Forensic Fingerprint

Can AI Replace Judicial Discretion in Criminal Sentencing

2026-04-18T16:38:00.000+05:30

Algorithms in the Courtroom: Can AI Replace Judicial Discretion in Criminal Sentencing ?

Writer - Mr. Sourav

Justice in the Age of Code

What happens when sentencing starts looking like a score?

Around the world, criminal justice systems are experimenting with algorithmic tools that claim to predict the likelihood of reoffending. What was once a deeply human exercise—shaped by experience, moral judgment, and discretion—is increasingly being “assisted” by data-driven recommendations. The real question is not whether AI can compute faster, but whether it can participate in justice without distorting it.

Why algorithmic sentencing looks attractive

In jurisdictions like the United States, risk assessment tools (such as COMPAS) have been used to inform decisions connected to punishment and release. These systems promise three things courts badly want:

• Efficiency in overloaded systems

• Consistency across similar cases

• Reduced bias, by replacing subjective intuition with data

But the moment we treat a risk score as neutral truth, we step onto dangerous ground.

The problem: bias doesn’t disappear—it gets encoded

Algorithms learn from historical data. And criminal justice data often reflects older inequalities—patterns of policing, arrests, prosecution choices, and socio-economic disadvantage. When that data trains a model, the result can be a system that repeats discrimination with the authority of mathematics.

The COMPAS controversy became emblematic of this fear: that certain communities could be labelled “high risk” more often, even when actual outcomes were more complicated. The lesson is simple: AI may automate bias rather than eliminate it.

What judicial discretion does that AI cannot

Sentencing is not only prediction. It is also moral and legal evaluation.

A judge weighs things that are hard to convert into variables:

• degree of intention and culpability

• personal circumstances and the possibility of reform

• proportionality between offence and punishment

• the broader social context of the act

An algorithm can estimate risk. It cannot explain—like a judge must—why a particular punishment is deserved, or how it serves the purposes of criminal law (deterrence, reformation, protection of society, and fairness).

Due process and the “black box” concern

Another issue is transparency. Many systems are not fully explainable, sometimes due to technical complexity or proprietary design. That creates a serious fairness question:

How can an accused challenge a sentencing recommendation if the reasoning behind it cannot be meaningfully understood or tested?

In criminal law, where liberty is at stake, opacity is not a minor technical flaw—it is a constitutional problem.

India: not there yet, but not far from the debate

India hasn’t formally adopted AI-based sentencing tools. Still, as courts digitize and adopt legal-tech systems, the possibility of algorithmic “assistance” is no longer hypothetical. If such tools ever enter sentencing, they must be compatible with Article 14 (equality) and Article 21 (fair procedure and personal liberty)—meaning transparency, accountability, and human oversight cannot be optional.

Conclusion: AI may assist, but it cannot replace judgment

Used carefully, AI can help courts with pattern recognition, data summaries, and consistency checks. But sentencing is where law meets human dignity. A judge can be questioned, appealed, and held accountable. A score cannot.

Algorithms may inform decisions. They should not become the decision-maker.

Contamination of Evidence: Forensic Fingerprint

2022-09-15T10:21:00.005+05:30

Contamination of Evidence

The unwanted alteration of evidence is contamination and it affects the integrity

of the original exhibit or the scene of crime. Contamination of evidence may

link a civil person to scene of crime and may lead to a guilty individual not being

charged. Effects of contamination is

1) Original evidence transfer wiped up due to unwanted alteration

2) Contamination dilute a sample,

3) Deposition of misleading new materials onto an exhibit.

All these effects compromise the analysis of the original evidence and resulted

that the court may not accept the analysis.

There are number of ways a Contamination can take place -

During a tactical investigative response Police or other first responders interfering with the evidence.

In a process of covering up or removing evidences, suspects interfere with the crime scene.

Unknowingly handling of evidence by victims or witnesses.

Unwanted transfer of evidence or even elimination of evidence by animals (Pets) through contact or

consumption.

Weather also causes contamination due to rain, wind, or snow resulted in diluting or washing away

evidence.

During investigation, Investigators Oblivious to follow proper scene of crime management procedures

and initiating contamination of exhibits or cross-contamination between exhibits.

The court will agree that when issue of life and safety are at risk, some contamination is not under the

control of investigator. Once the crime scene is locked down, crime scene management procedures

must be put in place.

Challenge for investigators, is how to...

1) Prevent contamination

2) Control ongoing contamination, and

3) Record the known contamination that has taken place.

To determine/establish the dimension and to protect the crime scene should be the first priority as it

reduces the risk of contamination.

Causes of contamination of evidence -

1) Crime scene contamination - The actions of the personnel at the crime scene are usually results in contamination of the scene. The scene/evidence will be contaminated by presence of more personnel at the scene. The deposition of hairs, fibers and other trace evidences take place from the clothing of scene personnel or even destroying of fingerprints and shoes/foot prints.

2) Degree of contamination - The type of crime scene is related to the degree of contamination as for EX. In a theft case less number of individuals has access to the scene as compared to a typical death scene. Higher number of individuals has access to crime scene; the potential for contamination is always higher.

3) Environmental factors: Environmental conditions play major role in the contamination of crime scene evidence specially the outdoor crime scene. For EX. blood evidence at an outdoor crime scene and it rains, then the blood may become diluted. Wind may blow away evidence or can carry contamination. Wind, sun, rain, snow and temperature play significant role in the contamination or destruction of the evidence at a scene of crime.

4) Equipment - The equipment used at scene of crime is also a source of contamination (equipment used for photography, sketching equipment and all processing equipment in crime scene kits). We can controlled this contamination by decontaminate the equipment before use.

How is contamination of evidence reduced?

Following steps should be taken to prevent contamination –

1) Locking down the Crime Scene or protecting the crime scene

Protecting the crime scene prevent the risk of contamination. First priority should be given to determining the dimension of the crime scene. Indoor crime scene is easier to secure in comparison to outdoor crime scene. Weather conditions and crowd is responsible for contamination in outdoor crime scene. Isolating the crime scene inside a perimeter is locking down. Stop all ongoing activities inside the crime scene, everyone should be out and a physical barrier, police tape or rope, is placed around the outside edges of scene of crime.

Next step after locking down is to establish a designated pathway from where authorized personnel can re-enter the scene of crime. Photography is must prior to re-enter the crime scene.

How to protect crime scene, link below

https://www.forensicfingerprint.in/2020/05/crime-scene-investigation-series-5.html

2) Loss of Continuity

Establish and maintain continuity of evidence is must like controlling contamination. Chain of custody is essential and helps to reduce contamination.

Crime scene personnel must follow a protocol for evidence collection to reduce contamination. The order of evidence collection is to collect the large articles first then recover the trace like hairs and fibers, then further collect the biological fluid, tool marks, visible finger prints or footwear patterns and on last latent impressions.

As discuss earlier it is advisable to minimize direct contact with exhibits by wear barrier clothing, less number of people at scene of crime, cleaning and/or sterilizing of equipment. Barrier clothing includes face mask, hair cover, gloves, etc.

3) Packaging and Collection

Packing of evidence is an essential part of scene of crime and it prevent destruction and contamination of evidence. Always used new and clean container to pack evidence, some evidence required sterile containers. The containers must be sealed at the crime scene.

How to pack physical evidence link below-

https://www.forensicfingerprint.in/2020/06/packaging-of-physical-evidences-at.html

4) Transporting Evidence

Biological evidence is sensitive to temperature, so they require consideration to prevent destruction and contamination. Precautions to prevent freezing of the evidence should also be taken during winter times. Carelessness during transportation/storage of evidence leads to contamination or destruction of evidence.

Conclusion

Contamination of evidence has been a concern for law enforcement and forensic personnel. If evidence is collect properly, pack and handle correctly during transportation and storage, the potential for contamination will be greatly reduced. It resulted in saving the integrity and value of the evidence for further process.

Fingerprint Minutiae: Forensic Fingerprint

2022-07-31T10:33:00.004+05:30

Fingerprint Minutiae

In every sector of life we need a system which recognition, identify, verify

as well as reliable and user friendly. Biometric techniques used fingerprint

for automatic personal identification and verification and fingerprint science

is the simplest and cheapest method for identification and no question on its

reliability. As all of us know that fingerprint science is based on two fundamentals -

Permanency and Individuality.

Every individual has unique fingerprints and they remain permanent. Fingerprints

at scene of crime link the criminal to the crime/crime scene. Now a day for matching

of chance print with data base prints AFIS system (Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems)

is used and it is based on the ridge characteristics known as minutiae.

Minutiae are the points where the ridge lines end or fork/split. The major features

of a fingerprint image are the minutiae points and they are used in the matching

of fingerprints. The uniqueness of a fingerprint image is determined by minutiae

points. Minutiae points are of many types.

These types include –

Ridge ending, ridge bifurcation, ridge dots, enclosure (lakes), short ridge, bridges,

ridge crossing, hook (spur).

Ridge ending is defined as a point where the ridge ends suddenly.

Ridge bifurcation is defined as a point where a single ridge branches divide into two or more ridges.

An isolated ridge unit whose length approximates its width in size is ridge dot.

Enclosures are a single friction ridge that bifurcates and rejoins after a short course and continues as a

single friction ridge.

Spurs is a notch protruding from a side ridge towards the other ridge.

A connecting friction ridge between parallel running ridges, generally right angle.

Crossovers are formed when two ridges cross each other and intersect.

The most commonly used minutia types are Ridge endings and ridge bifurcations, all other types of

minutiae are based on a combination of these two types.

Minutiae based fingerprint recognition

Minutiae based fingerprint recognition is more accurate in comparison to other correlation based systems. When two fingerprints match in the system it is said if their minutiae points match. This minutiae based technique is the backbone of currently available fingerprint recognition systems.

In fingerprint identification system, the captured fingerprint image/chance prints needs to be matched against the stored fingerprint database. This involves a lot of computation and search overhead and for this we need a system which restricts the size of the templates database. To achieve this, we extract the minutiae features of the fingerprint and it reduces the complex issue of fingerprint recognition to an issue of point pattern matching.

Input fingerprint images quality is the key point in the performance of a minutiae extraction algorithm, therefore fingerprint enhancement algorithm is very essential in the minutiae extraction module.

Acquired fingerprint images due to some variations in impression conditions, ridge configuration, skin conditions, scars, dirt, humidity, acquisition devices etc. is significantly of poor quality. The ridge characteristics in poor-quality fingerprint images are not well-defined and cannot be correctly detected. Problems arise due to this is…

Spurious minutiae may be created,

Some genuine minutiae may be ignored, and

Errors in the position and orientation of minutiae may be introduced.

So an enhancement algorithm that increases the clearness of the ridge structures is necessary.

We have variety of techniques for extracting fingerprint minutiae and are classified into two types –

techniques that work on binarized images and

techniques that work on gray scale images.

Three levels of fingerprint features in a fingerprint image is –

Singular points and global ridge patterns, e.g., deltas and cores are level-1 features; these are the macro details of fingerprints. They are used for fingerprint classification rather than recognition. Level-2 features are minutiae (ridge endings and bifurcations). They are the distinctive and stable features, used in automated fingerprint recognition systems and are extracted from low-resolution fingerprint images (~500 dpi). Resolution of 500 dpi is the standard fingerprint resolution. Level 3 features include sweat pores, ridge contours, and ridge edge features, which provide quantitative data supporting correct and robust fingerprint recognition.

How many minutiae points are needed to match two fingerprint or to say them identical?

In INDIA we need at least 8 minutiae identical matching points in their relative positions. Different countries have adopted different points minutiae system as per law of the land.

Latent prints: Forensic Fingerprint

2022-06-26T16:09:00.003+05:30

LATENT PRINTS

Fingerprints are the most valuable source of identification. There are so

many occasions in life where we need to be fingerprinted. It involves getting

passport, the visa, the background check for a new job. Fingerprints are taken

of suspects or criminals by the Law enforcement department. Every individual

has unique and permanent fingerprints.

What Are Latent Prints?

Latent Print - A latent print is an impression made from the friction skin

(ridges of your skin) of the fingers or palms of the hands on the surface we touched.

The Oils and perspiration from body settle on the ridges of the skin and transferred

to surface we touched resulted in finger impression. They are the valuable physical

evidence that is used to solve crimes.

Types of Fingerprints found at crime scene –

Chance impressions or chance prints are the fingerprints that are left at crime scene

by the victim or criminal on objects/surfaces. They are of three types….

1) Latent

Latent fingerprints are very important pieces of forensic evidence; they are not readily

visible to the naked eye and additional processing is required to see them. Various

methods used for their processing such as fingerprint powders, chemical reagents

or alternate light sources.

Latent fingerprint evidence is divided into two categories:

I. Porous evidence that readily allows for the conservation of latent fingerprints

because residue infuses into the surface; such as cardboard, paper and unfinished

wood and

II. In non-porous evidence latent fingerprints substances only lie on the surface

and did not infuse in to the surface and can be intentionally or accidentally wiped

away; such as glass, finished wood, and plastic.

Generally speaking, latent prints present can be found and developed easily on

smoother and less porous surface.

2. Visible prints are found on smooth or rough, porous (such as cloth, paper or wood)

or nonporous (such as glass, metal or plastic) surface. They formed when blood,

ink, paint, dirt etc. is transferred from a finger to a surface. These fingerprints are

visible to the human eye.

3. Plastic – These fingerprints are three-dimensional plastic prints and formed on soft

surfaces by pressing of fingers on soap, wax, wet paint etc. They are easily seen by

human eyes and do not need any additional processing for visibility.

Latent Print Lifting Techniques

Latent fingerprinting involves step by step process, first locating, developing, preserving, and identifying the impressions left by a culprit at the scene of crime.

Latent prints made visible by using various methods.

Dusting or Staining: Dusting or staining technique is done by using various fingerprints developing powders (Black powder, Grey Powder, aluminum powder, magnetic powder etc.) by brushing them to a surface. Powder bonds with the print moisture and make it visible. Prints are preserved as evidence either by photography or by lifting them with adhesive tape and transferred it on the white or black sheet of paper (lift card) according to the contrast of the powder.

But how to collect Patent Prints and plastic fingerprints?

Both Patent and plastic fingerprints are collected by using photography. Using high resolution with a forensic measurement scale these prints are photographed.

Alternate Light Source (ALS) –

Alternative Light Source is a laser or LED devices that emit a particular wavelength, or spectrum, of light to reveal prints on certain surfaces (doors, doorknobs, windows, railings, etc.). Experts also use color filters and camera filters to enhance the print quality and then photograph the same.

Cyanoacrylate

Cyanoacrylate (superglue) processing, or fuming, is a technique to develop fingerprints on a surface before applying powders or dye stains. This process used on non-porous surfaces, the exhibit exposed to cyanoacrylate vapors (fumes) which will adhere to the prints and make them visible (a milky white colored print).

Dye Stains (Rhodamine 6G, Safranin O, Thenoyl Europium Chelate)

Dye stains used in conjunction with cyanoacrylate processing on a non-porous surface. After cyanoacrylate fuming, a white-gray-milky print developed which accept the dye stains causing the latent to fluoresce brighter than the background it is located on. Expert may brush, dip, dap or spray the dye mixture (found in liquid) on to the cyanoacrylate processed print, which in turn take the color of the dye. Long-wave ultraviolet light source used to illuminate the dyes to be photographed.

Chemical Developers: Latent fingerprints on Porous surfaces such as paper can be difficult to lift with dust or dyes. In these cases experts use chemicals methods. These chemicals react with components of latent print residue, such as amino acids, fatty acids and inorganic salts to reveal latent prints.

Ninhydrin reagent processed prints appeared in purple color, which makes them easily photographed. After ninhydrin spray, latent prints on paper appeared after being processed with a household steam iron.

