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Go to any of these languages ​​in your language to see your language Identify the language.noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous)Wed, 1 Jul 2026 07:19:57 -0700Blogger http://www.blogger.com4125https://medical-news-updat-aah-towfiq.blogspot.com/en-usyesHi Copyright Medical,Info,PlusMedical Info Plus Medical Information Plus AtpsPlustowfiqhossin@gmail.comAtpsPlushttps://medical-news-updat-aah-towfiq.blogspot.com/2025/11/ts.htmlTSMon, 3 Nov 2025 00:15:00 -0800tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4192788934146246096.post-6265358708395670732©Atps.Plus<div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhb4Io2839tXuIPIYQGDOhNHZSIsexu1-nw1peyjz3nQS9uQvN2O4md_mup_3fEcMEGEv3MBhD99i-uqSpo5RmZC91sRBpWh4JInHWtM3qACmmXswCae-dx9STqNURlEKi7wFos0KOaIkGxMo0aLIoZ8C5f1YIWtS-3uBM-3Bg77BoLj4V-93SnKjd7XkI/s1600/WhatsApp%20Image%202024-07-13%20at%2016.04.02_8bc8e650.jpg" style="display: block; padding: 1em 0; text-align: center; "><img alt="" border="0" width="200" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1600" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhb4Io2839tXuIPIYQGDOhNHZSIsexu1-nw1peyjz3nQS9uQvN2O4md_mup_3fEcMEGEv3MBhD99i-uqSpo5RmZC91sRBpWh4JInHWtM3qACmmXswCae-dx9STqNURlEKi7wFos0KOaIkGxMo0aLIoZ8C5f1YIWtS-3uBM-3Bg77BoLj4V-93SnKjd7XkI/s200/WhatsApp%20Image%202024-07-13%20at%2016.04.02_8bc8e650.jpg"/></a></div> <!-- Auto Redirect Button Section --> <div style="text-align: center; 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}); document.getElementById('autoRedirectBtn').addEventListener('mouseout', function() { this.style.background = 'linear-gradient(45deg, #FF416C, #FF4B2B)'; this.style.boxShadow = '0 6px 20px rgba(255,75,43,0.4)'; this.style.transform = 'scale(1)'; }); </script> <div class="post-body" style="background: rgb(250, 250, 250); border-radius: 12px; box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1) 0px 0px 10px; color: #222222; font-family: 'SolaimanLipi', 'Kalpurush', Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 1.8; padding: 25px;"> <!-- Header Section --> <div style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 30px;"> <h1 style="color: #2c3e50; font-size: 2.5em; margin-bottom: 10px; text-shadow: 2px 2px 4px rgba(0,0,0,0.1);">ওয়ার্ল্ড অব নলেজ - জ্ঞানের জগৎ</h1> <p style="color: #7f8c8d; font-size: 1.2em;">তৌফিক সুলতান স্যারের মহতি উদ্যোগে জ্ঞানের আলো ছড়িয়ে পড়ুক সর্বত্র</p> </div> <!-- Google Knowledge Panel Section --> <div class="knowledge-panel" style="background: linear-gradient(135deg, #4285f4, #34a853); color: white; padding: 30px; border-radius: 15px; margin-bottom: 30px; text-align: center;"> <h2 style="margin: 0; font-size: 2em;">🔍 Google Knowledge Panel</h2> <p style="font-size: 1.2em; margin: 15px 0;">গুগল নলেজ প্যানেলে তৌফিক সুলতান স্যার</p> <div style="display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; gap: 15px; justify-content: center; margin-top: 20px;"> <a href="https://g.co/kgs/UWGZxfb" target="_blank" style="flex: 1; min-width: 150px; background: rgba(255,255,255,0.2); color: white; padding: 15px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 8px; text-align: center; font-size: 1.1em; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(255,255,255,0.2); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold; backdrop-filter: blur(10px);"> 🌟 Knowledge Panel 1 </a> <a href="https://g.co/kgs/qg3wBwo" target="_blank" style="flex: 1; min-width: 150px; background: rgba(255,255,255,0.2); color: white; padding: 15px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 8px; text-align: center; font-size: 1.1em; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(255,255,255,0.2); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold; backdrop-filter: blur(10px);"> 🔍 Knowledge Panel 2 </a> <a href="https://g.co/kgs/aqYJBKW" target="_blank" style="flex: 1; min-width: 150px; background: rgba(255,255,255,0.2); color: white; padding: 15px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 8px; text-align: center; font-size: 1.1em; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(255,255,255,0.2); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold; backdrop-filter: blur(10px);"> 📚 Knowledge Panel 3 </a> <a href="https://g.co/kgs/BV5k29Z" target="_blank" style="flex: 1; min-width: 150px; background: rgba(255,255,255,0.2); color: white; padding: 15px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 8px; text-align: center; font-size: 1.1em; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(255,255,255,0.2); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold; backdrop-filter: blur(10px);"> 🎯 Knowledge Panel 4 </a> </div> </div> <!-- Google Search Section --> <div class="search-section" style="background: linear-gradient(135deg, #2c3e50, #34495e); color: white; padding: 30px; border-radius: 15px; margin-bottom: 30px;"> <h2 style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 25px; font-size: 2em;">🔍 গুগলে খুঁজুন</h2> <div style="display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; gap: 15px; justify-content: center;"> <a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%95+%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95+%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8+%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" target="_blank" style="flex: 1; min-width: 180px; background: linear-gradient(45deg, #4285f4, #34a853); color: white; padding: 15px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 8px; text-align: center; font-size: 1.1em; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(66,133,244,0.3); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold;"> 🔍 লেখক তৌফিক সুলতান স্যার </a> <a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=towfiq+sultan+sir" target="_blank" style="flex: 1; min-width: 180px; background: linear-gradient(45deg, #34a853, #4285f4); color: white; padding: 15px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 8px; text-align: center; font-size: 1.1em; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(52,168,83,0.3); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold;"> 🔎 Towfiq Sultan Sir </a> <a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=Writer+Towfiq+Sultan+Sir" target="_blank" style="flex: 1; min-width: 180px; background: linear-gradient(45deg, #ea4335, #fbbc05); color: white; padding: 15px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 8px; text-align: center; font-size: 1.1em; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(234,67,53,0.3); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold;"> ✍️ Writer Towfiq Sir </a> <a href="https://share.google/NMs7DG6k9S3NXQ66F" target="_blank" style="flex: 1; min-width: 180px; background: linear-gradient(45deg, #fbbc05, #ea4335); color: white; padding: 15px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 8px; text-align: center; font-size: 1.1em; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(251,188,5,0.3); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold;"> 🌟 Google Share </a> </div> </div> <!-- Main Book Highlight --> <div style="background: linear-gradient(135deg, #667eea 0%, #764ba2 100%); color: white; padding: 30px; border-radius: 15px; margin-bottom: 30px; text-align: center;"> <h2 style="margin: 0; font-size: 2em;">📚 এখনই সংগ্রহ করুন 📚</h2> <p style="font-size: 1.3em; margin: 15px 0;">বিশেষ অফার: BUY 1 GET 1 FREE + ক্যাশব্যাক</p> <a href="https://www.rokomari.com/book/510635/world-of-knowledge" target="_blank" style="background: linear-gradient(45deg, #FF416C, #FF4B2B); color: white; padding: 15px 30px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 50px; font-size: 1.2em; display: inline-block; margin-top: 10px; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(255,75,43,0.3); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold;"> এখনই কিনুন রকমারিতে </a> </div> <!