peel is a good source of dietary fibres that helps reduce constipation. It is very good source of potassium.

Reasons for which vegetables are cooked

· To soften the product.

· To improve the flavour.

· To increase the digestibility.

· To preserve the vegetables.

Effects of heat on vegetables

Cooking is the application of heat to food in order to make it safer to eat, digestible and more palatable. Cooking also change the appearance of the food. Heat breaks down the cellulose and the starches present; changes and blend flavour with in the food, and also destroy bacteria in order to make food digestible.

· CARBOHYDRATES: CARAMELIZATION AND GELATINIZATION. Both sugar and starch are carbohydrates. Caramelization is browning of sugars and Vegetables get softened by the gelatinization of the starch.

· VEGETABLE FIBERS: Fibbers are a group of complex substances that give structure and firmness to plant. They cannot be digested. Heat break down the fibers. Alkali makes fiber softer but makes them mushy and loses essential vitamins.

· MINERALS, VITAMINS, PIGMENTS AND FLAVOUR COMPONENTS: Minerals dissolve in water during cooking. Vitamins and pigments may also be destroyed by prolonged cooking. Pigment and flavour may also determine whether the food is appetizing enough to eat or not.

· PROTEIN: When heat is applied to protein they become firm or they start to coagulate with heat. Protein becomes tough and dry when exposed to high heat.

VARIOUS RULES FOR VEGETABLE PREPARATION

· Do not let the vegetable soak in water unless necessary.

· Wash the vegetables just before peeling.

· Cook or bake the vegetable in their skin.

· Use the minimum amount of liquid during boiling.

· Use the water in which the vegetables are boiled (pot liquor).

· Use the correct cooking medium which can be acidic, alkali or neutral.

· Cut the vegetable as near to the cooking time as possible.

· Serve the food as soon as it is ready for the service.

· Keep the oxygen away from the vitamin rich foods by covering them with water.

· For uniform doneness, cut into uniform sizes before cooking.

· If vegetable must be cooked in advance, slightly undercook them, cool rapidly in cold water, drain and refrigerate, then reheat to order.

SHELF LIFE: leafy vegetables : 2 days

Root vegetables : 2-3 days

Tubers : 1 week

Bulbs : 2 weeks

Suggestive cooking for different vegetables

· Boiling: this is the most common method of cooking vegetables. For green vegetables such as peas, French beans etc. The vegetables are put in boiling water and cooked for minimum time possible and refresh to avoid over cooking. Green vegetables while boiling should not be covered; otherwise their colour will be changed to olive green. Root vegetables should be placed in cold water and the pot should be covered by a lid, the water is brought to boiling point then simmered till the vegetables are cooked.

· Steaming: vegetables are cut into even size after washing and placed in steamer for cooking. This method helps in the maximum preservation of the nutrients and good for peas, beans, cauliflower, cabbage etc.

· Braising: vegetables after blanching are laid on aromatic to be braised such as cabbage, onion etc.

· Baking: vegetables baked in baking oven suitable for potatoes, tomatoes, pimentos etc.

· Roasting: some vegetables can be roasted. They are placed in a hot pan containing oil and condiments suitable for potatoes, onions and parsnips etc.

· Shallow frying: it is applicable for mushrooms, onions, pepper, tomatoes etc.

· Deep frying: vegetables such as potatoes, brinjals and onions can be deep fried but loss of vitamins takes place in this method of cooking.

· Grilling: small potatoes can be grilled to give colour.

· Stewing: vegetables such as marrows, peas etc. Can be stewed.

How to retain the colour of green Vegetables

· Cook them uncovered to allow the vegetables volatile acid to escape. when the vegetables are cooked with a cover, the plants natural acid in leeched into the cooking liquid and is trapped there creating an acidic cooking medium. This combined with the heat present and destroys the pigment.

· Cook them quickly until just “Al Dente”, Extended exposure to heat will destroy the colour.

· Steam Green vegetables whenever possible, this shorten the cooking time, allows for less acid build up and retain more colour.

ACTIONS OF ACIDS AND ALKALIS

Pigment or colour	Salt or neutral	Acidic medium	Alkali medium	Over cooking
Flavons (white)	Yellowish	White	Yellow	Grey
Anthocyanins (red)	Faded red	Bright red	Blue	Green
Carotenoids (orange, yellow)	Fades	Same	Loss of nutrients	Fades
Chlorophyll (green)	Bright green	Olive green	Bright but mushy	Faded olive green

CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES

1. CABBAGE FAMILY: Consist of vegetables used for their head, leaves or flowers also known as BRASSICA. E.g. Cabbage, Brussels Sprouts, Cauliflower, Kohlrabi, Broccoli etc

2. STALK VEGETABLE: Stalk vegetables are plant stems that are high in cellulose. E.g. Asparagus, Celery, Bok Choy etc.

3. LEAFY VEGETABLES: Leafy vegetables are plant grown specifically for their edible leaves. E.g. Spinach, Kale, Sorrel etc.

4. SALAD GREENS: Endive, Lettuce

5. SEEDS, EDIBLE PODS AND YOUNG SHOOTS: This is a broad category of vegetables it includes Peas, Snow peas, All types of beans, Bean sprout, Corn etc.

6. VEGETABLE FRUITS: Botanically vegetable fruit are considered fruits; however they are used in the kitchen as vegetables. E.g. Cucumber, Okra, Egg plant, Tomatoes, Pepper, Squash etc.

7. BULBS: Bulbs are stems holding A food reserve in the fleshy, overlapping which give shape to the vegetable. E.g. Onion, Scallion, Green onion, Shallots, Garlic etc.

8. FUNGI: Mushrooms are not actually vegetables. They are an edible fungus. There are over 38,000 kinds of mushrooms. Three quarter of these is edible. E.g. Mushroom, Morel, Truffles etc.

9. TUBERS: These are formed from underground stems, which extend from the root of the plant. E.g. Jerusalem artichoke, Carrot, Potatoes, Radish, Turnips etc.

10. SPECIALTY VEGETABLES: There are vegetables which do not fit it any other category. E.g. Artichoke, Rhubarb etc.

VEGETABLE YIELDS: yield percentage and quality of some vegetables:-

S.no	Vegetable	Yield %	Quality
1.	French beans	85%	Firm, evenly green & should break at 90º bent.
2.	Beetroot	45 %	Firm, small, round & leaves on head.
3.	Cabbage	80 %	Firm & heavy.
4.	Celery	60 %	Bright green, tender & have a green leafs.
5.	Corn	25 %	Moist & green husk.
6.	Cucumber	70 %	Firm & crisp.
7.	Brinjals	90 %	Dark purple & heavy.
8.	Garlic	80 %	White firm & dry skin.
9.	Leeks	80 %	Outside should be green & fresh.
10.	Cauliflower	50 %	Should have tight bubs & white in colour.
11.	Mushrooms	90%	White cap, firm.
12.	Lady finger	90%	Small bright green.
13.	Onions	90%	Firm & bright skin.
14.	Herbs	80%	Bright green & crisp.
15.	Peas	40-50%	Fresh & firm pods.
16.	Capsicum	80%	Bright green & shiny.
17.	Raddish	90%	Firm, tender & crisp.
18.	Potatoes	80%	Pale, yellow, dry skin.
19.	Spinach	50%	Dark green.
20.	Tomatoes	90%	Bright red, firm & heavy.
21.	Turnips	65%	Small, firm & heavy.
22.	Lettuce	60%	Outer leaves should be fresh & green.
23.	Spring onions	70 %	Bright, unblemished green ends & firm bulbs.
24.	Pumpkin	60 %	Heavy firm & hard rind.
25.	Carrots	70 %	Fresh, crisp, hard & not too big.

STANDARD VEGETABLES CUTS

Brunoise: vegetables are cut into fine dices.

Macedoine: vegetables are cut into ½ cm dices.

Julienne: vegetables are cut into very thin strips (1 ½ ˝ long).

Jardinière: vegetables are cut into baton shape (1˝ x ¼ ˝ x ¼ ˝).

Paysanne: vegetables are cut into small triangles, circles and squares- uniform shape.

Wedges: tomato or lemon cut into four or six pieces.

Mirepoix: vegetables mixed (onions, carrots, celery, leeks) cut into rough dices.

Chiffonade: Shredded leafy vegetables.

Matignon: Evenly cut root vegetables.

Chateau: Turning of vegetables into barrel shape.

FRUITS

Fruits are pulpy in character, often juicy & generally developed from flowers of plants & consist of a ripened seed or seeds with some edible tissues attached.

Types of fruits

Type of fruit	Main characteristics	E.g.	Uses
Stoned fruits	These have got a single prominent seed present in the middle.	Apricots, cherries, peaches, plums.	Used in jams, pies, puddings and sweet dishes.
Hard fruits	These have got hard layer of fibers & generally firm when touched.	Apple, pears etc.	Used in pastries, apples are used for garnishing meat dishes, salads, sauces etc., waldrof salad, apple sauce serve with roast meat etc.
Soft fruits	These have got soft layer of fibers and should be handled very carefully.	Black & red currants, berries etc.	Generally stewed and are used in pies and puddings. Also used for jams and as flavouring
Citrus fruits	These are the fruits which have got acids present in them.	Lemons, limes, oranges etc.	They are not cooked usually but are generally used for flavouring and garnishing purposes. They are used to prepare fruit salad.
Tropical fruits	These generally grow in the hot region where the temperatures might sore upto 50ºc	Guavas, bananas, dates, figs, mango, papaya, pineapple, litchis etc.	They are used to prepare fruit salad, flavouring and garnishing. Mango used for jams
Other fruits	These are the fruits which do not fall into any category given above.	Cranberries, melons, grapes etc.	They are used to prepare fruit salad, flavouring and garnishing.

STORAGE OF FRUITS

Hard fruits such apples should be stored in boxes.

Soft fruits such as strawberries, raspberries should be left in their own punnets.

Stoned fruit are stored in a tray and must be individually placed so that any damaged fruit can be discarded easily.

Peaches and citrus fruits are left in the delivery tray only.

Bananas should not be stored in cool places because their skin turns black.

QUALITY AND PURCHASING POINTS FOR FRUITS

· Soft fruits should not be damaged or overripe.

· Soft fruits should appear fresh without signs of mould, witting and shrinkage.

· Certain fruits are purchased on the basis of appearance such as strawberries, cherries etc.

· Hard fruits should not be bruised.

PRESERVATION OF FRUITS

· Drying: it is used for apples, apricots, bananas, figs, peaches, plums etc. (dried plums = prunes and dried grapes = currants, sultanas, raisins)

· Canning: almost every fruit can be canned except apple which is packed in water.

· Bottling: it is mainly used for cherries bottled in maraschinos.

· Candied fruits: fruits are put in the sugar syrup and then dried for e.g. Pineapples, oranges and lemon peel.

· Quick freezing: it is preserving food by dropping the temperature to 0º c for e.g. Strawberries, apples, plums, grapefruit etc.

· Sulphuring: it is carried out by spraying fruits with sulphur dioxide (so2) and blocking the contact with air for e.g. It is used for grapes before preparing wine.

· Jams and jellies: it is prepared by making a puree of boiled fruits along with flavouring.

SALADS

A salad is derived from the italian word “insalata”. Insalata means a dish steeped in salt or brine solution. Salads are made up of meat, poultry, fish, game, shellfish, eggs, vegetables, fruit and milk products and normally serve cold. They can be made out of single ingredients or a combination of ingredients. Salads are generally served as an accompaniment to a dish but can be served as a course itself, an appetizer, sweet course (fruit salad).

THE SALAD COMPRISES OF FOUR PARTS

1. The under liner or base: these are generally greens either shredded or in large pieces. The greens must be crisp and chilled. This can be done by storing them in refrigerator. E.g. Lettuce leaves, cabbage leaves, watercress leaves etc. The main purpose is to keep the plate or bowl from looking bare and to provide contrast colour to the other parts of the salad.

2. The body or heart of the salad: this is the major component and can be made of one ingredient or a combination of ingredients. Ingredient should be fresh. Body constituents are the major portion of the salad. The salad gets its name from the ingredients that are used for the body.

3. Garnish: the purpose of garnish is to give eye appeal to the salad, though it often adds to the flavour as well. It should not be elaborate or dominate the salad. Garnish should harmonize with the rest of the salad ingredients and, be edible. Any of the fruit and vegetable, cut into simple, appropriate shapes, may be used as garnish.

4. Dressings: these make the salad more appetizing, although diet conscious people today eat salad without dressing. Various kinds of dressing are used in the preparation of salad depending upon the kind of salad to be made. It adds flavour, provides food value, helps in digestion and improves palatability and appearance. A dressing is in a liquid or semi liquid form.

SALAD DRESSINGS

1. Vinaigrette can be made by three ways:-

· French: 3 parts oil 1 part vinegar, french mustard and seasoning.

· English: 1 part oil 2 parts vinegar, mustard and seasoning.

· American: equal quantities of vinegar and oil, seasoning and sugar.

2. Lemon dressing: same as vinaigrette dressing using lemon juice instead of vinegar.

3. Acidulated cream: 3 parts cream 1 part vinegar and seasoning.

4. Mayonnaise

5. Thousand island dressing: mayonnaise, hard boiled eggs, tomato ketchup, chopped gherkins, chopped onions, pimentos, olives and paprika powder.

6. Russian dressing: mayonnaise, chilly sauce, horseradish, minced onion.

7. Roquefort dressing: French dressing with cheese.

8. Piquant dressing: French dressing, dry mustard, chopped onion and paprika powder.

9. Anchovy dressing: french dressing with chopped anchovies.

10. Honey lemon dressing: honey with lemon juice.

Salads are of two types:

1. Simple salad: generally consist of a single kind of vegetable one or two ingredients are used for garnish.

Examples:

· Celery salad: chopped celery with vinaigrette.

· Cabbage salad: shredded cabbage with vinaigrette.

· Cucumber salad: cucumber roundels with vinaigrette.

· Potato salad: dice/ roundels (parboiled) with vinaigrette or mayonnaise.

· Tomato salad: sliced tomato with parley and vinaigrette.

2. Compound salad:

These are elaborate salads consisting of more than one ingredient which are sub divided into four groups:

· Vegetable based: coleslaw, andalouse, nicoise, aida.

· Poultry, game, meat based: carmen, hongroise, bagration.

· Fish based: parisienne, fish mayonnaise, favourite.

· fruit based: creole, japonnaise, dalila, eve, waldrof

METHOD OF COOKING FOOD

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METHOD OF COOKING FOOD

Heat transfer

In order for food to be cooked, heat must be transferred from a heat source (such as a Gas flame or an electric element) to and through the food. Understanding the ways in which heat is transferred and the speed at which it is transferred helps the cook control the cooking process. Heat is transferred in three ways: conduction, convection, and radiation. It is important to remember that, during a cooking process, more than one of these methods of Transfer may be happening at the same time. For example, food on a grill may be heated by conduction from the hot metal grill, by convection from hot air rising from the Burner or charcoal, and by radiation from the glowing burner or coals.

Conduction

Conduction occurs in two ways:

1. When heat moves directly from one item to something touching it—for example, from the top of the range to a soup pot placed on it, from the pot to the broth inside, And from the broth to the solid food items in it.

2. When heat moves from one part of something to an adjacent part of the same Item—for example, from the exterior of a roast to the interior, or from a sauté pan to its handle. Different materials conduct heat at different speeds. Heat moves rapidly through Copper and aluminium, more slowly in stainless steel, more slowly yet in glass and porcelain. Air is a poor conductor of heat.