DFO (1,2-diazafluoren-9-one) is used as chemical developer to locate latent fingerprints on porous surfaces(react with amino acids present on latent print). Latent fingerprints fluoresce, or glow, when they are illuminated by blue-green light after DFO processing.

Other Collection Methods

Amido Black is used for developing or enhancing bloody impressions on human skin. On cloths to reveal prints, vacuum metal deposition using gold and zinc technique is good. AccuTrans®( a thick liquid) used to lift powdered latent prints from rough, textured or curved surfaces, where conventional print lifting tape encounters difficulty. It is advisable to use nondestructive techniques before the evidence is processed with any chemical method.

In AFIS system (Automated fingerprint identification system), we can place the latent fingerprint in to digital format with the use of equipment such as digital cameras, computers, and scanners. Expert use this digital enhancement imaging software to adjust various features such as contrast, brightness and density to improve the quality of the latent print. AFIS system searches its database for possible matches and generated a list, which verified by the expert for traced (positive) and untraced (negative) result.

A positive result is confirmed when the latent print (found at a crime scene) and the inked fingerprint (taken from a suspect)/ Database print is sufficient to make a corresponding match, based on the degree of similarity (or number of matching points) between the two prints (similar minutia).

Latent Prints are the most valuable and common types of physical evidence found at crime scene. All objects at crime scene are the possible sources of fingerprints that may lead to identification of the criminal. An expert examines the following points in latent print….

He determines the presence of latent prints (it’s partial, blurred, smudged, fit or unfit for comparison). Compare and verify latent prints with the prints of suspects/accused and with inmates for elimination purposes. Establish the identity of unknown deceased persons and compare/Identify the print using the Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS).

Limitations of Latent Print Analysis

Latent print ridge analysis cannot determine:

The sex, Age, Race or nationality.

Timing of print impression (prints were left before, during, or after a crime). Prints did not point out a specific criminal act.

Biological Evidence: Forensic Fingerprint

2022-05-08T16:41:00.006+05:30

Biological Evidence

Biological evidence at the crime scene is the samples of biological material such as

• Blood

• Semen

• Saliva

• Urine/Feces

• Hair

• Teeth/Bone

• Tissue

• Cells

Each crime scene investigation is based on the theory of transfer or exchange

established by Edmond Locard, a Frenchman, that state that every contact leaves

a trace. This exchange involve, hairs, dirt, dust, fibers, blood and other bodily

fluids, skin cells, metallic residue and other microscopic constituents. The motive

is to establish a link between the crime scene, the victim, physical evidence,

and the criminal/suspect.

Biological evidence is essential in linking someone to or excluding someone from

crime scene. It helps the criminal justice system to reach a conclusion about the

guilt or innocence of the suspect. It is necessary that it has been properly preserved,

processed, stored, and avoided to be contaminated, loss, premature destruction or

degradation.

DIRECT TRANSFER

Transfer of material from the original source to another person or object is a direct transfer.

Example -

1) Victim’s blood present on the suspect clothing.

2) Suspect’s semen recovered from the victim.

INDIRECT TRANSFER

Trace evidence, first directly transferred to one location and then transferred again to another location is an indirect transfer.

Example –

Rug fibers at scene of crime had been transferred to victim cloth and then found in the offender car after he transported the body.

Solid state evidence adhered while liquid biological evidence absorbed.

Evidence collection -

Biological evidence is subject to deterioration. It must be carefully collected and preserved, so that useful information can be obtained from its analysis and used for legal system.

The collection method of biological evidence depends largely on the state and condition of the evidence.

When we collected biological evidence for DNA analysis, a significant quantity of material should be collected for testing purposes. Biological specimen after collection should be promptly delivered to the forensic laboratory. Items should be stored in a cool, dry atmosphere to minimize sample deterioration, until they are submitted for testing.

Samples must be frozen or dried; there are chemical solutions that can preserve the sample. Samples also are dried by air – without heat/sunlight.

Preservation is very important as it makes the evidence intact and usable for DNA testing at a later stage.

Procedures for Collection of Evidence –

Each item should be marked properly (on the container/envelope or on large items)

Each item should be described precisely and entirely with the corresponding case number with the date and time of collection mentioned.

Each specimen/item should be packaged in a separate container, the container will be clean, and proper sized to prevent cross contamination or damage.

Each packed item should be sealed to retain evidence and to prevent from unauthorized handling.

Proper records should be maintained regarding each article/specimen showing chain of custody, from the point of origin to its final disposition.

Every item should be photographed before it is collected as evidence.

For seminal fluid it is necessary that they must be collected before they lost or destroyed. Samples should be allowed to air dry naturally or use a hair dryer on low speed. Wet samples must be drawn into an eyedropper or pipette and should be placed in a sterile test tube. When found dry stains on cloths, submit the entire article, remember not to break or contaminate the stained area.

Blood and Bloodstains collection

Blood on absorbent objects should be dried in shadow and air. All the materials should be packed separately. Large items packed in a clean paper and small items in plastic phials.

Blood on non-absorbent objects –

If blood in large amount and wet then suck up liquid blood with disposable pipette and then packed.

If blood present in small amount, rub cotton on the stain.

For large amount dry blood, scraped and used a scalpel to transfer in to a hard plastic container.

For small amount dry blood, collect it by rubbing a piece of moistened cotton on the strain.

Bloodstains on body collected by filter paper, cotton, or a clean piece of cloth moistened with normal saline. After air drying, packed in a paper envelope.

Pattern of bloodstains should be photographed (color) with scale, collect the sample by swabbing stains with moist cotton and pack in a paper envelop.

Saliva

Sample collected on white gauze, dry it and packed in a plastic container.

Hairs and fibers

Hair and fiber evidence collected by plastic tweezers on a paper, fold it and packed in a paper envelope or plastic bag. A separate comb should be used for control sample from each area of the suspect body.

Skin with bullet hole

First take a color photograph of the hole, advised the medical officer to cut the skin beyond the blacked area around the hole. Store it in a glass jar containing 10% formalin solution.

Semen

Contamination is a key issue when it comes to preserving sperm evidence, sample must be an isolated one and correctly identified and labelled. Take color photograph, collect articles having it and allow air drying then packed in paper bag or paper envelope.

Urine/Feces

Sometimes urine or feces left at the crime scene by the offender. Urine can be collected by eyedropper or gauze and placed in a sterile test tube or other container. If found on cloths then submit the entire article.

For trace evidence you can use vacuum cleaner fitted with an in-line canister, attachment in the hose, forceps or use tape. Forceps and tape is the best method so as to not contaminate the evidence.

Fingernail scrapings obtained for an analysis of any blood, skin or hair from the offender.

BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE HAZARDS AND HANDLING

Remember that contact with bodily fluids can spread disease (by blood borne pathogens) and

Persons handling biological evidence should take proper safety.

Hair evidence: Forensic Fingerprint

2022-04-20T20:12:00.006+05:30

Hair Evidence

Hair evidence plays a significant and valuable part in crime investigation as trace

evidence, its presence on a crime scene link a suspect/criminal to crime scene or to a

victim and also victim to crime scene and criminal. Hairs present on humans body

on the head, arms, legs, pubic region and on other body areas. Each region of the body

has hairs with different characteristics attributable to that region and determines their

origin. Head and pubic area are the regions of the human body that’s mostly used in

forensic analysis. Hairs are the fine threadlike strands composed of protein keratin,

growing from the skin of humans, mammals and animals and formed from a structure

called the hair follicle. Hair follicles develop during fetal development. Hair length,

color, shape, root appearance, and internal microscopic features distinguish it from

one animal to another. The phase of growth of the hair (cyclical growth - anagen)

/(resting phase - telogen) are visible microscopic characteristics and easily determined.

Genes also plays a role in hair shape (round or oval) and texture (curly or straight).

Animal’s hairs comprise outer hairs or guard hairs, fur hairs, whiskers, and other

hairs from tail and mane of an animal.

Microscopic hair -

Hair structure consist several layers:-

A) Cuticle

B) Cortex

C) Medulla

HAIR IN FORENSIC INVESTIGATION –

Length, color, and curliness of hair determine during macroscopic investigation. It also indicates fine detail in hair structure.

Presence of dye or other treatments find out in Phase contrast microscopy.

Detail of the surface or interior of the sample find out by using Electron microscopes.

The race of an assailant or the region of the body from where the hair was lost determined by the hair evidence. Hair can also provide DNA evidence if the follicle (root) of the hair is intact. Hair evidence is called Individualized evidence when follicle is attached and consider as class evidence when hair follicle is not attached. The analyst gives following information to the investigator –

Things that determined by hair evidence -

The specimen is of any Human or animal origin.

Race of the specimen hair (European, Asian, African).

Origin and color, shape and chemical composition of the hair.

Manner in which hair was removed.

Treated hair and Drugs ingested (presence of toxins, dyes and hair treatments).

Provide DNA details.

Age -

Cannot be determined definitively, however, the microscopic appearance of definite human hairs, such as of children and elderly individuals, provide a general sign of age.

TYPES OF CASES IN WHICH HAIR VALUED AS EVIDENCE -

ASSAULT AND HOMICIDE - These types of crimes involve hairs interchange between victim and suspect.

RAPE - Cross transfer of fibres and hairs between clothing of suspect and victim or on articles such as blankets or automobile seat covers.

BURGLARY – Possibility of hair evidence if head covering was not used.

HIT-AND-RUN CASE - Forceful interaction between victim and automobile, hair and fibers can generally be Found, stick to the grill, fenders, door handles, or parts of the undercarriage.

In many other cases hair evidence is so valuable as in the above cases.

Collection of hair evidence -

Hair and fibre are collected mainly at the scene of crime and at the autopsy stage. Hairs can be collected by using a number of different techniques -

Hair samples are collected from the surrounding area for the purposes of eliminating peoples from police inquiries as well as to narrow down the list of suspects. Collection of these samples through meticulous and painstaking processes, which are carried out by Expert who themselves dressed in protective cloths so that their hairs do not contaminate any evidence which may pre-exist.

Scraping, shaking, taping, and picking are methods used to collect hairs from bedding and clothing items.

Vacuuming should be done on large carpeted surfaces to collect the samples into a filtered canister.

Samples should be collected in varying vials, tubes and grip seal bags. It helps to stop the cross contamination.

Victim’s clothing should be examined for trace elements and also checked for hairs that do not match with the victim. You can at this point also collect animal hair.

The next stage of hair collection is at the autopsy, where pathologist will scrape the underside of the victim’s fingernails for any hair, skin material that might be there. Materials collected and stored in the same manner for examination and comparison at a later stage.

Samples collected are sent to the laboratory (with control samples from suspected person). Control samples recovered from all parts of the head and from pubic area. Prior to sample collection the area should be combed for foreign hairs.

Hair samples should be collected using tweezers.

Hair evidence should be picking up with gloves fingers or tongs and then wrapped in a fold paper and then place into an envelope, labeled as usual.

Hairs combined with blood or any other fluids should be collected and preserved intact whenever possible. Use the protocols for fluids preservation.

What is Hair Microscopy?

Hair can be analyzed and tested by microscopic comparison and chemical analysis by comparing the suspect's hair with hair found at the crime scene or recovered during autopsy. Microscopic comparison found out the color, texture, shape and other visual aspects of the sample, while chemical analysis specifies the presence of drugs, toxins, dyes and other chemicals.

Hairs found at scene of crime also matched to the person who left it there by using modern DNA techniques.

Hair examination process has different steps; first one is to found out whether the hair in question originated from a human being or an animal.

Comparison microscope contains two compound light microscopes joined by an optical bridge that allows the viewing of known hairs and questioned hairs. We can put a glass microscope slide containing known hair position on the stage of one microscope, and a glass microscope slide containing a questioned hair position on the stage of the other microscope. It helps the hair examiner to match the microscopic characteristics of the known sample and questioned sample in one field. Approximate range of magnification used is 40X to 400X.

In the first step if the hair examiner fount that hair is originated from an animal, then it will further identify with a particular type of animal or its species.

Many factors impact the reliability of a hair association, including the training, experience, suitability of known hair standards, and capability of equipment, method of evidence collection, evidence processing techniques employed and methodology of the hair examination process.

Significance of Hair Evidence

Hair transfer occurred due to physical contact, when hairs transfer directly from the region of the body where they are growing, it is a primary transfer. When they can transfer from the clothing of any person, it is a secondary transfer. Hairs shed on the cloths and on items in the surroundings. Forcibly removed hairs suggest a violent confrontation.

The transfer of hair and its discovery as trace evidence and its presence linking a suspect to a victim or a suspect/victim to a crime scene. The types of hair recovered, how hairs can be transferred, the condition and number of hairs found and other factors which affect the significance of a hair match are significant concerns of crime scene investigators, hair examiners and prosecutors. Microscopic comparison of questioned hairs characteristics to known hair samples help in determining whether a transfer may have occurred.

Case situations that affect the significance of identifying hairs –

The location, number, and condition (forcibly pulled or burnt, for example) of recovered hairs is very important, when a family member involved in a crime.

In hair examination the involvement of the victim’s companions, coworkers, and other persons who have logical contact or access to the victim and/or to the scene of crime is an additional consideration.

When hair associations have been made consider the situations involving strangers; it’s a great significance to the case.

Fingerprint a myth or reality: Forensic Fingerprint

2022-04-08T11:38:00.003+05:30

Fingerprint a myth or reality

All of us know that fingerprints are used for personal identification for more

than 100 years. It is the simplest and inexpensive method of identification.

Fingerprints are the forensic scientist’s handiest tool to catch criminals,

helped law agencies and produced as evidence in law of court.

What make Fingerprint science special?

Without the support and assistance of hand, no crime can be committed.

The chances to find fingerprint marks are higher in any type of crime

scene. It is now accepted throughout the world that the fingerprints science

played a major role as evidence because of the following features –

Uniqueness

The fingerprint patterns present on the first phalange of fingertips are

varying from one person to another, they are different and unique.

There duplication has not been observed. They remain unchanged and maintain

the individuality of an individual throughout the life.

Permanence

Throughout the life time of an individual fingerprint remain constant.

Fingerprint ridges appear before birth i.e. during the third, fourth month

of pregnancy and these are the last remaining feature after death of an

individual. They are the natural identity card given to each individual.

Universal

All individuals on the earth carry this medium of identification, this makes

them universal. A criminal always use his hands to commit any crime

resulted in leaving fingermarks on the scene of crime or on any object,

which come in contact with his fingers while committing the crime.

Inimitable

People have attempted several methods to imitate fingerprint but successful

imitation of fingerprints is not reported so far. Any experienced expert can

identify the forgery.

Classifiable

Fingerprints have different ridges characteristics and patterns which help the

experts to systematically classify them.

Fingerprint Uniqueness in Twins

Twins are identical twins or fraternal twins, they share the same genetics but

by taking their fingerprints you can distinguish between them.

When an expert says that two fingerprints are identical it means that both share the same pattern and similar ridges characteristics. These ridges characteristics are called minutiae. Latent fingerprints are also called hidden prints. These are the chance prints which leftover by the perpetrator by chance at the crime scene. Latent fingerprints are developed by experts at crime scene by powder method, chemical method or by using alternate light source.

The Myths of Fingerprints Science –

1) Fingerprints are forever

Fingerprints are forever but certain genetic conditions (Adermatoglyphia) and skin condition leads the loss or distortion of the fingerprints. Persons who are associated with tactile works, typist, clerks, individuals associated with message work, maids etc. also loss the fine ridges characteristics.

2) Humans are the only animals with fingerprints –

Some animals like gorillas, chimpanzees and koalas have unique fingerprints. Koalas prints are looking similar to humans’ fingerprints.

3) DNA fingerprinting overshadow the fingerprint science –

Most of the crime scenes don’t have blood and body fluids but chances of fingerprints are more as the objects/articles had been touched by criminals during the process of crime. So fingerprints are still the most commonly found evidence at the scene of crime.