-- Book Details Section --> <div class="book-details" style="display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; gap: 20px; margin-bottom: 30px;"> <div style="flex: 1; min-width: 300px; background: white; border-radius: 15px; padding: 25px; box-shadow: 0 6px 15px rgba(0,0,0,0.1);"> <div style="background: linear-gradient(45deg, #27ae60, #2ecc71); color: white; padding: 15px; border-radius: 10px; text-align: center; margin-bottom: 20px;"> <h3 style="margin: 0; font-size: 1.5em;">বইয়ের বিবরণ</h3> </div> <div style="font-size: 1.1em;"> <p><strong>📖 বইয়ের নাম:</strong> ওয়ার্ল্ড অব নলেজ - জ্ঞানের জগৎ</p> <p><strong>✍️ লেখক:</strong> তৌফিক সুলতান স্যার</p> <p><strong>🏢 প্রকাশনী:</strong> দাঁড়িকমা প্রকাশনী</p> <p><strong>📄 পৃষ্ঠা:</strong> ১১২</p> <p><strong>🎨 বাঁধাই:</strong> হার্ডবোর্ড, রঙিন কভার</p> <p><strong>💰 মূল্য:</strong> ৩০০ টাকা</p> </div> </div> <div style="flex: 1; min-width: 300px; background: white; border-radius: 15px; padding: 25px; box-shadow: 0 6px 15px rgba(0,0,0,0.1);"> <div style="background: linear-gradient(45deg, #e67e22, #f39c12); color: white; padding: 15px; border-radius: 10px; text-align: center; margin-bottom: 20px;"> <h3 style="margin: 0; font-size: 1.5em;">বিশেষ অফার</h3> </div> <div style="font-size: 1.1em;"> <p>🎯 <strong>প্রি-অর্ডার মূল্য:</strong> ২৫৮ টাকা</p> <p>🚚 <strong>ডেলিভারি চার্জ:</strong> ৪০ টাকা</p> <p>🎁 <strong>বিশেষ অফার:</strong> ১৪৯৯+ টাকার অর্ডারে ফ্রি ডেলিভারি</p> <p>💰 <strong>ক্যাশব্যাক:</strong> বিকাশ পেমেন্টে ১০০ টাকা</p> <p>🎉 <strong>মেগা অফার:</strong> BUY 1 GET 1 FREE</p> </div> </div> </div> <!-- Author Profile Section --> <div class="author-section" style="background: linear-gradient(135deg, #ecf0f1, #bdc3c7); padding: 30px; border-radius: 15px; margin-bottom: 30px;"> <h2 style="color: #2c3e50; border-left: 5px solid #e67e22; padding-left: 15px; font-size: 2em;">লেখক পরিচিতি</h2> <div style="display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; gap: 20px; align-items: center; margin-top: 20px;"> <div style="flex: 1; min-width: 250px;"> <h3 style="color: #2c3e50;">তৌফিক সুলতান স্যার</h3> <p><strong>শিক্ষক, গবেষক, সমাজকর্মী ও লেখক</strong></p> <ul style="list-style-type: none; padding-left: 0;"> <li>🎓 জন্ম: ৪ ফেব্রুয়ারি ১৯৯৯, গাজীপুর</li> <li>🏫 প্রতিষ্ঠাতা: ওয়েল্ফশন মানবকল্যাণ সংঘ (২০১৯)</li> <li>📚 প্রভাষক: বি.জে.এস.এম মডেল কলেজ</li> <li>🏢 এমডি: ভাওয়াল ইসলামিক ক্যাডেট একাডেমি</li> <li>🌟 সিইও: ওয়েল্ফশন মানবকল্যাণ সংঘ</li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <!-- Boitoi Profile Section --> <div class="boitoi-section" style="background: linear-gradient(135deg, #ff9a9e, #fad0c4); padding: 30px; border-radius: 15px; margin-bottom: 30px; text-align: center;"> <h2 style="color: #2c3e50; margin-bottom: 20px; font-size: 2em;">📝 Boitoi প্রোফাইল</h2> <div style="background: white; padding: 20px; border-radius: 10px; margin-bottom: 20px;"> <h3 style="color: #e67e22; margin: 0 0 10px 0;">Towfiq Sultan - তৌফিক সুলতান</h3> <p style="color: #2c3e50; font-size: 1.1em; margin: 0;"> <strong>কবি ও লেখক তৌফিক সুলতান (Poet and Writer Towfiq Sultan)</strong> </p> </div> <a href="https://boitoi.com.bd/authors/4345/towfiq-sultan" target="_blank" style="background: linear-gradient(45deg, #e67e22, #f39c12); color: white; padding: 15px 30px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 50px; font-size: 1.2em; display: inline-block; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(230,126,34,0.3); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold;"> 📖 Boitoi প্রোফাইল দেখুন </a> </div> <!-- Auction Section --> <div class="auction-section" style="background: linear-gradient(135deg, #ffeaa7, #fdcb6e); padding: 30px; border-radius: 15px; margin-bottom: 30px;"> <h2 style="color: #2c3e50; border-left: 5px solid #e67e22; padding-left: 15px; font-size: 2em;">🎯 বিশেষ নিলামের সুযোগ</h2> <div style="background: white; padding: 20px; border-radius: 10px; margin: 20px 0;"> <p style="font-size: 1.2em; color: #2c3e50; text-align: center;"> <strong>"জ্ঞান তখনই অর্থবহ হয়, যখন তা মানুষের কল্যাণে ব্যবহৃত হয়। তাই প্রথম কপিটি উৎসর্গ করছি মানবসেবার উদ্দেশ্যে।"</strong> <br><span style="color: #7f8c8d;">- তৌফিক সুলতান</span> </p> </div> <h3 style="color: #e67e22; text-align: center;">নিলামে অংশগ্রহণের লিংক</h3> <div style="display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; gap: 15px; margin: 20px 0;"> <a href="https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSeqnZlaGl27LrliUP-WISMD14RPCcfu51htxX6g3A7cZN6n-A/viewform" target="_blank" style="flex: 1; min-width: 200px; background: linear-gradient(45deg, #FF416C, #FF4B2B); color: white; padding: 15px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 8px; text-align: center; font-size: 1.1em; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(255,75,43,0.3); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold;"> 📝 লিংক ১ - গুগল ফর্ম </a> <a href="https://d-a-news-p.blogspot.com/2025/10/world-of-knowledge.html?m=1" target="_blank" style="flex: 1; min-width: 200px; background: linear-gradient(45deg, #667eea, #764ba2); color: white; padding: 15px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 8px; text-align: center; font-size: 1.1em; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(102,126,234,0.3); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold;"> 🌐 লিংক ২ - ব্লগস্পট </a> <a href="https://d-a-news-p.blogspot.com/2025/10/book-auction-form-encyclopedia-world-of.html?m=1" target="_blank" style="flex: 1; min-width: 200px; background: linear-gradient(45deg, #27ae60, #2ecc71); color: white; padding: 15px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 8px; text-align: center; font-size: 1.1em; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(39,174,96,0.3); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold;"> 📚 লিংক ৪ - বই নিলাম ফর্ম </a> </div> <div style="display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; gap: 15px; margin-top: 20px;"> <div style="flex: 1; min-width: 200px; background: white; padding: 15px; border-radius: 8px; text-align: center;"> <h4 style="color: #e67e22; margin: 0;">📞 WhatsApp</h4> <p style="margin: 5px 0; font-weight: bold;">+8801301483833</p> <small>(Message Only)</small> </div> <div style="flex: 1; min-width: 200px; background: white; padding: 15px; border-radius: 8px; text-align: center;"> <h4 style="color: #3498db; margin: 0;">📧 E-mail</h4> <p style="margin: 5px 0; font-weight: bold;">welftion.help@gmail.com</p> </div> </div> </div> <!-- Purchase Section --> <div class="purchase-section" style="background: linear-gradient(135deg, #ff6b6b 0%, #ee5a24 100%); color: white; padding: 30px; border-radius: 15px; margin-bottom: 30px;"> <h2 style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 25px; font-size: 2em;">🚀 এখনই অর্ডার করুন 🚀</h2> <div style="display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; gap: 20px; justify-content: center;"> <a href="https://www.rokomari.com/book/510635/world-of-knowledge" target="_blank" style="flex: 1; min-width: 200px; background: linear-gradient(45deg, #27ae60, #2ecc71); color: white; padding: 20px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 10px; text-align: center; font-size: 1.2em; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(39,174,96,0.3); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold;"> 📖 রকমারি ডটকম </a> <a href="https://www.bdbooks.net/author-single/12427" target="_blank" style="flex: 1; min-width: 200px; background: linear-gradient(45deg, #3498db, #2980b9); color: white; padding: 20px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 10px; text-align: center; font-size: 1.2em; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(52,152,219,0.3); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold;"> 📚 বিডিবুকস </a> <a href="https://boitoi.com.bd/authors/4345/towfiq-sultan" target="_blank" style="flex: 1; min-width: 200px; background: linear-gradient(45deg, #9b59b6, #8e44ad); color: white; padding: 20px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 10px; text-align: center; font-size: 1.2em; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(155,89,182,0.3); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold;"> 📝 বইটই </a> </div> </div> <!