Convection

Convection occurs when heat is spread by the movement of air, steam, or liquid (including hot fat).there is two kinds of convection:

1. Natural.

Hot liquids and gases rise while cooler ones sink. Thus, in any oven, kettle of liquid, Or deep-fat fryer a constant, natural circulation distributes heat.

2. Mechanical.

In convection ovens and convection steamers, fans speed the circulation of heat. Thus, heat is transferred more quickly to the food, and the food cooks faster. Stirring is a form of mechanical convection. Thick liquids cannot circulate as quickly as thin ones, so the rate of natural convection is slower. This explains, in part, why it is so easy to scorch thick soups and sauces. The heat is not carried away from the bottom of the pan quickly enough, so it stays concentrated on the bottom and Scorches the food. Stirring redistributes the heat and helps prevent this. (Using heavy Pots made of a material that conducts heat well also helps prevent scorching because the pot conducts the heat more quickly and evenly across the bottom and up the sides.) Convection is the process that carries the heat from the heat source to the food. Once the carrier of the heat (air or liquid) comes in contact with the food, the heat is transferred from the carrier to the food by conduction.

Radiation

Radiation occurs when energy is transferred by waves from a source to the food. The Waves themselves are not actually heat energy but are changed into heat energy when they strike the food being cooked. (Light waves, radio waves, and x-rays are examples of Radiation not used for cooking.) Two kinds of radiation are used in the kitchen:

1. Infrared.

Broiling is the most familiar example of infrared cooking. In a broiler, an electric Element or a ceramic element heated by a gas flame becomes so hot that it gives off Infrared radiation, which cooks the food. High-intensity infrared ovens are designed to heat food rapidly.

2. Microwave.

In microwave cooking, the radiation generated by the oven penetrates partway into the food, where it agitates the molecules of water. The friction this agitation causes creates heat, which cooks the food. Because microwave radiation affects only water molecules, a completely waterless material will not heat in a microwave oven. Plates become hot only when heat is conducted to them by hot foods. Because most microwaves penetrate no more than about 2 inches (50 mm) into foods, heat is transferred to the center of large pieces of food by Conduction, just as in roasting. Cooking with microwaves is discussed in more detail later in this chapter.

COOKING TIMES

It takes time to heat a food to a desired temperature, the temperature at which a food is “done” (meaning the desired changes have taken place).this time is affected by three Factors:

1. Cooking temperature.

This means the temperature of the air in the oven, the fat in the fryer, the surface of a griddle, or the liquid in which a food is cooking.

2. The speed of heat transfer.

Different cooking methods transfer heat at different rates, as shown by these Examples: Air is a poor conductor of heat, while steam is much more efficient. A jet of Steam (212°f/100°c) will easily burn your hand, but you can safely reach into a Heat and food

Oven at 500°f (260°c).this is why it takes longer to bake potatoes than to steam them. A convection oven cooks faster than a conventional oven; even if both are set at the same temperature. The forced air movement transfers heat more rapidly.

3. Size, temperature, and individual characteristics of the food.

For example: A small beef roast cooks faster than a large one. A chilled steak takes longer to broil than one at room temperature.

Fish items generally cook more quickly than meats. Because there are so many variables, it is difficult or even impossible to determine exact cooking times in most recipes. Individual ovens, fryers, and steamers, for example, May transfer heat more or less efficiently or have different recovery times. Roasting Charts that give cooking times for various cuts of meat can be used only as guidelines, and the cook must use his or her judgment to make the final determination of Doneness.

MOIST

1. BLANCHING- Blanching means to cook an item partially and briefly, usually in water but some time oil also used.

There are two ways of blanching in water

· Place the item in cold water brings to boil and simmer. Cool the item by plunging into in cold water.

Purpose: to dissolve out blood, salt or impurities from meat or bones.

· Place the item in rapidly boiling water , remove and cool. Purpose : to retain the colour or destroy the harmful enzymes of vegetables or to loosen the skin of tomatoes etc.

2. BOILING- boiling is the cooking of prepared food in a liquid at boiling point. This could be water, court bouillon, milk or stock & maintain it at that temperature.

Boiling is classified as-

· Rapid boiling 100° C

· Simmering is a slow, gentle, moist method of cooking in liquid or stock (85 to 96°c) simmering is best for cuts with higher amounts of connective tissue which need long, slow cooking to tenderise them.

3. POACHING: Poaching is a wet method of cookery where food is cooked gently in liquid, which is held just below boiling point (71-82° C). Poaching liquids can be stock, stock and wine, stock syrup, milk or court bouillon (a flavoured vegetable stock). The cooking liquid adds to the taste of the finished dish and can be used to form the basis of an accompanying sauce. Poaching can be used to cook eggs, fish, chicken and certain fruits.

4. STEAMING is a wet method of cookery that involves the preparation of foods being cooked by steam under varying degrees of pressure. Steam sometimes contacts the food directly (e.g. Vegetables) or indirectly (e.g. Covered bowls of steamed pudding). Steaming is a labour saving method of cookery. Less risk of the food drying out or burning and less risk of food overcooking. Long, slow cooking by moist heat enables the tough connective tissue in meat to convert into gelatin and the meat becomes tender. Cheaper cuts of meat can be steamed successfully. Vegetables such as root vegetables, which do not deteriorate easily in colour, flavour of texture, can also be steamed.

5. STEWING

· Stewing is a long, slow, wet method of cookery, which takes place in a pan with a tight fitting lid. The slow gentle cooking of tougher cuts of meat and poultry makes their texture more tender and palatable. The cooking liquid forms part of the finished dish and it is always thickened either:

· At the start of cooking by the adding of flour to make a roux. A roux is a mixture of fat and flour to one of three stages

· During cooking, by using ingredients such as potatoes which break down and thicken the liquid e.g. Irish stew

· After the food has been cooked by the addition of a liaison of cream and yolks

· The addition of a blended starch at the end of cooking.

· Cooking can take place on top of the stove at a simmering temperature. Stewing is an economical method of cookery, as cheaper cuts of meat can be used.

· Connective tissue and the effects of stewing

· Meat is the muscle of animals. Muscle consists of bundles of long fibers held together by connective tissue. Older animals and muscles, which are well used, tend to produce coarser fibers and more connective tissue, yielding tougher cuts of meat. Long slow cooking in moist heat can gradually convert connective tissue into the more palatable gelatin.

6. BRAISING

· It is combination of roasting &stewing. It is carried out in tight fitted lid containers / casseroles. Braising is done to prevent the loss of juices due to evaporation. It is long cooking method & normally takes 5-6 hrs.

· Methods of braising

· Brown braising

· Use for joints & portion sized cuts of meat.

· Meat sealed by browning in hot oven / pan on the stove

· Sealing helps in retain flavour, nutritive value & gives a good colour.

· Meat then placed on a bed of root vegetable in a braising pan, with liquid, covered with a lid & cooked slowly.

· White braising

· Use for vegetable & sweet breads

· Foods are blanched, refreshed cooked on a bed of root vegetable.

· Use white stock, cooked slowly

FAT

1. FRYING

· SHALLOW FRYING is a fast, fat method of cookery. Shallow frying is the cooking of food in a small-preheated fat or oil on a hot surface such as: A frying pan or a solid cooking surface such as a griddle. When this type of cooking equipment is used the process is known as griddling. Some griddles have grooved surfaces to mark the food, improving the appearance. The coating of oil (or fat) prevents the food from sticking and helps conduct the heat to the foods surface.

· STIR FRYING is a popular method of cookery and is a variation of shallow frying. Food is cooked and stirred very quickly in a wok. Sautéing is tossing the food in the pan during cooking so that it cooks and browns on all sides e.g. Sauté potatoes. The word sauter is actually taken from the french verb sautoir, which means to “jump”.

· Meunière. This is a traditional french way to cook fish. The fish is passed through seasoned flour, shallow fried and finished with nut-brown butter, chopped parsley and lemon juice.

· Deep fat frying is a fast fat method of cookery where food is cooked by submerging it in preheated fat or oil. The oil or fat is heated to a temperature of 165°- 190° (320°to 375°f). The food is cooked quickly and its surface browns and develops a crisp texture. The temperature of the oil is an essential factor if deep fried food is to be palatable. Preheating the oil to the recommended temperature will allow the outside of the food to be seared and coloured. Fried foods always absorb carrying various amounts of oil, depending upon the type of food and the initial temperature of the fat. This fat absorption can vary from 5% to 40% so control of temperature is crucial to prevent excessive absorption resulting in greasy food. Draining the fried food on kitchen paper after frying will also help to remove any excess fat, making the dish more appealing.

Coatings

· Coatings are used on some foods before deep-frying. Coatings help to:

· Reduce the fat absorption

· Improve the shape

· Assist the browning

· Improve the texture.

Types of coatings are:

· Flour -

· Breadcrumbs –

· Batter

2. ROSTING: Roasting is a most preferred method of cooking used in western cookery as it is used for prime cuts of meats. No liquid is added to the meat so original meat flavour can come. Roasting is cooking in dry heat with the aid of fat or oil in an oven or on a spit.

· Pot roasting: it is carried out in covered in covered pot or pan. Good quality meat item / smaller joints are used. Meat / game / poultry is kept on the skewers to avoid sticking to the bottom. Lid should be covered and the bird should be basted regularly. Cooking should be done on slow fire. Root vegetables should be put after 20 min. To get flavour. When the joint is cooked, add stock so that the vegetable mix and form an accompaniment called as jus-lie gravy.

· Oven roasting: cooking is done in the roasting trays. Meat / poultry and certain vegetables are used. Joints can be trimmed and tied if retaining of shape is necessary. Joints can be browned to seal the pores and cooking time is 15 min. For 455 grams. Of meat and another 15 min. In oven.

· Spit roasting: here a spit is constantly revolved to ensure evenly colouring. It is cooking by direct heat and basting is carried out regularly.

· Tandoor roasting: it is carried out in tandoor by using is carried out regularly.

Terms related to roasting

· Pôeling: it is similar to pot roasting except for the thing that in this method butter is used instead of fat as cooking medium.

· Encasserole: it is same as pôeling but no vegetables is used in this method. Only brown stock can be poured.

· Encocotte: same as pot roasting except that the food items is garnished with the vegetables which are cooked in butter.

3. GRILLING this is fast medium of cooking by direct heat. Sometimes known as broiling. It is earliest method of cooking & also gives the variety to the menu.

Over heat:

· (charcoal, bar-be-que, gas or electric grill)

· Bars must be preheated

· Food starts from hottest part then move to cooler part of the grill.

· Cooking time depends on the thickness of the food & heat.

Under heat: (salamander)

· Should be pre-heated & greased.

· Soft items grilled on tray.

· Salamander can be used for browning, gratinating & glazing.

Between heat: grilling between electrically heated grill bars.

Degree of cooking

· Rare : au bleu

· Underdone : saignant

· Just done : a point

· Well done : biencuit

DRY

1. Baking: it is a cooking of food by dry heat in an oven. Degree of dryness can be modified from the amount of steam produced from the item.

· Dry baking: when baking, steam arise from the water content of the food, this steam combines with the dry heat of the oven to cook the food. (Cake, pastry)

· Baking with increased humidity: when baking certain food in oven, with increased humidity by placing a bowl of water.

· Baking with heat modification: placing food in container of water, (bein marie) modifies the heat so that the foods cook slowly.

2. Broiling: it is dry form of cooking & carried out on iron bars or pan. Beef & fish are broiled; even spices are broiled on hot griddle to bring out their flavour.

COMMODITIES

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A. SHORTENINGS

Shortenings mean the fat and oils which are used for tenderizing the food products. They consist of fatty acids & glycerol, also known as triglycerides. Fats are solid at room temperature and melt when heated. Those used in cooking are lard (pig’s kidney region fat), suet (beef, mutton or any other animal fat), butter, margarine and hydrogenated fats. Oils are liquid at room temperature but tend to solidify at cold temperature. Commonly used oils are coconut oil, peanut oil, mustard oil, sunflower oil etc.

Composition

These are composed of fatty acids and glycerol. Glycerol is a syrupy liquid which is heavier than water & it is sweet in taste. Specific density of glycerol is higher than water whereas shortenings have specific density less than water. Specific density is the ratio of weight of 01 gm of substance and equal weight of water.

Shortening are insoluble in water and process of blending of fats & water is called emulsification.

Process for fats / oils

1. Purification: crude oil contains pungent flavour and taste which makes it unsuitable for the use. For removing this, oil is mixed with caustic soda, which combines with free floating fatty acids to form crude soap. This crude soap is separated from the oil by centrifugal force.

2. Bleaching: it is done to remove the yellow pigment present in the oil. It is carried out by passing the oil through a filter which allows only a light coloured oil to pass through it. With this also goes off remaining undesirable smell. The refined oil after the bleaching is treated in several ways depending upon the product requirement.

3. Hydrogenation: in this, liquid is changed into solid form, with this process, the melting point of fat also increase. The degree of hardness of fat depends upon the degree of hydrogenation. Hydrogenation is the process of addition of hydrogen to the free floating carbon bonds in the fatty acids.

4. Deodorisation: this removes many substances which have got the objectionable odours.

Rendering of fat

Animal fat is heated and melted and this renders fat from fatty tissues. Tallow, suet and lard are usually rendered and used for cooking. The fat is cut into small pieces in a pan and put in the oven or on slow fire, until the fat melts, and there are crisp brown pieces of tissues left. This should be strained through a muslin cloth.

Clarification of fat

Used fat should be clarified and then re use. Strain the used fat and then mix with double the quantity of water in a pan and bring it to the boil. Strain again, cool & place it in a refrigerator. The fat will solidify and float on top. Lift the cake of fat, turn it upside down and scrape off the foreign particles that have collected. Heat the fat on slow fire, till the water evaporates & strain.

Types of fats or oils

1. Butter.

2. Ghee: it is clarified butter. It is prepared by heating the butter till the milk solids get separated and hence can be taken out easily. Ghee does not contain protein & rest of food value is similar to that of butter. Ghee is also not good for baker’s use, as of bigger crystals than butter, so it only gives flavour to the product and does not help in increasing volume and grain.

3. Margarine: it is produced from milk and a blend of vegetable oils emulsified with lecithin. Also contains flavouring, salt, colourings & vitamins a & d. This mixture is strongly agitated to form an emulsion. The mixture is passed through coolers and crystallising units. This is generally used as substitution of butter and comes in various grades such as block (hard/ semi hard) and soft (butter substitute). Semi hard margarine is used for pastry & cake making.

4. Lard: this is rendered from the kidney region of the pig & has 100% fat content. It is firm, white in colour and is used for deep frying as well as shallow frying.

5. Suet: it is hard solid fat dispersed around the kidney region of animals. Beef suet is best which is used to make suet paste and minced meat and it is white coloured.

6. Tallow: it is the fat which is rendered from the beef caracas. It is pale yellow in colour.

7. Vegetable fats: these are shortenings which are liquid at room temperature. It is obtained from sunflower, soyabean, almonds, sesame seeds, cotton seeds, olive, groundnuts, hazelnuts etc. These have very high fat content & are good sources of energy. Olive oil is considered as the best owing to its flavour. Better oils are almost without flavour, odour & colour.

8. Herbal oils are obtained by adding chopped herbs like thyme, tarragon, basil etc. To olive oil pouring into the jars and leaving it refrigerated for about 3 weeks. Finally the oil can be strained or bottled.

Smoke point: it is the stage in heating process at which the smoke starts coming out of the fats. The greater the presence of free flowing fatty acids, the lower the smoking point. As far as baker is concerned, margarine has the highest melting point which results in high smoke point followed by ghee & butter.

Storage of fats and oils

· Oils are at their best if kept at 70-80º c.

· Must not be stored near strong smelling food products & spices.

· Shortenings containers must be kept closed.