4) System does all the work –

A big misconception is that the computer system (AFIS-Automated Fingerprint Identification System) does all the work but the system is automated not automatic, it’s the expert who does the work. System or tools have been changed but analysis always requires an experienced expert.

5) Professional analysts are highly accurate, but not infallible –

To understand this point first sees the difference between uniqueness of fingerprints and the exactness of fingerprint identification. Both these things are completely different. When a fingerprint lifted from a crime scene it is then searched in the database or with the suspect fingerprints. It is a process of observation, analysis and verification by the expert. Yes fingerprint are unique to every individual but to match the prints an experienced expert is needed, poorly trained analysts made damage to the fingerprint science.

In the year 2004, FBI arrested Oregon lawyer Brandon Mayfield for his involvement in Madrid train bombings. The basis of arrest was a partial fingerprint that matched with him. Later it was found that the experts were wrong in there analysis, actually the print was later matched with an Algerian man Daoud Ouhnane arrested by Spanish officials.

Fingerprint analysis is still an extremely effective tool because it’s done good work than harm. The errors occurred and brought to light- it was the science that conveyed them to light. If you make a mistake, you deserve to be analyzed. National Institute of Standards and Technology found in its study that the automated computerized systems match latent fingerprints are correct more than 99 percent of the time when matching fingerprints from two or more fingers.

6) Accuracy and consistency of forensic latent fingerprint decisions -

Ten digit prints (for search purpose and matching) are of higher quality and collected under controlled conditions by ink method on prescribed form or digitally with the help of a live scanner system from a known subject.

Latent print examination is difficult because latent prints are often unclear, distorted, smudged, or contains fewer ridges, found overlapping with other prints or appeared on complex backgrounds. As said earlier that a trained and experienced expert is needed for latent print examination because latent print with poor quality, few ridges can give wrong result.

When a fingerprint was found and lifted from a crime scene, it is then send to the concerned department (Finger Print Bureau) to compare with fingerprints stored in a database and against one or more exemplars collected from suspect/persons of interest in the case. The latent print is then searched (from a large database) in an Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS), which is designed to work on an algorithum and selected a list of most similar to the latent comparison. Final decisions were made by a latent print expert. If the expert finds out the same pattern and identified a sufficient number of minutiae in the two prints, then the final “identical” decision is recorded into the computer system, which is again “verified” by a second expert who may or may not be blind to the initial expert decision.

7) The identification process of fingerprint matching is carried out accurately and reliably?

Automated Fingerprint Identification System is used for fingerprint examination. It gives outcomes not just for one single person but for quite a few who have identical fingerprint characteristics. After providing possible candidates list by computer, it’s still the expert call to carefully examines each edge, ridge and valley for a right match—an often hard and painstaking process.

The process for latent print examination is known - ACE-V, (as analysis, comparison, evaluation, and verification).

Analysis – In this step the fingerprint and its suitable area for comparison is examined with clarity of print and other details.

Comparison – The Search print (mostly finger print and in some system palm print) compared with the listed/sample print.

Evaluation – In this step the similar or dissimilar points are evaluated in both prints.

Verification – Opinion is made by one expert and cross checked by another expert.

The process is accurate and reliable.

8) Limitations of fingerprint science -

There’s no assurance that the stored data will actually contain the print an investigator is looking for.

Latent print is affected by weather conditions. When the weather is too hot the print is drown by perspiration, when too cold, a print mark not recorded on surrounding objects, due to less moisture. Rain and wind also affect the print condition.

During development of print by powder method the powder can bunch and obscure ridges.

We cannot determine when a latent print was first left on a surface. Under the accurate conditions, prints can survive for an indefinite period.

9) Automated Fingerprint Identification System influenced the experts –

The system provides the ordered list of similar matches (also give scoring rate). Experts are more interested in one of the prints that are near the top of the list and not seriously lookout the print lying down the list.

This is only an assumption as the expert check and identifies all the prints in the list provided by the identification system.

10) How many points of comparison are needed in two identical prints to be used in a court of law?

Fingerprint experts used a “point-counting” method that involves counting the number of similar ridge characteristics on the prints, but there is no uniform approach about how many points of similarity are needed. Different countries fixed different minimum point system/similar ridge characteristics. In India there is an 8 point system. When an expert find 8 minimum minutiae (ridge ending, ridge bifurcation etc.) at the relative position in both comparing prints then he reach the conclusion “it’s an identical match”. India accepted the minimum 8 point minutia formula in All India Forensic science Conference held at Srinagar in 1973.

Conclusion

So the bottom line is fingerprint science is reliable or accurate, Fingerprint identification is the most important and essential criminal investigation tool, and should continue to be used in criminal investigation. Fingerprint science is a leader of innovation in biometrics for the last two decades.

Note - This article was first appeared and published in a forensic magazine, "forensic science: A world of uncertain certainties, Issue 1, written by the same author.

Laws and Principles of Forensic Science: Forensic Fingerprint

2022-03-19T20:57:00.009+05:30

Laws and Principles of Forensic Science

Forensic Science

is the scientific discipline which is engaged to the recognition,

identification, individualization and

evaluation of physical evidence by using the laws and principles

of natural science for the purpose of

administration to terminate doubtful questions in the court of law.

The term “forensics” taken from latin word “forensis”

which mean ‘the forum’. Forensic scientist also

play an active role in civil proceedings

(such as violate of agreement and negligence) and in regulatory

issues.

The principles of forensic science have a straight impact on criminal proceedings.

Laws and Principles of Forensic Science -

Law of Individuality

Law of Progressive change

Principle of Comparison

Principle of Analysis

Principle of Exchange (Locard’s principle of Exchange)

Law of Probability

Law of Circumstantial facts.

All these principles of forensic science are essential in crime scene investigation to link a suspect/criminal with the scene of crime as well as victim.

1) Law of Individuality -

This law states that, “Every object whether natural or man-made has a distinctive quality or characteristic in it which is not duplicated in any other object,” in other words, no two things in this universe are alike. Most common example is the human fingerprints; they are unique, permanent and prove individuality of a person. Even the twins did not have the same fingerprints.

Consider grains of sand, salt, seeds or man-made objects such as currency notes, laptop, typewriter, etc. they may look similar but a unique characteristic is always present between them.

This principle considered as the most basic elementary unit of Forensic Science. Fingerprints, footprints, tool marks, obtained from the crime scene are studied and analyzed on the principle of individuality.

2) Law of Progressive Change

This principle emphasizes that, “Everything changes with the passage of time and nothing remains constant. “ The changing frequency varies from sample to sample and on different objects.

The crime scene must be secured in time otherwise a change in weather (rain, heat, wind), presence of animals/humans, etc. affects the crime scene. For example, a road accident on a busy highway may lose all essential evidence if not properly secured on time.

A bullet fragments may grow rust, firearm barrels loosen, shoes suffer wear and tear marks, wooden objects may suffer due to presence of termite, etc. Longer the delay, greater the changes.

When samples are not much durable, several complications occur in an investigation as the process of identification is affected due to the variations in the main features of identification. Without an appropriate preservative, tissue samples start degrading immediately and they need immediate analysis.

The criminals undergo progressive changes with time. If he is not apprehended in time he becomes unrecognizable except his fingerprints or other characteristics of permanent nature.

3) Locard’s principle of Exchange (Law of exchange)

This principle was stated by French scientist -Edmond Locard (a pioneer in criminology and forensic science). Law of exchange states that, “As soon as two things come in connection with each other, they mutually interchange the traces between them.”

Whenever criminal or his weapon/instrument made connection with the victim or the things surrounding him he left some traces at crime scene and also picked up the traces from the area or person he has been in contacted with (mutual exchange of matter). These traces are very helpful for investigation purposes as these traces are identified by the expert and linked to its original source resulted in the decisive linkage of the criminal with the crime scene and the victim. This law forms the basis of scientific crime investigation.

This principle is validated in all cases where there is a contact such as fingerprints, tyre marks, bullet residues, foot marks, hair sample, skin, muscles, bodily fluids, blood, pieces of clothing etc. DNA analysis is a straight application of this principle, where any such items are under analysis which was believed to be held by the perpetrator.

Basic requirement of this law is the correct location of the physical evidence -

i) What are the areas and things with which the perpetrator or tool actually came in contact during the crime?

ii) Investigating officer should establish the correct points of contact, its lead the investigation in correct direction.

4) Principle of Comparison – For laboratory Investigation this law is very important. The law state that “Only the likes can be compared”. It highlights the requirement of providing like samples and specimens for evaluation with the questioned items’.

For example, if the murder is done by a firearm weapon then it is useless to send a knife for comparison.

So, the important condition of this principle is to supply specimen/samples of like nature for proper assessment with the questioned sample discovered from the crime scene.

5) Principle of Analysis

This principle states that, “The quality of any analysis would be better by collection of correct sample and its correct preservation in the prescribed manner”. This leads to better result and avoid tampering, contamination and destruction of a sample.

If you collect a hard disk in a paper bag, it can be damaged when it falls within the range of a strong electromagnetic field resulted in poor results. Hence, always appropriate and effective collection and packaging techniques must be used.

6) Law of Probability

This law states that, “All identifications (definite or indefinite), made consciously or unconsciously on the basis of probability.”

The perpetrator blood group is also the blood group of various people is high, but the probability of the same occurring in the case is low.

A woman with a tattoo bear on its right hand and an old injury mark on head is reported missing, an unknown woman is found murdered with these characteristics then the probability for cops that the unknown corpse is of that missing woman is high. The probability that the dead body is of another woman will be 1 in millions.

7) Law of Circumstantial facts

According to this law, “Facts cannot be wrong, they cannot lie not wholly absent but men can and do.” This law emphasizes the significance of circumstantial facts and supports that a statement given by a human may or may not be accurate. In an investigation identified and discovered facts are more accurate and reliable than any eyewitness.

Conclusion

Forensic science by these principles is used for recognition, identification; individualization of pieces of evidence collected from the scene of crime and guides the criminal proceedings from the discovery of a crime to the conviction of the accused, helping the process of investigation.

Explosive Cases: Forensic Fingerprint

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Explosive cases

An explosive is a substance or a mixture of substances which is made to undergo

a rapid chemical change without an outside supply of oxygen with the liberation

of large amounts of energy, gases and heat due to exothermic reaction. There is a

difference between an explosion and a detonation.

Detonation - It is an instantaneous decomposition or combustion of molecules

of explosive, accompanied by heat, sound and short lived light. Ex TNT, Gelatin.

Explosive are classified according to -

1) Rate of reaction -

i) Low explosive Ex gunpowder, nitrocellulose.

ii) High explosive Ex RDX, PETN

2) According to sensitivity -

i) Primary high explosive Ex mercury fulminate, lead azide, lead styphnate.

ii) Secondary high explosive Ex TNT, RDX, HMX, PETN.

3) According to occurrence -

i) Military explosive

ii) Industrial explosive

iii) Water explosive

iv) Emulsion explosive

v) Explosives

vi) Pyrotechnics

vii) Propellants

viii) Non explosive mixtures

Explosion crime scene-

Every crime scene is a rich and important source of evidence. Explosion crime scene always needs experienced and systematic approach.

Upon arrival at the scene, first responders (law enforcement officers, firefighters, or emergency medical services) must evaluate the scene of crime speedily and carefully to determine the sequence of action to be taken. The evaluation includes the scope of the incident, requirement of emergency services, safety as well as evidentiary concern.

He should initiate the rescue of injured or trapped victims. Wait for the removal of fatalities as it needs authorization.

He should establish a command post/ command system for contact and line of communication with authorities and with other public safety personnel).

He should request emergency services from bomb technicians, firefighters, and law enforcement officers.

Consider and Identify scene hazards, such as structural collapse, hazardous chemicals, and beware of secondary explosive devices. If any secondary device is located, immediately vacate the whole area and contact bomb disposal personnel.

He should preserve the potentially transient physical evidences i.e. the evidence present on victims and the evidence that may be compromised/contaminated by weather conditions.

Investigator Role in explosive cases -

The investigator should coordinate with the first responder to assess the current situation and to determine what occurred.

He must clarify that a search for secondary explosive devices had been conducted. Assess initial scene safety to the extent likely prior to entry.

Reassess the crime scene requirements (e.g., boundaries, personnel, equipment).

He must create an entry and exit pathway for personnel.

Traditional evidence such as fingerprint, footprint, tyre marks, tool marks should also be searched. He should safeguard the preservation and/or collection of transient evidence.

He must make an attempt to locate the seat(s) of the explosion(s). Pattern of explosion provide the center point of the explosion and for this purpose shattered wooden or glass doors, windows, ventilators should be observed carefully. Effect of flame or hot gases on metallic objects also provides the location and influence of the explosion on them. Seat of explosion and the pit formation carry traces of explosive materials and constituents of devices. Pit dimensions, depth and direction provide intensity of explosion.

The search pattern in an explosion case should be spiral method starting from the site of explosion or pit formation.

Huge amount of debris are present at explosion crime scene, all debris should be handled with patience and perseverance.

He should Identify witnesses, victims, and the presence of evidence.

In case of live explosive device, main problem is the proper identification. The investigator should know about the physical appearance of various explosive materials.

When a live explosive device is present the investigator should evacuated all the persons and make whole area safe by piling sand bags around the device.

If bomb disposal squad is not available then submerge the device in to water carefully up to 72 hours.

Take the photography/videotaping of the crime scene. Take overall views of the crime scene (e.g., wide angle, aerial, 360-degree) to spatially relate the items within and to the crime scene and with the surrounding area.This documentation should be finished preceding to the removal or disturbance of any items from the crime scene.

Audio portion of any video recording should be muted unless there is narration. Presence of scene personnel in photography/videotaping should be minimized.

He should not rule out the involvement of any vehicle by the perpetrator.

He must ensure that the chain of custody is started for evidence that may have been previously collected.

Some questions always in mind of the investigator which required examination-

Whether the explosion is a malicious intention or an accident?

The material collected from the crime scene is an explosive substance?

Quantity of explosive substance and its damaging capacity?

Is the explosion by a non-explosive material like LPG etc?

Is any Improvised explosive device is involved?

What is infanticide and why does it occur: Forensic Fingerprint

2022-01-01T13:34:00.003+05:30

Infanticide

Infanticide is the act of deliberately killing of infants up to 1 year old child

and Neonaticide is the killing of a newborn within 24 hours of birth. It is

present in all cultures and economic classes, however by the use of contraceptives

or through abortion and better social conditions the modern society reduces

the population and reduces the frequency of infanticide.

In most cases it is difficult to report the infanticide as the death of infant covered

as stillbirth or they are not registered at the birth registry office.

Types of infanticide are -

1) Direct or active Infanticide - Deliberately killing the baby by means of

dehydration or starvation, by suffocation or head injuries is Direct or active Infanticide.

2) Indirect or passive infanticide - Indirect or passive infanticide occurred by

careless parenting and not given adequate nutrition especially when the baby is ill.

Infanticide delinquents are divided into following categories -

(1) Neonaticide

(2) Battering mothers that characterized by a abrupt impulsive act caused by the victims’ behavior.

(3) Retaliating women who kill the child due to anger at their partner.

(4) Unwanted children whose mothers are single, younger and/or economically weak.

(5) Mercy killings, which reveal the mothers beliefs and tend to include disabled victims and

(6) Offenders that is mentally ill.

Roots/causes of infanticide -

1) Control of the population

For the control and to regulate the population, particularly in the past, many societies

routinely used infanticide as a way and it mostly affected the female children.

2) Unwanted pregnancies

Nowadays unwanted pregnancies are the utmost cause of infanticide. In many parts

of the world, there is no consideration and approach to modern forms of birth control

or medical abortion; as a result many females experience unwanted pregnancies.

