Technology Power Plant

The gas turbine | combined-cycle | plants

2012-04-06T20:57:00.000+07:00

The combined-cycle power station uses gas turbines to increase the efficiency
of the power-generation process. Like many other machines that we
assume to be products of the twentieth century, the gas turbine isn't that
new. In fact, Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) sketched a machine for
extracting mechanical energy from a gas stream. However, no practical
implementation of such a machine was considered until the nineteenth
century, when George Brayton proposed a cycle that used a combustion
chamber exhausting to the atmosphere. In 1872 Germany's F. Stolze
patented a machine that anticipated many features of a modern gasturbine
engine, although its performance was limited by the constraints of
the materials available at the time.

Many other developments across Europe culminated in the development
of an efficient gas turbine by Frank Whittle at the British Royal
Aircraft Establishment (RAE) in the early 1930s. Subsequent developments
at RAE led to viable axial-flow compressors, which could attain
higher efficiencies than the centrifugal counterpart developed by Whittle.
All these gas turbines employed the Brayton cycle, whose pressure/
volume characteristic is shown in Figure 1.5. Starting at point A in this
cycle air is compressed isentropically (A-B) before being fed into a combustion
chamber, where fuel is added and burned (B-C). The energy of the
expanding air is then converted to mechanical work in a turbine (C-D).
From C to D heat is rejected, and in a simple gas-turbine cycle this heat is
lost to the atmosphere.
The rotation of the gas turbine can be used to drive a generator (via
suitable reduction gearing) but, when used in a simple cycle with no heat
recovery, the thermal efficiency of the gas turbine is poor, because of the
heat lost to the atmosphere. The gases exhausted from the turbine are not
only plentiful and hot (400-550°C), but they also contain substantial
amounts of oxygen (in combustion terms, the excess air level for the gas
turbine is 200-300%). These factors point to the possibility of using the
hot, oxygen-rich air in a steam-generating plant, whose steam output
drives a turbine.

The use of such otherwise wasted heat in a heat-recovery steam
generator (HRSG) is the basis of the 'combined-cycle gas-turbine'
(CCGT) plant which has been a major development of the past few
decades. With the heat used to generate steam in this way, the whole plant
becomes a binary unit employing the features of both the Rankine and the
Brayton cycles to achieve efficiencies that are simply not possible with
either cycle on its own. In fact, the addition of the HRSG yields a thermal
efficiency that may be 50% higher than that of the gas turbine operating
in simple-cycle mode.
Once again, there is nothing really new about this concept• From the
moment when the gas turbine became a practical reality it was very
obvious that the hot compressed air it exhausted contained huge amounts
of heat. Therefore, the combined cycle was considered in some depth
almost as soon as the gas turbine was released from the constraints of
military applications. However, because of their use of gases at extremely
high temperatures, early machines suffered from limited blade life and
they were therefore used only in applications where no other source of
power was readily available. With improvements in materials technology
this difficulty has been overcome and, nowadays, combined-cycle plants employing gas turbines form the mainstream of modern power-station development.
But whether it is in a combined-cycle plant or a simple-cycle power
station, our interest in this chapter is in steam and its use, and this vapour
will now be examined in more detail. We shall see that what seems a fairly
simple and commonplace thing is, in fact, quite complex.
In spite of its complexities it is important to tackle this subject in some
depth, because the power-plant control and instrumentation engineer will
need to deal with the physical parameters of steam through the various
stages of designing or using a practical system.

Model 9224 | coal Feeder | CONSTRUCTION

2012-03-22T21:19:00.000+07:00

The feeder is comprised of feeder frame, feeder belt assembly, cleanout conveyor, weighing system, coal
plug-gage and coal void signaling devices. lubrication piping and electric wiring, microprocessor control cabinet.
• The feeder frame is comprised of casing, inlet and discharge end doors, side doors and internal feeder light. The casing is an enclosed weldment that can resist explosive pressure up to 0.34 MPa to meet requirements specified in NFPA Code 85F by National Fire Protection Association of the U.S.A. Guide plate and skirt are provided in the inlet to form fixed section of coal flow on the belt after coal is dropped into the feeder. All parts contacting coal are made of OCr18Ni9Ti stainless steel. Inlet and discharge end doors are firmly bolted to the casing to ensure perfect seal. All doors are optional to open leftward or rightward. sight glasses are provided on all doors and nozzles are equipped interior of sight glasses to clear off accumulated coal dust by pressurized air or water. Internal feeder light of sealed construction enables observation of internal feeder operation.

• The feeder belt assembly is comprised of motor, reducer, drive pulley, take-up pulley, tension roll, belt supporting plate and the belt. The belt is rimmed and provided with a v-guide at the inner belt center to engage with grooves on rollers to keep good belt tracking. At the end of drive pulley scraper is equipped to clear off coal adhered on the outer surface of belt. The tension roll is located at the midpoint of bell travel, it keeps the belt under a fixed tension to obtain optimum weighing effect. The belt tension varies with different temperature and with temperature variation. Intensive observations should be frequently done and make tension adjustment by means of the take-up screws. Scaled indicator is equipped interior of side door to the feeder, the tension roll should be regulated to locate its center at the midpoint of the indicator. Totally enclosed, variable frequency motor is used to drive the belt. Which is comprised of a 3-phase ac motor, a tacho-generator. A variable frequency driver and variable frequency motor provide an ac stepless speed regulation .It can provide a smooth and stepless speed regulation within a rather broad range. The feeder belt reducer is a two-stage reducer, comprised of cylindrical gears and worm wheel. The worm wheel is oil bath lubricated while a cycloidal pump in the reducer pumps oil via a hole in the worm shaft to 3 lubricate the gears. The drive pulley is driven through a pin type coupling which is mounted on the worm wheel shaft.
• The coal void signaling device is located above the belt. When there is no coal on the belt, the paddle of signaling device deflects and causes cam on the axle of device to turn and actuate the limit switch, either to control the belt drive motor, or to initiate the coal bunker vibrator, or to output a signal back to control room to signify no coal on the belt. The customer may determine, according to operating system requirements, which of these functions shall be performed. The coal void signal can also deactivate integrated weight and can prevent feeder calibration with coal on the belt. The coal plug-gage signaling device locates at the feeder discharge and is of identical construction to the coal void signaling device. The limit switch outputs signal signifying coal flow plug-gage at discharge and stops the feeder operation.
• The weighing system is located between feeder inlet and drive pulley. All of the three roller surfaces are finely finished, of which two rollers are fixed on the feeder casing to form a weigh span and the third roller hangs on a pair of load cells. Coal weight on the belt acts on load cells to output a signal. Output signal from the calibrated load cells signifies unit length coal weight and frequency signal from the tacho-generator signifies belt speed. The microprocessor controls integrates both signals to obtain the feedrate. Test weights are located below the load cells and the weigh roller. During feeder operation, test weights are supported by the weigh arm and the eccentric disc to part from the weigh roller. On calibration, turn the ratchet handle so that the eccentric disc is turned to make test weights hang on the load cells to check if the weight signal is correct.
• Cleanout conveyor is used to clean off coal accumulated on inner floor of the feeder. During feeder operation, coal adhered on the belt is cleaned off by a scraper and dirt accumulated on inner belt is dropped off from both ends of the self-cleansing type tension roll. As seat air also generates dirt, dirt will deposit on the inner floor to cause self-ignition if it is not timely cleaned off. Cleanout chain is driven by a motor via a reducer, wing type chain scrapes off the dirt to the feeder discharge. It is recommended that the cleanout conveyor is synchronously operated with the feed bell operation so that coal accumulation interior of the feeder is minimized. Furthermore, continue clean off is also of advantage both to reduce feedrate error and to prevent chain pin from adhesion and rustiness. The cleanout conveyor reducer is comprised of cylindrical gears and worm wheel. Electric overload protection is provided for the cleanout conveyor drive motor, when overload the cleanout conveyor motor’s power is automatically turn off by electronic overload relay to stop reducer.
• Seal air inlet is located below the feeder inlet with a flange-type connection for the customer to supply seal air into the feeder. Under pressure operation status, the feeder needs sear air to prevent pulverizer heat air from reversing into the feeder through the inlet. The seal air pressure is 60～245 Pa higher than the pulverizer inlet pressure. The required seal air delivery is the sum of air leakage from hopper of downspout and the amount required to form a pressure difference between inlets of the feeder and of the pulverizer. The feeder itself is construed as of reliable sealed with no leak. A threaded hole is provided near the feeder inlet for adapting a pressure gauge to test the feeder internal pressure. The hole must be plugged if a pressure gauge is not equipped. If the seal air pressure is too low, it will cause the pulverizer heat air reverse back to the feeder so that coal dusts will stagnate at the door frames and at protrusion parts to induce self-ignition. If either the seal air pressure or its flow rate is too high, it will blow coal particles off the belt to degrade weighing accuracy and to increase the load on clean out scrapers. 4 Furthermore, if the seal air flow rate is too large, dustiness is prone to be formed interior of the sight glass to hamper observation. Therefore, suitable seal air pressure has to be adjusted.
• Except that the reducer is oil bath lubricated, grease lubrication is used for all other parts. All lubricating points within the feeder are connected with hoses that extend outside the feeder so that, lubrication can be performed without opening doors to the feeder. Flexible tubes are used for electric wiring, cables are led into the feeder through the tubes so that casing seal is kept.
• Control cabinet is installed on the body of the feeder. Power supply switch is located in cabinet. It can turn on or turn off the power.
• Microprocessor control board, power supply board signal converting board, variable frequency driver disconnect switch, transformers, fuses and relays are installed within the microprocessor control cabinet which is mounted on the feeder casing. On the panel of cabinet microprocessor display keyboard and switches SSC and FLS are equipped. For their functions.

Displacement | Gear | Pumps | Series D/H/HD

2012-03-16T20:11:00.000+07:00

Performance Data
Series D Fixed Displacement, Pressure-Loaded Gear Pump
Features
• Pressure-loaded design
• Efficient, simple design - few moving parts
• Exceptionally compact and lightweight for
their capacity
• Efficient at high pressure operation
• Resistant to cavitation effects
• High tolerance to system contamination
• Reliable under cold weather operation
• Sleeve-bearing construction
• Multi-fluid compatibility
Controls
• Optional built-in relief valve
• Consult factory for special controls
Specifications
Flow Ratings:
.5 GPM (1.9 LPM) to 2.7 GPM (10.2 LPM)
(At 1000 RPM) See next page for additional
flow data.
Pressure Ratings:
D05 thru D22 - 2500 PSI (172 Bar) continuous
D27 - 2000 PSI (138 Bar) continuous
Speed Ratings:
D05 thru D22 - 500 to 4000 RPM
D27 - 3000 RPM
Mounting:
SAE-AA - 2-Bolt Flange
4-Bolt Flange
Housing Material:
Die-Cast Aluminum

Installation Data
Inlet Conditions:
10 in. hg. max. vacuum condition
(At 1800 RPM)
5 in. hg. max. vacuum condition
(At max. RPM)
20 PSI (1.4 Bar) max. positive pressure
Operating Temperature Range:
-40°F to 185°F
(-40°C to 85°C)
Filtration:
Maintain SAE Class 4

A Parker pressure-loaded gear pump consists of two, intermeshing, hardened-steel, precision-ground gear assemblies. These precision gears are enclosed by a high-strength, die-cast aluminum front cover, back cover and a high-yield, strength-extruded aluminum
center section.

Gear assemblies consist of one drive gear, shrinkfitted on a precision-ground and polished drive
shaft. This shaft extends outside the pump to permit coupling to an external prime mover. The second
gear, being the driven gear, is also shrink-fitted on a precision-ground and polished driven shaft. Retaining rings, which are installed in grooves provided on the shaft, ensure that the gears will not move axially, and a key keeps the drive gear from moving radially. A lip-type, shaft seal is provided at the drive shaft to prevent external leakage of pump fluid. The sealing lip in contact with the fluid is spring-loaded. Vent passages within the housings and driven shaft communicate pump inlet pressure to the rotary seal area, thus imposing the lowest possible pressure at the rotary seal for extended seal life.