-- Official Blogs Section --> <div class="blog-section" style="margin-bottom: 30px;"> <h2 style="color: #2c3e50; border-left: 5px solid #e74c3c; padding-left: 15px; font-size: 2em;">অফিসিয়াল ব্লগস</h2> <div style="display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; gap: 15px; margin-top: 20px;"> <a href="https://d-a-news-p.blogspot.com/2025/11/welftion.html?m=1" target="_blank" style="flex: 1; min-width: 200px; background: linear-gradient(45deg, #FF416C, #FF4B2B); color: white; padding: 20px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 10px; text-align: center; font-size: 1.1em; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(255,75,43,0.3); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold;"> 📰 ওয়েলফশন নিউজ ব্লগ </a> <a href="https://towfiqsultan-al-towfiqi.blogspot.com/?m=1" target="_blank" style="flex: 1; min-width: 200px; background: linear-gradient(45deg, #667eea, #764ba2); color: white; padding: 20px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 10px; text-align: center; font-size: 1.1em; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(102,126,234,0.3); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold;"> ✍️ লেখকের ব্যক্তিগত ব্লগ </a> </div> </div> <!-- Wiki Links Section --> <div class="wiki-section" style="margin-bottom: 30px;"> <h2 style="color: #2c3e50; border-left: 5px solid #f39c12; padding-left: 15px; font-size: 2em;">উইকি প্রোফাইল</h2> <div style="display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; gap: 15px; margin-top: 20px;"> <a href="https://wikitowfiqi.miraheze.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" target="_blank" style="flex: 1; min-width: 150px; background: linear-gradient(45deg, #e67e22, #f39c12); color: white; padding: 15px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 8px; text-align: center; font-size: 1.1em; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(230,126,34,0.3); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold;"> 📖 বাংলা উইকি </a> <a href="https://enwikitowfiqi.miraheze.org/wiki/WikiTowfiqi" target="_blank" style="flex: 1; min-width: 150px; background: linear-gradient(45deg, #3498db, #2980b9); color: white; padding: 15px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 8px; text-align: center; font-size: 1.1em; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(52,152,219,0.3); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold;"> 🌍 ইংরেজি উইকি </a> <a href="https://welftion.miraheze.org/wiki/Main_Page" target="_blank" style="flex: 1; min-width: 150px; background: linear-gradient(45deg, #27ae60, #2ecc71); color: white; padding: 15px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 8px; text-align: center; font-size: 1.1em; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(39,174,96,0.3); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold;"> 🏢 ওয়েলফশন উইকি </a> </div> </div> <!-- News Links Section --> <div class="news-section" style="margin-bottom: 30px;"> <h2 style="color: #2c3e50; border-left: 5px solid #e74c3c; padding-left: 15px; font-size: 2em;">📰 সংবাদ মাধ্যমের প্রতিবেদন</h2> <div style="display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; gap: 15px; margin-top: 20px;"> <a href="https://observerbangla.com/news/126251" target="_blank" style="flex: 1; min-width: 200px; background: linear-gradient(45deg, #e74c3c, #c0392b); color: white; padding: 20px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 10px; text-align: center; font-size: 1.1em; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(231,76,60,0.3); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold;"> 📺 অবজার্ভার বাংলা </a> <a href="https://www.dailygazipuronline.com/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87-%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9B%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1/" target="_blank" style="flex: 1; min-width: 200px; background: linear-gradient(45deg, #27ae60, #229954); color: white; padding: 20px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 10px; text-align: center; font-size: 1.1em; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(39,174,96,0.3); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold;"> 🗞️ ডেইলি গাজীপুর </a> <a href="https://www.dailytorunkantho.com/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87-%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8B-%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%93%E0%A7%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1-%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%AC-%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9C/29246" target="_blank" style="flex: 1; min-width: 200px; background: linear-gradient(45deg, #3498db, #2980b9); color: white; padding: 20px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 10px; text-align: center; font-size: 1.1em; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(52,152,219,0.3); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold;"> 📻 ডেইলি তরুণকণ্ঠ </a> <a href="https://www.jagonews24.com/ekushey-book-fair/article/1054170" target="_blank" style="flex: 1; min-width: 200px; background: linear-gradient(45deg, #9b59b6, #8e44ad); color: white; padding: 20px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 10px; text-align: center; font-size: 1.1em; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(155,89,182,0.3); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold;"> 🌟 জাগোনিউজ </a> </div> </div> <!-- Additional Resources --> <div class="resources-section" style="margin-bottom: 30px;"> <h2 style="color: #2c3e50; border-left: 5px solid #8e44ad; padding-left: 15px; font-size: 2em;">অতিরিক্ত রিসোর্স</h2> <div style="display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; gap: 15px; margin-top: 20px;"> <a href="https://d-a-news-p.blogspot.com/?m=1" target="_blank" style="flex: 1; min-width: 200px; background: linear-gradient(45deg, #e74c3c, #c0392b); color: white; padding: 20px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 10px; text-align: center; font-size: 1.1em; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(231,76,60,0.3); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold;"> 📰 অফিসিয়াল ব্লগ </a> <a href="https://teachers.gov.bd/profile/towfiqsultan.help" target="_blank" style="flex: 1; min-width: 200px; background: linear-gradient(45deg, #27ae60, #229954); color: white; padding: 20px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 10px; text-align: center; font-size: 1.1em; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(39,174,96,0.3); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold;"> 👨‍🏫 টিচার্স প্রোফাইল </a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=AwxONGAAAAAJ&hl=en" target="_blank" style="flex: 1; min-width: 200px; background: linear-gradient(45deg, #3498db, #2980b9); color: white; padding: 20px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 10px; text-align: center; font-size: 1.1em; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(52,152,219,0.3); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold;"> 🎓 গুগল স্কলার </a> <a href="https://pbs.com.bd/writer/22616/towfiq-sultan" target="_blank" style="flex: 1; min-width: 200px; background: linear-gradient(45deg, #9b59b6, #8e44ad); color: white; padding: 20px; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 10px; text-align: center; font-size: 1.1em; box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(155,89,182,0.3); border: 2px solid white; font-weight: bold;"> 📝 PBS প্রোফাইল </a> </div> </div> <!-- Final Review --> <div style="background: linear-gradient(135deg, #74b9ff 0%, #0984e3 100%); color: white; padding: 30px; border-radius: 15px; text-align: center;"> <h2 style="font-size: 2em; margin-bottom: 20px;">✨ বিশেষ রিভিউ ✨</h2> <p style="font-size: 1.3em; line-height: 1.6;"> <strong>"বিষয়বস্তু থেকে প্রচ্ছদ—সবকিছুই নিখুঁতভাবে সাজানো। এমন রূপকম্পন্ন রচনায় মন হারাতে বাধ্য হবে… আছে মানবতার আলো, সত্যের তাড়না ও একান্ত অনুভূতির স্পন্দন।"</strong> </p> <p style="font-size: 1.2em; margin-top: 20px;"> তাই আপনিও আজই অংশ নিন — পড়ুন, অনুভব করুন, উপহার হিসেবে নিন আপনার ভালো লাগার মানুষের জন্য। </p> <p style="font-size: 1.1em; margin-top: 15px;"> শুভকামনা রইল লেখক ও প্রকাশনীর জন্য — বইটি পাঠকের হৃদয়ে দাগ কেটে রাখুক ইনশাআল্লাহ। 