Second reason is women or their families did not have adequate resources to take

care of their child. Third reason is illegitimate childbirths, which means that the

gestation is not the consequence of a marriage accepted by the society and it can

dishonor their family.

3) Beliefs derived from biological causes

In some culture like in Benin (Africa), when children born with a disability then they are killed, as in their culture they are effected with negative magical effects or evil spells. The same beliefs apply by Quijo people in Ecuador in cases of twin and albino children birth. They killed the second child or it is given to another family.

4) Female infanticide

The most common form of infanticide is the female infanticide, both nowadays and in the past. In some cultures, men’s are socially considered to be more valuable than women. Female infanticide resulted in a great imbalance between the sex ratio of male and female in some regions. There is no clear distinction between infanticide and abortion, sometimes it depends on situations.

Role of investigator -

Infanticide case should be handle delicately and tactfully. Investigator collect the oral evidence as well as physical evidence from the crime scene.

Mother should be examined in doctor presence as per norms.

Doctor with nursing staff should be examined for oral evidence.

Statements of all persons who witnessed the delivery and who witnessed infanticide process, disposal of the infant.

Statement of the neighborhood.

Physical evidence -

First physical evidence is the infant body and its remnants.

Things in which body of the infant was wrapped, like towel,napkins etc.

Evidence related to delivery like blood, scissors, blade, blood stained cloths etc. At the crime scene.

Instruments used to kill the infant like pillow, rope, cloth, rod etc.

Collect other evidences like an homicide case.

Medical evidence are also important in infanticide cases. The investigator must also find with medical doctor that

The alleged mother has delivered the infant

Delivery was normal or otherwise.

Physical and mental condition of the mother.

Infant was born alive on delivery or still born or dead born.

Infant was died of natural cause or he was suffered from any fatal disease or defect.

Exact age of the infant.

Actual cause of death.

Injury mark on body was caused during birth or otherwise.

Ligature mark on neck or head injury caused accidentally or otherwise.

How to determine time of death: Forensic Fingerprint

2021-12-04T14:30:00.003+05:30

How to determine time of death

There are a number of factors that help the professionals to determine the time,

when a deceased person passed. The time of death calculator is a crucial piece of

information and a tool that is used to measure the time that has passed between a

person death and the detection of his body.

The two important factors for determining the time of death are –

Calculating the time of death using algor mortis (change in the temperature of the body) and

Calculating the time of death using rigor mortis (change in the rigidity of the body).

Algor Mortis

The cooling of the body after death is Algor Mortis. As we know that the Normal

body temperature is sustained by blood circulation and when our heart stops the

circulation automatically stops resulted in cooling of body. A normal body temperature

is 98.6 degrees F (37 degrees C) but it may vary. Two terms are important in

calculating the body temperature of the deceased -

The ambient temperature – It is the temperature of the surroundings where the

body was found (e.g., the air temperature) and

The body temperature - The body temperature measured in the rectum /rectally.

The formula is started by taking body’s temperature rectally. After several hours

one’s heart has stopped beating and the body’s core temperature drops near to

ambient temperature (i.e. room temperature, if indoors). The body loses 1.5 degrees

Fahrenheit per hour, so rectal temperature is subtracted from the normal body

temperature that is 98 degrees F, again divided the difference by 1.5, and that

final number is used to approximate the time since death.

Time since death = (98.6 – Rectal Body temperature) / the 1.5-degree-per-hour factor

The deceased body loses heat passively by three mechanisms –

Radiation – Body heat lost as infrared heat rays,

Conduction – Body heat passed on to any object that contacts the body, and

Convection – Body heat lost into the moving air.

The 1.5-degree-per-hour factor works if a number of factors are expected to be constant, like the ambient temperature hasn’t changed since the death… or when we found the victim was in clothed and in the air rather than in a bathtub full of water. Alcohol consumption by the deceased before death, the size of the corpse and other factors also interferes with body’s cooling process. A deceased body in a temperate room will drop heat much more slowly in comparison to one in an icy or flowing stream. The body will lose or gain heat until it touches equilibrium with its environment. Heavy clothing, Obesity, warm still air, exposure to direct sunlight and an enclosed environment slow down the heat loss. Chronically ill or emaciated person dead body loses heat slowly as compared to body of elderly and children. When the body is in contact with cold surface ( marble or cool concrete), heat loss will be greater.

Livor Mortis

Liver mortis is when heart stops beating, blood stops circulating, resulted in purplish-blue discoloration of the skin due to the collection of blood in skin vessels due to gravity (pooling into the parts of the body closest to the ground).

Blanching is what happens when you press your finger on your skin and you see for a few seconds a white spot appear.

This lightening of the skin is due to pressure of your finger pushing the blood away from that area for a few seconds creating a lack of blood in that area. The blood rushes back after pressure is removed. When livor mortis has fully set in, blanching totally ends. The discoloration of the skin becomes ‘fixed’ after a certain period, owing to the breakup of blood cells and the leak of hemoglobin. After 2 to 4 hours of death livor mortis starts to progress and it becomes non-fixed or blanchable up to 8 to 12 hours and fixed or non-blanchable after 8-12 hours from the time of death.

At the crime scene Investigator will press his finger in an area of pooled blood to see if the area is fixed or not to further determine the time of death. In addition to the pooling of blood, petechial hemorrhages or Tardieu Spots also starts( small vessels breakdown throughout the body). If the markings of livor mortis don’t resemble with the position the body, it indicate that the body has been moved.

Livor mortis is less helpful on bodies found days or weeks after death as it does not have very precise measurement of the time of death after 12 hours.

Rigor Mortis

Stiffening of muscles after death is Rigor mortis. It is caused by the reduction of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from the muscles. The stopping of oxygen supply causes the stoppage of aerobic respiration in the cells and leads to a lack of ATP production. Buildup of acid in the muscle tissues resulted in stiffening (not contract but just lock in place) of body in next 24 to 48 hours.

Rigor mortis first appears in smaller muscles over the face, head, around the eyes and the jaw followed by rigor mortis of the muscles in fingertips, neck and upper limbs, then moves to large muscles of the lower limbs. Rigor mortis sets for 18 to 36 hours and then disappears, followed by a phase known as secondary flaccidity.

In general –

Death occurred under 3 hours, the body feels warm and no rigor is present.

Death occurred under 3-8 hours, the body feels warm and stiff.

Death occurred under 8-36 hours the body feels cold and stiff,

Death occurred more than 36 hours; the body is cold and not stiff.

Factors that impact the onset and timeline of Rigor mortis are –

Temperature- The rate of rigor (hot) either increase or slow down (cold) by the effect of temperature around the body.

Illness – Ill person body already have increased amounts of acid in the muscle tissue (higher concentration) which will increase the rate of rigor.

Activity before death - Strenuous activity before death also increases the amount (concentration) of acid in the muscles resulted as increase the rate of rigor.

Physical conditions where the body is found – A change in the rigor timeline affected by other environmental aspects like movement of the body once rigor has set in. If the body was forced to move or bend despite being stiff, the process of rigor is broken and will not reform back to normal standards.

Once ambient temperature, livor mortis and rigor mortis are all in place, determining time of death becomes trickier.

Staged Crime Scene: Forensic Fingerprint

2021-11-07T16:04:00.003+05:30

What is a Staged Crime Scene?

Staging is a conscious criminal action or a deliberate effort made by an offender

to confuse the forensic investigators and police by altering/manipulate the crime

scene and to thwart the overall criminal justice process. Criminal try to make a

murder look like a suicide or an accident and mislead the investigation process. In

some cases the staging offender moves the body or clean certain areas and removing

bloodstains with a cleanser.

Examples of staged crime scenes are –

When a husband hit his wife on the head by a blunt object and it leads to her death.

Then he tries to clean up the area and moves her body into the bathroom, stage a drama,

claiming that she fell while bathing.

A criminal make an effort to stage the murder crime scene that’s look like,

“a burglar killed the victim” by staging a breaking lock or a window and missing

of valuable items.

When someone secretly feeds a deadly quantity of sedatives to the other and forges a

suicide note to make a homicide look like a suicide.

MOTIVATION

Motive is one of the key issues that have to be determined or to be resolved in any criminal

investigation.

Why someone employs staging -

First to mislead or to redirect the investigation away from the suspect or to protect victim or victim’s

family”.

The investigator found two different behaviors that are determining the motive for the staged crime

scene.

(a) The original act that necessitated the staging (i.e., homicide, false allegation of rape,

autoerotic death) and

(b) The staging itself.

MOTIVE FOR THE ORIGINAL ACT

The following motives are commonly associated with staged crime scenes -

Greed- Desire for money or property is greed. Greed-motivated homicides include staging of crime as a robbery-related homicide or as a sex-related homicide.

Anger - revenge - Strong feelings of aggression go together with a desire for retribution. Anger - revenge motivated crime staged as an autoerotic fatality.

Attention - This motive is related with false claims of sexual assault. Though, the investigator also supposed to find attention in staged robberies, burglaries, break-ins and petty vandalism.

Game playing - The least common motive and it is observed in suicide or homicide cases. The staging of the crime scene was to mislead police as to the manner of death.

Embarrassment-shame - In this motive the staging offender is trying to deliver the victim with a degree of self-respect (Ex redressing the body) or to let the family to recall the victim in a more substantial sense than the original scene would have permitted (Ex, victim died during dangerous autoerotic activities). In some cases, the individual repositioning the scene because of his or her own sense of clumsiness or self-awareness.

We are aware of greed-motivated homicides staged as satanic crimes, greed-motivated homicides staged as sexual homicides, greed-motivated homicides staged as robbery-related deaths, anger-motivated homicides staged as autoerotic fatalities, anger-motivated homicides staged as home-invasion homicides, autoerotic fatalities staged as suicides, autoerotic fatalities staged as homicides, pseudo-victims staging violent sexual assaults and suicides staged as homicides.

INDICATORS OF A STAGED CRIME SCENE

The determination of whether a crime has been staged or not is based on the recognition of inconsistencies/irregularities in three categories and these are -

(a) Victim-centered

(b) Immediate location

and (c) Distant locations.

Victim-centered term denotes the information about the victim (i.e., victimology) and referred those elements of the crime that rightly influence upon the victim (i.e., sexual assault, clothing disarray, injuries etc.).

Immediate location mention the significant facts or circumstances present at the scene, close the scene, or around the alleged assault location (i.e., forced entry, signs of struggle, items taken or destroyed, TV on or off, etc.).

Distant locations describe the other geographic locations that are associated with the crime, such as car disposal site, body disposed site or a location where a pseudo-victim claims she was taken.

INVESTIGATIVE STRATEGIES

The investigator in a staged crime scene must be open to all possibilities. His training and experience help him to reach the ultimate solution. He always has two sources of information available at crime scene -

(a) The victim and (b) the scene.

These two factors benefit him to complete comprehensive inquiry and help him to identify the indicative of a staged crime scene. In both fatal and non-fatal staged crime scene the victimology is the key factor.

SOME INVESTIGATIVE STEPS

Study the victimology of the deceased.

Possible motive for the original act and for the staging of the crime should be identify and documented.

The behavior(s) of the victim and suspects should be evaluated.

To establish and ascertain the facts of the case, necessary forensic examinations should be conducted.

Corroborate the statements of victim and witnesses with evidential facts.

Recreate and estimate the event.

Compare the medico-legal autopsy with investigative findings and discuss with the medical examiner.

First conduct and Process all investigations related to death as homicide cases.

Why do we have fingerprints: Forensic Fingerprint

2021-10-12T15:43:00.004+05:30

Why Do We Have Fingerprints?

What are fingerprints -

Fingerprint is an impression of an area of friction ridges skin left upon a surface.

They are ridged patterns that present on the ends of your fingers and thumbs. Friction

ridges are also present on our palm, toes, and soles. These ridges are known as papillary

ridges or dermal ridges.

There are four types of patterns in fingerprints that found in world population.

Arch, 2) loops, 3) Whorls and 4) composite patterns.

Fingerprints are unique and are permanent throughout the whole human life.

Even in the case of identical twins, they are different. They are our natural ID.

How do fingerprints form?

Fingerprints ridges are formed before we are born when we are tiny fetus developing

in the mother’s womb. According to one theory, in the 6th week of fetus’s development,

the fetus gets some thick pads on his palms and feet. These pads are named Volar Pads.

When STEM cells swell beneath the existing layers of the skin Volar Pads appeared.

In the 10th week of pregnancy fingerprints begin to develop.

In between 9-10 week, the pads stop growing while the hands continue to grow.

In 15 week of pregnancy, the volar pads become smooth and according to their

size and position the main pattern of a fingerprint determined. The receding volar

pads slanted towards one side when the first fingerprint ridges formed, then the

pattern also slanted and forming a loop.

When the volar pads are flat then whorl pattern will be formed and when volar pads

disappeared then arch pattern ridges will be formed.

Our genes play the role in volar pads size but the fingerprints ridges also influenced

by some environmental factors. These are…..

The pressure of fluids inside the womb

Fetus position inside the womb, weather touching the amniotic sac

The density of the amniotic fluid inside the womb.

How nerves and capillary grow below the skin

The finger orientated direction relative to gravity

Fingerprint pattern completed during the 24 weeks of development of the fetus. After that, it never changes throughout our life.

Our skin has three layers. Upper layer is epidermis, inner is called dermis and the basal layer of epidermis lies between them. The 2nd theory states that the middle skin layer is scrunched between the two layers. In a foetus, basal layer grows faster than the other two layers, resulted a strain against its neighbors. Straining pressure makes the skin to buckle and folding of the epidermis into the dermis in a specific ways resulted in patterns on our fingertips as fingerprints. That’s why these patterns cannot be destroyed by superficial skin injuries because they are coded underneath the skin surface.

Why Do We Have Fingerprints?

As all of us know that the probability to meet someone in this world with the same fingerprints is 1 in 64 million. They are the used for identification and they are unique. Even twins having the same DNA but different fingerprints. Some countries need fingerprints to issue a passport.

Fingerprints help us to grab objects and we pick up things easily. We can separate pages of paper from each other, get cards and money from our wallets, play the piano, guitar, type on a keyboard, etc.

The uniqueness of fingerprints allow it to be used for background checks, mass disaster identification, biometric security, and to link crime with criminal by getting chance prints at scene of crime.

A person identity can be confirm or disprove by fingerprint evidence. In this way it can play a crucial role in criminal investigations

Fingerprints are also used as a key or password to access the computer, laptop or mobile phone.

Chimpanzees and Koalas have unique fingerprints like humans.

Different Types of Forensic Science: Forensic Fingerprint

2021-09-22T15:02:00.004+05:30

Different Types Of Forensic Science

The term “forensic” is come from the Latin word “forēnsis,” which means

“the forum”. In Roman times, the forum was the sites of debates to discussed

government issues; it was also a trial court.

Forensic science embraces all branches of scientific disciplines, including

biology, physics and chemistry and applies them to the purpose of law.

It is the essential link that helps to establish link between crime and criminal.

This involves collecting, analyzing, and presenting evidence in order to solve a

crime or successfully convict the offender.

Forensic science is a scientific discipline which helps to recognize, identify,

individualization and evaluation of physical evidence by using principles and

methods of basic/natural science for purpose of administration of criminal

justice system. The word criminalistics is also used in reference to forensic science.

The traditional disciplines in forensic science include-

1) Toxicology - Toxicology is the study of adverse effects of chemicals

(ex: drugs, alcohol) on the human body, animals and the overall environment.

2) Biological applications - Its include

I) Serology - The study of the body fluids. [Medical blood test, Used to type blood (A, B, AB, O etc.)

II) DNA analysis - The biological evidence used for DNA profiling are blood, saliva,

hair, skin, urine, semen and even body remains in burn cases. DNA in human body

is a biological parameter which is unique to every individual. In criminal investigations

it is a commonly used forensic technique.