The phenolic heat shield, backup gasket, and molded rubber seal form chambers behind the steel-backed bronze wearplate. These chambers are connected either to inlet or discharge pressure. Discharge pressure, acting within the chambers, axially loads and deflects the wear plate toward the gear faces to take up gear side clearances. This pressure-loading on the wear plate increases pump efficiency by reducing internal leakage to a minimum, providing longer pump life. Pump rotation is dependent upon the proper orientation of the heat shield, backup gasket, and rubber seal in the front cover housing, the center section and rear cover, respectively. Pumping action is achieved by connecting the pump drive shaft to a prime mover, and rotating the gears away from the inlet port. Rotation causes the gear mesh to increase on the inlet side and decrease on the outlet (pressure) side.

Steam | Turbine | Of Plants

2012-03-14T18:12:00.000+07:00

Type Steam Turbine
- Based on the energy transformation process:
- Turbine impulse
- Turbine reaction
- Under pressure steam turbine
- Back pressure
- Condensing.
- Under the pressure of steam into the turbine
- Super critical pressure (225 bar)
- Very high pressure (170 bar and above)
- High pressure (above 40 bar).
- Pressure medium (s / d 40 bar).
- Low pressure (1.2 - 2bar abs)
- Based on the steam setting in.
- Constant pressure with throttle control.
- Constant pressure with Nozzle control.
- Sliding pressure

a) The speed of the steam out nozzle Ct = 192.6 m / s, then the magnitude of thrust force P1 = m (C1t-C2) = 1/9, 81 (196.2-0) = 20kg.
b) P2 = 1/9, 81 (196.2 +196.2) = 40kg
c) P3 = 1/9, 81 (196.2 + cos300
196.2 cos300) = 34.7 kg.
Relative velocity steam strikes the blade because the blade moves C1t w1 =-U, and if U = 98.1 m / s the thrust
a) P1 '= 1/9, 81 (196.2 to 98.1) = 10kg
b) P2 '= 2/9, 81 (196.2 to 98.1) = 20kg
c) P3 '= 2/9, 81 (196.2 cos300 -
98.1 cos300) = 34.7 kg.

Start-up turbine is divided into 3 types:
Cold start-bin that is if the tour has stopped more than 120 hours. To start this kind requires the longest time: 360 minutes
Warm start when the turbine stopped between 24 -72 hours. Start-up time full load: 160 minutes
Start the heat if turbine stopped less than 6 hours. Start time to 30 minutes at full load
Make sure that the temperature and vapor pressure are in accordance with the type of start before the steam is inserted into the turbine.
Slowly open the throttle valve slowly and manually note langkah2 accretion rate and rotation relative to the current state adjusted in accordance with the user expansionnya
Rapidly through the critical rotation.
Do a test protective device when rotation reaches sinkroon round.
Do a test overspeed if the unit runs out overhaul
Immediately add the flow of steam after sinkroon.
Do a manual trip if the unit runs out overhaul.
Loading the next match with the user.

 internal losses are losses associated with making the steam in the turbine.
• Losses in the valve pe-
ngatur steam turbine entry ΔH
• Losses in the nozzle or
fixed blade hn
• Losses didlm blade path hb
• Losses due to increased steam
hl blade left behind
• Losses due to friction steam
with disc blade holder
• Losses in sealing an-
tar levels of blade (labirint).
• Losses caused by wet steam

 external losses are losses that are not related to the course of the steam in the turbine as mechanical losses and losses in the steam turbine shaft sealing.
Lubrication of turbine generator system it functions:
 Establish intermediate layer (with a certain thickness) so that no direct contact between the shaft and bearings, and dirt do not hurt the oil carried by the bearing surface.
 Throw away the heat arising from friction in the bearings or the other.
Condition so that the lubricant must be guaranteed not to damage the parts in its path, because it is equipped with a turbine lubrication system cleaning system known as the "oil condtioner"
Wet steam or vapor containing water will cause erosion on turbine blades, because the grain must be removed from the grains of water vapor passes through the extraction channel and especially in the last fixed blades pengkap given channel and waster water.

Lubrication | for Industrial | Plants

2012-03-14T08:16:00.001+07:00

Making Lubricants
Lubricating oil used in generating engines lubricant is mineral oil. Manufacture of mineral lubricating oils made in oil mills by the fractionation of raw material (crude oil). Lubricating oil can also be made from a variety of basic materials such as:
- Lubricating oils made from plants and from animals
such as castor oil (Castrol Oil), use as seed
the base material. Vaseline, using animal fat as an ingredient
basically.
- Synthetic lubricating oils. Derived from synthetic materials (eg Polyqlycols,
basic zdi Acid esters, Fluoroesters, Polyphenil esters, a Novel Synthetic, Lubricants, etc.)

Capabilities and advantages of this mineral include:
- Temperature operating range is quite large
- Easily mixed with chemicals to increase
- Ability to work
- Nature of Physical and Chemical Properties easily controlled
Material wear can be reduced by reducing the magnitude of the force due to friction is by avoiding the direct contact between two surfaces rub against each other. One way to avoid direct contact between two objects rub against each other is to "insert" the lubricating oil between the two objects. This method is called "lubricate" or provide lubrication.
Lubrication principles can be divided into two kinds:
• Boundary Lubrication.
Lubrication where the surfaces are the two objects rub against each separated by a very thin layer of lubricant so that in some locations is still friction between the two objects. See Fig.
• Lubrication Film.
By providing a layer of lubricating oil that is thicker (a film) between the two objects rub together, no longer the case friction between two objects. Principles of good lubrication is the lubrication film.
The main function of lubricating oil is for lubrication, while other functions are equally important for cooling, sealing, reduce corrosion, shock absorbers and control.
• As a coolant.
Friction will cause excessive heat can cause damage if material. Lubricating oil will absorb the heat is to be taken and disposed in the lubricating oil or cooling system to the outside air.
• As the seals.
Seals can be used as a lubricant, such as to prevent leakage of hydrogen from the alternator shaft to the outside air.
• To reduce corrosion.
Lubricants can reduce the rate of corrosion because it forms a protective layer on the metal surface so that direct contact between the substance causes corrosion of metal surfaces can be avoided or reduced.
• As shock absorbers.
Shock loads on engine components can occur, including the gears. Lubricant layer will lessen the impact between the gear surfaces intersect each other, so as to reduce vibration and noise.
Additives to improve the characteristics of lubricants, to suit their usage requirements. Additive: Chemicals that have received "Patent" from the factory.
 Detergent: to clean machinery
 Dispersant: to keep all the dirt floats / float in the lubricating oil
 Antioxdant: to prevent the process
 Anticorrosive: prevent kososi
 Antifrezing: to prevent freezing
 Increasing the viscosity index: to keep the lubricants remain fluid in cold temperatures
 Antifoam: to prevent foam
 Extreme Presure: to form a thin layer of strong, resistant to pressure
 antirust: to prevent the formation of rust due to the deviation of pressure

Cycle of | Basic | Feed | Water | Heater

2012-03-14T00:13:00.000+07:00

The main function of the Feed Water Heater is increasing efficiency in power plant steam cycle. Extraction steam from the turbine used to heat the feed water so that the Final Feed Water Temperature had passed (from point A to M). Feed Water Heater is basically a heat exchanger (heat exchanger). Power plant has 7 units of Feed Water Heater is 3 units of Low Pressure Heater (LPH 1, 2 and 3), 3 units of High Pressure Heater (HPH 5, 6 and 7) and the Open Feed Water Heater is Daerator. For LPH and HPH 5,6,7 1,2,3 is Close Feed Water Heater with shell and tube type heat exchanger.

Heat transfer occurs between the feed water temperature in the tube with extraction steam from the steam turbine and the drain of the Feed Water Heater on the top shell. Condensate Pump Condensate water is pumped by the deaerator through LPH 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Then the feed water is pumped by a Boiler Feed Pump (BFP) to the economizer to advance through the timber 5, 6 and 7. Another function of the heater is to improve the steam quality, which capture some steam at the turbine blade will reduce the wetness of steam, thereby reducing the effect of condensation heat transfer processes Most of the heater on the condensing section occurs. Although superheating made very high temperature, the heat transfer in desuperheating section remains small. Drain the cooling is the smallest part of the process of heat transfer in the heater.

Due to certain reasons such as tube leakage or leakage valve, feed water heater can be out of service (cut heater operation). In Design Manual Book (Hamen-Subelco Vol OI), the operation of the heater cut operation can be done with certain limitations. There are several parameters that must be observed particularly fibrasi problem and the maximum weight allowed when there are concessions in the out of service. However, the operation of the heater cut in a long time is not recommended because it will reduce the life time of the other heater. Turbine has been designed to anticipate the heater cut operation without overstressing the following conditions:
A. A condition
One or more non-contiguous heater (nonadjacent - one chasing turbine) can be out of service from the system.
Example: Heater 7, 5, 3 out of service. Load 100%
2. The condition B
If there is a heater that successive (adjacent) in the out of service then the load can still be maintained as long as there is above all the heater come on out of service.
Example: Heater 7, 6, 5 out of service. Load 100%
3. The condition C
Turbine heater can be operated with the highest in service and a combination heater out of service sequentially below. Load must be reduced 10% when there are 2 consecutive heater out of service, reduced 20% when there are three successive heater out of service. Reduction of the maximum allowable load is 50% of the nameplate. Loading beyond these limits is the responsibility of the owner.
Example: Heater 6, 5 out of service. Load 90%
Heater 6, 5, 3, 2 out of service. Load 90%
Heater 6, 5, 3, 2, 1 out of service. Load 80%

Clarification | of the actual design | and capacity | Condenser

2012-03-13T15:13:00.000+07:00

The condenser is a heat exchanger type of contact is not directly aimed at changing the steam from the turbine into the water so it can be re-circulated by the cooling method derived from seawater that is pumped by the CWP (circulating Water Pump).
Expenses received by the condenser can be calculated by the following formula:
P = Pg (HR/3600) - (104/ηm ηg)
where,
P = Load Condensor, kW
Pg = Electrical output, kW
HR = heat rate, kJ / kWh
ηm = Mechanical efficiency turbine-generaztor (approximately 99.5%)
ηg = Generator electrical efficiency (about 99%)
While the heat balance on the condenser can be calculated using the formula
Qcw = P / (cp (θ1 - θ2)
where,
Qcw = flow of cooling water, kg / s
P = load condenser, kW
Cp = specific heat, kJ / kg K
θ1 = temperature of cooling water into the condenser, C
θ2 = temperature of condenser cooling water exit, ° C

To clarify the design of the cooling capacity is needed, we must first know the condenser load (the energy that goes into the condenser) with a simple calculation using the formula: P = Pg (HR/3600) - (104/ηm ηg).
Turbine heat rate (HR) performance of data taken from test unit 2 of 1980 kcal / kWh (Appendix 1) at 300 MW load.
Pg = 300 MW
HR = 1980 kcal / kWh = 8290 kJ / kWh
P = 300 MW ((8290 kJ / kWh) / 3600) - (104 / (99 x 98))
P = 381.62 MW
Condenser load of 381.62 MW obtained. Clarification was required cooling capacity can be calculated using the heat balance in the condenser by the formula:
Qcw = P / (cp (θ1 - θ2)
Clarification of the cooling capacity required by the operational one CWP
θ1 = 26 ° C (temperature into the condenser with a pump CWP)
θ2 = 44 ° C (the temperature of the condenser with one pump out CWP)
cp = 4.08 J / kg K
Qcw = 381.62 MW / ((4:08 J / kg K) (44 oC - 26 oC)
Qcw = 5190 kg / s = 5.06 m3 / s
The actual flow flowing at 5:06 m3 / s flow capacity of the pump close to CWP. This proves that with a CWP able to load the actual unit of 300 MW but the consequences condenser outlet temperature of 44 oC.