· Must be free from moisture otherwise splatter oil when heated.

Roles of shortening / Uses of Shortening

1. They increase nutritive value of foods.

2. They improve flavour of dishes.

3. They help in retaining moisture and it’s this property prevent the bread and cakes from drying up.

4. They help in attaining a good volume due to creaming property.

5. A fat helps in tendering various products.

6. They improve the appearance of the dish.

7. Satiety value.

8. Preserve foods.

9. Fats give elasticity to dough.

RAISING AGENT LEAVENING AGENTS

Leavening is the production or incorporation of gases in a baked product to increase Volume and to produce shape and texture. These gases must be retained in the product until the structure is set enough (by the coagulation of gluten and egg protein) to hold its shape. Exact measurement of leavening agents is important because small changes can produce major defects in baked products.

1. Yeast

Fermentation is the process by which yeast acts on carbohydrates and changes them into carbon dioxide gas and alcohol. This release of gas produces the leavening action in Yeast products. The alcohol evaporates completely during and immediately after baking.

Yeast is a microscopic plant. As a living organism, it is sensitive to temperatures.

· 34°f (1°c) inactive; storage temperature.

· 60° to 70°f (15° to 20°c) slow action.

· 70° to 90°f (20° to 32°c) best growth; proofing temperature for bread dough’s.

· Above 100°f (38°c) reaction slows.

· 140°f (60°c) yeast is killed.

Yeast is available in three forms:

1. Fresh yeast, also called compressed yeast, is moist and perishable and is preferred By professional bakers. It is usually purchased in 1-lb (450-g) cakes.

2. Active dry yeast is a dry, granular form of yeast. Active dry yeast must be rehydrated in 4 times its weight of warm water [about 110°f (43°c)] before use. When using active dry yeast in a bread formula, use part of the water in the formula to dissolve the yeast. Do not add additional water.

3. Instant dry yeast is also a dry granular form of yeast, but it does not have to be dissolved in water before use. It can be added in its dry form because it absorbs Water much more quickly than regular dry yeast. It also produces more gas than Regular dry yeast, so less of it is needed. Instant dry yeast is sometimes called rapid rise Or quick-rise yeast.

2. Chemical raising agent

A. Baking soda

Baking soda is the chemical sodium bicarbonate. If moisture and an acid are present, Soda releases carbon dioxide gas, which leavens the product. Heat is not necessary for the reaction (although the gas is released faster at higher Temperatures).for this reason, products leavened with soda must be baked at once, or the gases will escape and leavening power will be lost. Acids that react with soda in a batter include honey, molasses, buttermilk, fruits, Cocoa, and chocolate. Sometimes cream of tartar is used for the acid. The amount of Soda used in a formula is generally the amount needed to balance the acid. If more leavening Power is needed, baking powder, not more soda, is used.

B. Baking powder

Baking powders are mixtures of baking soda plus an acid to react with it. Because baking powders do not depend on acid ingredients for their leavening Power in a formula, they are more versatile.

C. Baking ammonia

Baking ammonia is the chemical ammonium carbonate. It decomposes during baking to Form carbon dioxide gas and ammonia gas. only heat and moisture are necessary for it to work. No acids are needed. Because it decomposes completely, it leaves no residue that can affect flavor. However, It can be used only in small products, like cookies, which allow the ammonia gas to Be completely driven off. Baking ammonia releases gases quickly, so it is sometimes used in products like Cream puffs where rapid leavening is desired.

3. Air

Air is incorporated into a batter primarily by two methods, creaming and foaming. This Air expands during baking and leavens the product.

1. Creaming is the process of beating fat and sugar together to incorporate air. It is an important technique in cake and cookie making. Some pound cakes and cookies Are leavened almost entirely by this method.

2. Foaming is the process of beating eggs, with or without sugar, to incorporate air. Foams made with whole eggs are used to leaven sponge cakes, while angel food Cakes, meringues, and soufflés are leavened with egg white foams.

4. Steam

When water turns to steam, it expands to 1,600 times its original volume. Because all baked products contain some moisture, steam is an important leavening agent. Puff pastry, cream puffs, popovers, and pie crusts use steam as their major or only Leavening agent. If the starting baking temperature for these products is high, steam is produced rapidly and leavening is greatest.

5. Lamination it acts as a raising agent in dhokla, puri, puff etc. Steam formed by the heat helps to puff up as liquid & flour are present in equal quantities, when heated they expand in volume. Fat when comes under the influence of heat expands & liberates the water vapours & gluten in the dough helps in the expansion, examples puff & flaky pastries.

C. SUGARS

Sugars or sweetening agents are used for the following purposes in baking:

• To add sweetness and flavour.

• To create tenderness and fineness of texture by weakening the gluten structure.

• To give crust colour.

• To increase keeping qualities by retaining moisture.

• To act as creaming agents with fats.

We customarily use the term sugar for regular refined sugars derived from sugar Cane or beets. The chemical name for these sugars is sucrose. However, other sugars of different chemical structure are also used in the bakeshop. The following are the more important sugars.

A. Granulated sugar: Regular granulated, also called fine granulated or table sugar, is the most familiar And the most commonly used. Very fine and ultrafine sugars are finer than regular granulated. They are prized for making cakes and cookies because they make a more uniform batter and can support higher quantities of fat. Sanding sugars are coarser and are used for coating doughnuts, cakes, and other Products.

B. Confectioners’ or powdered sugars: Confectioners’ sugars are ground to a fine powder and mixed with a small Amount of starch to prevent caking. They are classified by coarseness or fineness. 10x is the finest sugar. It gives the smoothest textures in icings. 6x is the standard confectioners’ sugar. It is used in icings, toppings, and cream Fillings. Coarser types (4x and xx) are used for dusting or for any purposes for which 6x And 10x are too fine.

C. Molasses and brown sugar: Molasses is concentrated sugar cane juice. Sulphured molasses is a by-product of sugar Refining. it is the product that remains after most of the sugar has been extracted from Cane juice. Unsulfured molasses is not a by-product but a specially manufactured sugar Product. Its taste is less bitter than that of sulphured molasses. Molasses contains large amounts of sucrose, plus other sugars, acids, and impurities. Brown sugar is mostly sucrose, but it also contains varying amounts of molasses and other impurities. the darker grades contain more molasses. Because molasses and brown sugar contain acids, they can be used with baking Soda to provide leavening Molasses retains moisture in baked goods and so prolongs freshness. However, Crisp cookies made with molasses quickly become soft for the same reason.

D. Corn syrup: Corn syrup is a liquid sweetener consisting mainly of a sugar called glucose. It is made by converting cornstarch into simpler sugar compounds by the use of enzymes. Corn syrup aids in retaining moisture and is used in some icings and in candy Making.

E. Glucose syrup: While corn syrup contains other sugars in addition to glucose, pure glucose syrup is also available. It resembles corn syrup but is colourless and nearly tasteless. If a recipe Calls for glucose syrup and none is available, substitute light corn syrup.

F. Honey: Honey is natural sugar syrup consisting largely of glucose and fructose, plus other Compounds that give it flavour. Honeys vary considerably in flavour and colour, depending On their source. Flavour is the major reason for using honey, especially because it can be Expensive. Honey contains invert sugar, which means that it stays smooth and resists crystallizing. Like molasses, it contains acid, which enables it to be used with baking soda as a Leavening.

G. Malt syrup: Malt syrup is used primarily in yeast

Degrees and stages of cooking the sugar

102oc small thread suitable for rasgullas

103oc large thread suitable for jellebis

106oc pearl suitable for gomme (white concentrate sugar syrup)

116°c soft ball suitable for marzipan

119°c ball suitable for fondant

121 °c hard ball suitable for nougat

143°c soft crack suitable for Italian meringue

156°c hard crack suitable for dipping fruit

163oc-177oc caramel suitable for caramel custard.

STOCK

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Objectives:

• Definition of Stock

• Types of Stock

• Preparation of Stock

• Recipes

• Storage of Stock, uses of Stock

• Care of Precautions

Required Reading: Unit 8 (Reference Book, Food Production Operations, Oxford Publication)

Definition of a stock: A stock is a liquid that has been formed by extracting flavours, nutrients and salts during the cooking process from bones, vegetables and aromatic herbs. The basic ingredient for most soups and sauces is a good stock. If the stock is not properly made, whatever is made it will be of poor quality.

Stock should be:

Clear in appearance

Delicate flavour

Clear of grease

Types of Stock

There are three basic kinds of stock

• White Stock (Fond Blanc)

• Brown Stock (Fond Brun)

• Vegetable Stock or Neutral Stock

The classification refers to the contents and method used to prepare the stock.

White Stock: It is made with white meat or beef, veal, Mutton, chicken bones and aromatic vegetables. The bones or meat are put in cold water and slowly brought to boil. The mirepoix is added to the liquid. The mixture is reduced to a simmer to finish cooking.

Brown Stock: It is made with beef, veal, mutton, game and poultry meat and bones. The bones are roasted until golden in colour, not burnt (Burnt bones and mirepoix will damage the stock’s flavour and colour). The mirepoix is added when the bones are three quarter roasted; tomato product may also be added. When the bones and mirepoix are golden in colour, cold liquid is added and the mixture is slowly brought to a boil, and then reduced to a simmer to finish cooking.

Vegetable Stock is a neutral stock composed of vegetable and aromatic herbs sautéed gently in butter, then cooked in liquid.

Fish Stock is a type of white stock but it is categorised separately from the other basic stock because of its limited usage.

ELEMENTS / INGREDIENTS OF STOCK

Bones:

Bones are the major ingredient of stocks. Most of the flavour and body of stocks are derived from the bones of beef, veal, lamb, chicken, fish, occasionally pork (Vegetable stock, an exception, draw their flavour entirely from vegetables).

White stock made from beef, veal, mutton, chicken, fish and some time pork bones.

Brown Stock made from beef, veal, mutton bones, game, poultry

Meat:

Because of its cost, meat is rarely used in stock making (exception Chicken offal’s and fish trimmings).

Mirepoix:

Aromatic vegetables are the second most contributor of flavour to stocks.

Mirepoix is a combination of onion, carrot and celery. It is a basic flavouring preparation used in all areas of cooking—not only for flavouring stocks but also for sauces, soups, meats, poultry, fish, and vegetables.

A white mirepoix, in which parsnips are substituted for carrots, is used when it is necessary to keep the stock as colourless as possible. Celery root can be substituted for the stalk celery for an even whiter mirepoix. Mushroom trimmings may also be added. Leeks can be used in place of onions in a white mirepoix.

Acid Products:

Acids help to dissolve connective tissues. Thus, they are sometimes used in stock-making to extract flavour and body from bones. Tomato products contribute flavour and some acid to brown stocks. They are not used for white stocks because they would give an undesirable colour.

Wine or Vinegar is occasionally used, especially for fish stocks.

Scraps and Leftovers:

Scraps may be used in stocks if they are clean, wholesome, and appropriate to the stock being made.

Seasonings and Spices:

Salt is usually not added when making stocks. Herbs and spices should be used only lightly. They should never dominate a stock

Herbs and spices are usually tied in a cheesecloth bag called a sachet d’épices (spice bag). The sachet is tied by a string to the handle of the stockpot so it can be removed easily at any time.

A bouquet garni (bunch of herbs) is an assortment of fresh herbs and other aromatic ingredients tied in a bundle with string.

The following seasonings, in varying quantities, are commonly used for stocks:

• Thyme

• Parsley stems

• Bay leaves

• Cloves

• Whole Peppercorns

• Garlic (optional)

Onions or Flavouring:

In addition to the onions in the mirepoix, an oignon brûlé (burnt onion) is sometimes added to brown stock to give it colour as well as flavour.

Liquid such as water:

7 principles of stock making (Preparation of Stock/ Care of Precautions):

1. Cold water: Cover the ingredients with clean, cold water. Starting in this manner allows the blood and proteins to dissolve. As the temperature rises, the proteins coagulate (solidify) and float to the surface where they can be skimmed off. If they were started in hot water, the proteins would solidify, stick to the bones and then disperse into the stock making it cloudy and "muddy tasting".

2. Simmer, never boil: A stock should be brought to a boil and then immediately reduced to a simmer. At a simmer, the ingredients release the maximum flavour without breaking down into particulate matter. If a stock boils for even a few minutes, the fat will emulsify into the stock and the stock will become cloudy, making for a poor performance, a "muddy taste" and a "greasy" finish. This type of texture will spoil soups and sauces.

3. Skim frequently: Skimming the coagulated masses off the surface of the stock throughout the cooking process, decreases the likelihood of "clouding" the stock.

4. Strain carefully: This involves a china cap set inside of a chinois. In order to use the stock, you must separate the solids from the liquid. While doing so it is important not to disturb the solids in the bottom of the pot.

Use the following procedure:

• Skim the fat from the surface

• Remove the stock from the heat and carefully ladle the stock out of the pot without stirring the stock.

• Pour the stock through a china cap set inside of a chinois, into a sanitized metal container.

5. Cool quickly: It is of the utmost importance that stocks are cooled quickly and with a minimum amount of agitation.

6. Store properly:

• Store in a plastic storage container and label the container indicating the contents, date and the session that started the stock.

• Store in the container in the refrigerator. (as the stock chills the remaining fat will rise and solidify, forming the fat cap. The fat cap provides an extra barrier against contamination and aerobic bacterial growth.)

7. Degrease: Before using the stock, carefully lift the fat cap off of the surface of the stock, scraping off all the small bits of fat. It is always easier to degrease your stock when it is chilled. All preparations depend on the use of fat-free stocks!

STORAGE OF STOCKS

When cooked stocks must be strained and cooled within 90 minutes and stored in a fridge, stocks can be frozen. All stocks must be re-boiled after storage prior to being used.

ESSENCE AND GLAZES

Essence is an un-thickened liquid carrying the concentrated flavour of a specific ingredient. To make a vegetable essence, the vegetable is simmered with a stock or broth until the liquid is concentrated and flavourful.

A glaze or, in French, glace is a stock reduced until it coats the back of a spoon. It is so concentrated reduced by three-fourths or more that it is solid and rubbery when refrigerated.

Glazes are used as flavourings in sauce making and in some meat, poultry, fish, and Vegetable preparations.

Important Questions

1. Define stock.

2. What are the guidelines for preparing good quality stock?

3. List and explain the component of stock.

4. Difference between white stock and brown stock.

5. Give the recipe for preparing 5 litre of fish stock.

6. Give the recipe for preparing 5 litres brown beef stock.

7. List the points to be considered while making good stock.

Assignment:

A. Recipe for the followings

• 1 Litre Basic Brown Stock.

• 1litre Chicken white stock.

• 1 litre fish stock.

B. Differentiate between white stock and brown stock.

Menu 1

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cole-slaw

scotch-egg

onion-rings

mashed-potatoes

Menu 3

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Beetroot Salad

Spanish Omelete

carrot-vichy

Boiled Potatoes

GUEST HISTORY

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GUEST HISTORY: ITS IMPORTANCE AND UTILIZATION IN HOSPITALITY

A record maintained for each guest who has stayed at the hotel with a separate entry for each visit and details of pertinent preferences. This is a valuable reference tool for reservations, marketing, and credit departments. Guest histories are now more readily available through the increased utilization of computers and technology.

Guest history is a valuable service and marketing tool. In particular, it is likely to become a strategic device for the development of brand loyalty in the 1990s. Reports on a nationwide Australian study of 121 hotels’ use of guest history, and describes some of the key opportunities for optimizing the guest history function. The findings suggest that while guest history is being widely utilized by hotels, the extent of that utilization is limited. Three major areas for developing strategies to optimize the guest history function were found to include:

specific guest history training modules; an internal service orientation emphasizing the organization-wide usage of guest history to service the customer better; and further enhancement of the use of guest history for increasing brand loyalty

Virtually all systems claim to have “guest history;” however, most really only have reservation history, which is simply the ability to view checked-out folios. The problem with reservation history is duplication. If a guest stays at the property four different times, there are four different reservations. Therefore, the reservation history will contain four different mailing labels and/or Email addresses.