3) Questioned document examination – It is the branch of forensic science which

focuses on examination of documents, handwriting comparison, study of inks,

typewriter imprints, counterfeiting etc.

4) Chemistry – This branch is used for Identifying compounds, used its application

to law enforcement and used analytical side of chemistry to analyze evidence found at crime scenes.

5) Ballistics - It involves the analysis of any evidence related to firearms

(bullets, bullet marks, gunpowder residue, shell casings etc.) or the motion,

behavior, and effects of projectiles, bombs, rockets, or the like. It is used in

the investigation of crime involving the use of a firearm, to draw inferences

on the exact weapon used, the total distance covered by bullet, velocity, and angle of firing.

6) Latent Print Examination (Fingerprints)

7) Trace evidence – These are the evidence that is found at a crime scene

in small but measurable amounts such as human/animal hair, rope, soil,

fabric fibers, feathers, building materials etc.

8) Pathology - Forensic pathology is the study of the examination of a corpse to

determine the cause of death especially when it is suspected that the death was

not due to natural causes.

9) Odontology - Forensic odontology is the study of bite marks and dental remains

that would be later used as legal evidence in the court of law. Odontology plays

an important part in crime scene investigation and natural disaster response and recovery.

10) Anthropology - Forensic anthropologists examine the human bodies/skeletons

to identify the individuals and arrive at the cause/manner of death. Cultural

anthropology, archaeology, linguistics, and physical (biological) anthropology

are the sub-disciplines of anthropology.

The American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS) organizes the forensic sciences into 11 sections -

Criminalistics

Engineering Sciences

General

Jurisprudence

Digital and Multimedia Sciences

Pathology/Biology

Odontology

Physical Anthropology

Psychiatric and Behavioral Science

Toxicology

Questioned documents

1) Criminalistics/ Crime Scene Forensics

Criminalistics is defined as the application of scientific methods to recognize, collect, identify, and comparison of physical evidence from the crime scene and to link individuals, objects, and place through that evidence. Criminalists are specialize in specific areas of physical evidence,

Some areas are -

Firearms (forensic ballistics)

Tool marks.

Controlled substances

Trace evidence.

DNA

Fire and explosion debris

2) Engineering and Applied Sciences -

The group of forensic professionals, problem-solvers with a background in one of the many sub-disciplines of engineering, physics or chemistry. These experts are called upon in both civil and criminal cases to investigate things like -

Automobile collisions

Building collapses

Product failures

Train derailments

Explosions

Environmental contamination

3) General: A Variety of Forensic Science Expertise

In general category the AAFS recognized specialties in forensic lab investigation, clinical work, field investigation and education and research which do not fit into other larger disciplines. These include a range of focus like –

Radiology

Accounting

Veterinary services

Consulting

Nursing

Art and sculpting

Veterinary services

Management and administration

4) Jurisprudence: Practicing Forensics

“Jurisprudence” is considered as the philosophy of law. Those practicing this discipline of forensic science might also be licensed to practice law. Lawyers with knowledge of forensic science can work for court systems, law firms, federal agencies, nonprofit organizations, and even serve as private consultants. They are sometimes referred to as “forensic attorneys,” and these legal professionals are also trained in crime scene investigation.

5) Digital and Multimedia Sciences -

The field of forensics is continuously growing as technology is changing day by day and the area of digital and multimedia sciences is one of those ever-changing areas.

Forensic professionals in this discipline examine software applications, hardware tools and digital files (audio, text, image, video, etc.) to find and analyze evidences. Digital forensic scientist’s duties are -

They are analyzing acoustics of a recording

Determining if a digital image has been altered or not

They find out what devices connected to a system.

Determining that if any file have been deleted from a drive or device

Finding a victim or suspect based on data.

Locating a remote system or user

6) Pathology/Biology –

Pathology - Forensic pathology is the study of the examination of a corpse to determine the cause of death especially when it is suspected that the death was not due to natural causes. The American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS) combines forensic pathology and forensic biology into one discipline, but both has their own areas.

Forensic biology experts study organisms or cells of organisms that related to a crime. This area includes entomology (insects), ecology, botany (plants), genetics, and microbiology. These specialties help in a death investigation as

Plant scientist identifying stomach contents or find hidden graves

Veterinarian assisting in cases of animal welfare

Entomologist helping to determine a timeline of insects on body

Geneticist confirmed the identity of an organism.

7) Odontology - Forensic odontology is the study of bite marks and dental remains that would be later used as legal evidence in the court of law. Odontology play an important part in crime scene investigation and only reliable way of identifying human remains in mass disasters, such as in wars, airplane crashes or fires.

8) Anthropology - Forensic anthropologists examine the human bodies/skeletons to identify the individuals and arrive at the cause/manner of death. Cultural anthropology, archaeology, linguistics, and physical (biological) anthropology are the sub-disciplines of anthropology.

9) Psychiatry and Behavioral Science -

Psychologists, Psychiatrists and other behavioral science experts are contributed in the field of forensics science through assessing individuals or providing testimony in criminal as well as in civil cases. They also contributed in the area of psychological crime scene reconstruction and psychological profiling of criminals.

The role of a behavioral forensic scientist is in understanding the Human Nature by interviewing and interrogating suspects and witnesses to crime is very important.

10) Toxicology - Toxicology is the study of adverse effects of chemicals (ex: drugs, alcohol) on the human body, animals and the overall environment.

11) Questioned document examination – It is the branch of forensic science which focuses on examination of documents, handwriting comparison, study of inks, typewriter imprints, counterfeiting etc.

Forensics encompasses a wide range of disciplines, in today scenario forensics has become synonymous with forensic science and numerous subdivisions are falling under this broad umbrella. Some of them are -.

1) Computational Forensics – Computer forensics, also known as digital forensics or cyber forensics, is the application of investigation of digital data gathered and analysis techniques to gather and preserve evidence from a particular computing device as evidence in criminal cases. Computer forensic investigations recover data from computers and its hard drives to find evidence of misconduct and to solve a crime.

2) Forensic Entomology- Forensic Entomology is the study of the biology of insects and other arthropods such as arachnids, millipedes, centipedes, and crustaceans found at a crime scene to solve criminal cases. Forensic entomology is primarily used for death investigations, find location of an incident, postmortem interval, involvement of drugs or poisons and to determine the time of the infliction of wounds. . Investigators also analyze other factors such as location, temperature, humidity, moisture, geography of the crime scene to determine the time of death.

3) Forensic Astronomy - Forensic astronomy is the scientific study of celestial objects, to determine the appearance of the sky at specific times in the past. Mostly it is used to resolve notably issues in art history and other historical problems.

4)Forensic Geology - Forensic Geology or Geo-forensics is the study of evidence relating to minerals, oil, petroleum, soil, rocks and the like materials found in the Earth, used to answer questions raised by the legal system. Forensic geologists combine technology, methods, and personal experience to solve issues involving surface water, groundwater, soil and anything beneath the Earth’s surface.

5) Forensic Seismology - Various methods of seismology are used to examine and detect underground explosions, especially nuclear explosions. This science also detects other underground events such as the movement/collision of icebergs, explosion within submarines, or massive ocean waves.

6) Bloodstain Pattern Analysis - The scientific examination of the shapes and distribution of patterns of bloodstains found at a crime scene to reconstruct the events of the crime. Analysts look for the distance from the blood source to the target and the nature of the force that caused the bloodshed. They also look for direction of travel and impact angles and the object(s) that caused the bloodshed.

7) Digital Forensics - Digital forensics is a science encompassing the recovery and investigative techniques to gather stored data in digital devices, often in relation to computer crime. Its several sub-fields based on the type of digital equipment involved are computer forensics, network forensics, mobile device forensics, forensic data analysis. Digital Forensics is mostly used in the investigation of cybercrimes. It is associated with criminal law where the digital evidence recovered is used to counter or support a hypothesis in the law of court.

8) Forensic Art – It is the presentation of visual information and these sketches are used to identify, apprehend, and conviction of a wanted person, make a substantial impact on civil or criminal cases.

Forensic artists work with law enforcement and used art authentication methods are to detect and identify faking, forgery and copying of art works, e.g. paintings.

9) Election Forensics – Election forensic utilizes various quantitative methodologies to verify or determine if election results are statistically normal.

10) Forensic Accounting / Auditing - Forensic accounting investigation is also known as financial investigation aids the victims of fraud or financial crimes. This kind of analysis provides evidence to attorneys by using intelligence-gathering techniques, accounting, business, and communication skills in criminal and civil investigations.

11) Forensic Graphology - The study of handwriting on ransom notes, suicide notes, poison pen letters and blackmail demands. The size of writing, the weight of the hand and Slant position of words, all these reflect information about the writer. Forensic graphologists verify the validity of documents such as insurance claim.

12) Forensic Psychology - Forensic Psychology is the application of psychological theory and practice to the criminal, court and corrections systems. Psychologists draw conclusions about the personality traits of the person/criminal and help in criminal profiling.

13) Forensic Archaeology - Forensic archaeology deals with human remains that are severely decomposed. Forensic archaeologist are adept at using a range of techniques, including carbon dating to determine the age of items retrieved during an excavation and to assist the police and investigating officers to identify the site.

14) Forensic Podiatry - Forensic Podiatry is a sub-discipline of forensic science which deals with the application of specific podiatric knowledge i.e. an understanding of the abnormalities and diseases of the foot, ankle, lower body, lower limb anatomy, and musculoskeletal function to examine foot-related evidence in legal situations. It is particularly helpful in the investigation of feet footprint or footwear and their traces to analyze crime scene.

15) Forensic Linguistics - Forensic Linguistics involves the application of linguistic knowledge and methods and insights to the forensic context of law, language, trial, crime investigation and judicial procedure. They examination the forensic texts such as emergency calls, suicide notes, demands of ransom, social media and death row statements

16) Forensic Botany - Forensic botany is the study and examination of plants their seeds, leaves, flowers, spores, wood, fruits, cell life in order to gain information for criminal and non-criminal investigations and for answering other legal questions.

17) Forensic Nursing - Forensic nursing is the application of nursing sciences; it acts as a bridge between the criminal justice system and the medical profession. Forensic nurses are involved in crime scene to assist in investigations involving the victims or perpetrators of sexual abuse, child abuse, domestic assault, or other types of trauma. They collect blood and hair samples, DNA, and other evidence.

18) Forensic Optometry – It is the study of glasses and other eyewear relating to scene of crime and criminal investigations.

19) Wildlife forensic science –It applies to legal cases involving non-human biological evidence, to solve crimes such as animal abuse, poaching and trade in endangered species.

20) Forensic geology – It deals with trace evidence in the form of soils, minerals and petroleum.

21) Forensic dactyloscopy- Study of fingerprints.

22) Forensic microbiology – It is the study of the necrobiome.

23) Forensic meteorology – Study (scientifically) of past weather conditions for a certain time and location.

24) Forensic limnology – The analysis of evidence collected from scene of crime in or around fresh-water sources. Examination of biological organisms can be useful in connecting suspects with victims.

25) Forensic geophysics – The use of geophysical techniques such as radar for detecting objects hidden underwater or underground.

Students have so many sub-disciplines to choose in the field of forensic science and it offers a limitless number of career paths.

Counterfeit Money: Forensic Fingerprint

2021-08-08T15:34:00.004+05:30

Counterfeit Money

The term “counterfeit” is used for, “one thing resemblance to something else”

or “to imitate or portray”. Counterfeit currency is produced without the legal

sanction of the State or government, usually in a deliberate attempt to imitate

that currency usually with the intent to defraud or forge”. Counterfeiting is a

crime. Counterfeiting of Currency notes or money is a serious criminal offence.

counterfeit or faked note, when remain undetected then it becomes a part of the

monetary system and posing great threat to our economy.

Ill-effects of counterfeit money has on society include -

Value of real money reduced.

When more money getting circulated in the economy it leads to increase in prices (inflation)

It leads to unauthorized artificial increase in the money supply

Acceptability of paper money decreases.

It resulted in losses, when traders are not reimbursed for counterfeit money detected by the banks, even

if it is confiscated.

Advances in technology of computers and photocopy made it possible for people that without

sophisticated training they can copy and counterfeit currency easily.

Penalties by country for creating counterfeit money

Countries and areas Maximum imprisonment

Canada 14 years

France 30 years

Germany 15 years

Hong Kong 14 years

Italy 12 years

The Netherlands 09 years

Philippines 12 years

Poland 25 years

Portugal 12 years

Singapore 07 years

japan Lifetime

Korea, South Lifetime

Macau 12 years

Zambia Lifetime

United Kingdom 10 years

United States 20 years

However governments include new sophisticated anti-counterfeiting systems such as holograms, embedded devices such as strips, raised printing, watermarks, and color-shifting inks whose colors changed depending on the angle of the light and other designs.

Money art -

Money art is a term related to counterfeiting that incorporates the currency designs and its themes. Counterfeit currency is made with deceptive intent but money art is not. The idea behind the art money is, that artists produce a hand-made currency at a fixed value that can be spend at regular shops.

Fake currency printed by local racketeers are detected easily as they are using the photographic method, hand engraved blocks, lithographic process and computer color scanning. By using opaque ink watermark is made, painting with white solution, stamping with a dye engraved with the picture. To give the picture a translucent feel, oil, grease or wax is used.

At the time of manufacture the security thread is incorporated into the paper of genuine notes and in fake notes, the security thread is imitated by drawing a line with a pencil,by using aluminium thread while pasting two thin sheets of paper, by printing a line with grey ink. It is difficult for forgers to reproduce the same shape of individual numbers again and again with high accuracy. It is difficult to maintain the alignment of figures. Smaller or bigger number, spreading of ink, different alignments in numbers and inadequate gaps should be regarded with suspicion. The printed lines will be broken in counterfeit notes and there may also be ink smudges.

Legal aspect of counterfeit money -

Possessing fake notes is a punishable offence in India but only if the person in question is aware that the notes he posses are fake. Sections 489A, 489B, 489C and 489D were introduced in the Indian Penal Code to provide adequate protection of currency notes and bank notes from forgery. Printing and or circulation of forged Indian Currency Notes is an offence under sec 498A to 489E of the Indian Penal Code.

Clue found at crime scene -

Possibility of fingerprints on articles used for making blocks such as copper or zinc plates, Photographic plates or films, printing papers, containers of ink etc.

Possibility of fingerprints on computers or laptops, scanners, printers etc used for making counterfeit currency.

We will found printing blocks mounted or unmounted on the press.

Colors, inks and other materials used for printing.

Hand engraved blocks or plates.

Printing papers used for counterfeit currency.

Blocks or dies will be found at crime scene.

Photography materials such as negatives films, chemicals.

Materials used for engraving such as slates.

Hand numbering and type setting machine.

Counterfeit currency notes.

Computer system, scanner, color printer.

Possibility of footprints and shoe prints on the floor.

Traces of color and ink on the clothes, finger nails of the suspects.

Stains of chemicals and oil on the clothes of suspected person.

How to take fingerprints of a dead body:Forensic Fingerprint

2021-07-21T22:20:00.002+05:30

How to take fingerprints of a dead body

Fingerprints are an infallible means of positive identification as well as the easiest form of identification. Fingerprinting and its history are very ancient. It is referred as most valuable evidence in criminal proceedings/ investigation. When a body may go unidentified due to death, then we use fingerprints for identification of unknown dead bodies but there are some challenges in taking fingerprints from Dead Body. Fingerprints recording of a dead body are not as easy as in case of a live person.

Common Challenges are-

Stiffened fingers due to rigor mortis

Shrunken skin

Decomposition and Putrefication

Mummification of the body etc.

The methodologies of taking fingerprints have shown considerable development. Initially the fingerprints and palm prints were recorded using normal printer inks. Prints are also taken with other advanced digital devices such as live fingerprint scanners.