Clarification of the required cooling capacity is based on two operational CWP (design)
Calculations can be performed using data from the design of the condenser inlet temperature and outlet temperature of the condenser.
θ1 = 26 ° C (the temperature of the condenser with two pumps into CWP)
θ2 = 34 ° C (the temperature of the condenser with two pumps out CWP)
Qcw = 381.62 MW / ((4:08 J / kg K) (34 oC - 26 oC)
Qcw = 11 678 kg / s = 11:39 m3 / s
Flow calculations for 11:39 m3 / s near the pump flow capacity of 2 CWP. So it is true CWP design 2 x 50% with the condenser inlet temperature of 26 ° C, the condenser outlet temperature is 34 oC.

Generator | Protection | Performance

2012-03-11T20:03:00.000+07:00

Out-of-Synchronism occurs relatively rare in a large and robust power system, yet it may end up in an extensive and serious system disturbances, should it happen and persist for a long duration. To avoid such unexpected occurrences and in order to assure a good system security, a thorough and comprehensive study on generator protection is necessary.

In a system, which involves different users, the responsibility on system security should be borne by the grid participants and the system operator; and it ought to be based on a reference agreed by all.
The reference may concretely be realized in form of standard or agreement, or in form of rules agreed by the system users (grid code).
In many cases, not all matters in the code, especially those related to protection system coordination of the relays installed at the system operator’ side and that at the plant owner’s side, are well defined and fully understood.
The study here presented shall describe general condition of out-of-synchronism in a system and discuss the basic criteria that ought to be followed in defining the protection against out-of-synchronism.

In defining the criteria for the protection, some points should be considered: 1) asynchronous operation condition due to generator loss of field and 2) asynchronous operation due to system instability (out-of-synchronism).
Generator impedance varies as slip of generator relative to the system synchronous speed changes, and it will shift the electrical mid-point of the system-generator impedance. So, it will consequently influence the performance of generator protection.

Under-excitation operation of the generator will have, to some extents, no influence on the generator operation, unless it goes beyond the steady state stability limit.
Generally, the limits are given in the manufacturer’s manual.

In our study, the representation of generator’s current and voltage during the field current decrease (in parallel operation) is simulated in two conditions, as follows:

* decrease of generator’s e.m.f is not followed by rotor slip variation,
* decrease of generator’s e.m.f is followed by generator slip

Yet, in the real case, the field current decreases not linearly and the generator slip will also vary slightly during those interval. We should however bear in mind that the impedance locus moves towards the generator point.
The current decrease, that produces consequently new slip value, will take place when:
* decrease of the field current can not be sufficiently compensated by the under excitation limiter (UEL), or
* limit of the steady state stability is exceeded.

Those limits are generally determined based on the generator capacity to bear capacitive load, which is given by manufacturers.
In our study, the generator capacity has been taken from the loading curve of generator, determined by P (active power) and Q(reactive power) of the generator.

Furnace | Explosion

2012-03-11T08:41:00.000+07:00

Basic Knowledge of Furnace Explosion
Furnace explosions are rare and unlikely. When compared with the total number of unit operating hours, the hours lost because of explosions are minimal. This desirable situation exists because (a) furnaces are supplied with an explosive accumulation only during a small percentage of their operating lives and (b) just a minute part of those explosive charges receive sufficient ignition energy to actually cause an explosion.
In suspension burning, the primary control of the combustion process is the admission rate of fuel and air to a furnace, independently of each other. The dynamic response of the combustion reaction, however, depends on the diffusion of the fuel and air to a flammable limit, and the elevation of this diffused mixture to its kindling temperature. The aerodynamic diffusion of fuel and air results from both the rate and method of admission. This admission flow pattern produces diffusion mechanically by inters rubbing of the fuel and air masses. Molecular diffusion is also present as a result of the elevated temperature level at which the combustion process takes place.

Furnace explosions result from a rapid rate of volume increase of the gaseous combustion products when too great a quantity of fuel and air reacts almost simultaneously in an enclosure with limited volume and strength. Avoiding furnace pressures in excess of furnace closure design pressure is, therefore, necessary to prevent furnace rupture.
The basis for any explosion-prevention system must be to limit the quantity of flammable fuel-and-air mixture that can exist in the furnace at any given instant. The rate of maximum pressure rise possible during the reaction is a function also of the available oxygen per unit volume of reactants. The effect of any oxygen density diluents (nitrogen, increased temperature, decreased pressure, excess fuel, inert gases) reduces the possible explosion pressure. Furnace-explosion prevention should be aimed at limiting the quantity of diffused flammable fuel-air mixture that can be accumulated in a furnace in proportion to the total volume and the mechanical strength of the furnace.
While fuel and air are being admitted to a furnace, there are only three possible methods of preventing excessive flammable diffused accumulations.
1. Igniting all flammable mixtures as they are formed, before their excessive accumulation.
2. Diffusing all flammable mixtures with sufficient additional air, prior to ignition, to a point beyond the diffused flammable-mixture ratio; and accomplishing this with a sufficient degree of diffusion before the flammable mixture occupies a critical percentage of the furnace volume.
3. Supplying an inert gas to diffuse simultaneously with the fuel and air, thereby diluting the oxygen content of the mixture below the flammable limit.
Implementation of these preventative methods requires operator action beyond the response, memory, and judgment capabilities of the normal operator controlling a plant in the manual mode. A fireside safeguard system must supervise the flow and processing of fuel, air, ignition energy, and the products of combustion. Satisfactory boiler operation requires that these four ingredients be properly prepared, ratioed, directed and sequenced so that the furnace cannot contain an explosive mixture. At supervised to check the results. Combustion must be kept efficient or the unconverted chemical energy may accumulate and subsequently become explosive.
The following factors influence the effective composition change of an explosive charge:
a) The facility for mixing
b) The inert material in the fuel
c) The fuel-air ratio
d) The kind of fuel
A furnace explosion requires both sufficient explosive accumulation within the furnace and sufficient energy for ignition.
The ignition requirements for an explosive charge are very small; making it impossible to protect against all possible sources of ignition, such as static electricity discharges, hot slag, and hot furnace surfaces.
Therefore, the practical means of avoiding a furnace explosion is the prevention of an explosive accumulation.
The potentially reactive furnace accumulation must be formed from an earlier buildup process which introduces reactive inputs not converted by oxidation to non-reactive or inert products. This buildup process must continue long enough to create a damaging accumulation. The accumulation composition, which must be within the limits of flammability for that particular fuel, is formed in one or more basic ways.
■ A flammable input into any furnace atmosphere (loss of ignition)
■ A fuel-rich input into an air-rich atmosphere (fuel interruption)
■ An air-rich input into a fuel-rich atmosphere (air interruption)
Furnace firing systems are designed to start up air-rich by introducing fuel into an air-filled furnace. Main fuel is introduced after the integral ignition system has satisfied permissive main-fuel interlocks that it can provide more ignition energy than the main fuel requires to be ignited or to remain ignited. Additional air is introduced around the primary-air/fuel mixture to take it beyond flammable limits, if it has not been ignited and reacted to inert combustion products; this is done to avoid a critical portion of the total furnace volume being occupied by a flammable mixture.

Sootblower Model PS-SL / PS-SB

2012-03-10T11:53:00.000+07:00

Easy to Install
The sootblower mounts directly to
front and rear suspension points.
The suspension is designed to take
into account horizontal and vertical
expansion of the boiler wall.

Low Maintenance Design
The carriage travels along twin
guide rails driven by a robust rack
and pinion mechanism. Moving
parts are minimised. Easy
maintenance access is available to
all moving parts.

Minimised Spare Parts Stock
The PS series uses the same valve
as the Clyde Bergemann rotary
sootblowers, reducing overall parts
stock requirements.

Partial Retract Option
Where gas temperature permits,
this sootblower can also be
supplied in a partially retracting
configuration, reducing the exterior
projection of the sootblower from
the boiler.

Sectional Blowing Option
The sootblower may be specified to
blow over a limited blowing arc
where appropriate.

Choice of Wall Boxes
Positive pressure, negative
pressure and noise reduction
wallboxes are available to suit
installation conditions and
customer requirements.
Simple to Soundproof
Where sound emission
requirements are stringent, the
sootblower can be fitted with a
wallbox extension with sound
insulating rings to reduce sound
emissions from the nozzles.
Choice of Covers
Standard, extended and complete
enclosure covers are available to
suit installation conditions and
customer requirements.

Emergency manual operation
In the event of power failure the
sootblower can be operated
manually using the crank handle
provided.

Long Retractable Sootblower
Model PS-SL / PS-SB
Technical Data
Electric Motor
One 0.55 kW (0.37 kW for PS-SB) 3 phase flange mounted totally enclosed for
safe area environments. Explosion proof specification available for hazardous
areas.

Material Specifications
Lance tube material…………………...………………..chrome molybdenum steel
or special steels to suit boiler conditions
Feed tube material……………………………………... …………….stainless steel
Valve material…………………………………………...chrome molybdenum steel
class 300 or 600 to suit conditions
Flange
DN80 PN63 to standard DIN 2546. Other flange types available on request.

Cooling | Hydrogen (H2)

2012-03-06T21:58:00.000+07:00

Image via Wikipedia

DSC_7636-mb-hydrogen-store (Photo credit: swh)Generator is designed to be able to survive in conditions of normal working temperatures of up to working temperature is abnormal, for example: during a short circuit current.
For the same dimensions, the ability to withstand heat will determine the output power rating to withstand the heat that is owned generator.Kemampuan determined two factors: a. Isolation level
b. Cooling rate (ability to dissipate heat)
Heat that caused the generator caused by loss - loss of power (power losses) consisting of:
- Loss - loss of copper / loss - loss of power
- Loss - loss of iron / loss - loss of magnet
- Loss - loss of mechanical

Generator with output power ratings above 300 MVA-Ugi has lost about 1%. Loss - the loss in the form of heat. To keep the heat does not damage the insulating mechanical generator systems listrikdan the pans should be channeled out / absorbed from the generator. Functions performed by the heat absorption refrigeration system.
Steam turbine generator PLTGU Freshwater Estuary using a generator with output power rating of 200 MVA (288 MVA) so that the media selection hydrogen gas (H2) as a coolant is appropriate. Media selection hydrogen gas (H2) as a refrigerant is based on:
A. The density of Hydrogen is only 1/14 times the density of air at the same pressure and temperature. The use of hydrogen gas will reduce the losses - losses due to friction wind generator and sound (noise).
2. Heat transfer capability of hydrogen gas in the system of forced convection (forced convection) 1.5 times the amount of air the heat transfer capability.
3. For the same mass, the heat absorbing capacity of 14.5 times the amount of hydrogen gas of air, because at the same temperature and pressure of the mass of hydrogen is only 1/14 times the mass of air. Then the magnitude of the heat capacity of hydrogen: 14.5 / 14 = 1.035 times the heat-absorbing ability of the air at the same temperature and pressure. So better cooling hydrogen gas from the air.
4. Hydrogen gas does not occur on oxidation reactions and impurities so the generator insulation life will be longer.
5. The thermal conductivity of hydrogen gas air 7 times.
6. In the high-speed machines such as generators, loss - loss of wind is calculated as part of the loss - a total loss, because the density of hydrogen of about 7% more dense than air. Loss - loss of air-cooled hydrogen generator is reduced to 10% of air-cooled generator, so that the generator efficiency is increased by 1%.
The use of hydrogen gas media will reduce the heat to be removed and at the same time will increase the ability to dissipate heat from the generator.
The selection of media as a medium for cooling the hydrogen gas should be noted that - as follows:
a. Hydrogen gas is a gas that is very dangerous (explosive) that require special handling. Concentration of 4-76% hydrogen gas in the air is an explosive mixture (mixture explosivi). Hydrogen gas purity must be guarded / secured at a high level.
b. Require special handling in the process of charging and discharging hydrogen gas from the generator.
c. Requires two systems Auxillary namely:
- Seal oil system: to maintain the hydrogen gas remains in the generator.
- Gas system / Hydrogen plant: to maintain the pressure and purity of hydrogen gas.