🌿 </p> </div> </div> <style> @media (max-width: 768px) { .book-details, .purchase-section div, .wiki-section div, .search-section div, .resources-section div, .blog-section div, .news-section div, .knowledge-panel div { flex-direction: column; } [style*="min-width"] { min-width: 100% !important; } } a { transition: all 0.3s ease; font-weight: bold; display: block; } a:hover { transform: translateY(-5px); box-shadow: 0 8px 25px rgba(0,0,0,0.4) !important; } h1, h2, h3, h4, h5 { font-family: 'SolaimanLipi', 'Kalpurush', Arial, sans-serif; } /* Button Animation */ @keyframes buttonGlow { 0% { box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(0,0,0,0.3); } 50% { box-shadow: 0 6px 20px rgba(0,0,0,0.5); } 100% { box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(0,0,0,0.3); } } a { animation: buttonGlow 3s infinite; } /* Special hover effects */ .knowledge-panel a:hover { background: rgba(255,255,255,0.4) !important; transform: scale(1.05) !important; } .search-section a:hover { background: linear-gradient(45deg, #4285f4, #34a853) !important; transform: scale(1.05) !important; } .boitoi-section a:hover { background: linear-gradient(45deg, #d35400, #e67e22) !important; transform: scale(1.05) !important; } </style> <div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /> <div> <marquee behavior="alternate" direction="down" height="70" style="border: solid;" width="750"> <marquee behavior="alternate">Welftion <span style="color: #cc0000;">Love</span> Of <span style="color: #38761d;">Welfare <div><span style="background-color: #20124d; color: #01ffff;">&nbsp;দৈনিক অনুসন্ধান</span></div><div><span style="color: #01ffff;"><br /></span> <marquee><span style="background-color: #01ffff; color: #660000;">Welftion Love Of Welfare :</span> <span style="color: #4c1130;">প্রিয় সুহৃদ</span>, &nbsp;<span style="color: #20124d;">নতুন প্রজন্মের আগ্রহী লেখকদের প্রতি অনুরোধ,</span> <span style="color: #20124d;">আমাদের কাছে লেখা পাঠিয়ে</span> <span style="color: #073763;">দুই সপ্তাহ থেকে তিন মাস অপেক্ষা করুন।</span> <span style="color: #0c343d;">একই লেখা একাধিক জায়গায় পাঠানো হলে</span> <span style="color: #274e13;">কিংবা</span> <span style="color: #7f6000;">প্রকাশিত হলে </span><span style="color: #783f04;">আমরা সেই লেখককে আর গ্রহণ না করতে বাধ্য হবো। </span><span style="color: #660000;"> আপনার লেখা / ছবি / মতামত / অভিযোগ </span><span style="color: #741b47;">পাঠান ~ ✉</span><span style="color: #351c75;"> towfiqsultan.help@gmail.com</span> ,</marquee></div><div><marquee><span style="color: #0b5394;">editorial.tds@outlook.com</span> , <span style="color: #134f5c;">editorial.tdse@gmail.com</span>&nbsp;</marquee></div><div><marquee><span style="color: #800180;">দৈনিক অনুসন্ধান শেরে বাংলা নগর, ঢাকা, বাংলাদেশ</span>।</marquee></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; 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#Welftion #وعلفشن #ওয়েলফশন || Welftion ওয়েলফশন وعلفشن بِسْمِ اللّهِ الرَّحْمـَنِ الرَّحِيمِ&nbsp;&nbsp; °"সততায় আমরা" °"কল্যাণে আমরা" °"শান্তিতে আমরা"&nbsp;&nbsp;</h3><h3 style="text-align: left;">&nbsp;ওয়েলফশন ~ মানবকল্যাণ সংঘ বিশ্বের কল্যাণকামী মানুষের একটি সম্মিলিত সংগঠন।&nbsp;&nbsp;</h3><h3 style="text-align: left;">&nbsp;প্রবর্তন : ০৪ ফেব্রুয়ারি ২০১৯ খ্রিঃ</h3><h3 style="text-align: left;">&nbsp; E-mail : welftion@yahoo.com&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</h3><h3 style="text-align: left;">ভূমিকাঃ&nbsp;সংগঠন একটি সামাজিক প্রক্রিয়া। যেখানে একদল মানুষ একটি সাংগাঠনিক কাঠামোর অন্তভুক্ত হয়ে নিদিষ্ট কিছু লক্ষ্য ও উদ্দেশ্য বাস্তবায়নে সর্বদা নিরন্তর। ওয়েলফশন - মানবকল্যাণ সংঘ এর ব্যাতিক্রম নয়। ওয়েলফশন একটি মানবসেবা ও মানব উন্নয়ন মূলক সামাজিক সংগঠন । যেখানে বিশ্বের কল্যাণ কামী দল &amp; ব্যক্তি একত্রিত হয়ে। স্ব স্ব এলাকার শিক্ষা সচেতনতা, বেকারত্ব দূরীকরণ, আর্থ-সামাজিক উন্নয়ন,ক্রিয়া, সাংস্কৃতিক পরিবেশ, আত্ম-কর্মসংস্থান, মানবাধিকার এবং সারাবিশ্বে শান্তি প্রতিষ্ঠাসহ পারষ্পরিক সহযোগিতা, সহমর্মিতা ও ভ্রাতৃত্বের সেতু স্থাপন তথা আদর্শ সমাজ জীবন গড়ে তোলার দৃঢ় প্রত্যয়ে সামাজিক, উন্নয়নশীল ও উন্নয়নমূলক স্বেচ্ছাসেবী সংগঠন হিসেবে সততা ও কল্যাণের মাধ্যমে শান্তি প্রতিষ্ঠার লক্ষ্যে "এসো মানবতার কল্যাণে কাজ করি সুন্দর সমাজ গড়ি" এই স্লোগানে ৪ ফেব্রুয়ারি ২০১৯ সালে এই সংগঠন টি আত্মপ্রকাশ করে। যা মানুষ ও মানবতার সেবায় অঙ্গীকারবদ্ধ।&nbsp; আপনিও যদি হাতে হাত রেখে, কাধে কাধ মিলিয়ে মানবসেবা ও মানব উন্নয়ন মূলক সামাজিক কর্মকান্ডে অংশগ্রহণ করেতে চান যোগ দিন আমাদের সাথে, যোগ দিন ওয়েলফশন~মানবকল্যাণ সংঘে।</h3><h3 style="text-align: left;">&nbsp;&nbsp; সংগঠনের নামঃ এই সংগঠনের নাম “ওয়েলফশন কল্যাণ সংঘ”।&nbsp;</h3><h3 style="text-align: left;">ডাক নাম : 'ওয়েলফশন মানবকল্যাণ সংঘ' (EN- Welftion Human Welfare Association)&nbsp;</h3><h3 style="text-align: left;">&nbsp;অন্য নাম : " ওয়েলফশন শান্তি সংঘ" ( Welftion Quiets Association )&nbsp;&nbsp;</h3><h3 style="text-align: left;">&nbsp; স্লোগান স্লোগান :&nbsp;"এসো মানবতার কল্যাণে কাজ করি, সুন্দর সমাজ গড়ি"&nbsp;</h3><h3 style="text-align: left;">&nbsp; নীতিবাক্য : নীতিবাক্য : "সততায় আমরা" "কল্যাণে আমরা"শান্তিতে আমরা"&nbsp; <br /></h3><h3 style="text-align: left;">সংগঠনের ধরন: অলাভজনক প্রতিষ্ঠান, কল্যাণমূখী, সমাজসেবা মূলক,উন্নয়ন মূলক, সেচ্ছাসেবী ও সামাজিক সংগঠন।</h3><h3 style="text-align: left;">&nbsp;&nbsp; সংগঠনের মুলমন্ত্র (মূলনীতি) : ” একতা, সততা, (ঐক্য), সহযোগিতা, বিশ্বস্ত বন্ধুত্বপূর্ণ, শিক্ষা, শান্তি, উন্নতি” ওয়েলফশনের মূলনীতি হিসেবে বিবেচিত।&nbsp;</h3><h3 style="text-align: left;">&nbsp;প্রধান প্রবর্তক : তৌফিক হোসাইন</h3><h3 style="text-align: left;">&nbsp;প্রতিষ্ঠিতা সদস্য : ওয়াহিদুল্লাহ্ কাওছার, তৌফিক হোসাইন,মোঃ রাকিব মিয়া।&nbsp;&nbsp;</h3><h3 style="text-align: left;">&nbsp;শর্তাবলীঃ<div class="blogger-post-footer">https://atps-plus.blogspot.com</div>0towfiqhossin@gmail.com (AtpsPlus)https://medical-news-updat-aah-towfiq.blogspot.com/2021/05/welftion.htmlThu, 6 May 2021 20:41:00 -0700tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4192788934146246096.post-5850009212495655000©Atps.©<p>&nbsp;</p><p></p><p>&nbsp; <br /></p><p></p><p></p><p>#Welftion #ওয়েলফশন #وعلفشن || Welftion ওয়েলফশন</p><p></p><p style="text-align: center;">&nbsp; بِسْمِ اللّهِ الرَّحْمـَنِ الرَّحِيمِ&nbsp;</p><p style="text-align: center;">"সততায় আমরা" "কল্যাণে আমরা" "শান্তিতে আমরা"</p><h1 style="text-align: center;">&nbsp;<a href="https://youtu.be/VQLTQbGbUbQ" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">ওয়েলফশন ~ মানবকল্যাণ সংঘ</a></h1><p style="text-align: justify;">&nbsp;<a href="https://drive.google.com/drive/mobile/folders/19LKVyX4AhcHJ7-1Xp8wEDA5DSJEMKNSz" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i>বিশ্বের কল্যাণকামী মানুষের একটি সম্মিলিত সংগঠন।</i>&nbsp;</a></p><div style="text-align: left;">প্রবর্তন : ০৪ ফেব্রুয়ারি ২০১৯ খ্রিঃ&nbsp; <br /></div><p>E-mail : welftion@yahoo.com&nbsp;</p><p>ভূমিকাঃ সংগঠন একটি সামাজিক প্রক্রিয়া। যেখানে একদল মানুষ একটি সাংগাঠনিক কাঠামোর অন্তভুক্ত হয়ে নিদিষ্ট কিছু লক্ষ্য ও উদ্দেশ্য বাস্তবায়নে সর্বদা নিরন্তর। ওয়েলফশন - মানবকল্যাণ সংঘ এর ব্যাতিক্রম নয়। ওয়েলফশন একটি মানবসেবা ও মানব উন্নয়ন মূলক সামাজিক সংগঠন । যেখানে বিশ্বের কল্যাণ কামী দল &amp; ব্যক্তি একত্রিত হয়ে। স্ব স্ব এলাকার শিক্ষা সচেতনতা, বেকারত্ব দূরীকরণ, আর্থ-সামাজিক উন্নয়ন,ক্রিয়া, সাংস্কৃতিক পরিবেশ, আত্ম-কর্মসংস্থান, মানবাধিকার এবং সারাবিশ্বে শান্তি প্রতিষ্ঠাসহ পারষ্পরিক সহযোগিতা, সহমর্মিতা ও ভ্রাতৃত্বের সেতু স্থাপন তথা আদর্শ সমাজ জীবন গড়ে তোলার দৃঢ় প্রত্যয়ে সামাজিক, উন্নয়নশীল ও উন্নয়নমূলক স্বেচ্ছাসেবী সংগঠন হিসেবে সততা ও কল্যাণের মাধ্যমে শান্তি প্রতিষ্ঠার লক্ষ্যে "এসো মানবতার কল্যাণে কাজ করি সুন্দর সমাজ গড়ি" এই স্লোগানে ৪ ফেব্রুয়ারি ২০১৯ সালে এই সংগঠন টি আত্মপ্রকাশ করে। যা মানুষ ও মানবতার সেবায় অঙ্গীকারবদ্ধ। আপনিও যদি হাতে হাত রেখে, কাধে কাধ মিলিয়ে মানবসেবা ও মানব উন্নয়ন মূলক সামাজিক কর্মকান্ডে অংশগ্রহণ করেতে চান যোগ দিন আমাদের সাথে, যোগ দিন ওয়েলফশন~মানবকল্যাণ সংঘে।&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p><p>খ) সংগঠনের নামঃ এই সংগঠনের নাম “ওয়েলফশন কল্যাণ সংঘ”।</p><p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;ডাক নাম : 'ওয়েলফশন মানবকল্যাণ সংঘ' (EN- Welftion Human Welfare Association)</p><p>&nbsp;অন্য নাম : " ওয়েলফশন শান্তি সংঘ" ( Welftion Quiets Association )&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p><p>উপধারা-১ (ক) স্লোগান স্লোগান : "এসো মানবতার কল্যাণে কাজ করি, সুন্দর সমাজ গড়ি"</p><p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;(খ) নীতিবাক্য : নীতিবাক্য : "সততায় আমরা" "কল্যাণে আমরা"শান্তিতে আমরা"&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p><p>উপধারা - ২ (ক) সংগঠনের ধরন: অলাভজনক প্রতিষ্ঠান, কল্যাণমূখী, সমাজসেবা মূলক,উন্নয়ন মূলক, সেচ্ছাসেবী ও সামাজিক সংগঠন।&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;(খ) সংগঠনের মুলমন্ত্র (মূলনীতি) : ” একতা, সততা, (ঐক্য), সহযোগিতা, বিশ্বস্ত বন্ধুত্বপূর্ণ, শিক্ষা, শান্তি, উন্নতি” ওয়েলফশনের মূলনীতি হিসেবে বিবেচিত।</p><p>&nbsp;প্রধান প্রবর্তক : তৌফিক হোসাইন</p><p>&nbsp;প্রতিষ্ঠিতা সদস্য : ওয়াহিদুল্লাহ্ কাওছার, তৌফিক হোসাইন,মোঃ রাকিব মিয়া।