Many advance systems includes guest history database that is separate from reservation history. If a guest stays at the property four different times, the system stores only one guest history record, with four reservation records linked to it. This allows only one mailing label or letter to be printed instead of four. It also allows only one E-Mail to be sent using E-Mail Marketing system.

The system tracks an E-Mail address for each guest, travel agent, group, company, and wholesaler. E-Mail marketing can be used to market selected guests, all guests, or to certain guests, based on various parameters. For example, you can send an E-Mail to all guests that have not made a reservation in the last 6 months or all guests from India. The system is capable of sending thousands of E-Mails with just a few keystrokes.

Benefits include:

Instantaneous delivery without postage costs
Send mass E-Mails to all or part of your guest history database
Use targeted guest history mailings to reach specific past guest markets, i.e., business that originated through a specific source (Travel Agents or Companies) of business code (Corporate or Leisure) or a specific state.
Deliver confirmation changes with a click of the mouse
Access guest history E-Mail address during new reservation process

A. Quick New Reservations for Past Guests

When new reservations are made, the system automatically searches the guest history database to determine if the guest has stayed at the property before. The search can be by name, E-Mail Address, frequent guest number, and other criteria. For repeat guests, the system uses address information from guest history, saving valuable entry time for the reservationist. For new guests, the system automatically adds the guest to the guest history master database.
Guests who are part of the frequent guest program can use “points” to make the reservation.

B. Personalized Service in Reservations

Many sophisticated systems provide a complete list of guest preferences for repeat guests. For example, when a repeat guest calls, the reservationist can quickly determine what room type is preferred and any special requests for cribs, non-smoking rooms, etc. This allows the reservationist to personalize the reservation process.

For example, the reservationist may say, “Mrs. Smith, would you prefer a non-smoking room with a crib again this trip? And would you like to confirm this reservation with Visa Card # 2342343295234?” Remembering guest preferences lead to improved customer satisfaction and additional business.

C. Warning of “Problem” Guests

Immediate guest history access during the reservation also allows for problem-guest warnings.

For example, if the guest damaged a room last time or did not pay his bill, mark his guest history record as Do Not Rent, Blacklist, and so on. Problem guests are quickly identified and stopped prior to confirming a new reservation.

D. Reprint Folios Forever

Guest folios can be displayed on the screen or reprinted forever, limited only by available disk space. If a guest calls several months or even years after his stay with a folio question, reprint a copy instantly.

Storing folios forever also allows the system to produce various statistical reports, including revenue by source of business, market code, rate plan, state, unit type, and travel agent.

E. Personalized Letters & Mailing Labels

The system generates personal letters to guests. The letter is created one time and then printed as often as required on your letterhead. The letter can be printed for all guests or a range of guests. A consistent mailing program to past guests increases return rates and average daily rates. Complete mailing lists are available as part of guest history. Mailing labels can be printed for all guests in zip code sequence for a bulk rate mailing. Specific targeting is also possible. For example, you could print labels for all guests from India.

F. Information-Only Inquiries (Brochure Requests, etc)

Guests can be added to the history database without making a reservation. This allows you to track ‘information only” requests. Then, the system automatically sends a letter or prints a label for these potential guests. Periodic mailings to potential guests significantly increase occupancy.

Tariff Structure (Courtesy Amanjeet Bhalla)

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Click here for notes

Registration

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PREPARING FOR GUEST ARRIVALS AT RESERVATION AND FRONT OFFICE

Preparation in reservation section is done one day prior to the arrival of the expected guest. it involves checking of records which were made for the arriving guest at the time of booking and generating documents based on already available information and transmitting the same to the front desk.

Depending up on system used for reservation the preparation will vary. Usually hotels maintain a correspondence file which contains the set of documents pertaining to each reservation request. Documents may contain request letter, confirmation letter, etc.

In case of small hotel which is using a diary system of reservation, one day before the using a diary system of reservation, one day before the guest arrival the reservation will tally each set of documents in the correspondence file . of there is any discrepancy the same will be sorted out and necessary correction will be made. Movement list will be made on the basis of diary for next day arrivals and expected departures for next day. This information can be obtained from reservation records.

In case of hotels using Whitney system, the Whitney rack slips are tallied with the correspondence file. There are chances that some slips may be missing due to the movement in rack at times, so a duplicate slip will be prepared for the same and rack will be updated and after this movement list will be made. Then the Whitney rack for the next day and movement list both will be sent to front desk for next day arrivals.

In case of hotels using automatic systems, the front desk does not need any movement list and all the necessary information about the day’s arrival can be viewed on the visual display unit as and when needed.

AT RECEPTION DESK (ON THE DAY OF ARRIVAL)

Depending on the system used, the expected arrivals are found from movement list, Whitney rack, and computer terminal and the expected departures from movement list, folded slips in room rack, or from computer terminal. Information about room can be found from room rack; computers etc. while calculating room position the receptionist shall have to consider factors such as out of order rooms, early arrivals early departures in addition to expected arrivals and departures. next he will check up for instructions about the blocking of rooms and shall book the rooms accordingly for groups, airline crews, VIPs etc. he will check that the prearrangement for VIP arrivals ( aarti, puja ), group arrivals, are ready and bell staff is ready and equipped fully to receive the arriving groups and crews. The lobby manager shall ensure personally that rooms are ready and amenities such as fruits and flowers, cookies etc have been arranged properly. He will also check for any hold mail for expected arrivals.

RECEIVING THE GUEST

Receiving is an activity of greeting and welcoming the guest by the hotel front office staff and begins with the first employee that comes in contact with the arriving guest. This person usually is a doorman. Further this process is continued by bell boy who carries his luggage from the car to bell desk and further to his room. Also, the receptionist, the lobby manager, the lift operator and other staff members who come in his contact extend welcome to the guest by gestures, body movements, eye contacts and appropriate phrases. Remember the word “PLEASE” when u come in contact with the guest. The first impression is most important and should be the best impression. The communication skills of those who come in contact with the guest are very essential and should convey nothing but a welcome through their courteous and friendly manners. Acknowledging the presence of guest immediately even when the receptionist is busy talking to some other person over the phone or personally is very important. In case the guest is known to him, he must be addressed by name. This creates an instant link with the guest. The process of welcome is further continued by lift operator, who not only welcomes the guest, but would also try to sell the hotel in totality by informing him of the various services and amenities of the hotel.

The guest can be won or lost by the first impression of your establishment and you in particular. Remember you may be the first to greet the guest.

After the guest has been received the receptionist would try to assess the requirement of the guest i.e. determine the transit status of the guest. For a guest with confirmed reservation it is not difficult as the reservation record will tell what room will be more suitable for this guest. it is very important particularly in case the guest is a walk-in and does not have any booking. The receptionist should be skilled enough to be able to sell higher priced accommodation to walk- in. for this thorough product knowledge is very necessary.

PRE-REGISTRATION

It is an activity of registering a guest even before his arrival, which may be one day before his arrival.

The G.R card is kept ready i.e. it is filled up with all the available transaction data, such as names, address, billing instructions, type of rooms and rate of room etc. (which is collected at the time of reservation) and is kept ready for the signatures of arriving guests.

PURPOSE:

1. It helps in more effective registration

2. speedy check ins

3. time saving

4. More time for receptionist to give personal touch in service to the arrival and avoids any confusion at the reception counter on arrival of the guest. This can be done manually, semi automatically and automatically.

Guest Amenities:

It is a list of amenities to be given or kept in room for VIPs etc. a Voucher is prepared and sent to all departments such as food and beverage, room service, housekeeping etc. so that they can make necessary and appropriate arrangement in advance.

Depending on the status of the guest a number of amenities can be provided in the room and bathroom, such as fruits, flowers, cookies, cake, champagne bottle etc.

REGISTRATION

On their arrival in a hotel, guests usually go to the reception area first. The reception area is manned by a receptionist who welcomes the guests and answers their queries. This is the first face-to-face interaction between the hotel and the guests. The reception remains a focal point of guest contact throughout their stay at the hotel. The registration activity takes place at the same desk. The guests have to fill the required details on a registration card or may have to make entries in a hotel register.

Registration is the process of gathering information from the guest that is mandatory as per the laws prevailing in the country. According to the Foreigner’s Act. 1946 and the Registration of Foreigners’ Rules, 1992, the innkeeper should keep the records of the guests staying in his premises as per Form F (of the Registration of Foreigners’ Rules, 1992). Registration is the formalization of a valid contract between the guest and the hotel, in which the hotel offers safe and secure boarding and lodging facilities to the guest and the guest accepts to pay for the services and facilities received. In case of foreign visitors, the front desk staff should fill Form C and verify the passports and visas of guests.

Form C According to the Registration of Foreigners’ Rules, 1992, Rule 14, it is obligatory on the part of the hotel owner to send information about foreigners registered at the hotel. Any person who is not an Indian national (i.e., a person holding a passport of any country other than India, except Nepal and Bhutan) is known as a foreigner. The hotel is liable to send the information in the format of Form C to the nearest Foreigner’s Regional Registration Office (FRRO) or to the Local Intelligence Unit (LIU) within twenty-four hours of the arrival of a foreign national; in the case of Pakistani, Bangladeshi, and Chinese nationals, this information should reach within 12 hours to the nearest FRRO or LIU, and also to the local police station. Form C should be prepared in duplicate and serial numbered—the top copy is sent to the competent authority and the second copy is kept for permanent records for the duration as specified in the law related to the same.

Passport The front office staff should verify the passport of foreign nationals. A passport is a document issued by a government to allow its citizens to travel abroad, and requests other governments to facilitate their passage and provide protection on a reciprocal basis. Without a valid passport a person is not permitted to move in the territory of a foreign country.

The public authorities competent to issue passports and other identity documents vary from one country to another. The external affairs ministry issues passports to the citizens of India after verifying the details of the applicants from various quarters. To apply for a passport, the applicant has be a citizen of the issuing country. When a person is outside the country of her residence, the passport can be issued to her by the diplomatic or consular offices representing her country.

All passports generally bear the following information of the passport holder, though the format may vary from country to country:

· Family name/Surname.

· Holder’s photograph

· Given name

· Name of father/legal guardian

· Nationality

· Name of mother

· Date of birth

· Name of spouse

· Place of birth

· Address

· Gender

· Validity period (expiry date)

· Date of issue

· Children

· Place of issue

· Endorsement

· Holder’s signature

· Emigration status

· Validity for certain countries as well as restrictions for travel to others

The terminology related to passports is generally standard around the world.

There are different types of passports, some common types being:

· Ordinary passport or tourist passport: Issued to ordinary citizens.

· Official passport or service passport: Issued to government employees for work- related travel, arid to accompanying dependents.

· Diplomatic passport: Issued to diplomats and -consuls for work-related travel, and to accompanying dependents.

· Emergency passport or temporary passport: Issued to persons whose passports were lost or stolen, and who do not have the time to obtain replacement passports.

· Collective passport: Issued to defined groups for travel together to particular destinations, such as a group of school children going on a school trip to a specified country.

· Family passport: Issued to one member of the family, who may travel alone or with other family members. A family member who is not the passport holder can only travel with the passport holder.

In India, the following types of passport are issued under the provisions laid in the Passport Act 1967:

· Ordinary passport: It is dark blue in colour and is issued to any ordinary citizen of India.

· Official passport: It is white/grey in colour and is issued to government officials or persons on government missions.

· Diplomatic passport: It is red in colour and is issued to persons with a diplomatic or consular status as per international laws and customs.

Visa Foreign nationals visiting India are required to possess a valid passport and a valid Indian visa. Visa is an endorsement on the passport, allowing the holder to enter the territory of the issuing country. It is a document or, more frequently, a stamp in a passport, authorizing the bearer to visit a country for specific purposes and for a specific length of time. However, the issuance of a visa may not be treated as a guarantee to enter into the foreign territory. The bearer may be subjected to inspection at the port of entry and may be asked to produce the documents presented at the time of the procurement of the visa.

The Consular Passport and Visa (CPV) Division of the Ministry of External Affairs issues Indian visas to foreign nationals through various Indian missions abroad. Depending upon the nature of visit, the following types of visa may be issued:

Immigrant/Permanent visa It authorizes the holder of the visa to settle permanently in the county issuing the visa. This type of visa is rarely issued by countries and there are some countries that never issue such type of visa.

Temporary/Non-immigrant visa This type of visa is issued for a specific duration only. The person holding such a visa will have to return back to the home country after the expiry of the term of the visa. Temporary visas are of the following types:

· Tourist visa: Issued for a limited period for leisure travel only, no business activities allowed.

· Student visa: Issued to students who have got admission in universities located in the issuing country. It is issued for the duration of the course of study.

· Business visa: Issued for business related activities, but precludes permanent employment.

· Work visa: Issued for approved employment in the host country, with longer validity than a business visa.

· Transit visa: Issued for passing through the countries that fall en route the final destination; valid for 15 days or less.

The front office staff should be able to identify different types of visas to complete the registration process and to verify the credentials of guests. This also helps to understand the guest’s purpose of visit and to make arrangements for them accordingly.

Various registration methods

Three methods used for registration by hotels are

1. Bound Book: it is a big bound register usually used by small hotels. it is kept on the reception counter and the arriving guest fills up the register and writes information about him. Advantages and disadvantages already discussed in diary system.

2. Loose leaf register. This system is almost similar to bound book system with a difference that in this case for each day a separate page is used instead of consolidated register. The advantage is that sheet need not be kept on counter and hence a neat and clean look can be given to the counter. To some extent the information about the guests staying can be kept secret. in the event of loss of one sheet only one days information is lost and other information will be safe. The disadvantage is that the sheet can be easily misplaced if the desk attendants are careless. Further the sheet may not be fully filled on days when there are very few arrivals and the rest of it may be a waste. It is suitable only for medium hotels.

3. Individual registration/ Guest Registration Card: This is the most prevalent system these days. In this system, one separate card is used for each guest. The cards may be designed to serve various purposes. It may be in duplicate or triplicate with the help of carbon papers so that one copy can be sent to FRRO as ‘C’ form. They may also used to serve the purpose of guest history card. The advantage of this system is that complete privacy of the guest information can be maintained. Another advantage is that at rush hours many guests can be registered at the same time. Another very important advantage of this system is that the guest can be pre registered which will give more time to the receptionist to give more personal attention on providing services to the guests at the time of arrival. Disadvantage of this system are that individual card system is quite expensive.

UPSELLING AND UPGRADING

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UPSELLING AND UPGRADING

· What is Upselling?

Each organisation works with one major motive, and that is to maximize their revenue generation. Upselling is a technique as well a process through which guests are encouraged to use full range of hotel services along with convincing the guest to opt for a higher priced rooms.. This technique uses SUGGESTIVE SELLING.

· HOW DO I UPSELL??

Upselling can be used as a sales technique by taking into consideration, the following points:

A. Reservation assistant should:

1. Learn how to control encounter with the guest. A reservation assistant should be able to take control of the communication flow or encounter.

2. Should learn how to overcome natural inhibitions when dealing with a guest.

3. A reservation assistant needs to be consistent, courteous and confident while dealing with the guest.

4. A reservation assistant should sound enthusiastic while ASKING for a SALE.

5. All of the above mentioned points can naturally be imbibed by a reservation assistant only if he/she KNOWS THE PRODUCT (Convincing the guest for why they should select your product). It is important to know what you are selling in and out in order to convince the guest.