Generator cooling circulation system can be viewed as shown below:

picture Hydrogen Gas Circulation
Generators and water cooled heat exchanger must be insulated hydrogen gas terahadap meeting. The main problem that occurs in isolation bearings which can be space / narrow gap between the rotor and the generator body is not moving. Spaces / narrow gap that allows its happening kebocorangas the hydrogen to the outside air pressure is smaller. This is very dangerous because it can cause an explosion and fire. To overcome the space / narrow gap is closed with a coating of oil / oil seal oil system is required.
To prevent the mixture that is explosive in the combustion chamber pressure is maintained so that hydrogen gas is greater than the outside air pressure so that when the hydrogen gas leak will point out.
Minimum pressure of hydrogen gas to the outside air is 3440 N/m2 (0.0344 barg). At this pressure the maximum output power rating of the generator can be increased by about 30% above the rating of air-cooled generator. While the peak efficiency (full load efficiency) rose about 0.5%. Tend to use hydrogen gas pressure is higher (between 1.03 barg s / d 4.13 barg) to mass of hydrogen gas generator in a larger space so that the heat absorbing capacity increases. Raising the hydrogen gas pressure of 0.0344 to 1.03 barg barg will increase the output (for the same rise in temperature) of about 15%. Hydrogen gas pressure increases from 0.0344 to 2.07 barg barg would raise output (for the same temperature increase) by 25%. Methods to improve the ability to absorb heat from the generator is to develop a conductor cooling / cooling liner.

Condensate | Treatment Plant

2012-03-06T14:20:00.000+07:00

In the high velocity mixed bed treatment system, the regenerative cation and anion resin having high exchange capacity are mixed thoroughly with a certain proportion. Then they are put into the in extraneous regenerative high velocity mixed bed to carry on demineralization treatment.
The high-rate mixed bed system of this project has 2×50% treatment capacity. When one exchanger loses efficiency, it will open the 50% bypass automatically, and it will be put into operation again after it has being regenerated. When the pressure difference or water inlet temperature of the mixed bed main pipe is beyond the standard, the 100% bypass will be opened automatically.

For the condensate treatment of this project, one unit is allocated one set of high velocity system, and the resin extraneous regeneration system is communal. Every set of high velocity system is made up of 2 DN2200 extraneous regeneration high-velocity mixed beds and 2 recycle pumps. Resin extraneous regeneration system is mainly made up of resin separation equipment, resin regeneration equipment and electric heating water tank.
System operating mode:
There are two bypasses opened and closed automatically in condensate polishing system (beside regeneration bypass and super temperature super pressure bypass). The capacity of regeneration bypass is 50% of the condensing capacity, and the capacity of regeneration bypass and super temperature super pressure bypass is 100% of the condensate capacity.
When the water outlet conductivity or silica of the condensate polishing mixed bed is over the specified value, the equipment stop and step out, and the regeneration bypass is placed in operation.
When the water inlet temperature of condensate polishing is more than 55℃ or the pressure difference of mixed bed inlet and outlet is over 0.35MPa, all operation unit of the mixed bed stop, and the super temperature super pressure bypass is placed in operation.
The failure resin of stopped mixed bed is sent to regeneration system to be air scrubbing, to be separated, and to be regenerated. Send the regenerated standby resin inside the resin storage tank to high velocity mixed bed.
The startup of mixed bed, shutdown of mixed bed, resin transmission, resin regeneration of condensate polishing system can all be carried on automatically.

System and Equipment | of Water Treatment

2012-03-05T19:59:00.000+07:00

Image via WikipediaThe water source of power plants

Water is one of the most important natural resources which is covering about 3/4 surface of the earth. The natural water includes underground water and surface water. The underground water comes from the surface water which seeps underground. It has high hardness and stable quality hardly influenced by seasons and surroundings. Surface water includes water in rivers, lakes, reservoirs and seas.
Water in rivers and lakes comes from rain, it has lower hardness and salt content than underground water, it is not stable and easy influenced by seasons and surroundings. Water in lakes and reservoirs is similar with that in rivers, it has lower turbidity than that in rivers because of the lower flowing characters. But it is good for microorganism growing.
Water in sea has large quantity of dissolved salt, such as sodium chloride, because of the long time evaporation and concentration.

The classification of water in power plants
Water in power plant has different characters and functions, they can be classified as: raw water, make-up water, boiler water, condensate water, drain water, cooling water, saturated steam and superheated steam.
Main method of make-up water treatment
Natural water contains impurities that will lead to scale deposit, corrosion, salt deposits in the thermal system, and consequently threat the safety and economics of the power plant.

Make-up water treatment is one of the most important treatments in a power plant. Water with different impurities needs different treatment.
The organics, suspensions, colloid and part of the hardness can be eliminated by chlorination, coagulants and clarification. These methods are usually the first step of water treatment in power plants, we call it pretreatment. The dissolved solid can be eliminated by ion exchange, electrolysis, reverse osmosis and distillation. The dissolved gas can be eliminated by thermal method, such as deaerator, chemical method and gas-liquid exchange.
The Pretreatment of Make-up Water Filtration
When an electricity factory uses the tap water as the water resource, the pretreatment system is simple. It is like this flow: tap water cleaning water activated carbon filter cation exchanger anion exchanger mixing bed demineralized water tank main building.
Even with some clarifiers operating at optimum levels under anticipated conditions, additional solids-removal equipment is required downstream. It serves to reduce the remaining suspended solids, colloids and remnant chloride to the parts-per-billion level required for the boiler operation.
Filtration is a process of placing a pervious barrier across flowing water to remove suspensible matter. It can be accomplished simply through mechanical straining at the surface of the barrier or by removal throughout the depth of the medium.
Proper performance does not begin until a layer of silt and bacterial matter has developed in the top inch or so of sand. This unit then produces exceedingly clear water, but at a rate no faster than 0.008m/s is reached. The upper layer, where all the filtering action takes place, is then scraped off, washed externally, and restored to the bed.
There are many factors to have influence on the process, such as filter medium, filter speed, water head loss, flow uniformity and reverse-flow backwash.
Filter medium, such as active carbon, is the basic unit of filtration. Choose of the proper medium is important to running efficiently. The medium must have these characters: good stable chemical character, enough mechanical strength, proper and uniform size and proper medium layer height.
If the speed of filtration is too slow, the output is limited. On the contrary, it will lead bad outlet water quality, higher loss of water head and short operating cycle.
Water head loss is an important parameter to judge whether the filter is scraped off. When the water head loss reaches to a certain value the filter should be put into outage and cleaned by reverse-flow backwash.
There are two types filter used in power plants: gravity type, such as valveless filter, and pressure type.
The Demineralization Treatment of the Make-up water
The ion-exchange demineralization treatment is that the cation-exchange resin exchange the cation in water to H+, the anion-exchange resin exchange the anion to OHˉ,and the undissociated water molecules are the end product. By the way the ion exchangers are named not for what they are but rather for what they do. There are different demineralization treatment systems with strong and weak electrolyte ion to adapt different demands of water quality such as primary demineralization treatment system and secondary demineralization treatment system (mixing bed).
Primary demineralization treatment system
The individual cation-exchange resin bed is the ion-exchange unit which the water encounters first. The cations, such as sodium and calcium, are removed by exchange with hydrogen ions from the resin.
The individual anion-exchange resin bed is the second ion-exchange unit the water encounters. The anions, such as silicate and carbonate, are removed by exchange with hydroxylions from the resin.
The aerating tower is used for eliminating the dissoluble gas from water, such as carbon dioxide and oxygen.
To get high quality make-up water, the mixing bed is needed. The cation and anion resin are mixed thoroughly in one bed with a certain proportion. The exchange of both ions happens simultaneously, and the outcome ions interact to form undissociated water molecules. The mixing bed produces high quality water which electrical conductivity approaches ideal pure water.

Makeup water system and its devices in Phase II of Kuching Power Station
According to the quality of the water resource and the requirement of the steam and water by the unit, the flow of the makeup water system is:
Tap water→clarified water tank→clarified water pump→active carbon filter→cation exchanger→anion exchanger →mixed bed→demineralized water→demineralized water pump→main building
The technical process of the treatment system is the same as in Phase I.
In Phase I of Kuching Power Station there are two active carbon filters and two demineralized devices with output of 26m /h. An active carbon filter and a set of demineralized devices are added in Phase II, to satisfy the requirement of the makeup water quantity by 4 units in the station. The parameters of the new supply devices are the same as that in Phase I, its output is 26 m /h; the designed operation period of the cation-exchanger and anion-exchanger is 41 hours, the operation period of the mixing exchanger is 13 days; cation resin adopts 30% of hydrochloric acid regenerating, and anion resin adopts 50% of sodium hydroxide regenerating.
The extended water treatment system possesses 3 sets of devices with two sets operating and one as standby.
The devices supplied in Phase II are as follows:
An active carbon filter; a cation-exchanger; an anion-exchanger; a mixing bed
Two demineralized water tank with each capacity of 150 m

Water Treatment | Plant

2012-03-04T16:47:00.000+07:00

In the process plant, in addition to require coal as a fuel, it also requires a certain quality of water as boiler feed which in turn is converted into steam to drive turbine generators. For the purposes of water which will then be made specific to the power plant water treatment facilities. Content of salts are usually always there, Bicarbonate, HCO3; Chloride, Cl; Sulfate, SO4: NO3 nitrate of calcium, Ca; magnesium, Mg, and sodium, Na. There is also an iron, Fe; Manganese, Mn and aluminum, Al.

To get water that meets the requirements for steam boilers (boiler) in a Steam Power Plant (power plant) is required Water Treatment. There are two ways of processing, namely;
• Processing is carried out Boiler (external treatment).
• Processing in the Boiler (internal treatment).

REVERSE OSMOSIS Picture

Distillation Method
In this method the modified salt water into fresh water. The principle is very simple: by heating the sea water and steam in the chill returned. To make fresh water from sea water in large quantities. Sea water is introduced into the vessel and heated by steam through the steam pipe. Hot steam is passed through a boiling sea water pipe. Because of this heat effect of sea water began to evaporate. Sea water vapor put into the second vessel is equipped with cooling water installations. Heat absorbed by water vapor condenses to form salt and raw water. This process will occur on a problem that is the formation of crust on the surface of the metal (pipe). The crust is hard and difficult to remove and also a poor conductor of PNAS. To overcome this metal surfaces coated with Teflon.

Demineralization way
Of salt water can also be eliminated by using the ion. Ion exchange unit is equipped with sand filters. Penukat ion exchanger consists of cation and anion exchangers. Cation exchanger that takes the positive ions from the water and the anion exchanger to take the negative ion of water. This exchanger is a resin material which can be activated in an already saturated after regenerated. Cation exchanger regenerated with sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is an anion exchanger is regenerated with sodium hydroxide (NaOH).

Iran defiant | as U.N. nuclear | talks fail

2012-02-26T15:37:00.000+07:00

United States criticized Iran for failing the mission of the latest International Atomic Energy Agency, saying Tehran was again demonstrated refusal to comply with international obligations on its nuclear program.

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) admitted its failure to investigate Iran's efforts to develop nuclear weapons. This statement came out shortly after Iran said it would conduct preemptive attacks against those who threaten its interests.

Failure of two-day visit by the IAEA could hinder any resumption of nuclear talks between Iran wider and six world powers - the United States, China, Russia, Britain, France and Germany - as a growing sense that Tehran feels it is cornered.
Iran rejects accusations that its nuclear program is a covert attempt to develop nuclear weapons capability, saying it was trying to produce electricity only. But last November, the IAEA said Iran bahwaw information they have run a series of test "relevant to the development of a nuclear explosive devices".

The collapse of the nuclear talks came as Iran seems increasingly isolated, with some experts see the Islamic republic mounting dissent in response to sanctions against the oil industry and financial institutions as proof that it was in no mood to compromise with the West.