&nbsp;</p><p>শর্তাবলীঃ শর্ত :&nbsp;</p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>• ভালো যে কোনো কাজ করা যাবে এবং খারাপ যে কোনো কাজ থেকে বিরত থাকতে হবে।&nbsp; <br /></li></ul><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>&nbsp;• ইসলাম দ্বি-পন্থী, এবং রাষ্ট্রীয় আইন বিরুদ্ধী কোনো কাজ করা যাবে না।&nbsp;</li><li>• উদ্ধতন কর্মকর্তাদের প্রতি অনুগত থাকতে হবে।&nbsp;</li><li>• অন্য যে কোনো কাজের থেকে সংগঠনের কাজকে বেশি গুরুত্ব দিতে হবে।</li><li>&nbsp;• অবশ্যই দায়িত্বশীল হতে হবে। </li></ul><div class="blogger-post-footer">https://atps-plus.blogspot.com</div>0towfiqhossin@gmail.com (AtpsPlus)https://medical-news-updat-aah-towfiq.blogspot.com/2018/11/medical-about.htmlSat, 3 Nov 2018 07:18:00 -0700tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4192788934146246096.post-1715196789227164215<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"> <div id="mw-mf-viewport" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 0px; color: #222222; font-family: &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, Helvetica, &quot;Nimbus Sans L&quot;, Arial, &quot;Liberation Sans&quot;, sans-serif; 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border: 0px; color: #54595d; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.85em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 2px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </div> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><br /></a></div> <div class="content" id="bodyContent" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.65; margin: 0px 16px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div class="mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr" id="mw-content-text" lang="en" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div class="mw-parser-output" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="background: none rgb(248, 249, 250); border: 0px; color: #54595d; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 5px 7px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">This article is about the science of healing. For medicaments, see&nbsp;medication. For other uses, see&nbsp;Medicine (disambiguation).</a></div> <div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="background: none rgb(248, 249, 250); border: 0px; color: #54595d; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 5px 7px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">"Academic medicine" redirects here. For the journal, see&nbsp;Academic Medicine (journal).</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><b style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Medicine</b>&nbsp;is the&nbsp;science&nbsp;and practice of the&nbsp;diagnosis,&nbsp;treatment, and&nbsp;prevention&nbsp;of&nbsp;disease. Medicine encompasses a variety of&nbsp;health care&nbsp;practices evolved to maintain and restore&nbsp;health&nbsp;by the&nbsp;prevention&nbsp;and&nbsp;treatmentof&nbsp;illness. Contemporary medicine applies&nbsp;biomedical sciences,&nbsp;biomedical research,&nbsp;genetics, and&nbsp;medical technology&nbsp;to&nbsp;diagnose, treat, and prevent injury and disease, typically through&nbsp;pharmaceuticals&nbsp;or&nbsp;surgery, but also through therapies as diverse as&nbsp;psychotherapy,&nbsp;external splints and traction,&nbsp;medical devices,&nbsp;biologics, and&nbsp;ionizing radiation, amongst others.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</sup></a></div> <table class="infobox" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(234, 236, 240); display: flex; flex-flow: column nowrap; flex: 1 1 100%; float: none !important; font-size: 14.4px; margin-bottom: 2em; margin-left: 0px !important; margin-right: 0px !important; margin-top: 1em; overflow: auto hidden; position: relative; width: 22em;"><caption style="display: flex; flex-flow: column nowrap; font-size: 14.4px; font-weight: bold; padding-bottom: 0.25em; text-align: left;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Medicine</a></caption><tbody style="display: flex; flex-flow: column nowrap; font-size: 14.4px;"> <tr style="display: flex; flex-flow: row nowrap; font-size: 14.4px; min-width: 100%;"><td colspan="2" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(234, 236, 240); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; flex: 1 0 0%; font-size: 14.4px; padding: 7px 10px; text-align: center; vertical-align: top; width: 308px;"><a class="image" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Asklepios.3.jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="Marble statue of Asclephius on a pedestal, symbol of medicine in Western medicine" data-file-height="763" data-file-width="470" height="406" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Asklepios.3.jpg/250px-Asklepios.3.jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: auto !important; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle;" width="250" /></a><div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0.25em 0px 0.4em; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Statue of&nbsp;Asclepius, the&nbsp;Greek god&nbsp;of medicine, holding the symbolic&nbsp;Rod of Asclepius&nbsp;with its coiled&nbsp;serpent</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="display: flex; flex-flow: row nowrap; font-size: 14.4px; min-width: 100%;"><th scope="row" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(234, 236, 240); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; flex: 1 0 0%; font-size: 14.4px; line-height: 1.15em; padding: 0.185em 0.5em 7px 10px; vertical-align: top;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Specialist</a></th><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(234, 236, 240); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; flex: 1 0 0%; font-size: 14.4px; line-height: 1.3em; padding: 7px 10px; vertical-align: top;"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specialty_(medicine)" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Specialty (medicine)">Medical specialty</a></td></tr> <tr style="display: flex; flex-flow: row nowrap; font-size: 14.4px; min-width: 100%;"><th scope="row" style="border: 0px; flex: 1 0 0%; font-size: 14.4px; line-height: 1.15em; padding: 0.185em 0.5em 7px 10px; vertical-align: top;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Glossary</a></th><td style="border: 0px; flex: 1 0 0%; font-size: 14.4px; line-height: 1.3em; padding: 7px 10px; vertical-align: top;"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Glossary of medicine">Glossary of medicine</a></td></tr> </tbody></table> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Medicine has existed for thousands of years, during most of which it was an art (an area of skill and knowledge) frequently having connections to the&nbsp;religious&nbsp;and&nbsp;philosophicalbeliefs of local culture. For example, a&nbsp;medicine man&nbsp;would apply herbs and say&nbsp;prayers&nbsp;for healing, or an ancient philosopher and&nbsp;physician&nbsp;would apply&nbsp;bloodlettingaccording to the theories of&nbsp;humorism. In recent centuries, since the&nbsp;advent of modern science, most medicine has become a combination of art and science (both&nbsp;basicand&nbsp;applied, under the&nbsp;umbrella&nbsp;of&nbsp;<b style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">medical science</b>). While stitching technique for&nbsp;sutures&nbsp;is an art learned through practice, the knowledge of what happens at the&nbsp;cellularand&nbsp;molecular&nbsp;level in the tissues being stitched arises through science.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Prescientific forms of medicine are now known as&nbsp;traditional medicine&nbsp;and&nbsp;folk medicine. They remain commonly used with or instead of scientific medicine and are thus called&nbsp;alternative medicine. For example, evidence on the effectiveness of&nbsp;acupunctureis "variable and inconsistent" for any condition,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Colquhoun2013_2-0" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[2]</sup>&nbsp;but is generally safe when done by an appropriately trained practitioner.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-nciacupuncture_3-0" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[3]</sup>&nbsp;In contrast, treatments outside the bounds of safety and efficacy are termed&nbsp;quackery.