B. Controlling the encounter:

· Avoid open ended questions: ‘What type of a room would you like?’ Instead ask specific questions gradually getting the guest towards the choice of a higher priced or medium priced room:

Example: ‘I can give you a standard twin room Rs 200 for one night; however for a 100 more I can offer you a deluxe twin room.’

C. Getting rid of natural inhibitions:

· Do not assume that a room rate is exorbitant or expensive or inexpensive just because you think it to be.

D. Asking for Sale:

1. Few guests would opt for a better room unless the reservation assistant would ask for it or suggest it.

2. The selling techniques used are:

· High Pressure (Aggressive Selling) or Non- Pressure (Suggestive Selling), as a matter of rule hotels goes for non pressure or suggestive selling technique.

Non pressure or suggestive selling techniques exert little or no pressure on the guests’ decision for a room type. This is done to reduce compliance or resistance from the guests’ side. In general guests tend to avoid extremes that are least expensive and the most expensive rooms will be not taken by the guest preferably. The two approaches used by the hotel are TOP – DOWN approach i.e. offering a higher priced room and gradually moving towards a lower priced room. This approach is also known as DOORS IN THE FACE APPROACH.

· The second approach used is BOTTOM UP APPROACH i.e. suggesting the lower price room and gradually moving upto a higher price room. This approach is also known as FOOT IN THE DOOR APPROACH.

UPGRADE: Is a situation when a guest is shifted to better room at the same rate.

DISCOUNT AND ALLOWANCE:

DISCOUNT: - Discount is offered to the guests to attract him so the sales can be increased. The fact is by giving discount hotel tries to increase its sales and hence increases profit. Discount can be offered under the following circumstances,

1. OFF SEASON DISCOUNT: During off season hotels offer a percentage of tariffs as discount, on rack rate or offer discounted tariff to attract more guests.

2. GROUP TARIFFS: Group of 10 persons and more are offered special discounted tariff to attract them. The quantum of discount will depend up on the size of group, season (off or peak), quantum of business the company gives throughout the year, number of days the group will be staying.

3. AIRLINE TARIFFS: Airline crew, airlines executives, lay over passengers on airlines account are offered special discounted tariff as they usually give more number of room nights throughout the year. The discount will entirely depend on the room nights offered by the airlines throughout the year.

4. SPECIAL TARIFFS: Companies giving more number of room nights business are also special tariffs to attract them to your hotel.

5. FHRAI MEMBERS: The members of Federation of Hotel and Restaurant Association of India are offered 30% discount by the member hotels and restaurants. This discount is offered as a customary and is offered to members only as per rules.

6. CONFERENCE TARIFFS: These day’s hotels especially resorts offer special tariffs to companies to attract them to hold conferences in their hotels. The special tariff may be inclusive of sightseeing, pick up and drop facilities etc.

7. FOOD/ ITEM NOT SERVED: Sometimes guests complaint either at the time of checking out or before but after the bill has been raised that the food / services charged for were never availed by them. If the hotel is convinced that the bill has been wrongly raised then the discount is offered to the guest for the amount he is over charged.

The receptionist on his own cannot offer discount or special tariff to a guest. All companies who are offered special tariff to a guest are only offered discounted tariff by reception and if any other guest is to be offered discounted tariffs then it is offered only by the managers or by those who are authorized to offer discounted tariff to guests.

ALLOWANCE:

Allowance is offered to a guest due to deficiency in services. At times due to some unavoidable circumstances the hotel residents are unable to get peaceful atmosphere and are offered allowance on rack rate. At times the food served to the guest was not of hotel’s standard and there was a deficiency in service and the management took decision to offer allowance to the guests on food. To offer allowance, receptionist raises allowance voucher, approved by an authorized person and enters in the allowance register, as otherwise the account will not tally.

In brief it can be said that allowance is given due to deficiency in service and the discount is given to attract more guests and in increasing the sales and profit.

Reservation

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RESERVATIONS

The term reservation is defined as ‘blocking a particular room type for a guest, for a definite period of time, for a particular guest. To ensure a safe and secure place for stay during their visit to another town, guests generally prefer to make advance reservations in hotels and other types of accommodation units.

All hotels will readily accept advance reservations and booking in order to achieve high occupancy and to maximize their room revenue. When a guest makes an advance reservation for a definite time period it is expected that the hotel will accept and honour its commitment by a contract between the hotel and the guest. A reservation therefore is this bilateral contract between a hotel and a guest, according to which the hotel must provide the specified room type to the guest and the guest must agree to pay all relevant charges. This is also known as CONTRACT OF BOOKING.

If either the hotel or the guest wishes to alter or cancel the reservation, this can be done only through a mutual agreement. If a guest fails to inform the hotel about their cancellation the hotel property may decide to retain the advance deposit received from the guest earlier to cover up for any loss of accommodation revenue. The amount forfeited when a guest does not inform about their cancellation to the hotel is termed as RETENTION CHARGES. Alternatively if the hotel is unable to accommodate the guest at the time of their arrival, the hotel has to provide alternative accommodation of similar standard in another hotel and pay for any differences in room rates and any additional expenses the guest may have to incur. The reservation department handles all reservation requests for accommodation, interacts with the customers and constantly monitors the room status and the reservation status.

Importance of Reservation

The role of the reservation department is not limited to making reservation. It maintains records of the hotel occupancy, which help in planning sales and marketing strategies

1. Importance for the guests:

1. Ensures room on arrival - A guest who makes prior reservation is ensured of the required type of room, no of rooms for his entire stay in the city. This saves him from the difficulty of finding accommodation on arrival specially during peak seasons when most of the hotels are full.

2. Budgeting - As he is informed of the tariff at the time of reservation, he is able to budget his holiday or tour, taking in account the amount he spends on his stay, food, entertainment etc.

3. He is able to plan his holiday or tour without worrying about the basic needs of accommodation and food. Any business trip, sightseeing tour or excursions may be planned separately after fixing the accommodation.

4. Other facilities - the guest is ensured of certain facilities offered by the hotel which can be confirmed by making the reservation e.g. sightseeing tours, business center offering secretarial services, entertainment etc. He is also able to give the hotel address to his associates for any meetings, correspondence transfers to and from the hotel.

2. Importance for the hotel:

1. Prior reservation gives the hotel an indication of the level of business likely to be encountered during any particular period. The reservations manager knows the amount of business ensured during that period from the confirmed reservations. It enables him to forecast future revenue generation and take necessary action to improve the amount of revenue expected.

2. Guest satisfaction - The hotel is able to plan its activities and be prepared to receive an expected guest. They are able to provide the necessary services and facilities like security, transfers, preference of rooms to known guests, providing complimentary and any particular service asked by the guest at the time of making the reservation.

3. The front office manager is able to make the necessary decision regarding the no of walk-instant that can be accommodated on a particular day. Rooms requiring be repairing or taking off for redecoration can be blocked during the slack period as shown by the reservations. The no of rooms to be blocked for such purposes will also be determined according to the expected guest arrivals.

4. Scheduling of staff - Hotel staff may be scheduled more accurately to void under staffing or over staffing problems.

MODES OF RESERVATIONS

The mode of reservations tells us HOW the reservation has reached the hotel. For example a reservation request may reach the hotel through a written mode such as – letter, fax, telex or e-mail or through a verbal mode like telephone or in-person.

1. Written Mode:

Ø Letter- This mode is commonly used by travel agents, tour operators, companies and corporate houses who send in their reservation request to the hotel on their company letterheads. The hotel will make the reservation as per the details given in the letter.

Ø Fax- Fax or facsimile transmission uses electronic scanning technique to send copies of a document over an ordinary telephone line over a special machine that prints identical copies of the document. This makes it possible to send a reservation request instantaneously. Hotels process the request as per details and send the confirmation letter to the guest.

Ø Telex- or Tele Printer Exchange involves the use of specialized telephone lines, where the message is communicated in a written form.

Ø E-mail- The most common method of communication E-mail is an electronic mail that makes it possible to contact the hotel instantaneously. The hotel will process the reservation request on the basis of the details given. This mode of reservation is fast and very convenient.

2. Verbal Mode: Reservation requests may also reach the hotel through verbal mode or oral communication i.e. in person or over the telephone. The advantage of oral communication is that it generates immediate response and feedback and is very fast and convenient.

Ø In- Person- If an individual or a representative goes to the hotel to book rooms for future it is termed as an In-Person reservation. When an individual comes to the hotel and requests a room for the day it is termed as a Walk In Reservation. The hotel processes the rooms according to the details given by the guest and issues a confirmation number and a letter if the reservation is made for future and assigns a room if the guest requests for one for the same day.

Ø Telephone-The most common method of direct reservation communications, a prospective guest may telephone the hotel directly. The reservation assistant takes the information sequentially as per the script. Most of the hotels these days have high end systems that record a call which can be used later on for training purpose.

SOURCES/ CHANNEL OF RESERVATION

A hotel receives reservation requests from the different sources or channel like direct guests, central reservation system, travel agencies etc.

1. Property Direct- When a hotel receives a reservation request directly form a guest without any mediator, it is termed as a direct reservation. An individual or a group can contact the hotel property directly. A prospective guest may also plan to visit the hotel property directly in person-this guest is termed WALK-IN.

2. Travel Agents and Tour Operators- Travel agents are intermediary retail agents who sell rooms, airline seats and other products and services to the travellers. On the other hand Tour Operators are wholesalers who purchase the rooms, airline seats and other travel products from the various principal suppliers and form a package and finally sell the packages to a travel agent. Many guests make reservations through a travel agent or a tour operator. The agent will normally take a pre- payment from the guest and send a confirmation to the hotel, and issue a TAV or a travel agent voucher on its behalf. Travel agents generally receive a commission for their services to the guest, or the hotel or both. Sometimes even airlines may give bulk bookings to the hotel. Because a hotel receives bulk business from the airlines, the operators and the agents they offer low rates for various room categories.

3. Companies and Corporate Houses- Companies and corporate houses may have special contracted rates, assigned to them on the basis of volume business they provide. Since these companies and corporate houses also provide bulk business to the hotels, the hotel property may decide to offer low rates.

4. Corporate Travel Departments-Most corporate organizations have a separate travel department consisting of hired professionals who arrange and cater for the travel and accommodation requirements of the travellers.

5. Hotel Sales and Marketing- Most of the hospitality properties have sales representatives who approach various market segments and combine their efforts of selling products and services offered by a hotel, thus generating a large amount of revenue for the hotel.

6. Intersell Agencies- the Intersell agencies are multiple product handlers i.e. they deal with multiple products such as hotel reservations, car rentals, travel arrangements, airline reservations and so on. Intersell agencies such as Travelguru and MakeMyTrip are a rich source of reservations to the hotels.

7. CRS (Central reservation System) and GDS (Global Distribution System) - Central reservation system or (CRS) is a computer based reservation system, which enables a prospective guest to make reservations in any of the properties of a single chain. The CRS office deals with direct guests, corporate houses, travel agents and so on by means of toll free telephone numbers. Equipped with the necessary communication equipment, the CRS office works 7 days a week and 24 hrs a day. The systems at member hotels have accurate up to date information on the number of rooms available for the day, thereby assisting the guests to make reservation in more than one hotel through a CRS. In case the rooms are not available the itinerary may be re- planned to accommodate the guest at the desired hotels. In case rooms are not available the reservation assistant can direct the reservation to the other, member hotel property.

8. A GDS or a Global Distribution System is a worldwide computerized reservation network, and is used as a single point of access for reserving hotel rooms, airline seats, car rentals and various other travel related items and services by travel agents, large corporations and online reservation sites. Being a link between the producers and the end users of travel related products and services, GDS provides a bundle of products and services to the prospective user across geographical boundaries. The most common GDS used around the globe are Amadeus, SABRE, Galileo, and Worldspan.

TYPES OF RESERVATIONS

Hotel accept reservations for their accommodation units after checking certain factors such as – availability of rooms, room rates preferred by the guests, forecasts, profile of the guests and so on. The reservation made by a guest could be tentative, confirmed or waitlisted. Once a reservation request is confirmed by a guest, the hotel may proceed to make a non- guaranteed or a guaranteed reservation

1. TENTATIVE RESERVATION: In the early stages or in the initial phase all reservation requests are tentative reservations. A tentative reservation is one in which the hotel has not sent a confirmation letter to the guest and as a result has not received a confirmation from. In this case the hotel may hold the room till a particular time period also known as stipulated time period or a cut-off date, by which the hotel must receive the confirmation from the guest. Most hotels sent a confirmation letter, acknowledging the details of the guest within 8- hrs, 24-hrsor 48-hrs of receiving the reservation details. The guest in turn may be given a time period, a week or so (stipulated time or cut-off date) to confirm their reservation.

2. CONFIRMED RESERVATION: A confirmed reservation is one in which the hotel has acknowledged the reservation request of the guest for a particular date and for a specified duration and is able to assure the guest of the accommodation in the property on the requested date and in the requested guestroom category.

This acknowledgement is sent in the form of a confirmation letter containing the following information:

• Name of the guest.

• Date and Time of arrival.

• Room Type.

• Duration of Stay.

• Room Rate.

• Number of People in the party also known as PAX.

• Reservation classification (guaranteed or non- guaranteed)

• Reservation confirmation number.

• Any special request made by the guest.

A confirmed reservation is generally of two types-

a. Confirmed Guaranteed Reservation: A guaranteed reservation is a confirmation that the hotel will hold the reserved room for the guest and will not release that to any other guest even if the guest does not arrive on the arrival date. This type of reservation requires the guest to make an advance payment (according to the hotel policy and hotel occupancy), irrespective of whether the guest avails the reservation or not, unless the reservation is cancelled according to the hotels cancellation policy. A guaranteed reservation assures the guest that the hotel will hold a room until a specific time of the day following the guests scheduled arrival date.

The guest in turn guarantees to pay for the room, even if it is not used. Guaranteed reservations provide some kind of protection for the hotels revenue even in case of No-Show (When a guest does not arrive or register on the day of their arrival and also not inform the hotel of their cancellation)

A reservation can be guaranteed through the following modes:

1. Prepayment: A guaranteed reservation through a prepayment requires that a prepayment in full be received at the time of registration or at a stipulated time period or a cutoff date prior to the guests’ arrival. This type of guarantee towards a reservation is the most desirable form in resorts. Prepayment can be done either through a demand draft or depositing cash. In case of payment of high amounts, hotels might ask guests for their PAN numbers (Permanent Account Number).

2. Credit Cards/ Charge Cards: The most common method of guaranteeing a reservation these days, here the credit card company ensures that the lodging property will receive payment in case of no-shows. The hotels must check the validity and authenticity of the card before using it as a guarantee. The booking amount is charged to the card when the reservation is guaranteed through this mode. A percentage of the charge might be reversed in case the reservation is cancelled within the cancellation period or retained if the reservation is not cancelled.

3. Advance Deposit: An advance deposit guaranteed reservation requires that the guest should pay the hotel a specific amount of money as deposit (This amount of money is generally one room night rent) up till a stipulated time period or a cutoff date. In this case if a guest holding a reservation fails to register or cancel (i.e. the guest is a no show) the hotel may retain the amount paid as advance deposit and may cancel the reservation for the entire stay and may release the booked room for further sale.