In Jerusalem, Israeli Foreign Minister Avigdor Lieberman rejected an appeal by the world powers to avoid pre-emptive attack against Iran's nuclear program. IAEA mission failure can increase the likelihood of an attack by Israel against Iran, some analysts say.

Evaluation of the IAEA inspection team for their visit Iran's nuclear program may be released later in February.

This makes the U.S. and the EU to tighten sanctions against Iran, including a policy to stop the import of crude oil from Iran.

This strain also led to speculation that Israel might conduct a military attack on Iran's nuclear facilities.

Potential Biodiesel

2012-02-24T09:39:00.000+07:00

Advantages Biodiesel Use

1. Generated from renewable energy resources and the availability of raw materials is assured

2. High cetane number (number that indicates whether or not the measure of the quality of diesel fuel based on the nature of the speed of the engine combustion chamber)

3. High viscosity so as to have better lubrication properties than diesel fuel thereby extending the life of the machine

4. Can be produced locally

5. Has a low sulfur content

6. Lower levels of smoke opasiti

7. Lowering exhaust emissions

8. Blending biodiesel with petroleum diesel to improve biodegradibility petroleum diesel to 500%
Biodiesel Raw Materials
Biodiesel is a diesel motor fuel in the form of ester alkyl / alkyl fatty acids (usually methyl ester) are made from vegetable oils or trans-esterification process. stilah biodiesel fuel is identical to the pure. Biodiesel blend (BXX) is as much as XX `% biodiesel mixed with diesel fuel number 1-XX%
Background The need for Biodiesel in Indonesia:

Diesel fuel in the form of methyl ester / ethyl fatty acids. Made from vegetable oils-fats with the metanolisis / etanolisis. -Too products: glycerin. Or from fatty acids (free) by the esterifi-cation with methanol / ethanol. -Too products: water Compatible with diesel fuel, lubricating helpless better. Yield of sulfur is almost nil, generally <15 ppm. BXX = camp. XX-vol% biodiesel with (100 - XX)-vol% diesel. Example: B5, B20, B100. Was effective to improve the quality of diesel vehicle emissions in the B2 level!. Vegetable oil as the main source of biodiesel can be satisfied by a wide variety of plant species dependent on primary resource that is widely available at a place / country. Indonesia has many resources for biodiesel feedstock. Biodiesel fuel is a clean burning alternative fuel That comes from 100% renewable resources. Many people believe That biodiesel is the fuel of the future. Sometimes it is also known as biofuels. Biodiesel does not contain petroleum, petroleum but can be mixed to Produce a blend of biodiesel (eg B20, B50) That can be used in many different vehicles. Pure biodiesel fuel (ie. B100) though, can only be used in diesel engines. Biodiesel is biodegradable and non-toxic, making it so safe That it is even safer than the commonly used table salt! Biodiesel is not alternative fuels like vegetable oil. Biodiesel can be used in its unaltered form in diesel engines. Vegetable oil fuels must be modified and used only in combustion-ignition engines. This makes biodiesel one of the easiest alternative fuels to use. In fact, it is a great option for use on farms in farm equipment. Biodiesel fuel is made through a process called transesterification. This process involves removing the glycerin from the vegetable oil or fat. During the process byproducts are left behind, Including methyl esters and glycerin. Biodiesel is free from Such substances as sulfur and aromatics the which are found in traditional fuels. Compared to other alternative fuels, biodiesel has a number of unique features and qualities. It has passed all the health effects testing requirements, unlike other alternative fuels. This means it meets the standards of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments. | The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has legally allow biodiesel to be sold and distributed commercially. The rest of the alternative fuels can not be sold commercially as motor fuel Because They do not meet the EPA's fuel specifications. That I believe the biggest feature about biodiesel fuel is that? Is it environmentally-friendly, the which is not found in many traditional fuels. Biodiesel is made from renewable resources, the which means it is safe for the environment. It does not Produce the high emissions like traditional fuels. Biodiesel does not cause harmful effects to the environment That Will Produce positive effects on our future generations. Biodiesel is also good for the economy Because unlike traditional fuels, the resources to the make biodiesel come form within the United States. It is made with products grown in the USA without having to involve politics with other countries. The country can less dependent upon foreign Become countries for fuel supplies and the money goes right back into the U.S. economy. Biodiesel is an innovative fuel FuelBiodiesel That Is Becoming more rapidly available to the general public. It can be found around the country in select places or it can be bought directly from producers. It costs a little more than traditional fuels at the current time Because the demand is not as great. However, as demand Grows and the public realizes the benefits of a biodegradable, renewable fuel source, the price will drop. You can see That the price has already started to drop since it's launched at Their first Biodiesel station. Right now, though, the cheapest way to get biodiesel fuel is to make it at home yourself using a Biodiesel Equipment. Biodiesel equipment can be expensive, I must agree. However, in the long-run, you can actually save a lot of money when you Produce Biodiesel a good blend for your car. Make biodiesel

When the oil used to fry the event of oxidation, hydrolysis of the oil molecules break down into acids. This process is getting bigger with the high heating and a long time during the frying of food. The presence of free fatty acids in cooking oil is not good for health. FFA can also be ester when reacted with methanol, while if it reacts with the soda will mebentuk soap. The product must be purified from biodiesel byproduct, glycerin, soap and soda residual methanol. The rest are on the soda can henghidrolisa biodiesel and biodiesel break into FFA are then dissolved in biodiesel itself. FFA content in biodiesel is not good because it can clog the filter or strainer with sediment and become corrosive to metals diesel engines.

On a small scale can be done with 1 liter of cooking oil materials are new or used. Methanol as much as 200 ml or 0.2 liter. Caustic soda or NaOH to 3.5 grams of clean cooking oil, used oil if needed 4.5 grams, or maybe more. This excess is required to neutralize the free fatty acids or FFA is a great deal on used cooking oil. Can also use KOH but it has cost more and required 1.4 times more than soda. The manufacturing process; Soda dissolved in methanol fire and then fed into the heated oil about 55 ° C, stirred rapidly for 15-20 minutes and then left in the cold overnight. Biodiesel will be obtained at the top with a clear yellowish color and a little lower part of the FFA mixture of soap, the rest of the unreacted methanol and glyserin approximately 79 ml. Biodiesel is a yellowish liquid at the top separated easily by pouring and remove the bottom of the liquid. For large-scale bottom product can be purified to obtain a high-priced glycerin, also soap and residual unreacted methanol.

Radioactive nuclear waste

2012-02-23T19:46:00.000+07:00

Radioactive wastes are waste types containing or contaminated with radionuclides at concentrations or activities that exceed the allowable limits (clearance level) established by the Agency for Nuclear Energy. The definitions used in legislation

Understanding others radioactive waste defined as radioactive substances that are no longer applicable, and / or materials and equipment or be exposed to radioactive substances are not radioactive and can be enabled / used. Materials or equipment or be exposed to radioactive likely due to the operation of nuclear installations or installations that utilize ionizing radiation.

Broadly speaking, nuclear waste is divided into two categories, Low Level Waste and Intermediete (LILW) and High Level Waste (HLW). LILW is the nuclear waste in the form of gloves, shoe covers and clothing of workers at nuclear power plants as well as the maintenance of machine tools and the like. Treatment programs so how do LILW stored in temporary storage before being didispose permanently. While generally HLW-treated with 2 methods, dry and wet storages. As the name implies, in wet storage, nuclear waste from reactor-treated in water for 3-5 years to reduce the cooling plus heat from radioactive decays. After passing through that process, the nuclear waste container is inserted into the specially designed so that it can securely store, especially the use of corrosion resistant materials and radiation. While dry storage, nuclear waste is directly inserted into a specially designed container without water as a coolant. Usually stored up to 6 years in the container. Containers can dry storages shaped metal casks, concrete silos, and storage vaults.

More than 90% of the world's nuclear waste currently-treated through a process of wet storage. Generally, the temporary storage of nuclear waste at the nuclear plant itself, so it does not need to be transported through the transport distance. Not random people can come into this facility, because of course the controls are very tight. NPP managers are required to provide periodic reports on the passage of nuclear waste to the local regulatory bodies and also the IAEA.

Treatment can then use a geological repository system, or use a transmutation techniques that today more and more research in the field, such as fast reactors and ADS are predicted to exist several decades to come.
Researchers discover microbes that clean and neutralize nuclear waste and other toxic metal power produced by the microbes themselves.

Researchers from Michigan State University (MSU), said this process could be improved and ultimately benefit the affected sites of nuclear contamination.

The ability of Geobacter microbes are the crippling uranium has been well documented, but the way they do the job right is still a mystery to this day when the researchers claim to find it.

Researchers claim to find nano conductive pili or cables that contribute to the neutralizing ability of these microbes through electrical activity.

"Our findings clearly show, nano wires into the main catalyst of this microbial reduction of uranium," said microbiologist Gemma Reguera from MSU.

This part is very important in performing electroplating with the electric version of the natural uranium, radioactive materials and prevent crippling contaminate ground water, he added.

Potential Gas Turbine

2012-02-22T21:20:00.000+07:00

The efficiency of gas turbines are often planes, helicopters and small, are used for power generation purposes. There are several advantages because it uses a gas turbine.
Electricity generated from gas turbines, 4 or 2 - stroke engine with a motorcycle, is higher than the same weight. Medium containing an equal weight of the gas turbine power, and transportation as mentioned above will no longer widely used and produced by the gas turbine.

How it works Gas Turbine

The major components of gas turbines, there are three. High pressure air compressor to create. Combustion chamber and the combustion air pressure and high-speed serves in a part of the production. Turbine from the high pressure air in the combustion chamber was a function of mechanical motion.
Combustion chamber. The chemical composition of the three elements of air and fuel burning fire. A hydrocarbon fuel is used in gas turbines. From the high pressure air compressor into the combustion chamber, fuel injectors and combustion air pressure is sprayed in production, leading to a higher speed. Turbine used to generate electricity. The existing gas turbine, called a modified turbo. The format is similar to the gas turbine. Turbo - The fan in front of a fan compressor (fan) is.

Types of Disorders in Plants

2012-02-18T05:44:00.000+07:00

Various kinds of disturbances on power
• The drum water level high

As a result of drum level high, then a mixture of steam and water can get into the steam line which can result in damaging the piping system waterhammer.
• The drum water level low
Generally a boiler equipped with automatic safety devices to trip the boiler / power plant unit if the water level in the lower drum, to prevent fatal damage to the boiler. If the water level below the expected glass, and automatic safety is not working normally, is necessary to take action to turn off / stop the boiler.
• Boiler tube failure

Indication of a boiler tube leak, among others: kelaianan sound, the water rises above normal adder, more white chimney smoke, steam sprayers. Try to keep the water level in the drum remained normal. Stop the boiler, because the water / vapor can leak mengkikis adjacent tube so that it can exacerbate the damage
• IDF trip
Generally equipped with interlock, if the IDF and FDF automatically trip the boiler trip, because the FDF and the boiler does not trip the fire would burst out of the baker. If the IDF trip, and the interlock system is not working normally, manually trip FDF
• Loss of ignition
Generally boiler is equipped with a flame detector to monitor the combustion in the combustion chamber. If the flame goes out automatically the supply of fuel will be stopped.
If this happens needs to be done purging the combustion chamber for at least 5 minutes before the start of the next firing, to prevent explosion
• Power failure
If it happens interrupted power supply (voltage loss), it is impossible to spend PULVERIZER coal present in the mill before turning off the boiler. If the mill can not be operated again within 3 hours, then the coal is in the mill to be removed to prevent fires.
• Fire in PULVERIZER
Fire in the mill when the mill operation is rare, but sometimes also the result of coal from the coal bunker was tebakar or primary air temperature is too high. The presence of fire can be detected from a very rapid temperature rise / sharply on the outlet side
• Corrosion / kropos / rust