</a></div> <div class="toclimit-3" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </div> </div> <h2 aria-controls="content-collapsible-block-0" aria-haspopup="true" class="in-block section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" style="background: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(234, 236, 240); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; clear: left; cursor: pointer; display: table; font-family: &quot;Linux Libertine&quot;, Georgia, Times, serif; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px 0px 0.5em; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0.5em 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline; word-break: break-word;" tabindex="0"> <div class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-mf-arrow mw-ui-icon-element mf-mw-ui-icon-rotate-flip indicator" style="background: none; border: 0px; float: left; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.4em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0.7em 0px 0px -1em; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 3.5em;" title=""> </div> <span class="mw-headline" id="Etymology" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 248px;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Etymology</a></span><span class="mw-editsection" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page" data-section="1" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medicine&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.666667em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; visibility: visible; width: 3.5em;" title="Edit section: Etymology">Edit</a></span></h2> <div aria-expanded="true" aria-pressed="true" class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block open-block" id="content-collapsible-block-0" style="background: none; border: 0px; clear: left; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Medicine (<span class="nowrap" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><small style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 16px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">UK:&nbsp;</small><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">/<span style="background: none; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span>/</span><small class="nowrap" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 16px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">&nbsp;(<span class="unicode haudio" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="fn" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="About this sound" class="image-lazy-loaded" height="11" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/11px-Loudspeaker.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/17px-Loudspeaker.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/22px-Loudspeaker.svg.png 2x" style="animation: fadeInImage 0.3s ease-in 0s 1 normal none running; background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 11px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 11px;" width="11" />&nbsp;</span>listen</span></span>)</small></span>,&nbsp;<span class="nowrap" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: nowrap;"><small style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 16px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">US:&nbsp;</small><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">/<span style="background: none; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span>/</span><small class="nowrap" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 16px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">&nbsp;(<span class="unicode haudio" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="fn" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="About this sound" class="image-lazy-loaded" height="11" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/11px-Loudspeaker.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/17px-Loudspeaker.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/22px-Loudspeaker.svg.png 2x" style="animation: fadeInImage 0.3s ease-in 0s 1 normal none running; background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 11px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 11px;" width="11" />&nbsp;</span>listen</span></span>)</small></span>) is the&nbsp;science&nbsp;and practice of the&nbsp;diagnosis,&nbsp;treatment, and&nbsp;prevention&nbsp;of&nbsp;disease.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[4]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[5]</sup>&nbsp;The word "medicine" is derived from&nbsp;Latin&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">medicus</i>, meaning "a physician".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[6]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-7" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[7]</sup></a></div> </div> <h2 aria-controls="content-collapsible-block-1" aria-haspopup="true" class="in-block section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" style="background: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(234, 236, 240); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; clear: left; cursor: pointer; display: table; font-family: &quot;Linux Libertine&quot;, Georgia, Times, serif; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px 0px 0.5em; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0.5em 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline; word-break: break-word;" tabindex="0"> <div class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-mf-arrow mw-ui-icon-element mf-mw-ui-icon-rotate-flip indicator" style="background: none; border: 0px; float: left; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.4em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0.7em 0px 0px -1em; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 3.5em;" title=""> </div> <span class="mw-headline" id="Clinical_practice" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 248px;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Clinical practice</a></span><span class="mw-editsection" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page" data-section="2" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medicine&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.666667em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; visibility: visible; width: 3.5em;" title="Edit section: Clinical practice">Edit</a></span></h2> <div aria-expanded="true" aria-pressed="true" class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block open-block" id="content-collapsible-block-1" style="background: none; border: 0px; clear: left; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div class="thumb tright" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.6em 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div class="thumbinner" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: flex; flex-flow: column wrap; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; place-content: flex-start center; vertical-align: baseline; width: 222px;"> <a class="image" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Doctor_Luke_Fildes_crop.jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="Oil painting of medicine in the age of colonialism" class="thumbimage image-lazy-loaded" height="151" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/The_Doctor_Luke_Fildes_crop.jpg/220px-The_Doctor_Luke_Fildes_crop.jpg" style="animation: fadeInImage 0.3s ease-in 0s 1 normal none running; background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 151px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 220px;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; -webkit-box-ordinal-group: 1; -webkit-box-pack: justify; background: none; border: 0px; color: #54595d; flex: 1 0 100%; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; justify-content: space-between; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; order: 1; padding: 0px !important; vertical-align: baseline; width: 222px;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.8px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The Doctor</i>&nbsp;by&nbsp;Sir Luke Fildes&nbsp;(1891)</a></div> </div> </div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Medical availability and clinical practice varies across the world due to regional differences in culture and technology. Modern scientific medicine is highly developed in the&nbsp;Western world, while in&nbsp;developing countries&nbsp;such as parts of Africa or Asia, the population may rely more heavily on&nbsp;traditional medicine&nbsp;with limited evidence and efficacy and no required formal training for practitioners.