4. Contractual Agreements: A hotel may enter into a contract with an individual or a company for providing guaranteed reservations. According to such a contract the hotel may confirm the reservation for an individual or a group referred to by the travel agent or a company on a guaranteed basis because the travel agent or the company assures guaranteed business to the hotel and also agrees to pay in case of no-show. Hotels may have contractual agreements with business entities such as travel agents, corporates, airlines, companies and so on. Based on these contractual agreements a hotel property may receive reservations through-

• Travel Agents: The travel agent or tour operators make bulk purchases of room at a relatively low contracted price. They guarantee the hotel a minimum number of room nights in a particular period and agree to pay the room charges even they fail to fill the rooms as per their agreement. The hotels will guarantee these reservations on the basis of TAV or travel agent voucher issued by the travel agency. This TAV or travel agent voucher has three copies – one with the guest, the hotel and the travel agent each. Thus in case of a no-show the hotel generally bills the travel agency for the payment.

• Miscellaneous Charge Order (MCO): The Airline Reporting Corporation or ARC issues MCO’s and thus guarantee payment to the hotel if the travel agency defaults on payment or if the guest is a no show.

• Corporate: A corporate guaranteed reservation involves a company entering into a contract with the hotel and therefore accepts the financial responsibility no- show business travellers sponsored by the company.

• Allotment: Allotment is a set of rooms booked for a particular period of time for a company or for a group. This type of reservation is made for training courses, conferences or for private parties. A guest may be asked for a booking reference or any other verification before they are provided a room. Allotments are managed by the reservations manager or the group coordinator and the operational issues are checked on a daily basis.

b. Confirmed Non- Guaranteed Reservation also known as 6:00 p.m. Hold Or 6:00 p.m. Release Reservation- A non-guaranteed reservation assures the guests that the hotel will hold a room until a stated reservation cancellation hour on the day of arrival (this time is generally until 6:00 p.m. This type of reservation does not guarantee that the property will receive payment for no- shows thus, if the guest does not arrive by the cancellation hour, the hotel is free to release the room for future sale. This cancellation hour is generally prescribed to be 6:00 p.m. If the guest arrives after this cancellation, the hotel will accommodate the guest IF a room is available.

3. Waitlisted Reservation-A reservation is waitlisted when a requested category of room is not available for the requested dates. A waitlisted reservation will be confirmed when a hotel receives a request for cancellation in the same category. The hotel does not guarantee a room in case of a waitlisted reservation, it is understood that the room will be assigned to the guest in case of a cancellation or a no show. While processing the reservation a hotel informs the guest that their reservation request is on waitlist status and can be confirmed at a later date if some rooms are made available due to cancellation. This situation normally occurs during high occupancy time. To avoid overbooking (A situation when the total number of rooms reserved for a certain period of time exceeds the total number of rooms available for sale), the reservation department makes a list of the waitlist on the basis of the earlier records of reservation compared to actual arrivals. The hotel keeps clearing waitlists on a regular basis as per the cancellations received and the overbooking level for the day.

SYSTEM OF RESERVATIONS

1. DIARY SYSTEM: This is a manual system of reservation. In this system a daily diary is kept, in which the reservation agent lists all arrivals due on a particular day. It is the primary system of reservation. Hotels using the diary system of reservation do not have a different reservation section. The register has 365 pages (plus a few more so that the reservations of the subsequent year can be recorded). It has a practical usage in small properties.

2. WHITNEY SYSTEM: Whitney system is a manual system of reservation used for Managing reservations and other front office operations. It was introduced by the Whitney Duplication and check company (New York). It is a highly efficient system of reservation. It drastically changed the way hotels worked. It can be used in hotels have any no. of rooms.

THE WHITNEY SYSTEM OF RESERVATION

Why it is called Whitney system?

This system was produced by WHITNEY DUPLICATION AND CHECK CO. of New York from which it takes it’s name.

Tools required for the effective functioning of Whitney system are as follows:

· Room Reservation Request Sheet

· Peg Board

· Whitney slip

· Advance Reservation Rack

· Correspondence File

· Registration Card

· Temporary Arrival Notification Slips

· Permanent Arrival Notification Slips

· Bill

1. The information of request for future reservations, whether by telephone or telex or in person or mail, is entered on a room reservation request sheet or room reservation form. This becomes the master document for all future actions in this system.

2. The booking is entered on the Peg Board, one peg for each day the room has been booked.

3. The key information is typed on to a Whitney slip, size 4” x 1.5” in duplicate, showing on the top line the date of arrival, the guest name, room rate and expected date of departure. Other information, like date on which the reservation was received and the person who took the reservation is also mentioned. A colour code which is a vertical bar, in the centre, enables quick visual distinction between private bookings, travel agent bookings, blanket bookings and bookings requiring special attention.

4. The top copy of the Whitney slip is folded in half and slipped into a metal slide or carrier and this in turn is placed in chronological & alphabetical order in the Advance reservation rack for the date of arrival of the guest. There is a separate rack for each day of the current month, and then they are less frequent for the remaining months and years. The Whitney slip is placed on the rack for the day when it is anticipated that the stay of the guest will begin. The advance reservation rack or the whiney rack replaces the booking diary of the conventional system.

5. The second copy of the Whitney slip and any correspondence regarding the booking along with the room reservation request sheet is clipped together and put inside the Correspondence File for the date of arrival of the guest. There are as many correspondence files as there are Advance reservation racks.

6. One day before the date of arrival of the guest, the Correspondence File for the next day is taken, and the correspondence arranged in alphabetical order. Then the duplicate Whitney slip is “married with the original in the Advance Reservation Rack for the next day and any adjustments for confirming the reservations is now done.

7. For all confirmed reservations, a Registration Card is typed out with all the known information of the guest. The registration card is serially numbered and the process is called Pre-registration. The typed registration card is put into the correspondence file and both the Correspondence File and the Advance Reservations Rack goes to the Front Desk the evening before the guest arrives. During the night the room allocation for the confirmed reservations is done. The Advance reservations rack and the correspondence file is kept at the Registration section. The Advance Reservations Rack replaces the Expected Arrivals List of the conventional system.

8. When the guest arrives, he mentions that he has a booking and you find out the Pre-registered Card and give it to him to fill up the remaining blank spaces and sing. During this time the receptionist will fill up the Key Card. After verifying the entries on the Registration Card, call the bell boy and give him the key asking him to escort the guest to his room. After the guest has left, Temporary Arrival Notification Slips are written out and sent to the various departments. One copy goes into the Room Rack and another goes into the Alphabetical Rack.

9. Whenever there is some free time, the Permanent Arrival Notification Slips and the Bill are typed out simultaneously. When the Permanent Arrival. Notification Slips are received, the Temporary Arrival Notification Slips are destroyed. Then the Registration Card and the Bill are sent to the Cashier. At the end of the day the Correspondence File and the Advance Reservations Rack is sent back to the Back Office to be reused.

10. When the guest checks out and settles his bill, the Receptionist folds the Room Rack Slip in half, (or writes a “H’ on it) to indicate that the guest has checked out. When the house-keeping informs that the room has been cleaned and ready for the new guest, the room rack slip is taken out and collected. At night it goes to the back office to enter in the Arrival and Departure Register.

11. After the Bill is settled, the Cashier stamps “PAID” and the bill and registration card are sent to the receptionist. At the end of the day, the registration card is sent to the Back Office where it is field in Alphabetical Order or Numerical Order.

Date of Arrival	Name of Guest	Room Type	Rate	Date of Departure
Mode of Reservation	Reserved by	Date Received
Agency (if any)
Billing Instruction			Confirmation Date

Whitney Slip

Room Availability Records used in Manual System: Processing a reservation request tools which can help ascertain the availabilityof rooms for the desired duration. The following room availability records are used in manual systems:

· Bed room Journal,

· Conventional Chart / advance letting chart,

· Standard density chart

Bed room Journal: it is very similar to the reservation diary. Tilled in the date-wise sequence, each page of the journal contains the occupancy details for that date –the name of the guest, the room number and the type of room.

Date............................
Name of Guest	Room No.	Particular

Bed room Journal

Conventional Chart: also known as advance letting chart, is an improved version of the Bed room Journal and is simple to understand. The chart is prepared for each month so only twelve charts are required for one year. The room number and room category is mentioned in one column, and there are 28-31 more columns, depending upon the number of days in the month. The name of the guest is written between the days of their stay.

Standard density chart: A density chart is prepared for each category of rooms for the duration for one month.

3. Automatic System

Automated reservation systems are computerised reservation systems that are used to store and retrieve room status information and conduct transactions. The information stored in the automatic system is the same in a manual system. However, the processing of reservation request does not require manual study of Bed room Journal, Conventional Chart / advance letting chart, Standard density charts. The reservation assistant can check the availability of rooms by clicking on a link on the computer. In this system, the reservation information is keyed into the electronic format of the reservation form, and this information is transferred to the central server where the room status is updated automatically. The automated system saves the trouble of manually updating the records. It also generates electronic confirmation letter that sent to the guests. The system is also equipped to automatically generate reports like occupancy records or forecasts and lists like expected arrival lists, expected departure lists etc. Central Reservation system (CRS) and Global Distribution System (GDS) are examples of automated systems.

POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED WHILE ACCEPTING A RESERVATION

1. Write names clearly. Surname in block letters. A slight difference in the spelling may delay a receptionist in locating the reservation of a guest on arrival. Ask for the first name or the initials of the guest name. Always get the last name and the first name correctly with spelling.

2. Ask for the exact date and time of arrival and departure.

3. Avoid taking a reservation for an indefinite date. This will create additional correspondence with the guest. If it is impossible to give the exact date, inform the guest to write or to telephone the hotel as far in advance as is possible but do not confirm the booking.

4. For the time of arrival apply the European system of 24 hr.

5. Clarify the type of plan to the guest.

6. If the arrival time is given after midnight, make sure the reservation is recorded for the next day. e.g. Arrival Saturday night, 30 min. after midnight, Sept. 15 - Check-in time is 0030 hr. Sunday Sept. 16.

7. Always specify the type of rooms and the no. of rooms required. e.g. request for accommodation for Mr./s Sigh and a party of 5 pax does not reveal whether the party is one family, single people or couples. Therefore the hotel is not in a position to offer the type of rooms that are best suited.

8. Guests who want rooms before 0600 hr. are usually charged for the previous night also as the hotel has to hold the room for the guest from the previous night itself. Explain this carefully to the guest.

9. Explain to the guest that the rooms may not be available at the early morning hours since the check-out hour is generally noon or later in most of the hotels. The only way a guest can be guaranteed a room for very early occupancy is to have it reserved from the night before.

10. When referring to previous correspondence or booking in case of a change or cancellation, inquire from the guest their original date of arrival as all records are filled under original date of arrival.

11. In case of the reservation for the honeymooners always check that the reservation is made in the bridegroom’s name and not in the maiden name of the bride.

RESERVATIONS PROCESS

The standard procedure of responding to a guests request is

· Receiving Reservation Inquiries

· Determining room availability

· Accepting or denying request for reservation

AMMENDMENTS AND CANCELLATIONS

1. Occasional Reservation Change or Cancellation:

Potential guests initially asking for an accommodation might make up their minds later (before arrival) and call back for a reservation modification. In fact, guests might change their arrival date, expected departure date, method of payment or call for any other item change previously confirmed in their confirmation letter or simply call to cancel their previous reservation. In such a case, if possible reservation clerks shall proceed as to satisfy guest needs. Below, are two possible examples of guest modification. The first one concerns modifying a reservation type from non-guaranteed to guaranteed. This might be because the guest's airplane schedule has changed in a way that the guest is no more certain to reach the hotel by the cancellation hour. On the other hand, the second example depicts a situation where the guest calls to cancel a reservation (both guaranteed and non-guaranteed cancellations will be discussed).

2. Modify a reservation type (from non-guaranteed to guaranteed):

In this very case, the reservation clerk shall:

a) Obtain the guest’s name, and access the correct non-guaranteed reservation

b) Obtain the guest’s credit card type, number and expiration date, and the cardholder’s name, and verify the validity of the credit card (Here assuming that the guest would like to guarantee via a credit card)

c) Assign the guest a new reservation confirmation number, if it is the hotel’s policy

d) Complete the reservation type change from non-guaranteed to guaranteed reservation status according to additional property’s procedures, if any

3. Reservation Cancellation:

· Reservation clerks accepting a reservation cancellation shall behave in a polite, courteous and effective manner even though that reservation might make the hotel faced with unsold room(s). The main reason is that guests are doing the hotel a favour, especially under the non-guaranteed type of reservation, to communicate the hotel their cancellation to let you adjust your room availability, and try to find alternative potential guests beforehand.

· When cancelling a reservation, the reservation clerk shall issue and communicate a cancellation number to the guest. In accordance to confirmation numbers, cancellation numbers shall be meaningful as to be used for statistical purposes, and as to prove whether a reservation has been properly cancelled according to hotel cancellation policies or not.

I. Cancellation of a non-guaranteed reservation:

In this very case the reservation clerk shall:

a) Obtain guest’s name and address

b) Obtain number of reserved room(s)

c) Obtain scheduled arrival and departure dates

d) Obtain the reservation confirmation number, if applicable

e) Access the right account, and cancel it

f) Assign a cancellation number

g) Suggest an alternative reservation

II. Cancellation of a guaranteed reservation:

All the above mentioned procedure applies also for the cancellation of a guaranteed reservation. Moreover, the reservation clerk shall pay attention to the following:

a) In the case of a cancellation of a credit card guaranteed reservation, the cancellation number acts as a proof of whether a certain guarantee shall be refunded to the potential guest or not.

b) In the case of advance deposit guaranteed reservation, again the cancellation number acts as a proof of whether a certain guarantee shall be refunded to the potential guest or not.

c) In the case of any other guaranteed reservation, the reservation clerk shall obtain the representative’s coordinates and mail him/her a letter documenting the cancellation

4. Reservation Reports:

In the reservation department, the widely used management reservation reports include:

a) Reservation transaction report

b) Commission agent report

c) Turn away (Guests who cannot be accommodated in the hotel for certain reasons or sometimes when a guest himself or herself refuses to go ahead with the reservation due to certain reasons) report (sometimes called the refusal report)

d) Revenue forecast report.

5. Expected Arrival, Stayover, and Departure Lists:

On a daily basis, the reservation department shall prepare the expected arrival, Stayover, and departures lists and communicate them to the front office department.

a) Arrival list: List of the names, and surnames along with respective room number of the guests who are expected to arrive the next day.

b) Stayover list: List of the names, and surnames along with respective room number of the guests who are expected to continue occupy their rooms the next day.

c) Departure list: List of the names, and surnames along with respective room number of the guests who are expected to depart the next day.

6. Processing Deposits:

Guests who decide to guarantee their reservation by paying a certain deposit to the hotel shall be informed about the procedure of sending deposits (i.e. how, when to send the deposits?). Moreover, only employees who do not have access to reservation records shall process deposits (ex: General Manager Secretary or hotel's general cashier). The reason is if reservation and monetary transaction overlap, then internal control over one of the most important assets of the hotel (i.e. cash) becomes very weak.

When a hotel assigned agent receives deposit, he/she shall:

a) Endorse deposit checks with the hotel stamp as soon as it is received

b) Record in the deposits received log the check number, amount, date received, guest name, arrival date, and confirmation number, if known

c) Only the log shall be sent to the reservation department

7. Maintaining Reservation History Statistics:

The reservation department shall maintain, and update various reservations history statistics to be used in the future whenever needed (ex. to integrate statistics in a model to solve overbooking, to come up with operational ratios, to help for Rooms Division budget preparation…). The following items are some of the data that might be stored in the reservation department system:

a. Number and distribution of guests by market segment, age, income, and nationality…

b. Number of expected occupied rooms

c. Reservation volumes by sources of reservation

d. Reservation volumes by types of reservation

e. Number of turnaway guests with reasons of refusal

8. Potential Reservation Problems:

While processing reservations, reservation clerks might be faced with lot of problems. Below is a tentative categorization of 4 main common problems that might be encountered:

a) Errors in a reservation record:

A. Record a wrong arrival or departure date

B. Misspell the guest’s name or reverse it

C. Reserve for the caller instead of the guest

b) Misunderstandings due to industry jargon:

A. Confirmed versus guaranteed reservation

B. Double room versus 2 beds

C. Connecting rooms versus adjacent rooms

c) Miscommunications with external reservation systems:

A. Book a guest in the wrong hotel

B. Book a guest in the wrong city

d) Central reservation system failures:

A. Fail to update central reservation system concerning room availability or to communicate rate changes in real time

B. Delays in communicating reservation requests

C. Equipment used may become technologically obsolete or inoperable

RESERVATION TERMINOLOGY

· No show: This term refers to those bookings made by the prospective guests who due to some reason, fail to arrive on the day of arrival and also do not cancel the booking on time. This situation increases the availability of rooms for sale and may cause loss of potential revenue.