Corrosion is a threat of an eye the plant / equipment, as it could potentially interfere with the operation, shorten the life of the plant
High-potential equipment corrosion, among others:
a) Equipment in the primary cooling system with cooling sea water medium, the pier. General corrosion of equipment that could potentially include: traveling screen / water intakes, docks, condenser water box. To inhibit the corrosion rate is usually done by means of cathodic protection, among others: Zeng anode / anode victim, inverse current, as well as anti-rust paint
b) Element AH cold side
AH element most susceptible to the cold side corrosion, caused by sulfur in the flue gases condenses, especially if using fuel with high sulfur content.
Efforts to inhibit the corrosion rate is done by controlling the exit flue gas temperature is always above the dew point AH sulfur, among others, by heating the incoming air AH (Air Preheat Coil)
c) Boiler tube
Corrosion of boiler tube can occur due to water quality charger (boiler water) is not good / not pure / contaminated, among others, as a result of leaking condenser tube, oxygen levels within the high water boiler. Solved immediately in the event of condenser tube leak, adjust the water quality of the blowdown and chemical injection. Oxygen levels within the control of boiler water, with a de-aerating and chemical injection.
• slagging and fouling

Slagging and fouling is a threat that could potentially interfere with the operation of the boiler that uses fuel, especially coal. Part boiler slagging and fouling potential occurs are:

.> Furnace slagging
Place of ash slagging / ash melts its temperature exceeds the melting point of ash. Process due to the occurrence of ash attached to the fuel pipes in the room was thick enough to inhibit heat transfer process so that the temperature of the combustion chamber so up and melt the ash. Sediment / deposit this ash is melted down along the pipe boiler stir, then serve frozen / hard when it came to the area which the temperature is cooler.
Great slagging can lead to blockage of ash bridging the hoper. If the clean-up deposit occurs normally require bridging boiler stop. Sootblowing do regularly, to slow the rate of formation of slagging. Sootblower reliability is critical to prevent slagging

.> SH deposit
Abu superheater tube attached to the longer will be more thick, inhibit heat transfer, so that the steam temperature tends to drop. Sootblowing do routinely to menhambat ash deposit rate on SH, and sootblowernya be effective

.> Economiser fouling
Abu also be attached to the tube economiser, even more so when using a finned-tube economisernya. Sootblowing do routinely. Sootblower be effective.

.> AH fouling
Furthermore ashes will stick to the AH, it can even block some element AH. Sootblowing do routinely. Sootblower be effective. Frequency can lead to excessive sootblowing AH seals wear faster, so that air leakage become bigger, decreasing the amount of combustion air and ultimately increase the potential for slagging on boiler combustion chamber

"Kazakhstan" Domination Of The World's Largest Uranium

2012-02-17T15:11:00.000+07:00

Data compiled by foreigners indicate that uranium production worldwide increased from 50 772 tons in 2009 to 53 663 tonnes in 2010, which is the highest number since the early 1990's. Kazakhstan is the country's largest producer, with production reaching 17 803 tonnes in 2010, increased 27% from 14 020 tonnes produced in 2009. Canada and Australia respectively to maintain the second and third place, although the two countries uranium production fell in 2010. While Canadian production down 4% from 10 173 tons in 2009 to 9783 tons in 2010, while Australian production fell 26% from 7982 tonnes in 2009 to 5900 tons.

Two African countries, Namibia and Nigeria - are the largest uranium producer fourth and fifth in 2010, with production of 4496 tons each, and 4198 tons. Cameco Canada back on its position as the company's largest uranium producer in the world with total production of 8758 tons in 2010, up from 8000 tonnes in 2009. Uranium production from this company is 16% of the world's uranium products in 2010.Areva of France, which is a leading producer in 2009 with a production of 8623 tons, has produced 8319 tonnes reported in 2010, and occupied the second place. Position followed by Kazatomprom, which produce 8116 tons in 2010, up from 7467 tonnes in 2009. Although controlling the production of uranium Kazakhstan, Kazatomprom develop a savings fund in partnership with leading companies including those mentioned above. Kazakhstan looks set to hold its position as the largest uranium producing country in 2011. State company Kazatomprom Kazakhstan reported that production during the first quarter of 2011 reached 777.4 tons, 7.3% above the planned production plan that is equal to 724.4 tons and increased by 24% in the same period last year.

Mine Cameco's McArthur River / Key Lake in Canada continue to occupy the position of the largest mines in the world capable of producing uranium in 2010, amounting to 7654 tonnes, up from 7339 tonnes in 2009. Although production fell from 4444 tons in 2009 to 3216 tons in 2010, the mine Energy Resources of Australia (ERA) Ranger Australia in Australia to maintain second place.

Rio Tinto's Rossing mine in Namibia is the third largest mine with a production of 3077 tons in 2010, down from 3520 tonnes in 2009. Although conventional underground mining techniques and remain in an open area, the main method for the extraction of uranium, with 53% of products derived from this technique, the use of technology in-situ leach (ISL) has become populler. In 2009, approximately 36% of uranium extracted using ISL technology, while in 2010 this figure jumped to 41%. Merupkan uranium production by-product of other mineral slightly decreased 7% of total production in 2009 to 5% in 2010.

Development of nuclear energy systems in the future.

2012-02-15T07:17:00.000+07:00

Uranium nuclear are all kinds of material that can be used to produce nuclear energy, as if the analogy with the chemical fuel that is burned to produce energy. Until now, the nuclear fuel that is commonly used fissil heavy elements that can produce nuclear chain reactions in nuclear reactors; nuclear fuel can also mean the material or physical objects (for example fuel bundles composed of fuel rods are prepared by fuel material, can also be mixed with the structural material, moderator material, or material of the reflector (reflector) neturon. fissil nuclear fuel that is used seirng 235 U and 239Pu, and activities related to mining, refining, use and disposal of these materials included in the nuclear fuel cycle. the nuclear fuel cycle is important because it is associated with the presence of nuclear and nuclear weapons.
Not all fuel used in nuclear fission chain reaction. For example, 238Pu and some other light elements are used to generate a number of nuclear power through the process of radioactive decay in radiothermal generator, and an atomic battery. Light isotopes such as 3H (tritium) are used as fuel for nuclear fussi. When looking at the binding energy at a particular isotope, there are a number of energy which can be obtained by the merge elements with atomic numbers less than iron, and memfisikan elements with atomic numbers greater than iron.
The nuclei of U-235 consists of 92 protons and 143 neutrons (92 +143 = 235). When a nucleus of U-235 atom captures a neutron, it will split into two new nuclei and release some energy in the form of heat, accompanied by the release of two or three new neutrons.

If the neutrons are released tersebutdapat trigger the same reaction on other U-235 atoms, releasing neutrons and other new, fission chain reaction can occur. This reaction can happen and happen again, up to a million times, then the heat energy in huge quantities can be produced from a bit of Uranium. Roughly the thermal energy of the core reaction 1 gram U-235 is equal to the heat energy from the combustion of 1 ton of coal.
Closed nuclear fuel cycle through recycling of spent fuel without plutonium separation process has been the top choice of nuclear energy systems development in the future.
A. Mining and Milling
Uranium can be mined by open technique (open cut) and tunnel engineering (underground) depends on the depth of the rocks found uranium. For example, Ranger uranium mine is open while the Olympic Dam mine is an underground mine (mine also produces copper, gold and silver). Both the uranium mines in Australia which is the country with the largest budget category uranium reserves in the world. Mined uranium ore was then sent to the ore processing plant which is generally located near the mine. In this plant, uranium ore is mechanically crushed, and then uranium is separated from other minerals through chemical processes using sulfuric acid solution. The end result of this process in the form of uranium oxide concentrate (U3O8) is often called yellow cake, or "Yellow Cake", although in many ways colored brown.
Some of the uranium mines in Australia, the United States, and Kazakhstan using In Situ Leaching (ISL) uranium directly to mengkstrak of rocks in the soil and bring it to the surface in the form of uranium-rich solution, which is then deposited and dried into a solid uranium oxide. This technique is mainly used to extract uranium found in rocks on the ground that are not economical when delakukan with conventional techniques.
U3O8merupakan commercial products traded on world markets. Ten major countries producing uranium are Canada, Australia, Kazakhstan, Nigeria, Russia, Namibia, South Africa, Ukraine, United States, and Uzbekistan. Canada and Australia produce uranium almost 50% of total world production.
Roughly speaking, it takes about 200 tons of uranium to power a 1000 MWe reactor capable of operating for 1 year. Current world demand for uranium is relatively stable, at around 65 000 tonnes / year.
2. The next steps for the conversion of nuclear fuel-making is a process of purification and conversion into powder Yellow Cake uranium dioxide (UO2) nuclear degree. UO2 is then converted back into gaseous form of uranium hexafluoride (UF6).
For nuclear reactors which use natural uranium fuel, which is a reactor that could produce a chain fission reaction with natural uranium fuel which contains only 0.7% U-235, UO2 powder Yellow Cake conversion results can be directly sent to the plant for processing nuclear fuel a device that is ready to use nuclear fuel in the reactor.
As for the nuclear reactor is only able to produce the fission chain reaction with enriched uranium fuel, UO2 powder conversion process results in the Yellow Cake needs to be changed into the form of UF6 as feed gas enrichment process (the process of increasing levels of U-235 in uranium fuel).
UF6 conversion of UO2 to be done in a two-step process. The first is the reaction of UO2 with anhydrous HF acid to be uranium tetrafluoride (UF4). UF4 and then reacted with F2 to form UF6 gas.
The main countries operating commercial plant converting Yellow Cake - UF6adalah Canada, France, the United States, Britain, and Russia. Some countries such as China, India, Aragentina, and Romania also operates a factory conversion but only for part of its own pass unrecognized.
3. Enrichment
The majority of nuclear power plants now operating or under construction require enriched uranium as fuel. Uranium enrichment is the process of increasing levels of U-235 in uranium fuel from 0.7% (U-235 content in natural uranium) to about 3-5% or more.
Enrichment process discard about 85% U-238 through the separation process of UF6 gas into two streams, one stream is the enriched uranium will be used bait and fuel fabrication process. While the other stream is the stream of waste or "tailings" of the flow of impoverished uranium U-235 is referred to as the depletion of uranium (U-235 content less than 0.25%).
There are two methods that are commercially used for uranium enrichment process, the method of gas diffusion and gas centrifugation methods. Both of these methods basically use the same principle, namely the weight difference between the atom and U-238 U-235 atom.
In the diffusion method of enrichment, UF6dialirkan gas into a porous membrane. Therefore, the lighter U-235 atoms will diffuse or move faster than U-238 atoms, so that the UF6 gas which passes the membrane will contain more U-235. To achieve the U-235 enrichment level between 3-5%, it takes about 1400 times the repetition of the process. So the method is very wasteful of energy, will consume approximately 3-4% of the electricity it generates.
In the enrichment method of centrifugation, UF6diputar gas with high angular velocity in a tube long and slender (1-2 m long, 15-20 cm diameter). Centrifugal force will throw the isotope U-238 which is heavier away from the center of rotation, while U-235 isotopes of the lighter will be concentrated in the center of rotation.
Gas centrifuge method is more energy efficient and can be built with a smaller unit than the gaseous diffusion method, so the method is more economical and fastest growing commercially.
Uranium enrichment plant in the world was first built in the United States with a gas diffusion method. Some modern enrichment plant in Europe (France, Britain, Germany, the Netherlands) and Russian gas centrifuge method. Other countries that operate a commercial uranium enrichment plant is Japan, China, Argentina, and Brazil.
Several types of nuclear power plants, especially nuclear power plants in Canada and the Opium early generation nuclear power plants with gas cooled reactors in the UK do not require enriched uranium fuel.
4. Fuel Fabrication
Fabrication of fuel or nuclear device begins with the conversion process UF6yang been enriched (enrichment plant output) into uranium dioxide powder (UO2) is then formed into pills (pellet) cylinders through pressing and continued with roasting in an atmosphere of hydrogen gas at high temperatures (1700 ° C) to pellet UO2berderajat membetuk dense and strong ceramic.
Pellet-pellet UO2yang meet the quality requirements and then put into a shell of zirconium alloy material (zircalloy).
After both ends of the sleeve and welded closed, the fuel rod (fuel rod) arranged to form a combustion device (fuel assembly).
1000 MWe PWR core contains fuel about 160 devices. Total fuel rods are used to reach 42 000 units. Each fuel rod contains about 300-370 pellets of UO2 pellets, each weighing 6-7 grams.
PWR fuel plant the largest in the world include the Westinghouse - USA with a production capacity of 1600 ton / year, Global Nuclear Fuel - Americas with a production capacity of 1200 ton / year, Ulba - Kazakhstan with a capacity of 2000 ton / year, TVEL Elektrosal - Russia production capacity of 1020 ton / year, TVEL Novosibirsk - Russia with a production capacity of 1000 ton / year, and FBFC - France with a production capacity of 820 tons / year.
Other countries operating nuclear power plants also produce fuel perangka are Japan, South Korea, China, India, Argentina, Brazil, Britain (UK), etc.. . Nuclear Reactor
After the fabrication process, the nuclear fuel put into the reactor core. The composition of the fuel (fuel assembly) that has shaped the structure of the core or core reactor (reactor core). PWR type nuclear power plants with 1000 MW of electrical power (MWe) contains approximately 75 tonnes of slightly enriched uranium. In the reactor core, U-235 fission experience and generate heat in a continuous process called fission chain reaction. Continuity of this process depends on the moderator such as water or graphite, and fully controlled by using control rods.
In the reactor core, a number of U-238 will absorb neutrons and fission results turned into plutonium (Pu-239).
Half of the plutonium produced is also experiencing a fission reaction and produces a third of the total energy of the reactor. To maintain the performance of the reactor, about a third of the fuel used in the core should be replaced with new fuel every year or every 18 months.
6. Temporary Storage of Spent Fuel highly radioactive used fuel and spend a lot of heat. For safe handling and safe, a new spent fuel from reactors dikelurakan stored in special ponds near the reactor to reduce the heat and radioactivity. Water in the pond serves as a barrier to radiation and heat transfer spent fuel from Baban.
Spent fuel can be stored in the storage pool for a long time (up to fifty years or more), before being reprocessed or sent to final disposal as waste (sustainable storage).
Alternatively, after the level of radioactivity and heat emission decreases drastically spent fuel, spent fuel can be removed from the storage pool and then stored in a dry way. Radiation shields are reasonably priced and maintenance-free natural cooling, making this way to be an attractive option.
7. Reprocessing (Sports Birthday)
Spent fuel still contains approximately 96% (480 kg) of uranium with a fissile material content of U-235 is less than 1%. Then 3% (15 kg) of spent fuel of fission products can be categorized as high-activity waste, and 1% (5 kg) the rest of the plutonium (Pu) produced during the fuel inside the reactor and did not experience the burning.
Separation of uranium and plutonium from fission products is done by cutting the fuel element and then dissolving into the acid. Uranium is obtained from the separation process can be converted back into uranium enrichment hexaflourida for later performed. The obtained plutonium can be blended with enriched uranium to produce MOX fuel (Mixed Oxide).
Commercial MOX fuel plant in the world is Belgium, France, Germany, Britain, Russia, Japan, China, and India. United States does not do again if the spent fuel for commercial nuclear power plants in the country. Until now the United States adheres to an open cycle systems or "open cycle".
Some of the PWR nuclear power plant in the world especially in Europe have been using MOX fuel, although its nature is still partial, namely 20-30% of the existing fuel in the core. Japan in the near future it plans to ship a third of its 54 nuclear power plants with MOX fuel.
The 3% of highly radioactive waste resulting from reprocessing is a fission product which number around 750 kg per year from 1000 MWe power reactor. This waste is initially stored in liquid form and then compacted.
Reprocessing spent fuel conducted at facilities in Europe and Russia with a capacity of 5000 tons per year, and total production for almost 40 years has reached about 90 000 tons.
8. Vitrification
High radioactivity waste from reprocessing can be calcined (heated at very high temperatures) so that a dry powder which is then put into borosilicate (pyrex) for immobilizing the waste. Glass material is then poured into stainless steel tubes, each of 400 kg of waste glass. Pengoperasiaan 1000 MWe reactor for one year will result in the waste glass as much as 5 tons or about 12 tubes of stainless high as 1.3 meters and 0.4 meters in diameter. Once given appropriate radiation protection, waste is processed and then transported to the waste storage area.
Until now, the nuclear fuel cycle back end or the "back end" just get to this point.
Final disposal of high radioactivity waste or spent fuel disposal is not reprocessed (open cycle), is still not done.
9. Final Disposal of Waste
Final disposal of waste is in principle sustainable waste storage of high radioactivity that has digelasifikasi and sealed in a stainless steel tube, as well as sustainable storage of spent fuel that has been through enough and the cooling process has been sealed in a container or "canister" is made of corrosion resistant metal such as copper or stainless steel.
Has generally been accepted that the waste is planned to be buried in stable rock in the soil to a depth of not less than 500 m in bedrock (bed rock). Most countries plan to implement the sustainable storage of spent fuel after 2010.