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[8]</sup>&nbsp;Even in the&nbsp;developed world&nbsp;however,&nbsp;evidence-based medicine&nbsp;is not universally used in clinical practice; for example, a 2007 survey of literature reviews found that about 49% of the interventions lacked sufficient evidence to support either benefit or harm.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-9" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[9]</sup></a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">In modern clinical practice, physicians personally assess patients in order to&nbsp;diagnose, treat, and prevent disease using clinical judgment. The&nbsp;doctor-patient relationship&nbsp;typically begins an interaction with an examination of the patient's&nbsp;medical history&nbsp;and&nbsp;medical record, followed by a medical interview<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Coulehan_2005_10-0" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[10]</sup>&nbsp;and a&nbsp;physical examination. Basic diagnostic&nbsp;medical devices&nbsp;(e.g.&nbsp;stethoscope,&nbsp;tongue depressor) are typically used. After examination for&nbsp;signsand interviewing for&nbsp;symptoms, the doctor may order&nbsp;medical tests&nbsp;(e.g.&nbsp;blood tests), take a&nbsp;biopsy, or prescribe&nbsp;pharmaceutical drugs&nbsp;or other therapies.&nbsp;Differential diagnosis&nbsp;methods help to rule out conditions based on the information provided. During the encounter, properly informing the patient of all relevant facts is an important part of the relationship and the development of trust. The medical encounter is then documented in the medical record, which is a legal document in many jurisdictions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-AHIMA2005_11-0" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[11]</sup>&nbsp;Follow-ups may be shorter but follow the same general procedure, and specialists follow a similar process. The diagnosis and treatment may take only a few minutes or a few weeks depending upon the complexity of the issue.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">The components of the medical interview<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Coulehan_2005_10-1" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[10]</sup>and encounter are:</a></div> <ul style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; list-style: square outside; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 1em; vertical-align: baseline;"> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Chief complaint (CC): the reason for the current medical visit. These are the 'symptoms.' They are in the patient's own words and are recorded along with the duration of each one. Also called 'chief concern' or 'presenting complaint'.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">History of present&nbsp;illness&nbsp;(HPI): the chronological order of events of symptoms and further clarification of each symptom. Distinguishable from history of previous illness, often called past medical history (PMH).&nbsp;Medical history&nbsp;comprises HPI and PMH.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Current activity: occupation, hobbies, what the patient actually does.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Medications&nbsp;(Rx): what drugs the patient takes including&nbsp;prescribed,&nbsp;over-the-counter, and&nbsp;home remedies, as well as alternative and&nbsp;herbal medicines/herbal remedies.&nbsp;Allergies&nbsp;are also recorded.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Past medical history (PMH/PMHx): concurrent medical problems, past hospitalizations and operations, injuries, past&nbsp;infectious diseases&nbsp;or&nbsp;vaccinations, history of known allergies.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Social history (SH): birthplace, residences, marital history, social and economic status, habits (including&nbsp;diet, medications,&nbsp;tobacco, alcohol).</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Family history&nbsp;(FH): listing of diseases in the family that may impact the patient. A&nbsp;family tree&nbsp;is sometimes used.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: inherit; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Review of systems (ROS) or&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">systems inquiry</i>: a set of additional questions to ask, which may be missed on HPI: a general enquiry (have you noticed any&nbsp;weight loss, change in sleep quality, fevers, lumps and bumps? etc.), followed by questions on the body's main organ systems (heart,&nbsp;lungs,&nbsp;digestive tract,&nbsp;urinary tract, etc.).</a></li> </ul> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">The&nbsp;physical examination&nbsp;is the examination of the patient for&nbsp;medical signs&nbsp;of disease, which are objective and observable, in contrast to symptoms which are volunteered by the patient and not necessarily objectively observable.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-12" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[12]</sup>&nbsp;The healthcare provider uses the senses of sight, hearing, touch, and sometimes smell (e.g., in infection,&nbsp;uremia,&nbsp;diabetic ketoacidosis). Four actions are the basis of physical examination:&nbsp;inspection,&nbsp;palpation&nbsp;(feel),&nbsp;percussion&nbsp;(tap to determine resonance characteristics), and&nbsp;auscultation(listen), generally in that order although auscultation occurs prior to percussion and palpation for abdominal assessments.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-13" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[13]</sup></a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">The clinical examination involves the study of:</a></div> <ul style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; list-style: square outside; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 1em; vertical-align: baseline;"> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Vital signs including height, weight, body temperature,&nbsp;blood pressure,&nbsp;pulse, respiration rate, and hemoglobin&nbsp;oxygen saturation</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">General appearance of the patient and specific indicators of disease (nutritional status, presence of jaundice, pallor or&nbsp;clubbing)</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_skin" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Human skin">Skin</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Head,&nbsp;eye,&nbsp;ear, nose, and throat (HEENT)</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Cardiovascular&nbsp;(heart&nbsp;and&nbsp;blood vessels)</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Respiratory&nbsp;(large airways and&nbsp;lungs)</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Abdomen&nbsp;and&nbsp;rectum</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Genitalia (and pregnancy if the patient is or could be pregnant)</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Musculoskeletal&nbsp;(including spine and extremities)</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Neurological&nbsp;(consciousness, awareness, brain, vision,&nbsp;cranial nerves, spinal cord and&nbsp;peripheral nerves)</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: inherit; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Psychiatric&nbsp;(orientation,&nbsp;mental state, evidence of abnormal perception or thought).</a></li> </ul> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">It is to likely focus on areas of interest highlighted in the medical history and may not include everything listed above.