How to take fingerprints of a dead body-

Depending on the time of Death we take fingerprints of a dead body. If death is caused in shorter time this means that body is fresh then it is easy to take prints otherwise it goes difficult.

The dead bodies divided in to three categories as follows -

1. When body is fresh (died presently) and the rigor mortis have not set in.

2. When rigor mortis has set in.

3. The dead body is in advance stages of decomposition.

1. When body is fresh (died presently) and the rigor mortis have not set in –

Finger impression of the dead body where rigor mortis has not set in is quite simple just like as that of living person. Normal process and technique that are used for taking prints of living person are used. First one is to laid the deceased person face down and palm down on a table and printers inks applied on the fingers using slab one by one as we done in case of living person and take the prints on a paper. The fingers are flexible and it makes the finger impression easy to take. Second method is to use the inked roller and is rolled over the finger uniformly. A piece of white paper is attached to the shoe horn and prints taken on that paper. The paper is then removed from the shoe horn and it is pasted on the finger print slip at the particular box. You can also dust the fingers with black powder and apply the adhesive tape to finger ridges. When you peel the tape off you can get the finger impression, placed it on the white paper but consider that the impression of finger you get is a negative image of the fingerprint.

2. When rigor mortis has set in –

The rigor mortis starts from three hours after death. When the rigor mortis is just started the fingers would become stiffened. To loosen the stiffness one should make the movement of wrist and the fingers and take fingerprints as the method discussed above.

When the rigor mortis is completely occurred and we want to remove the rigor mortis then by submerging the hand and 1/3 of the lower part of the forearm in hot water for a minute and continuously moving the wrist and fingers rapidly. This process helps to overcome the rigor mortis. Hands will be taken out and dried with towel. The hand of the dead body should be immersed up to the wrist in the water. We have to immerse it the hand up to one minute if the water is very hot. When the water is not very hot normally it is immersed for two three minutes.

When neither the flexibility of the fingers nor the movability of the wrist is achieved or the dead body is found with the hands tightly clenched then we have to use force for straightening the fingers. A scalp is used to make the deep cuts on each finger in the joints and then they can be straightened. If the thumb is cramped or bent, it can be straightened by making a deep cut between the thumb and index finger. After straightening the normal method is used to take finger impressions.

3. The dead body is in advance stages of decomposition –

Depending upon the nature of decomposition following methods has been used.

Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) Solution

Method - In this method we take 1.3% of diluted NaOH in a flask. Cut the first phalange of each finger. Immersed each finger separately in diluted NaOH solution. After half an hour we have to see whether the shrinking is disappeared or not, if it is not disappeared we have to immerse the finger for another half an hour. After disappearing of skin shrinking we can ink the finger and take the fingerprints.

There is a possibility of softening the ridges and slightly the upper lair of the bulb starts tearing when fingers immerse in solution for more than one hour. To make it harden we have to immerse the fingers in 3% of mild solution of formaldehyde for few minutes. After that fingers are taken out and dried to take ink fingerprints.

In advance stage of decomposition, putrification or when body is softened or decomposed by water or burning or tip is wrinkled we use Plastic regeneration Method.

Plastic regeneration Method -

In this method two things are used to take the finger impressions of the decomposed body.

(i) Glycerinated Gelatin (ii) Air

In the decomposed bodies on the fingers there is shrinking of the tissues on the bulb portion of the fingers. In order to remove these shrinkages we have to make use of glycerinated gelatin or air.

(i) Glycerinated Gelatin: Mixture of hot Glycerinated Gelatin (seven part of Glycerin) and one part of Gelatin is injected in between the nail and the skin for each finger. The mixture enters inside portions of the bulb of the finger and remove the shrinking, then we can use ink and take the finger impressions slowly on a piece of paper which is attached to the shoe horn.

(ii) By Using Air: Air is also used for removing the shrinkness on the bulb of the finger. 1 cc to one and half cc of air is injected for finger then by applying the ink we have to take finger impressions slowly.

Xylene Solution: When plastic regeneration and treating with sodium hydroxide is of no use then we have to adopt this method. Xylene solution should be applied from time to time to keep the skin smooth. When the skin is thin enough and sufficiently pliable then skin is removed and is immersed in formaldehyde solution for few minutes then it is taken out. The lair is then placed on the operator’s finger by applying the ink we can take the finger impression on the paper.

Procedure for taking burnt dead body finger impression –

In burnt cases the epidermis becomes hard and partially loose from the flesh. This upper layer is removed from the first phalange of the finger and then inked print will be obtained in a regular way by placing the skin on the operators own finger.

Sometimes direct digital photography is also used for taking finger impression of dead body. Contactless scanners (capable of capturing the finger pattern fully in three dimensions) are said to be in development but not yet available.

A new technique called Thanatoprint is used for taking finger impression of dead body.

Thanatoprint – This technique allows morphological reconstruction of advanced decayed corpses by extracting fluids from the body’s tissue and it restore the antemortem volume and tenseness. Fingerprints of high quality are gathered in this technique even in cases of advanced decay, by local application to a corpse’s hands.

Crime Scene Photography: Forensic Fingerprint

2021-06-10T18:21:00.003+05:30

Crime Scene Photography

For every crime scene, Photography is the primary tool. The main purpose

of scene of crime photography is to document the whole crime scene (what is there)

and how it is related to the crime. Crime scene photography should be used

in all crime scenes including burglaries, accidents or any other crimes against

property or people.

Importance of photography in a crime scene investigation?

It is extremely important to crime scene investigation as it is a systematic process

and help investigators to understand the crime scene looked like in its totality, it’s

also help to convey all aspects of crime scene, when someone did not present at the

time of crime in an effective and simplest way. It provides a true and accurate record.

Photography is an integral part of court trials and helps the jury to understand the

position of each objects and what the evidence looked like at scene of crime.

There is always a question that how much time should be given to photographically

document a scene of crime. The time used to photographically document a scene is

depends on the nature of crime, its complication and on the size of crime scene.

Another factor is the weather condition.

Crime scene photography consist three basic types -

Overall Photographs

In overall photography we capture the overall and global aspects of the crime scene.

Our main motive is to capture exactly the whole crime scene boundaries with the

location and surroundings. Photographs should be taken in an overlapping fashion

from outside area to inside and vice versa, capturing all scene of crime. Photographs

should be taken using a wide angle lens.

Mid-range Photographs

Mid-range photographs considered between an overall photograph and a close-up

photograph and there main purpose is to establish the precise position of specific

items of evidence and their spatial relationships. The photographer who is taking

the mid-range photographs should follow the cardinal rules and specifically determine

the fixed feature for a specific item of evidence. Mid-range photograph should be

captured with either reference subjects or the subjects established at an equal

distance from camera to avoid the introduction of perspective distortion.

Close-up Photographs and Evidence Photography

Close-up photographs are intend to show details of individual items of evidence not typically resolved in mid-range photographs.. They should be showing all sides of the item and any defects, markings or other identifying features. Each photograph should be captured twice, once with a scale, and once without a scale. Close -up Photographs must be captured with a scale anytime the relative size of an item is in question. Camera should be oriented parallel to the surface being photographed. The item must fill the frame of the camera in order to maximize the item’s resolution. In close –up photography camera accessories such as diopters, tripods, macro lenses, off-camera flash, reflectors or technique of oblique lighting should also be used for better details and to minimizing distortion and to control depth of field.

Different forms of Forensic Photography -

There are some different forms of crime scene photography and it includes black and white, color, ultraviolet and infrared photography. These types of photography should be used depending on environmental conditions. It’s the duty of forensic photographer to know each form of forensic photography and where to use them as each type serves a special purpose. When images not visible to the human eye then the role of U.V photography and infrared photography comes and they are used to show these images. Infrared and U.V photography used for fingerprints, bite-marks, and latent footwear. Infrared photography specifically used for forensic odontology. When a forensic photographer uses a film camera black and white photography play its role. It shows more color and contrast as compared to most color photography.

Deletions of Photographs -

All photographs are the part of the case file including poor quality images or unintended images. Original crime scene images should not be deleted whether captured with the primary camera or any other camera.

Limitation of crime scene photography?

Now days we used digital cameras and equipment for evidence photography. Limitation of crime scene photography is related to the camera in general and lack of training and experience of the photographer. Camera photos are the two dimensional view of three dimensional items. It cannot produce the same view that the human eye can see. The photographer job is to use the camera settings in that way that can affect what can or cannot be seen in a photograph. An experienced and trained photographer after seeing the difficult lighting conditions adjust the camera settings accordingly.

Digital cameras allow a photographer to instantly review the capturing photos and make necessary changes to the camera settings. An inexperienced photographer neither apply skills nor constantly analysis the crime scene, he continuously depends on the camera to make the right decision for settings.

The link of crime scene photography part one is below......

https://www.forensicfingerprint.in/2020/05/crime-scene-investigation-importance-of.html

Motor Vehicle Accident : Forensic Fingerprint.

2021-06-01T17:29:00.006+05:30

Motor Vehicle Accident

We have seen in day to day crime the involvement of motor vehicles including

road accidents, vehicle theft, transportation of illegal drugs, dead body, stolen

property etc. and stolen vehicles are used in decoity, snatching, rape, abduction etc.

Road accidents/ motor vehicle accident involve many types of vehicles such as

motorcycle, cars, buses, scooters, trucks etc.

motor vehicle accident is an outdoor crime scene and firstly the scene of crime

be protected and isolated from the road traffic with precautions of weather

conditions. The wind and rain destroyed the physical evidence.

Causes of Road accidents -

1) Road conditions are the cause of accidents as there are presence of pit, road

is slippery and bumpy, absence of traffic signals, movement of animal on the

road, presence of oil, grease, mud on the road surfaces, absence of proper

lighting, a narrow road with sharp curves are some of the reasons of road accidents.

2) Driver of the vehicle is also responsible for the road accidents. Possibilities are -

He is an untrained driver, fall asleep due to tiredness, suffering from color blindness,

overtaking from wrong side, may be in alcoholic state, speed of the vehicle is so high.

3) Some other reasons include mechanical failures, sudden bursting of Tyre occur,

vehicle is overloaded. Motor vehicle accident resulted in injuries, property damage

and also the death.

How to examine the crime scene -

Road accident is an outdoor crime and it is necessary to isolate the crime scene

until the examination is over.

Photography and videography should be done from various angles.

Proper sketch should be prepared .

In hit and run case you couldn't found the vehicle but it may be recovered later.

Skid marks and Tyre impressions should be photographed with scale if found on the road.

If the vehicle found at the scene of crime, it should be protected from interference and changing weather conditions. Search for fingerprints should be done immediately.

Scratches and dent marks will be examined on the bumper, front and side portion of the vehicle.

Broken glass and other broken parts should be preserved for later comparison.

Hair, fibers, bloodstains should also be searched in vehicle.

If the driver not absconding from the spot then immediately examined him for drunkenness, injuries or for any other disease.

Clothing of driver examined for oil, fibers, grease etc.

Injured victims immediately shifted to hospital and the identity of deceased victim be fixed.

Observed the nature of injury on victim body whether caused by a direct impact, a glancing blow or due to crushing effect of the vehicle weight.

Is there any sign of dragging of victim or fallen down from a vehicle at the crime scene.

If any tyre or grill marks present on victim cloth, it should be photographed with scale.

Cloths containing dragging sign or bloodstains should be preserved. Clothing should be packed after drying.

Considering these points in a motor vehicle accident helps the investigator to search and examine the crime scene. Motor vehicle accident also occurred by collision of vehicle to animals, pedestrians, road debris or any other objects.

crime scene investigation-poisoning cases

2021-03-29T15:44:00.003+05:30

Poisoning cases

On the basis of effect on the body poisons are classified as -

1) Corrosives - its include strong acids (HCL) and strong alkalies (NAOH)

2) Irritants - its include Inorganic (Phosphorous), Organic (castor oil) and Mechanical (Diamond) materials.

3) Neurotics - Its effect on the following parts...

cerebral (opium), spinal (strychnine), cardiac (aconite), Asphyxiants (carbon monoxide) and on Peripherals (curare).

From medico-legal point of view according to there involvement in the case poisons are classified as -

Suicidal - Any poison available easily to be used for a suicide. Ex copper sulphate, mercury salts etc.

Homicidal - Poisons who has no peculiar odour, color and taste are used for homicidal acts. Ex Aconite, potassium cyanide etc.

Accidental - Poison taken by mistake or handled carelessly.

Following points should be carefully observed in a crime scene of poisoning case -

In first case if the victim is alive, immediately shifted him to the hospital. Take all details from the doctor about nature of poison and other details.

In second case when the victim is dead, he collect the information about victim health.

Did the victim involve in a profession where he dealt with harmful substances.

Was he taken any treatment from doctor.What were the first symptoms and signs he got after poisoning.

Searched for suicidal note.

Cause of death?

Whether his death was sudden or after some time i.e slow.

How much time elapsed between sign of illness and his death.

What kind of food or drink taken by the victim before death.

How many person taken the same food or drink.

Observed and collect the food and drinks leftover at the victim place.

Any vomiting present at the crime scene.

Observed the nails of victim, are they cyanosied.

Nature and quality of poison.

Presence of forth on the mouth or nostrils.

Whether the poisoning is Homicidal,Suicidal or accidental in nature.

Is it a case of mixed poisoning.

Residue of poisoning given the idea about the poison involved.

Clothes of the victim searched for any suspicious poisonous substance.

When the victim is alive he himself given the required information about the poisonous material.

Evidences collected at the crime scene of poisoning cases -

Food and drinks leftover at the table, containers of cooked food,drinks tines. Utensils like glass bowl etc.

Suicide note must be searched and preserved.

Look out for empty wrapper, container, bottle etc. having the remnants of poison.

Collect cloths containing stains, vomit, urine, froth, etc.

Vomit stained soil collected with control soil sample and separately packed in a plastic jar.

syringe/needle found at crime scene should be collected in a polythene bag.

Trapped materials in dustbin or in the sink.

Medicine and medicines bottles.

Bloodstain: ForensicFingerprint

2021-03-03T22:54:00.003+05:30

Bloodstain Pattern Analysis

Blood stains are presents in various crimes, they are the serological evidence

associated with crimes against persons, including homicide, assault, child abuse,

sexual assault and domestic violence as well as in many property crimes, such as

burglaries, robberies and in arson cases etc. blood stains may be present on weapons

or on tools used in crime. Bloodstains/blood evidence left behind at a crime scene

help the analysts to recreate the sequence of actions that responsible for bloodshed

and draw conclusions as to how the blood may have been shed. Analysts examine

the bloodstains to form opinions about what did or did not happen, he recognize and

examine the size, shape, distribution and location of the bloodstains at a crime scene.

In Bloodstain pattern analysis (BPA) an analyst uses principles of physics

(cohesion, capillary action and velocity, biology (behaviour of blood) and

mathematics (geometry, distance, and angle) to assist investigators to answer

hidden questions such as -

From where did the blood come/source of the blood?

What caused the wounds?

Direction from where was the victim wounded?

The position of the victim(s) and perpetrator(s) at the time of incidence.

Movements made by the victim(s) and perpetrator(s) after the bloodshed?

How many perpetrators were present at the time of incidence?

Does the bloodstain evidence support or refute witness statements?

Does the evidence sample contain blood?

Is the blood mixed with other biological material?

Some of the bloodstain patterns are –

In a Drip Pattern blood dripped in to a pool of blood on a floor resulting in releasing of droplets from

the pool.

When blood drops released from an object due to its motion creating a bloodstain pattern and it is a cast

off pattern.

When an object striking a blood source below and in front of the vertical surface created an impact

pattern.