The Process Of Nuclear Power

2012-02-11T07:41:00.000+07:00

Judging from the ongoing process, there are two types of nuclear reactions, nuclear chain reaction is uncontrolled and uncontrollable nuclear chain reaction. Uncontrolled nuclear reaction occurred for example in a nuclear bomb. The purpose of these events are not controlled nuclear reaction to heat generated tremendous magnitude that has a bomb blast damaged a maximum power. In order for a nuclear reaction that occurs can be controlled safely and the energy released from nuclear reactions can be utilized, then people try to create a means of reaction known as a nuclear reactor. production of nuclear fuel for power reactors (NPP), namely:
Yellow Cake purification and conversion into UO2 powder nuclear degrees, and
Device fabrication of nuclear fuel for heavy water reactor type nuclear power plants (HWR)

.
UO2 powder production process begins nuclear degrees of dissolution process the raw materials of Yellow Cake, and purification, precipitation and drying of ADU (ammonium diuranat), calcination of UO3 to U3O8, U3O8 into UO2 reduction and passivation of UO2 powder.

UO2 powder product was then sent to the fabrication untukdiproses further into a final product of the nuclear fuel (fuel bundles). Fabrication processes include: the creation of sintered UO2 pellets, preparation and assembly of components of fuel elements, as well as the nuclear fuel assembly.
Nuclear reactor produces and controls the release of energy from the splitting of atomic number elements such as uranium and plutonium. In the reactor nuclear power plant (NPP), the energy released from fission (split) a chain of atoms of fuel and the heat generated is used to produce steam.
To get an idea of the amount of energy can be released by nuclear reactions, the following is an example of a simple calculation. Take 1 g (0.001 kg) 235 U nuclear fuel. The number of atoms in the fuel are:

N = (1/235) x 6.02 x 25.6 x 1020 1023 = 235 U atom.

Because each of the 235 U fission of nuclear fuel is accompanied by the release of energy of 200 MeV, then 1 g of 235 U that make perfect fission can release energy by:

E = 25.6 x 1020 (atom) x 200 (MeV / atom) = 51.2 x 1022 MeV

If the energy is expressed in units of Joules (J), where 1 MeV = 1.6 x 10-13 J, the energy released then becomes:

E = 51.2 x 1022 (MeV) x 1.6 x 10-13 (J / MeV) = 81.92 x 109 J

Assuming only 30% of that energy can be converted into electrical energy, electrical energy can then be obtained from 1 g of 235 U is:
Elistrik = (30/100) x 81.92 x 24.58 x 109 J = 109 J

Because 1J = 1 Ws (E = Pt), the electronic equipment like TV sets with power (P) 100 W power requirements can be met by 1 g of 235 U for:

t = Elistrik / P = 24.58 x 109 (J) / 100 (W) = 24.58 x 107 s

Figures 24.58 x 107 second (s) of equal length by 7.78 years continuously without shut down.

Boiling Water Reactor
On a boiling water reactor, the fission heat is used directly to evaporate the cooling water and steam that is formed directly used to turn turbines. High pressure turbine to receive steam at temperatures around 290 º C and a pressure of 7.2 MPa. Most of the steam forwarded again to the low pressure turbine. This system can be obtained with a thermal efficiency of 34%. Thermal efficiency indicates the percentage of fission heat that can be converted into electrical energy. After going through the turbine, the steam will have a cooling process that turns into water flowed directly into the reactor core for the evaporated again and so on. The reactor was used with 235 U fuel enrichment level of 3-4% in the form of UO2.
In 1981, the company Toshiba, General Electric and Hitachi cooperate with the company's Tokyo Electric Power Co. Inc. to initiate a joint development project in order to improve system performance by introducing a Boiling Water Reactor Boiling Water Reactor, or A-Advanced BWR (Boiling Water Reactor Advanced). A capacity-BWR is designed to enhance greater economic benefits. In addition, some components of the reactor also increased, such as an increase in the fraction of fuel, coolant circulation pump system improvements, control rod drive mechanism and others.

Pressurized Water Reactor
Pressurized Water Reactor coolant also uses H2O as well as moderator. The difference with Boiling Water Reactor cooling is the use of two types, namely primary and secondary coolant. The heat produced from the fission reaction is used to heat the primary cooling water. The reactor is equipped with a pressure controller (pessurizer) used to maintain the primary coolant system pressure.
Pressurizer system consists of a tank which is equipped with electric heating and water hoses. If the pressure in the reactor core is reduced, an electric heater will heat the water contained in the pressurizer tank, forming the extra steam will raise the pressure in the primary cooling system. Conversely, when pressure increases in the primary cooling system, the sprinkler system would condense some steam so that the vapor pressure is reduced and the primary cooling system will return to its original state. The primary coolant system pressure is maintained at 150 Atm position to prevent the primary cooling water does not boil at temperatures around 300 º C. At normal air pressure, water will boil and evaporate at a temperature of 100 º C.

In the working process, the primary cooling water supplied to the steam generating system that exchanges heat between the cooling system of primary and secondary cooling system. In this case between the two cooling the heat exchange takes place only without any contact or mix, because the two were separated by a cooling pipe system. The exchange of heat causes the secondary cooling water is evaporated. Pressure on the secondary cooling system is maintained at normal air pressure so that water can evaporate at a temperature of 100 º C. Vapor formed in the steam generator system is then streamed to rotate the turbine.

Ability and mastery of nuclear fuel production technology is expected to increase the power of options bargainning domestication of nuclear fuel industry is one of the strategic efforts to strengthen and improve national capacities in introducing nuclear power program in 2025, and to support the development and implementation of innovative nuclear energy systems in the future within the framework of sustainable development.

Technology development activities are currently being implemented in IEBE priority groups to receive:

The ability to produce sintered UO2 pellets according to the requirements,
The ability to execute welding end cap - cladding specification,
Ability of carrying out the synthesis and characterization of a nuclear fuel element structural materials (zircalloy),
The ability to execute the test set quality standards, and
Ability to manage a nuclear installation safety and security.

Development activities are also intended to get the technique or method of sintering pellets UO2yang cheaper than conventional methods and techniques to obtain quality pellets UO2sinter better.