It is preferable to keep a record of the ‘no shows’ fort each day. This record is kept in the form of a ‘No Show Register’. This record helps the reservation department to take policy decisions like charging retention charge, calculation of the no show factor for room availability forecast or calculation of overbooking percentage. Billing the guest for retention charge depends on the relationship of the guest with the guest or with the source of booking.

· Time Limit: This term means specifying a particular time by which the prospective guest with reservation must check-in the hotel and after that the room will be released to any other person who may be a walk-in. Time limit is fixed for those reservation where the guest does not pay any advance or does not provide any guarantee. It is also called as the ‘6 p.m. release reservation’. Generally 6 p.m. is fixed as the time limit for hotels with 12 noon as their standard check-in check-out time. This done to avoid total loss of revenue in case the guest does not arrive and becomes a ‘no show’. If the guest arrives at the hotel after the has been released, may be refused the accommodation. This condition must be made very clear to the guest at the time of reservation or in the confirmation letter. The hotel should also make efforts to accommodate the guest, if not in the same hotel, some other hotel of similar standards in near vicinity.

· Over Booking: This term refers to the process of accepting more bookings than the total no. of rooms available. All the prospective guests are sent with confirmation letters. Purpose of over booking is to compensate for :

a. No shows

b. Early departures

c. Cancellations

d. Walk outs.

The objective is to achieve 100% occupancy or at least maximum possible occupancy. The front office department should have the no shows, cancellations and early departure records for taking over bookings. There are various factors which determine the over bookings figure or the over bookings percentage. Some of them are as follows:

i. Business segment: covers the type of clients

ii. Source of booking and it’s past record.

iii. Purpose of visit of the prospective guests.

iv. Type of hotel.

v. Lead time or the time gap between the date of booking and the date of arrival.

vi. Period of business or the season.

vii. Any special festival or event held in the town.

Although no definite figure can be fixed for the over bookings, a rough guideline can be calculated with help of a formula:

Over booking %: Cancellations + no shows + early departures

---------------------------------------------- X100

Total no. of rooms lettable

· Walk In: This very common term. This term refers to those guests of the hotel who arrive without any prior notice or reservation in the hotel. These guests arrive at the hotel hoping that there will be some room available for them. The hotel has to be very careful while dealing with the walk-ins. If the guest is paying by cash, then it is preferable for a hotel to ask for some advance from the guest. The advance should be sufficient enough to cover at least one night stay and some extra expenditure in the hotel. Such guests should be referred to the lobby manager and authorization should be taken from him on the registration cards of such guests. It also important to inform the other revenue centers about these PIA (Paid In Advance) or Cash Only guests. These guests will not be allowed credit for any services or amenities provided to them. The desk agent should try and sell higher priced rooms to such guests (up selling).

· Turn Away: This term refers to those guests who come to the hotel without prior reservation and the hotel does not provide them with accommodation. This can be basically because the hotel is completely booked or because the guest is not in fit condition to be received or he is a black listed guest. In any case the hotels staff will have to be very tactful in refusing accommodation to such person. Generally the safest way is to tell them ‘Sorry, we are fully booked and are in no position to accommodate you’. In case the guests are refused accommodation due to non availability of rooms, the front desk staff should make an effort and help the guest in seeking accommodation at some other similar hotel in the near vicinity.

· Advance Payment: It is the procedure of collecting the cash or the cheque from the guest much before his arrival at the hotel. Advance payment may be asked by the hotel from the prospective guest in case he is a new customer, not known to the hotel management. Advance can also be requested from a walk-in guest or a guest with scanty baggage. This acts as a precaution against the revenue loss in case of no-show or skipper. When the advance payment is taken at the time of reservation, a cash receipt is prepared and the original copy is mailed or faxed to the guest. The advance payment will also be indicated on the reservation form and Whitney slip (in case of Whitney system being followed). When the guest leaves after having stayed at the hotel, this amount is adjusted in his bill. Similar procedure is followed if the advance is taken from a guest at the time of arrival. The receipt of the payment is not mailed to the guest but is handed over to him. In case an advance payment is taken and the guest becomes a no-show, the money can be forfeited. By making an advance payment the guest has an added guarantee that the room for him will be ready at the hotel even if he reaches the hotel late and will not be released and given to any walk-in.

An important point to be considered while taking advance payment against the booking of a room from the prospective guest is to inform them about the refund, cancellation and forfeiting of amount policy of the hotel preferably through the ‘offer letter’.

· Stay Over: This term refers to all the guests staying in the hotel on a particular night and further continuing staying in the hotel for next night. In other words, stay overs are those guests who have been registered in the hotel and are not leaving the next morning at the check-out time but will continue to stay for another one or more nights. This can also be called as House count for a particular night and the guests can be called ‘in-house guests’.

· Over Stay: This is one of the biggest problems a hotel front office management may have to face at times. Over stay term refers over staying of a guest. In other words it refers to those guests who are scheduled to leave or check-out of the hotel on a particular day as specified by them at the time of reservation or registration, but due to some reasons they do leave the hotel on that particular day and insist on staying further for one or more nights. this situation can create a problem while accommodating the guests who are supposed to arrive on that day.

· AMMENDEMENTS: In certain cases the guest may change his original booking programme and inform the same to the hotel with a request to make amendments in hotel record. The change usually is in dates of booking. Sometimes it may be in number/type and rates of rooms also. The reservation section will first confirm from their record whether the request can be accepted or not. In case the hotel decides to accept the request of the guest, necessary amendments in the records shall be made and communicated to all concerned departments. The guest will also be intimated. The process of amendment involves two basic functions

i. Cancellation of previous booking

ii. Making of a new booking.

The hotel on receiving an amendment request shall first cancel the previous booking and then make a new booking as per guest request and the process will involve updating records in Diary/ Whitney slips and rack / computers booking chart or any other record whichever is being used by the hotel for reservations. The complete set of documents is also updated.

· Cancellation of Reservation: The cancellation of a reservation occurs when a guest with a confirmed reservation informs the hotel about her intention to cancel the reservation. As cancellation might lead to the loss of room revenue, hotel discourages cancellation by imposing retention charges. In case a guaranteed reservation, if the cancellation is not made before a stipulated date and time, the hotel may charge retention charges, which may be equal to the rent of one night or more.

Assignments

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Room Status Terminology

1. Occupied

2. Vacant/Clean

3. Occupied/Dirty

4. Complementary

5. Stay over

6. On-change

7. Do Not Disturb

8. Sleep-Out

9. Skipper

10. Sleeper

11. Vacant & Ready

12. Vacant/Dirty

13. Occupied/Clean

14. Out-of-Order

15. Lock-Out

16. DNCO (did not check out)

17. Due-Out

18. Check-out

19. Late Check-out

Room Type Terminology:

1. Single

2. Triple

3. Queen

4. Twin

5. Studio

6. Mini Suite

7. Executive Room/Suite

8. Connecting Room

9. Adjacent Room

10. Double

11. Quad

12. King

13. Double-double

14. Suite

15. Junior Suite

16. Family Suite

17. Adjoining Room

18. Cabana

1. Occupied: A guest is currently registered to the room.

2. Complimentary: The room is occupied, but the guest is assessed no charge for its use.

3. Stay Over: The guest is not expected to check out today and will remain at least one more night.

4. On-change: The guest has departed, but the room has not yet been cleaned and readied for re-sale.

5. Do Not Disturb: The guest has requested not to be disturbed.

6. Sleep-out: A guest is registered to the room, but the bed has not been used.

7. Skipper: The guest has left the hotel without making arrangements to settle his or her account.

8. Sleeper: The guest has settled his or her account and left the hotel, but the front office staff has failed to properly update the room’s status.

9. Vacant and ready: The room has been cleaned and inspected and is ready for an arriving guest.

10. Out-of-order: The room cannot be assigned to a guest. A room may be out-of-order for a variety of reasons including the need for maintenance, refurbishing, and extensive cleaning.

11. Double Lock: The guest room door is locked from inside and outside two times so that no one can enter.

12. Lockout: The room has been locked so that the guest cannot re-enter until a hotel official clears him or her.

13. DNCO (Did Not Check Out): The guest made arrangements to settle his or her account (and thus is not a skipper), but has left without informing the front office.

14. Due out: The room is expected to become vacant after the following day’s checkout time.

15. Do Not Paid: The guest is going to check out from the hotel today.

16. Checkout: The guest has settled his or her account, returned the room keys, and left the hotel.

17. Late Check-out: The guest has requested and is being allowed to check out later than the hotel’s standard check-out time.

1. Single: A room assigned to one person. May have one or more beds.

2. Double: A room assigned to two people. May have one or more beds.

3. Triple: A room assigned to three people. May have two or more beds.

4. Quad: A room assigned to four people. May have two or more beds.

5. Queen: A room with a queen-size bed. May be occupied by one or more people.

6. King: A room with a king-size bed. May be occupied by one or more people.

7. Twin: A room with two twin beds. May be occupied by one or more people.

8. Double-double: A room with two double (or perhaps queen) beds. May be occupied by one or more persons.

9. Studio: A room with a studio bed-a couch, which can be converted into a bed. May also have an additional bed.

10. Mini-suite or junior suite: A single room with a bed and a sitting area. Sometimes the sleeping area is in a bedroom separate from the parlour or living room.

11. Suite: A parlour or living room connected to one or more beds.

12. Connecting rooms: Rooms with individual entrance doors from the outside and a connecting door between. Guests can move between rooms without going through the hallway.

13. Adjoining rooms: Rooms with a common wall but no connecting door.

14. Adjacent rooms: Rooms close to each other, perhaps across the hall.

Guest Cycle

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Guest Cycle

The main function of the front office department is to support and facilitate guest transaction and services. therefore the operation of the front office department is largely determine by the type and number and guest transaction which take place during the different stages of guest's stay.

The guests of a hotel generally have four main stages as far as their interaction with the hotel is concerned. These stages can be easily identified as –

· Pre Arrival

· Arrival

· During the Stay

· Departure & After Departure.

These four constitute the guest cycle. In each phase of cycle there are certain standard transactions which occur between the guest and the hotel.

PRE -ARRIVAL

The interaction at the time of making a reservation before the guest actually arrives at the hotel is termed as the pre- arrival stage. Reservation is the most important activity at this stage. During this stage the guest first makes a choice about a hotel to stay in. This choice for a particular accommodation is affected by factors like advertising, location, quality of service, price, reputation of the hotel, location and so on. Once the guest makes a final decision about the hotel to stay in, the guest will contact the selected hotel either individually or through any other designated person or party such as a travel agent or a company. Through telephone, a letter, fax, email or in person in the form of a reservation request, this is handled by a reservation staff.

A number of questions may be asked from the guest in order to gain more information about the guest. Before confirming a reservation request, the hotel may ask for a kind of prepayment or credit card guarantee or an advance deposit from the guest. The reservation staff may also inform the guest about the retention charges as this ensures minimum loss to the hotel in case of any last moment cancellations or no shows. Once the deposit is paid the room is reserved or ‘blocked’ for the guest for the requested stay dates. The hotel also makes note of any other special arrangement to be made such as a wheelchair, a crib, an extra bed, railway or airport transfers and so on.

The data collected during the process of reservation can be utilized by front office for future sales and up selling. A well-managed reservation system is instrumental in maximizing room revenue by constantly monitoring the room status and forecasting the room revenue.

ARRIVAL

This is the time when the guests have their face to face interaction with the hotel staff. This is the time when the front office will greet the guest and will begin the registration process. This is a very critical stage as the guest will form an opinion about their future stay and about the standards of services provided in the hotel. The guests are presented with a registration card and are requested to verify the information by signing on the registration card also known as the Reg card or GRC. The details are generated from the information derived at the prearrival stage. This registration card or reg card or GRC is an agreement between the hotel and the guest, whereby the hotel agrees to offer the accommodation product and services to guest and the guest agrees to pay for this product and services in return. Some hotels may also pre- register their guests i.e. register the guests prior to arrival such as in the case of VIP’s, airline crews, and frequent guests. Once the guest is registered they are assigned a room at an already negotiated room rate. The guest is then shown to their room and the luggage is brought by the bell desk after the different items have been tagged with a luggage tag. In case any mail or message has arrived at the front desk prior to the guest’s arrival the same are delivered to them.

The front desk maintains a record of expected arrivals and expected departures every day- through reports that are printed during the night audit. This is essential to provide flawless services to the guests and avoiding embarrassing situations such as – missing the guests’ airport pick up, not having a room available when the guest arrives and so on.

DURING THE STAY

During this stage the guest gets the first-hand experience of the hotels services and facilities. These services form an important part of the guests’ overall experience. A positive experience will make your guest feel special. This is exactly what your guest is paying for! An excellent and flawless level of service would lead to a delighted guest, which would make them come back to the hotel again and perhaps give a positive feedback to the other potential guests’ as well. In order to provide this level of service, front office must co-ordinate with the other departments of the hotel well. During this stage the guest will interact with front office a lot related to their own common or individual queries, which should be handled effectively and efficiently by the front office.

The functions of the front office during the stay of the guest include:

1.	Handling guest accounts (FOLIOS)	Creation and maintenance of guest accounts by front office cashier and a daily audit of the accounts by the night auditor.
2.	Message Handling	Receiving messages for the guests with complete details and ensuring their delivery on the guests’ arrival or when the guests’ are available.
3.	Key Handling	Accepting keys from the guests’ when they move out of the hotel. This may be regulated with the help of key cards. Some hotels may also issue computerized keys to the guest.
4.	Guest Mail Delivery	If a mail is received for a guest who is not in their room the mail is received and kept in the room key rack. If he mail is for a guest who is in their room then the Bell Boy delivers the mail to the guest. If a mail is received for a guest with a future reservation then it sent to the reservation section with a prefilled guest registration card attached.
5.	Guest Paging	This is generally used to locate a guest in a specific area of the hotel when the guest is not in their room.
6.	Safety deposit Locker	Located in the back area of the front office, these are provided to the guests to store their valuables. Most of the hotels these days have in room safety lockers.
7.	Guest Room change	Changing the room of the guest due to guest preferences that could not be fulfilled at the time of check in. Sometimes due to reasons such as a room being noisy or not upto the guests’ expectations. In such a case the guest may have to be upgraded to a higher category room without an additional charge.
8.	Handling guest queries and complaints	Responding to the guest queries and communicating the guest complaints to all relevant departments.
9.	Information about the hotel	Providing a complete range of information about the products and services of the hotel.
10.	Information about the city	Providing a complete range of information to the guests about the city.
11.	Travel Arrangements	Making travel arrangements for the guests whenever requested by the guest and whenever required.