Blood evidence provided useful information that help to solve the case and establish a strong link

between an individual and a criminal act, it is very important to correctly document, collect, and

preserve this evidence as it will be presented to a judge or jury several years from the time of the

criminal act. Improperly handling destroys a potential source of facts in a case.

This evidence not only associated about what happened, but also told what could not have happened. This information help the investigator in reconstructing the crime, corroborating statements from witnesses, and including or excluding potential perpetrators from the investigation. In case of blood it is important to know that the blood is human or from some other animal. After preliminary observations are completed you can collect sample from the suspect for comparison purposes. The physical characteristics of the possible blood stain, including size, colour, shape, and physical state must be accurately documented before any chemical or biological testing. Separation of serum and notation of clotting of the sample if the sample is liquid or semi liquid should also be made at this time.

Bloodstain analysis has three broad categories. These three categories are -

Conventional serological analysis -

This type of testing required a "large" sample size in good condition for better results and this testing is rarely statistically individualizing. In this test labs Analysis the proteins, enzymes, and antigens present in the blood.

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) DNA analysis -

RFLP DNA testing is statistically individualizing (one out of several million or several billion) and also usually requires a "large" sample size to obtain significant results. This test directly analysis the DNA sequences present in the white blood cells. It is noted that DNA is less susceptible to degradation than proteins, enzymes, and antigens.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) DNA analysis -

This test is not as statistically individualizing as RFLP analysis and this test works well on degraded samples and "small" samples. It analysis certain DNA sequences that have been copied multiple times to a detectable level.

There are two different types of blood that can be collected at scene of crime –

Liquid and dried blood.

Wet Bloodstains

Liquid blood evidence is collected from blood pools but it can be collected from clothing of victim and suspect, using a gauze pad or a sterile cotton cloth. First the sample must be dried thoroughly at room temperature. It is necessary to be refrigerated or frozen the sample and brought to the laboratory as quickly as possible..

Small and transportable item having wet blood after drying, packed in a paper bag (or plastic bag to prevent contamination of other objects). The bag must be thoroughly air dry.

For Large items or items not easily transported having wet blood use a 1" X 1" square of the cotton muslin that absorb the blood and then dried it at room temperature. Pack it in paper (or plastic).The investigator must collect the samples from unstained areas of the item for negative controls. Reference blood samples from the victim and suspect are also needed.

Dried Bloodstains

Dried bloodstains can be found on larger objects, small objects and on clothing. When bloodstained item is small and transportable, pack it in a paper bag or envelope. Entire object can be sent to the lab after properly packaging and labelling. If it is large or not easily transported, then the following techniques can be used -

Cut out the portion(s) of large item with the bloodstain(s).Packed it in a separate paper envelope. Control sample should also be provided if available.

Tape lifting bloodstains – Use the fingerprint tape and place it over bloodstain. (Do not touch sticky surface with bare hands). Lift the sample as well as the surrounding control area. A good contact should be made between the stain and the tape. Place the tape on a vinyl acetate backing. You can repeat the lifting process several times on the same stain if necessary. The lifted stain is then labelled and packaged, then transported to the laboratory.

Scraping bloodstains into a paper packet - Use a clean sharp instrument to scrape flakes of the bloodstain into a paper packet and properly labelled it. Do not use a plastic container as the static charge from the plastic will dispersed the blood flakes and they stick to the sides of the container.

Absorbing stains onto moistened 1/2" long threads - Use only distilled or deionized water to dampen the stain before rolling a 1/2" long, number 8, white cotton thread into the stain. Do not use the threads with bare hands. Place the thread with a pair of clean forceps or a clean cotton swab. Roll it on the bloodstain, so the stain is absorbed onto the thread. Placed the threads (and swabs, if used) in a secure area and allow them to air dry. After drying packed them into a paper packet and place in an envelope.

Absorbing stains onto moistened 1/2" X 1/2" cotton squares - A white, 100% cotton muslin is used instead of threads in this process. The muslin will be boiled in distilled or deionized water and must be air dry before its use.

If dried blood is found on clothing then the entire cloth should be packaged and labelled and transported to the lab. The investigator should keep each sample separate so that there is no contamination between samples.

Suitable reference samples and unsuitable reference sample -

A suitable reference sample is collected directly from a person into a tube or "Vacutainer".

An unsuitable reference sample is bloody clothing or some other bloody item.

The sample must be collected in the proper "Vacutainer."

Different types of "Vacutainers" are -

Yellow Top Vacutainers (contain Acid Citrate and Dextrose solution)

It is used for conventional serological testing and DNA testing.

Purple Top Vacutainers (contain EDTA)

It is used for DNA testing.

Red Top Vacutainers (no additives)

Used for conventional serological tests and not very useful for DNA testing. It can be used for pregnancy and HIV testing.

Grey Top Vacutainers (contain Sodium Fluoride and sometimes EDTA)

It is used for toxicological testing. Not suitable for DNA testing and serological testing.

Stored these Vacutainers in a refrigerator (not frozen) at about four degrees Centigrade until they are delivered to the crime lab.

For blood visualization Luminol is used by crime scene investigators. It is a chemical that when applied to bloodstains will cause the bloodstains to glow in the dark but it has several drawbacks as it will give false reactions. Rapidly evaporating organic solvents such as merbromin and ortho-tolidine or water based chemical after treating the bloody impression with a fixative ( amido black ) are better methods.

Photograph the blood evidence by using colour print film and/or colour slide film. For documenting bloodstains on dark surfaces infrared film can be used. For pertinent bloodstains, overall, medium range, and close up photographs should be taken. When size relevance is significant or direct (one-to-one) comparisons will be made (bloody shoe prints, fingerprints, high velocity blood spatter patterns) then photographs with a ruler next to the evidence is essential. Blood evidence is also documented by drawing a sketch of the crime scene. A sketch must be made if we need spatial relationships of the evidence or to have proportional measurements included in it for calculations (such as blood spatter patterns). Various computer programs are also available for sketching crime scenes and blood spatters. We need to put certain measurement associated with the scene and the individual spatters. Which method or methods of bloodstain analysis are available in public or private labs a crime scene investigator must be know about it.

It is very important for a crime scene investigator that before documenting and collecting blood evidence, he understands the value of this evidence and actually knows about, how it fits in the events associated with the crime. The common points should be considered when dealing with blood evidence are -

Found out the blood with the victim's genetic markers (ABO blood type, DNA profile, etc.) on the suspect or on the things in the suspect's possession .Try to found out the blood with the suspect's genetic markers on the victim or on something associated with the victim.

The investigator should collect representative samples of the "peripheral" bloodstains, For EX. the bloodstains that are away from the body and the main area of action, recognize and collect blood spatter patterns that differ from the majority of the blood spatter patterns. Blood trails leading away from the scene should also be searched. There is a possibility that these trails could have originated from a wounded suspect. Wounds present on suspect body should be documented and photographed.

In the later investigation the blood samples from the scene of crime analyzed for those genetic markers that are different in the suspect and victim.

Used a high intensity light when searching for blood evidence. A high intensity light source will help in visualization of bloodstains, even when the stains had been diluted. It is also provide oblique (side) lighting and this light help for finding trace evidence.

The relationship of various blood spatters and patterns can be demonstrated by using videotaping of blood evidence. The high intensity light source make the bloodstains to illuminate and more visible on the videotape.

Wet evidence either packaged in plastic or in paper always removed and allowed to completely air dry.

Evidence containing moisture never packed in sealed plastic or paper containers for more than two hours.

Never exposed the blood evidence to excessive heat or humidity.

Always take precautionary measures when handling biological evidence. Always wear protective clothing, gloves, masks etc.

An Alternate Light Source: ForensicFingerprint

2021-02-12T10:53:00.005+05:30

Alternate Light Source

Alternate Light Source or a forensic light source are used in crime scene

investigation to identify, photograph and collection of many forms of physical

evidence including latent fingerprints, hair and fibers, bruises, bite marks,

shoe and foot prints, gunshot residues etc. due to their natural characteristic

of light absorption or florescence effect Physiological fluids such as semen,

saliva and urine are identified by using UV light. In any scene of crime the

fast and accurate detection of physical evidence is very important.

The forensic scientists were used visible light sources for the examination of

crime scenes. Some investigators were used ultraviolet (UV Black Light) at

crime scene but white light was the mainstay. In 1970s the Royal Canadian

Mounted Police (RCMP) added a new dimension. They used argon-ion lasers

to forensic examination of physical evidence, but these expensive, bulky machines

were not transported to the crime scenes, so their use was limited to the crime lab.

In the late 1980s Portable lasers appear in the marketplace. They were capable of

delivering a single wavelength of light. In the 1990s, the development of a high-intensity

incandescent bulb revolutionized alternate light source and resulted in a wider range

of wavelengths, from the ultraviolet range of the light spectrum to the near infrared.

These machines were less than 20 pounds(9 kg) and they were providing an intense

light beam that passed through various filters covering from visible green, blue,

yellow and red light.

An alternate light source consists a laser or incandescent bulb, a filter or combination

of filters that filters down the light into individual color bands (wavelengths) and

enhance the evidence visualization by making evidence glow (fluorescence), evidence

darkens (Absorption) by light interaction technique.

For different types of surfaces Different wavelengths (color bands) are required. Sometimes the background surface also glows under light source illumination. In this case, a wavelength of light is necessary that causes the processed print to glow (fluoresce) and not the background. The output power and the extent of wavelength tunability of the light source are proportional to the quality and quantity of evidence revealed. This is the ability of a forensic light source; UV lights cannot offer this selectivity due to its limited wavelength and low power.

Fluorescence is the key source of alternate light. One wavelength of light absorbs and the emission of light at a longer wavelength takes place. By using the screening filters emitted light can be detected and filters block out the other wavelengths of light.

Fluorescence -

Fluorescence is occur when light of a certain frequency and color strikes on an object, and light of a different color and frequency returns by the object. This fluorescence is very weak in intensity as compared to the light beam that created it, for visualizing this fluorescence, we must use filtration that blocks the visible light but passes the fluorescence. The UV light is invisible but it creates visible fluorescence from certain substances and objects. To view UV fluorescence no filtration is required. Clear glass or plastic lenses is recommended for eye protection.

For fingerprints detection, fluorescence is visible without the addition of any powders or dyes. EX- When light (blue-green) from a laser or incandescent source directed towards the organic materials in the fingerprint, it fluoresce yellow. It is difficult to lift prints from surfaces such as thin plastic bags, thin aluminum foil, rigid duct tape, concrete wall, heavily grained wood brick, printed glossy magazine pages, paper products, etc. by using traditional powder technique but by using Forensic Light Source techniques we have successfully seen and lift latent prints on these and many other types of textured surfaces. For processing of different types of surfaces different wavelengths are required and here the Forensic Light Source fulfilled the requirement having tunable or multiple wavelengths. We have faced problem when the background surface glow under light source illumination. To solve this, we need a wavelength of light that makes the print to glow and not the background. This means that different organic materials absorb light and they fluoresce at different wavelengths. So, fingerprint or a bite mark detected on materials is as diverse as on skin, paper, rubber, and cloth fabric. Two things are important first illuminating light is very critical to elicit the maximum fluorescence from the evidence, second the selection of the filter(s) is important.

Under room light Finger and palm prints are invisible on metal surfaces such as a gun or knife but prints can be seen when illuminated by green light and observed through orange filter. Apart from that there are fluorescent chemicals or powders used for latent fingerprint development. These powders have the ability that makes the latent residue to be fluorescing on a surface. For developing latent prints on porous surfaces such as paper and cardboard fluorescent liquids are used. After superglue fuming, fluorescent dyes are used to enhance developed latent prints

Body fluids - Body fluids saliva, urine stains, vaginal secretions and semen stains can be detected using alternate light sources. Some narcotics substances will also fluoresce. Under the light source illumination dried body fluids will glow. The body fluids will also fluoresce under UV black light but on many articles like clothing and sheets, these articles will also glow and hinder the evidence detection. It is advisable to use longer wavelengths to eliminate the background interference (background rejection). If your light source is powerful and you have more wavelengths then you will uncover the more evidence. Blood is not fluorescing under UV or visible blue light; it has luminesced by spraying some chemicals on it such as BlueStar and luminol.

Hair and Fibers

There are two light illumination methods to locate hair and fibers by using a Forensic Light Source. Lighting of a surface (floor or carpet) by applying oblique or parallel strong white light reveals small particles like hair and fibers. Under UV or Blue light hair and fibers will also glow.

Bruises/Bite Marks/Pattern Wounds

Forensic Light Sources may reveal bruise and patterned wound details that are invisible under normal white light illumination. Depending on the depth of the wound or bruise the wavelength of the instrument vary as different colors penetrate to different depths within the skin. Illumination is required for deep wounds to get enough skin penetration.

Gun Shot Residues/Explosive Residues

Gun Shot residues/Explosive residues are found in ammunition and explosives and are readily observed by using the appropriate illumination.

Questioned Documents

Document forgery detected when we used alternate forensic light sources. Inks have different formulations and composition even within the same apparent, visible, color type and the ink in contact with the paper will produce detectable responses as the color of the light is tuned through the visible and infrared regions. IR sensitive film or a digital camera having IR sensitivity is required for visualization of evidence in IR lightening.

UV (ultraviolet) lights are used for examination of scene of crime to reveal evidence not visible to the eye under normal lighting. UV light reveals hidden blood, fibers and fingerprints, subcutaneous bruises on living and dead bodies. It’s also used on authenticating paintings, authenticating signatures, analyzing questioned documents at crime scenes and search for trace evidence on clothing etc. Blood on dark and patterned clothing is used to enhance through Infrared photography.

The installation of 1 and 3 watt Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) in small, hand-held flashlights further advanced evidence recovery and their performance is remarkable. Precautions are always needed as Exposure to Alternate Light Source of radiation can result in serious, and sometimes irreversible, eye and skin injuries. Doesn’t look directly into the light, always wear protection (filters) on your eyes.

What is Homicide:Forensic Fingerprint

2021-02-01T19:57:00.003+05:30

What is Homicide

The killing of one human by another is homicide. It’s a broad term including

the legal and illegal killings. Homicide divided into many categories as

including murder, manslaughter, killing in war, justifiable homicide such as

self-defense or otherwise, capital punishment and euthanasia, depending upon

the circumstances of the death.

Murder

Legal definition of Murder define it in various aspects such as Intentional killing,

Committed with malice aforethought one person killing another, Intentional

infliction causing bodily harm resulted in victim’s death, Behavior showing

extremely reckless disregard to life and which caused victim’s death, It is unlawful,

as not legally justified.

Homicide v/s Murder?

Both the terms may be interchanged frequently but both have different definitions

in the eyes of the law. The different variations of both depend upon the cause,

morality and execution of the act and it’s usually decided by a jury.

When one person kills another, it is homicide while murder is homicide when

it is done with intent (pre-planned).

Murder is categorized as first-degree murder and second-degree murder.

First degree murder -Premeditated, intentional, unlawful killing of another person

is considered as first degree murder. First-degree murder penalties include life

imprisonment to 25 years in prison.

Second degree murder - Intentional, unlawful killing of another human being, but

without any premeditation or preconceived intention of killing. The conviction for

second-degree murder is up to 15 years to life imprisonment.

What is Manslaughter

When the person who committed the homicide did not have any intent to kill the

victim, or killed the victim as result of circumstances that would make him

emotionally or mentally disturbed to the point of potentially where he loosed

control of his actions is recognized as manslaughter (A form of homicide).

The two categories of manslaughter are -

Voluntary manslaughter - Unpremeditated killing of person (Intentional) in a

disturbed state of mind, or heat of passion. Conviction for voluntary manslaughter

is up to 11 years in prison.

Involuntary manslaughter - Unintentional killing of person by another person

through an act of recklessness that involves the disregard for life of others.

It is committed without premeditation and without intent to kill, but resulted

in death of another person. Conviction for it include up to four years in prison.