The H2 Plant

2012-02-10T08:29:00.000+07:00

Generator is designed to be able to survive in conditions of normal working temperatures of up to working temperature is abnormal, for example: during a short circuit current.
For the same dimensions, the ability to withstand heat will determine the output power rating to withstand the heat that is owned generator.Kemampuan determined two factors: a. Isolation level
b. Cooling rate (ability to dissipate heat)
Heat that caused the generator caused by loss - loss of power (power losses) consisting of:
- Loss - loss of copper / loss - loss of power
- Loss - loss of iron / loss - loss of magnet
- Loss - loss of mechanical
Generator with output power ratings above 300 MVA-Ugi has lost about 1%. Loss - the loss in the form of heat. To keep the heat does not damage the insulating mechanical generator systems listrikdan the pans should be channeled out / absorbed from the generator. Functions performed by the heat absorption refrigeration system.
Steam turbine generator PLTGU Freshwater Estuary using a generator with output power rating of 200 MVA (288 MVA) so that the media selection hydrogen gas (H2) as a coolant is appropriate. Media selection hydrogen gas (H2) as a refrigerant is based on:
A. The density of Hydrogen is only 1/14 times the density of air at the same pressure and temperature. The use of hydrogen gas will reduce the losses - losses due to friction wind generator and sound (noise).
2. Heat transfer capability of hydrogen gas in the system of forced convection (forced convection) 1.5 times the amount of air the heat transfer capability.
3. For the same mass, the heat absorbing capacity of 14.5 times the amount of hydrogen gas of air, because at the same temperature and pressure of the mass of hydrogen is only 1/14 times the mass of air. Then the magnitude of the heat capacity of hydrogen: 14.5 / 14 = 1.035 times the heat-absorbing ability of the air at the same temperature and pressure. So better cooling hydrogen gas from the air.
4. Hydrogen gas does not occur on oxidation reactions and impurities so the generator insulation life will be longer.
5. The thermal conductivity of hydrogen gas air 7 times.
6. In the high-speed machines such as generators, loss - loss of wind is calculated as part of the loss - a total loss, because the density of hydrogen of about 7% more dense than air. Loss - loss of air-cooled hydrogen generator is reduced to 10% of air-cooled generator, so that the generator efficiency is increased by 1%.
The use of hydrogen gas media will reduce the heat to be removed and at the same time will increase the ability to dissipate heat from the generator.
The selection of media as a medium for cooling the hydrogen gas should be noted that - as follows:
a. Hydrogen gas is a gas that is very dangerous (explosive) that require special handling. Concentration of 4-76% hydrogen gas in the air is an explosive mixture (mixture explosivi). Hydrogen gas purity must be guarded / secured at a high level.
b. Require special handling in the process of charging and discharging hydrogen gas from the generator.
c. Requires two systems Auxillary namely:
- Seal oil system: to maintain the hydrogen gas remains in the generator.
- Gas system / Hydrogen plant: to maintain the pressure and purity of hydrogen gas.

Generator cooling circulation system can be viewed as the picture below:

Sirkulasi Gas Hydrogen
Generators and water cooled heat exchanger must be insulated hydrogen gas terahadap meeting. The main problem that occurs in isolation bearings which can be space / narrow gap between the rotor and the generator body is not moving. Spaces / narrow gap that allows its happening kebocorangas the hydrogen to the outside air pressure is smaller. This is very dangerous because it can cause an explosion and fire. To overcome the space / narrow gap is closed with a coating of oil / oil seal oil system is required.
To prevent the mixture that is explosive in the combustion chamber pressure is maintained so that hydrogen gas is greater than the outside air pressure so that when the hydrogen gas leak will point out.
Minimum pressure of hydrogen gas to the outside air is 3440 N/m2 (0.0344 barg). At this pressure the maximum output power rating of the generator can be increased by about 30% above the rating of air-cooled generator. While the peak efficiency (full load efficiency) rose about 0.5%. Tend to use hydrogen gas pressure is higher (between 1.03 barg s / d 4.13 barg) to mass of hydrogen gas generator in a larger space so that the heat absorbing capacity increases. Raising the hydrogen gas pressure of 0.0344 to 1.03 barg barg will increase the output (for the same rise in temperature) of about 15%. Hydrogen gas pressure increases from 0.0344 to 2.07 barg barg would raise output (for the same temperature increase) by 25%. Methods to improve the ability to absorb heat from the generator is to develop a conductor cooling / cooling liner.

Electric Power Production Process

2012-02-07T20:08:00.000+07:00

The coal is unloaded from the ships at the Coal Jetty and scooped up by the Stacker Reclaimer (1) and then transferred by conveyors to the temporary stock through Telescopic Chute (2). Thereafter the coal will be sent to the Steam Generator. Following that, the coal is transferred through the Junction House (3) to the Scrapper Conveyor (4) and then to the Coal Bunker (5). Afterwards, the coal is channeled to the Coal Feeder (6) the which controls the flow of coal into the Pulverizer (7) where the coal is pulverized into fine powder, the which is picked up by a powerful stream of hot water from the Primary Air Fan (8) and then Carried to the Coal Burner (9) the which blows the coal into the Combustion Rooms, and burns like gas to convert water into steam. The hot water used by the Primary Air Fan is supplied by the Forced Draught Fan (10) the which draws the hot air from the upper part of the Boiler House and passes it through the Water Heater (11). The F.D. Fan also supplies water to the Coal Burner to support the combustion process. The results of the combustion process consist of ashes residue in a ratio of 14: 1. The ashes, the which drop to the bottom of the boilers, are our Periodically taken and stored. The residue from the burning process gases are sucked out from the boiler by the ID Fan (12) via the Electrostatic Precipitator (13) the which absorbs 99.5% of the flying dust and ashes with a high powered electrode system, and blow them up to the Stack (14). The ashes and dust are then collected and taken by a Pneumatic Gravity Conveyor to be used as material for the production of road, elements of cement and building blocks (bricks, conblock). The heat released by the burning fuel is absorbed by waterwalls of the boiler to be turned into saturated steam and it is further heated in the superheater (15), the which is then chaneled into the High Pressure Turbine (16) where it is discharged through nozzles onto the turbine blades. The force of the steam striking the blades makes the turbine rotate. After passing this High Pressure Turbine, the steam is returned to the boiler for reheating in the Reheater (17) before being applied to the Intermediate Pressure Turbine (18) and the Low Pressure Turbine (19). Meanwhile, the exhausted steam is turned back into water in the Condenser (23) by using Sea Water (26) supplied by CW Pump (32). The condensate water is then to be used again later in the boiler. The water is Pumped away from the condenser with a Condensate Extraction Pump (24) heated in the LP Heater (25) and up to the Deaerator (27) - a heated storage tank - then Pumped by the Boiler Feed Pump (28) through the HP Heater (29) where it is further heated before entering the boiler at the Economizer (30) then the water enters the steam drum (31). The L.P. Turbine shaft is coupled to the generator (20) - a large electromagnetic cylinder _ so when the turbine rotates That the rotor rotates with it. The generator rotor is enclosed in the stator (21). The stator is wound using internally cooled copper bars. Electricity is produced in the stator's copper bars by the electromagnet in the rotor through the rotation of the magnetic field. The electric voltage of 23 KV is then Increased to 500 000 volts by the Generator Transformer (22).

Coal is unloaded from ships at Coal Jetty and dredged using Stacker Reclaimer (1), and then transported by conveyor to temporary storage (Temporary Stock) through Telescopic Chute (2) to then be sent to the boiler. Furthermore, the coal is transferred through the Junction House (3) to the Scrapper Conveyor (4) and the Coal Bunker (5), forwarded to the Coal Feeder (6) which controls the amount of flow to the Pulverizer (7) in which the coal needs to be milled powder very fine like flour. The coal powder is mixed with hot air from the Primary Air Fan (8) and taken to the Coal Burner (9) that blow the coal into the combustion chamber for combustion processes such as gas and burned to turn water into steam. Hot air is used by P.A. Fan supplied from F.D. Fan (10) which suppress the hot air is passed through a Water Heater after (11). F.D. Fan also supplies air to the Coal Burner to support the combustion process. The results of the combustion process produces waste in the form of ashes in the ratio 14:1. Ash that fell to the bottom of the boiler is periodically removed and stored. Combustion gas is sucked out of the boiler by ID Fan (12) and passed through an Electric Precipitator (13) which absorbs 99.5% of fly ash and dust with electrode system that is blown into the chimney / stack (14). Ash and dust are then collected and taken with the Gravity Conveyor Pneumatic tools are used as material for road construction materials, cement and building materials (conblok). The heat generated from fuel combustion, is absorbed by the evaporator pipes / Waterwalls into saturated steam / wet steam is further heated by the superheater (15). Then the steam is supplied to the high pressure turbine HP Turbine (16), in which steam is pressed through a nozzle into the turbine blades. Power of steam turbine blades hit and makes the turbine spin. After going through H.P. Turbine, steam is returned to the boiler to be heated again in Reheater (17) before the steam is used in IP Turbine (18) and L.P. Turbine (19). Meanwhile, the former returned to the water vapor in Condensor (23) with sea water / Sea Water (26) is supplied by the CW Pump (32). Condensation of water will be reused in the boiler. Water is pumped from Condensor Condensate Extraction Pump with (24), heated again by the LP Heater (25), raised to Deaerator (27). Heating tank and then pumped by the Boiler Feed Pump (28) by HP Heater (29), where the water is further heated before entering the boiler at Economiser (30), then water into the steam drum (31). Low pressure turbine shaft is coupled to the generator rotor (20). Electromagnetic cylindrical rotor in size when the turbine rotates rotating part. Generator Generator Stator wrapped in (21). The stator is wound with copper rod. Electricity is generated in the stator by a copper bar rotor Electromagnetism through rotation of the magnetic field. Voltage is 23 kV and then raised to 500,000 Volt with Generator Transformer (22).

All About HIV

2012-02-03T23:22:00.000+07:00

Imunodifisiensi human virus is a virus that can cause disease that is very, very afraid of AIDS. This virus attacks the human immune system attacks the body, so that the body becomes weak and sluggish in fighting infection. In other words, the presence of this virus will cause a deficiency in the body's immune system deficiencies. Someone who is HIV positive, not necessarily have AIDS. Many cases where someone is HIV positive, but did not become sick in a long time. However, the existing HIV in a person's body will continue to damage the immune system. As a result, viruses, fungi and bacteria are usually harmless to extremely dangerous because of damage to the body's immune system. HIV is a virus which genetic material is RNA (ribonucleic acid) which is wrapped by a matrix composed mostly of protein. To grow, it needs to change its genetic material into DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), integrated into the host DNA, and then undergo a process that would eventually produce the protein. The resulting proteins would then form new viruses.
HIV is the virus that causes AIDS. HIV present in a person's body fluids such as blood, sexual fluids (semen or vaginal fluids that have been infected) and breast milk that has been infected. While AIDS is a syndrome decreased immunity caused by HIV.

People who develop AIDS very easily infected by various diseases because the immune system of patients had menurun.HIV can be transmitted to others through:

Sexual intercourse (anal, oral, vaginal) unprotected (without condom) with someone who has been infected with HIV.
Syringe / piercings / tattoos that are not sterile and are used interchangeably
Get a blood transfusion containing HIV virus
HIV-positive mothers with their babies while in utero, during birth or through breast milk (ASI)

AIDS began to grow and show signs or symptoms gejala.Tanda clinical signs of AIDS patients:

Body weight decreased by more than 10% in 1 month
Chronic diarrhea that lasts more than 1 month
More prolonged fever dari1 months
Impairment of consciousness and neurological disorders
Dementia / HIV encephalopathy

Minor symptoms:

Persistent cough for more than 1 month
Generalized dermatitis, an itchy
Presence of multisegmental Herpes zoster and recurrent
Recurrent yeast infections in female genital

There are several stages when the HIV virus from infected until symptoms of AIDS:

A. Stage 1: The window period
- HIV enters the body, until the formation of antibodies to HIV in the blood
- No special tanda2, people with HIV look healthy and feel healthy
- HIV test can not detect the presence of this virus
- This stage is called the window period, generally ranging from 2 weeks - 6 months

2. Phase 2: Positive HIV (without symptoms) on average for 5-10 years:
- HIV proliferate in the body
- There are no specific signs, people with HIV look healthy and feel healthy
- HIV Test can detect a person's HIV status, having been formed antibodies against HIV
Generally, it looks healthy for 5-10 years, depending on her endurance (average 8 years (in developing countries is shorter)

3. Stage 3: HIV Positive (symptoms)
- The immune system is on the downside
- Start up of symptoms of opportunistic infections, such as swollen lymph glands throughout the body, continuous diarrhea, flu, etc.
- Generally lasts for more than a month, depending on her endurance

4. Stage 4: AIDS
- The condition is very weak immune system
- Various other diseases (opportunistic infections) is getting worse

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