DEPARTURE AND POST DEPARTURE

Check out is the time and an opportunity for front office to cover up for any unpleasant situation that might have occurred during the guest stay by ensuring a smooth, hassle free departure. During this stage the guests, settle their accounts through a pre-established method of settlement. This method of settlement may have been established at the time of reservation and confirmed at the time of registration. The various methods of settlement by the may be by- cash, credit card, debit card, travel agent voucher also known as third party settlement and bill to company also known as BTC, for the services rendered to them by the hotel.

The front office needs to take great care to present all unpaid bills carefully and carry out the entire procedure carefully.

	Preparation and presentation of guest bills	The front office cashier prepares the guest bill on the basis of the transactions between he guest and F.O cashier. This bill or the guest folio is presented to the guest at the time of departure.
	Settlement of the guest account	Settlement of the account requires to ‘ZERO OUT, the balance on the guest folio. This may either be settled in credit or in debit. If the balance is in debit then the guest is required to pay the desired amount and if the balance is in credit the amount of money is returned back to the guest.
	Luggage Handling	At the time of departure the luggage is handled by the bell desk. In case the wishes to keep their luggage at the hotel for a short time after their check out, front office can assist them by tagging the luggage items and storing the same in the left luggage room. The guest copy of the luggage tag is given to the guest to claim the luggage afterwards.
	Sales and Marketing	Front Office may assist the guest by giving them the promotional material of any upcoming offers for making future bookings in the same hotel or any other hotel of the same chain.
	Farewell	A warm farewell is important to be given to the guest. It is also important to keep in touch with the guest after departure, by sending them promotional material, gift vouchers, upcoming special offers or discounts.

Role of the Front Office in Interdepartmental Communications

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Role of the Front Office in Interdepartmental Communications

The front office plays a major role in delivering hospitality to guests. It sets the stage for a pleasant or an unpleasant visit. The front office communicate guest’s requirement to other departments, which work in close coordination and cooperation to deliver required product and services. In order to maintain the desired level of service, the front office department communicate with the following department of the hotel:

1. Marketing and Sales Department

The Front office department coordinates with the Marketing and Sales Department for the following information:

· Guest Histories

· Room Reservation Record

· Current Room Availability status

· Group, Corporate and crew booking

· Setting the Transient and bulk room sales

Ø The front office must take every effort to keep the information on room availability status and guest histories current and accurate.

Ø The sales and marketing executive needs info on room availability to know what rooms to sell in future to design marketing strategies for off season.

Ø Sales and marketing needs info on guest types/ origins to develop marketing strategy and target key guest segments

Ø Sales needs FO support in selling rooms, facilities and services

Ø FO needs info on special promotions (e.g. special rates and inclusions); campaigns (to anticipate increased demand); etc

2. Housekeeping Department

Housekeeping and the front office communicate about housekeeping room status, the report on the availability of the rooms for immediate guest occupancy. Housekeeping room status can be described in the following communication terms:

· Available Clean, or Ready: room is ready to be occupied

· Occupied: guest or guests are already occupying a room

· Stay over: guest will not be checking out of a room on the current day

· Dirty or On-Change: guest has checked out of the room, but the housekeeping staff has not released the room for occupancy

· Out-of-Order: room is not available for occupancy because of a mechanical malfunction

Housekeeping and the front office also communicate on the details of potential house count (a report of the number of guests registered in the hotel), security concerns, and requests for amenities (personal toiletry items such as shampoo, toothpaste, and mouthwash; electrical equipment). These issues are of immediate concern to the guest as well as to supervisors in the hotel.

3. Food and Beverage Department

The Front Office department coordinates with the food and beverage department for the following information:

· Arrival and departure of guests

· Setting up bar in VIP rooms

· Special arrangement like cookies, fruit basket, and assorted dry fruits

· In house and expected VIP’s and corporate guest

· In house and expected groups

· In house and expected crews

· The scanty baggage in house guests, all points of sale are notified to receive all payment in cash from these guests.

· Groups and guests with booking of specific meal plan

4. Maintenance or Engineering Department

· The maintenance or engineering department and front office communicate on room status and requests for maintenance service.

· Front office informs the maintenance department of any work required in guest room.

· Maintenance employees must know the occupancy status of a room before attending to plumbing, heating, or air-conditioning problems. If the room is reserved, the two departments work out a time frame so the guest can enter the room on arrival or be assigned to another room.

5. Security Department

· Communications between the security department and the front office are important in providing hospitality to the guest.

· These departments work together closely in maintaining guest security. Fire safety measures and emergency communication systems as well as procedures for routine investigation of guest security concerns require the cooperation of these departments.

6. Banquet Department

· The banquet department, which often combines the functions of marketing and sales department and a food and beverage department, requires the front office to relay information to guests about scheduled events and bill payment.

· The front desk staff may also provide labour to prepare the daily announcement board, an inside listing of the daily activities of the hotel (time, group, and room assignment), and marquee, the curb side message board, which includes the logo of the hotel and space for a message.

· The majority of banquet guests may not be registered guests in the hotel, the front office is a logical communications center.

· The person responsible for paying the bills for a special event will also find his or her way to the front office to settle the city ledger accounts. If the banquet captain is not available to personally present the bill for the function, the front desk clerk should be informed about the specifics of food and beverage charges, gratuities, rental charges, method of payment, and the like.

7. Controller

· The Front desk provides a daily summary of the financial transaction after night auditing to the finance controller.

· The information by the front desk helps the finance controller to make budgets and to allocate resources for the current financial period.

· Front desk provides the controller the financial data for bilind and maintenance the credit card ledger.

8. Human Resources Management Department

· The human resources management department may rely on the front office staff to act as an initial point of contact for potential employees in all departments. It may even ask the front office to screen job candidates. If so, guidelines for and training in screening methods must be provided.

· Some directors of human resources management depend on the front office to distribute application forms and other personnel-related information to job applicants. The potential employee may ask for directions to the personnel office at the front desk.

· The human resources management department may also develop guidelines for the front desk clerk to use in initially screening candidates. These guidelines may include concerns about personal hygiene, completion of an application, education requirements, experience, and citizenship status. This information helps the executives in the human resources management department interview potential job candidates.

French Assignment

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English	French
Add the sugar.
Appetizer.
Apples.
Bakery Chef
Banana
Beetroot
Boiling
Bread
Breakfast
Brinjals
Brown sauce
Brown stock
Butter
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Cheese
Chicken
Coffee with milk
Conical trainer
Dinner
Egg
Fillet of beef
Fish
Goose liver
Heart, liver and gizzard of poultry
Hot
Kidney
Larder chef.
Leg of mutton
Lunch
Match stick strips of carrot.
Milk.
Mushroom.
Offal’s
Omelet
Oven
Oysters
Potato
Roast chicken
Scrambled egg
Smoking
Spinach
Stuffed roll fillet of fish.
Stuffing
Sugar
Tomato
Vegetables
With pepper

Name of the Student ______________________

Group ________________

Date _____/_____/_____

Kitchen Equipments

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Clich Here

Herbs

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Basil

(Available all year round with the most plentiful supply from

November to April). Many varieties of basil with differing leaves and intensity of flavour are available.

Basil has a sweet strong spicy flavour which will improve almost all salads and savoury dishes. It goes particularly well with tomatoes and is the key ingredient of pesto. Basil is best used either raw or added at the end of cooking. Basil has anti-cancer

properties.

Bay

(Available all year round). Bay leaves are used to

flavour stocks, stews, marinades, and soups; they

are generally added at the beginning of cooking

and removed before eating. Bay leaves have

shown high to very high antioxidant activity.

Chervil

(Available all year round with the most plentiful

supply from April to October). Chervil is a mild

herb and a generous quantity of chopped leaves

is best added fresh just before serving as the light

flavour is quickly lost. It can be put in all sorts of

salads, or sprinkled over lightly cooked vegetables

or soups. Chervil contains a variety of flavonoids

and has antioxidant activity.

Chives

(Available all year round with the most plentiful supply from

September to May). Chives are a member of the onion family and have a mild onion flavour. They are a really versatile herb with lots of uses. Chives should be added to a dish just before serving because too much heat can destroy the flavour.

All parts of the chive plant have different antioxidant activities, although the leaves contain the highest amounts of active compounds. These include flavonoids, vitamin C, carotenoids

and antioxidant enzymes.

Coriander (cilantro)

(Available all year round). Fresh coriander has a distinctive

strong aromatic and spicy flavour. Coriander leaves, stems, roots and seeds are used. It is used a lot in Chinese, Thai and Indian recipes. The leaves of fresh coriander are also known as cilantro, though the dried (and ground) seeds are referred to solely as coriander.

Coriander seed has been reported to have a number of

possible health attributes, particularly relating to the gastro- intestinal tract, but also as a possible diabetic remedy. Most research relating to the leaf relates to antioxidant activity. However, its antioxidant activity is much lower than for many other herbs.

Dill

(Available all year round with the most plentiful supply

between October and April). Dill leaves and seeds have a mild aniseed flavour which is similar though slightly sweeter and more aromatic than fennel. Like chervil and parsley, dill belongs to the Apiaceae family. It has high antioxidant activity

and contains extremely high levels of the flavonoids quercetin,kaempferol and isorhamnetin.

Fennel

(Available between October and April). It looks a bit like dil but tastes like aniseed. The seeds are used too, and have a stronger flavour.

Fennel extracts contain relatively low levels of phenolic compounds and show only a low level of antioxidant activity.

Horseradish

(Horseradish roots are available all year round and the leaves are available from October to May). Horseradish is a hot tasting root which is scrubbed, peeled, grated. Small amounts of grated horseradish may be added to salads or steamed vegetables as a flavouring. Horseradish belongs to the Brassicaceae family, whose members share the mustardy taste and smell. Equally they contain glucosinolates. When grated the glucosinolates in the root (mainly sinigrin and gluconasturtiin) are hydrolysed. These hydrolysed compounds give horseradish its

characteristic pungent mustardy aroma and taste.

Lemon grass

(Available all year round). A common ingredient in South

East Asian cookery, both the bulbous base and the long lemon flavoured leaves are used. The base should be peeled and chopped finely before use. It freezes well. Lemon grass oil has high antioxidant activity and lemon grass extracts, including citral, have been shown to have

anti-cancer properties.

Oregano/ Marjoram

(Available all year round with the most plentiful supply from October to April). There are many varieties of oregano which have been developed from a parent plant, oregano or wild marjoram. While we use the names oregano, marjoram or sweet marjoram interchangeably in New Zealand these are each different varieties which have a distinct taste. Oregano is much more widely available. Oregano is one of the most studied herbs. It has very high levels of phenolics and antioxidant activity.

Parsley

(Available all year round). Parsley is probably the most

commonly used herb in New Zealand and it is extremely

versatile. If adding to a cooked dish, it is better to add

parsley at the end of cooking because flavour is lost with

prolonged heating.

Parsley contains moderate levels of phenolics and antioxidant activity. Along with other members of the Apiaceae family, parsley also contains polyacetylenes, which are toxic to fungi, bacteria and some cancer cells, as well as having anti- inflammatory and anti-platelet aggregating activity.

Mint

(Available all year round). Mint, one of the most popular herbs

in New Zealand, is exceptionally good in flavouring salads,

dressings, sauces and soups. There are many varieties of mint

available, including apple mint, pineapple mint, peppermint and spearmint. Mint has been used as a folk remedy particularly for nausea, indigestion, flatulence and even hiccups. It also used to be used to whiten teeth.

Vietnamese mint (Vietnamese coriander)

(Available all year round with the most plentiful supply

between October and April). This plant belongs to neither the mint nor coriander families, but is instead a member of the same family as buckwheat and rhubarb. It has pointed leaves which are darker than standard mint. Vietnamese mint has a strong flavour, and as the name suggests, is used a lot in Asian cooking.

Rosemary

(Available all year round). Rosemary is a fresh strong-flavoured herb. While large amounts are often used when roasting meat or vegetables, it can be used more sparingly on chicken and fish. “Rosemary for remembrance” is a well known epithet, perhaps originating from its folkloric reputation for strengthening the memory and general “weaknesses of the brain”.

Rosemary and its compounds have been shown to have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity and to have anti- cancer and anti-thrombotic potential.

Sage

(Available al year round with the most plentiful supply from

October to April). Sage is another member of the Lamiaceae or mint family. It is a strong flavoured herb which is general y used in smal quantities. Sage is quite a versatile herb which lends itself

wel to a range of dishes. Sage has been found to significantly improve cognitive functions in patients with Alzheimer’s. The botanical name of this genus, Salvia, is derived from the Latin ‘salvere’, to be saved, attesting to its curative powers.

Tarragon

(Most readily available between November and April). French tarragon is the best flavoured variety and has a fresh aniseed flavour. Russian tarragon, although similar, has almost no flavour. Raw or cooked tarragon goes wel with most vegetable dishes,

especial y those with a delicate flavour.

Thyme

(Available al year round with the most plentiful supply from May to September). There are many varieties of thyme and each has a slightly different flavour. Lemon and standard thyme are available commercial y and may be used raw or cooked. Thyme

can be added to soups, casseroles, stuffing, chicken, meat, steamed vegetables, salads and dressings, or sprinkled on breads and pizzas.

New Zealand grown thyme has similar levels of antioxidant activity and phenolic compounds to that of New Zealand grown mint, rosemary and bay leaf, although much lower than those of oregano.

Kitchen Ingredients

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English	Hindi
Almond Aniseed	Badam Saunf
Basil Bay leaves Bengal Gram (Dal) Bengal Gram (Whole) Bottle Gourd Buckwheat flour	Tulsi Tej Patta Chana Dal Chana Louki Kottu Ka Atta
Cabbage Carom seeds Cardamom Carrot Cashew nut Cauliflower Chick Peas Chili Cinnamon Cloves Coriander Corn Cucumber Cumin	Gobhi Ajwain Elaichi Gaajar Kaju Phool Gobhi Kabuli Chana Mirchi Dalchini Laung Dhania Bhutta/ Makai Kakdi/ Kheera Jeera
Dates Double Beans	Khajoor Guvar Fali
Fenugreek Field Bean (Dry) Figs	Methi Vaal Anjeer
Garlic Ginger Gram Dal Green Gram (Dal) Green Gram (Whole) Gram flour Grapes	Lahsun Adrak Chana Dal Moong Dal Moong (gota) Besan Angoor
Horse Gram (Whole)	Udad
Ivy Gourd	Tindora / Tundli
Jaggery	Gud
Kidney Beans	Rajmah
Lentils	Masoor
Mace Mango Ginger Mangosteen Mango Powder Melon Mint Moth Beans Mustard	Javitri Aam Adrak Cocum Amchur Tarbuj Pudina Math Rai / Sarson
Nutmeg	Jaiphal
Okra/ Ladies finger Onion Orange	Bhindi Pyaj / Dungri Naurangi/ Santra
Peas Pepper Pomegranate Poppy seeds Potato	Matar Kali Mirch Anardana Khus Khus Alu / Batata
Raisins Red Gram (Dal) Red Gram (Tender) Red kidney beans Refined flour Ribbed Gourd Ridge Gourd	Kismis Tuvar Dal Tuvar Rajmah Maida Jhinga Torai / Turiya
Saffron Sago Spinach Split Black Gram Dal Sweet lime Sweet Potato Sword Beans	Kesar Sabudana Palak Udad Dal Mausambi Shakarkand Surati Papri / Vaalor
Teasle Gourd Tender Gourd Turmeric	Kakrol Tinda Haldi
Walnut Whole wheat flour	Akhrot Atta

Introduction to Food Science

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INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE

OBJECTIVES-

1. Understanding the concept of Food Science

2. Understanding the relationship of Food Science to Food Chemistry

3. Understanding the importance of Food Science in Hotel Industry

Click below to continue
Introduction to Food Science

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Presentation on Meal Plans & Type of Menu