Homicide cases are the heinous crime in our society. Homicide investigation needs

patience and flexibility. It is a teamwork venture and it requires careful and

systematically approaches. The investigation starts at the crime scene and

following points must be considered in a violent crime -

When the crime has been committed.

The modus operandi of the crime.

Look out for the Point of enterence and exit to the crime scene used by the culprit.

Weather it is a primary crime scene or the deceased transported to the scene from some other place.

How many persons involved in the crime. Presence of drinking glasses, cigarette, cups and presence of liquor bottles, drugs indicate other persons involvement.

Type of weapon used in the crime.

Number of injuries and nature of injury or wounds found on the deceased body.(size, shape, location, condition)

Position of a wounded dead body. (It indicates whether or not, the body was moved before being discovered)

Pattern and amount of blood on and around the dead body. Condition of blood- wet, clotted or dry.(It indicates time of incidence)

Note the presence of bloodstains on the clothing of deceased.

Note the presence of any trace material that is not usual to the crime scene.

Is any tempering done with the crime scene to make it a case of suicide or accident?

Disturbed position of furniture, shoes and other household items indicate the fight and struggle of deceased.

Is any type of vehicle used by the accused?

Searching of hidden objects used in the crime like firearm, knife, garments etc. always be made systematically.

Searching for fingerprints and washed blood always be done in house, bathroom, kitchen, toilet, wash basins. Doors, windows, trunks, etc. should be search for any physical evidence.

Walls, ceiling, windows, ventilators inside and polls, trees should be observed for bullets, pellets or dent marks in cases involving gun shots.

Possibility of finding incriminating clues in ash trays, waste baskets, waste heaps or dumps is always present.

While examine the Dead body in a homicide or murder case following points must be considered –

Sex, age, Physical appearance and other features of the deceased should be checked and noted carefully.

Photograph the whole crime scene and take the photograph of the dead body from all directions.

Rigor mortis stages indicate the time of incidence and help to determine if the deceased died at the site in the position as found.

Rigor mortis, maggot formation and decomposition stage all indicate the time of incidence.

Incised or lacerated injuries or wounds gives idea about the type of weapon used.

Hair, fiber, dust, soil and other foreign material found in the hand of the deceased provided valuable information about the accused.

If any trace evidence found on the clothing of deceased, it should be examined and packed separately.

Neck region of the deceased should be examined for the ligature mark and its position.

Dead body should be sent to the mortuary for a full postmortem examination in a homicide investigation.

What is an Anthropologist: Forensic Fingerprint

2021-01-09T18:24:00.003+05:30

What is an Anthropologist

Anthropologist – These are the people whose main work is to study different

aspects of human experience such as they study how human groups lived thousand

years ago and what things were important in those ages. They research and study

about our biological bodies, genes, bones and health. They also compare humans

with other animals (monkeys and chimpanzees) to see what we have in common

and what makes us (humans) unique.

How to Become an Anthropologist in India

Step 1 – After completion of class 12^th either from Science or Arts Stream

or equivalent examination, you can pursue a Bachelor’s degree but most of

the colleges in India provide a B.Sc. degree in Anthropology, so if you have

science subjects (especially biology) in class 12^th, it helps you to develop a

better understanding of this field.

However, if you have arts stream and you want to make a career in Anthropology

then choose the Humanities stream. Subjects of higher secondary like History,

Psychology and Sociology will help you to understand the human behavior,

culture, evolution, etc., which are the main core of this field.

Step 2 - Pursue a Bachelor’s Degree in Anthropology

For starting a career in Anthropology, a degree in Anthropology is must.

It includes topics such as Human Genetics, Social Anthropology, Human

Ecology etc. Some colleges follow age criteria.

Colleges providing B. Sc. / B.A. in Anthropology are as follows –

Hindu College, University of Delhi

Hansraj College, University of Delhi

Panjab University, Chandigarh

Vidyasagar University, West Bengal

Ashoka University, Sonipat

Symbiosis School of Liberal Art, Pune

Most Colleges/Institutes give admission to candidates on the percentage, they acquired in Class 12^th exams. Some conduct entrance exam. it is advisable to first check all the eligibility criteria.

Step 3 -Master’s Degree in Anthropology

For better job opportunities in this professional workplace, you can pursue a Master’s, M.Phil. or Ph.D. in this field.

Institutes that are providing Master’s in Anthropology in India –

University of Allahabad

University of Rajasthan

Visva Bharati University, West Bengal

Berhampur University, Odisha

Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Chhattisgarh

University of Hyderabad

Students gain experience in an internship programs and also write a thesis prior to gain degree. To gain experience students also volunteer at museums or at historical buildings.

You can also earn a doctorate degree to advance yourself beyond the entry level positions. It takes 2 years to complete your master’s degree and another 4-5 years to earn your doctorate. You can choose your specific areas of anthropology as there are four main fields of anthropology. you can focus on biophysical (also known as forensics), linguistics, sociocultural and archaeological anthropology. Specialty coursework usually occurs at the graduate level.

There are so many universities in the USA, Canada and Europe that teach this discipline. Some institutes also provide free Online Course on Anthropology.

Scope of Anthropology in India -

Career options available in Anthropology -

Anthropologists: The main job is to study the origin, social, physical, and cultural development behavior of mankind.

Scientists: Anthropologists get job as scientists in the R&D development of different organizations and their respective departments.

Education Sector - An anthropologist can teach in the Department of Anthropology, at different colleges & universities as a professors/ teachers after completing his master’s degree and for these types of posts he will be required to qualify the UGC-NET examination. Instead of that the option of research work is always available.

Advertising and Market Research - Businesses are going global, it becomes imperative to be up-to date with the changing marketplace and consumer behavior. Socio-cultural anthropologists are involved in field and research work. They study, how people live and what products they use in their daily life. These types of research plays a crucial role in the business settings by casting light on the likes and dislikes of customer preferences and help an organization to produce better product and service experiences.

Art Galleries, Publishing Houses, and Museums jobs - Anthropologist provide the educational content to publishing house, art galleries and to museums. They work as a critic on the histories, biographies and another related form of content.

Non-Profit Organizations - In the social sector/ NGOs they design and implement a wide variety of programs for the communities related to tribes and other backward class. They focus their work programs on social issues such as education, social welfare, public health, urban planning, etc., and thus help to give better service delivery. Many anthropologists work in established organizations like UNICEF, UNESCO and WHO etc.

Criminal Investigation Department - Forensic Anthropologist uses their knowledge and skills to works with the police department for investigating a crime.

Entertainment Industry - Anthropologist help film- makers, scriptwriters to create a powerful narrative that informs and inspire a large number of audiences by using their knowledge of different cultures, custom, habits, etc.

Field Investigator - Anthropologist perform research and surveillance and various interviews to observe a given situation for a corporation or individual clients.

Medical Researcher -For the benefit of human society medical researchers develop new medical breakthroughs by studying the different aspects of human behavior. This job contains a great deal of research and clinical trials.

In short some of the popular employment for anthropologists is available in -

Educational Institutions/Universities

Tourism/Heritage

Healthcare Services

Public Sector Undertaking (PSUs)

Government Sector

Law/Criminal Justice

Administration Management

International Development/Affairs

NGOs

Environment Organizations

Community Development

Private and Business Agency

Top companies that recruit anthropologists -

WHO

UNICEF

UNESCO

Salary of Anthropologist -

The nature of anthropologist job is very diverse and it is very hard to give a salary range. The initial salary package of a junior anthropologist may not be very lucrative, while an experienced and senior anthropologist at big private companies may earn higher scale.

Pros

It’s a career in which you can explore different culture and history, and make a real difference to the present scenario of tradition as compared to other career fields.

Anthropologists can find jobs in private agencies, corporate sectors, businesses, individual clients and others areas and the job is very satisfying as their goal is to interact and understand different types of people and cultures.

Cons

The initial pay scales are not as high as compared to other career.

The travel for some anthropologist can be exhausting and tiring as they have to spend months in a remote location with very little communication with their families and many need some time to get habitual with the environmental conditions.

Anthropology did not offer students the professional courses that guarantee them for better placements.

What is Anthropology: Forensic Fingerprint

2020-12-27T20:25:00.003+05:30

What is Anthropology?

The study of what makes us human (such as physiology, nutritional history,

genetic makeup and evolution) and study of early primates and hominids is

Anthropology.

Anthropologists take a broad discipline approach to understand many different

aspects of the human societies, culture and human language and study biological

and material remains such as our bones, diet, and health and the biology and

behavior of primates. Anthropologists also look at economics, health, education,

law, and policy in their own societies. It’s a broad discipline that growing constantly

and incorporates new technologies and ideas.

Types of anthropology –

Four main branches/fields of Anthropology are Archaeology, Biological Anthropology,

Cultural Anthropology and Linguistic Anthropology

Archaeology

Archaeologists are interested in human culture by analyzing the objects people have

made. They systematically excavate things such as pottery and tools, the locations

of houses, burials and trash pits, in order to learn about the daily lives of a people.

Archaeologists analyze the human teeth and bones to gain information about people’s

diet and the diseases they suffered from. In order to understand how people used and

changed their natural environments they collect the remains of animals, plants and

soils from places where people have lived. Many archaeologists do not consider

themselves as anthropologists. Archaeology and anthropology relationship is a

matter of debate. physical anthropologists and biological anthropology use the

same methods of work to investigate human remains and excavate and analyze

human skeletal remains found in archaeological sites.

Different types of Archaeologists are-

Classical archaeologists

Historical archaeologists

Underwater archaeologists

Zoo-archaeologists

The training of these archaeological specialties varies significantly, but the interest in

elucidating the ancient past is same.

Biological Anthropology/ Physical Anthropology

Biological anthropologists carry out systematic studies of how humans adapt to different environments stresses, human diversity, genetic inheritance, mechanisms of evolution and what causes disease and early death. To do this, they study humans (living and dead) and near-humans such as monkeys and apes, and human ancestors (fossils). They interested in how closely biology and culture working together to shape our lives. They are interested in understanding the similarities and differences that are found among humans across the world and about the capabilities and behavior patterns of primates. They often work with paleozoologists, geologists and scientists having other specialties which help them to reconstruct ancient environment. It’s also known as physical anthropology.

Cultural Anthropology/ Sociocultural anthropology

Sociocultural anthropologists interested in learning, how people in different places live and understand the world (human societies) around them. They want to know things such as the social and political organizations, religious beliefs of different societies, marriage patterns and kinship systems, subsistence and economic patterns. Their knowledge enriches human understanding on a broader level. To understand the diversity that is being lost cultural and linguistic anthropologists have worked diligently.

Linguistic Anthropology

Linguistic anthropologists study the human communication process. They are interested in the structure and function of languages, physiology of speech, social and cultural influences on speech and writing, how languages developed and how it change over time and nonverbal communication .Language and communication are the keys to make society and culture. Linguists are neither the professional translators nor they are language teachers. They study the language from native speakers and understand the sounds, its meaning and rules for sentence construction. It’s the hardest branch of anthropology.

Applied and Practicing Anthropology

It’s an important part of anthropology. The four main subfields of anthropology can be applied. By using anthropological methods and ideas applied anthropologists work to solve real world problems. They work in local communities to solve problems related to education, health and problems related to environment. They also work for national or state parks, museums helping to understand and interpret history. They work for non-profit organizations, local, state or federal governments and work for businesses, like retail stores, technology companies etc. to learn and study, how people use different products or technology in daily lives. Applied anthropologists have many jobs and they will have more and more opportunities as demand grows.

Forensic anthropology is another important sub-branch which focuses on helping authorities to solve crimes and identify human remains found at crime scenes.

Anthropology globally -

Anthropologists always attentive to what human groups share across time and space as well as they also study how these groups are different. In many countries the unique approaches to anthropology developed. To understand more about our lives as humans, anthropologists from across the globe work together through international organizations. The World Council of Anthropology Associations aims to promote cooperation and worldwide communication in anthropology field.

Professional Organizations, Associations, and Societies -

The American Anthropological Association

The Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK

The European Anthropological Association

The European Association of Social Anthropologists

American Association of Physical Anthropologists

Midwest Primate Interest Group

Society for American Archaeology

Society for Linguistic Anthropology

World Archaeological Congress.

The Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (RAI)

Misconceptions related to Anthropology -

There is a common thinking that anthropology is about ‘bones and fossils’ , instead They are the evolutionary and biological anthropologists, who use the human remains and living sites to reconstruct the bodies, diets and environments of our ancestors. Cultural anthropology is concerned with social relations. Some think that social anthropologists study ‘tribal’ peoples in ‘remote’ areas but they also research in urban areas or in industrial workplace. Another misconception is that archaeology and anthropology are one and the same but archaeology is the study of people and cultures in the near or distant past, and social anthropology is concerns about the present-day peoples and cultures.

Death Investigation: Forensic Fingerprint

2020-12-16T19:54:00.004+05:30

Death Investigation

In suspicious death investigation, the dead body and the articles at the scene of

crime are very important, if the investigator missed anything, it lead the

investigation towards wrong direction.

Death is divided in to the following categories -

Natural death - Death that occurred at home or in hospital under care of

medical practitioner due to any acute or chronic disease is a natural death.

These deaths occurred under non-suspicious circumstances.

Violent death -

Its includes

i) Homicides - Unlawful or willful killing of one human being by another human being.

ii) Suicides - Taking of one's own life.

iii) Accident - Sudden and unexpected action by external cause that leads to

physical damage and death.

Suspicious death - when death is not determined by reasonable certainty and

it require further investigation (forensic and medical ) to rule out the nature of death.

Scene of crime observation -

First things to observe is that the scene of crime is indoor or outdoor. Both crime

scene need different protection, preservation and weather conditions effect the outdoor scene of crime.

In suspicious death whether the crime scene is primary or secondary, it must be carefully observed.

Treated all suspicious cases as homicide until it proved to be an accidental or suicide case.

Under water the decomposition of dead body is slow and when the dead body lying close to a heater, decomposition is usually fast.

The case of gunshot wound on the head need more information to decide weather it's a case of homicide, suicide or accident. Same in the case of suicide.

How to observe the dead body in a suspicious death investigation -

If the investigator found bloody froth on or inside the mouth or in nose it indicates asphyxia death due to suffocation, strangulation or drowning.

Observe the condition of cloths of the dead body, its gives clue about struggle, accident signs before death.

Presence of bloodstains record carefully around the dead body.

Observe the position and condition of belongings and articles around body such as shoes, bag, diary etc.

Preserve the footprints, shoe prints, Tyre marks etc. around the body.

The presence of dust, soil, grease, mud, hair, fibers on the body provide the exact place of death.

The basic steps for protecting, searching, preservation, sketching, photographing are not discussed here as they are already discussed in previous blogs.

Some basic points should be observed in death investigation.

Face deformation of dead body indicate the homicide case.

Manipulation of crime scene, absence of weapon used in offence and multiple injuries and wounds indicate the homicide case.

In homicide cases there always be a motive like monetary gains, revenge, land dispute, sexual interest, enmity and rivalry.

A women didn't commit suicide in a nude (seldom).

In most cases of suicide victim usually opens his clothing when attacking any part of body.

Always observed that the victim is right or left handed.

There are very less chances that a victim shoot himself in the eye.

In suicide cases the sign of violence, struggle or deformity are absent. Surrounding objects are found undisturbed except suicidal burning in which disturbance found due to life saving activities.

No bleeding was found from nostrils,ears or mouth in a suicidal hanging.

Suicide note may be or may not be found.

Weapon used in a suicide case mostly found in hand or near to the body.

In deaths due to falling an average point is that falling from a height of 100 feet will approximately cover a distance of 14 feet from the base.

In accidental deaths injuries are multiple and always be uni-directional.

In death investigation the investigation officer, forensic expert and medico legal expert jointly decide the nature of death.