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">The treatment plan may include ordering additional&nbsp;medical laboratory&nbsp;tests and&nbsp;medical imaging&nbsp;studies, starting therapy, referral to a specialist, or watchful observation. Follow-up may be advised. Depending upon the&nbsp;health insurance&nbsp;plan and the&nbsp;managed care&nbsp;system, various forms of "utilization review", such as prior authorization of tests, may place barriers on accessing expensive services.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-14" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[14]</sup></a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">The medical decision-making (MDM) process involves analysis and synthesis of all the above data to come up with a list of possible diagnoses (the&nbsp;differential diagnoses), along with an idea of what needs to be done to obtain a definitive diagnosis that would explain the patient's problem.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">On subsequent visits, the process may be repeated in an abbreviated manner to obtain any new history, symptoms, physical findings, and lab or imaging results or specialist consultations.</a></div> </div> <h2 aria-controls="content-collapsible-block-2" aria-haspopup="true" class="in-block section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" style="background: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(234, 236, 240); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; clear: left; cursor: pointer; display: table; font-family: &quot;Linux Libertine&quot;, Georgia, Times, serif; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px 0px 0.5em; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0.5em 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline; word-break: break-word;" tabindex="0"> <div class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-mf-arrow mw-ui-icon-element mf-mw-ui-icon-rotate-flip indicator" style="background: none; border: 0px; float: left; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.4em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0.7em 0px 0px -1em; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 3.5em;" title=""> </div> <span class="mw-headline" id="Institutions" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 248px;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Institutions</a></span><span class="mw-editsection" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page" data-section="3" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medicine&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.666667em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; visibility: visible; width: 3.5em;" title="Edit section: Institutions">Edit</a></span></h2> <div aria-expanded="true" aria-pressed="true" class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block open-block" id="content-collapsible-block-2" style="background: none; border: 0px; clear: left; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div class="thumb tright" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.6em 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div class="thumbinner" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: flex; flex-flow: column wrap; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; place-content: flex-start center; vertical-align: baseline; width: 222px;"> <a class="image" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pellegrinaio_Santa_Maria_della_Scala_n5.jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="Color fresco of an ancient hospital setting" class="thumbimage image-lazy-loaded" height="176" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Pellegrinaio_Santa_Maria_della_Scala_n5.jpg/220px-Pellegrinaio_Santa_Maria_della_Scala_n5.jpg" style="animation: fadeInImage 0.3s ease-in 0s 1 normal none running; background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 176px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 220px;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; -webkit-box-ordinal-group: 1; -webkit-box-pack: justify; background: none; border: 0px; color: #54595d; flex: 1 0 100%; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; justify-content: space-between; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; order: 1; padding: 0px !important; vertical-align: baseline; width: 222px;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">The Hospital of&nbsp;Santa Maria della Scala, fresco by&nbsp;Domenico di Bartolo, 1441–1442</a></div> </div> </div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Contemporary medicine is in general conducted within&nbsp;health care systems. Legal,&nbsp;credentialing&nbsp;and financing frameworks are established by individual governments, augmented on occasion by international organizations, such as churches. The characteristics of any given health care system have significant impact on the way medical care is provided.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">From ancient times, Christian emphasis on practical charity gave rise to the development of systematic nursing and hospitals and the&nbsp;Catholic Church&nbsp;today remains the largest non-government provider of medical services in the world.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-15" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[15]</sup>&nbsp;Advanced industrial countries (with the exception of the&nbsp;United States)<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-IOM_16-0" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[16]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ccuhc_17-0" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[17]</sup>and many&nbsp;developing countries&nbsp;provide medical services through a system of&nbsp;universal health care&nbsp;that aims to guarantee care for all through a&nbsp;single-payer health caresystem, or compulsory private or co-operative&nbsp;health insurance. This is intended to ensure that the entire population has access to medical care on the basis of need rather than ability to pay. Delivery may be via private medical practices or by state-owned hospitals and clinics, or by charities, most commonly by a combination of all three.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Most&nbsp;tribal&nbsp;societies provide no guarantee of healthcare for the population as a whole. In such societies, healthcare is available to those that can afford to pay for it or have self-insured it (either directly or as part of an employment contract) or who may be covered by care financed by the government or tribe directly.</a></div> <div class="thumb tright" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.6em 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div class="thumbinner" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: flex; flex-flow: column wrap; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; place-content: flex-start center; vertical-align: baseline; width: 172px;"> <a class="image" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Drug_ampoule_JPN.jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" data-alt="collection of glass bottles of different sizes" data-class="thumbimage" data-height="233" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Drug_ampoule_JPN.jpg/170px-Drug_ampoule_JPN.jpg" data-width="170" style="background: none rgb(234, 236, 240); border: 0px; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 233px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 170px;">&nbsp;</span></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; -webkit-box-ordinal-group: 1; -webkit-box-pack: justify; background: none; border: 0px; color: #54595d; flex: 1 0 100%; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; justify-content: space-between; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; order: 1; padding: 0px !important; vertical-align: baseline; width: 172px;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Modern drug&nbsp;ampoules</a></div> </div> </div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Transparency of information is another factor defining a delivery system. Access to information on conditions, treatments, quality, and pricing greatly affects the choice by patients/consumers and, therefore, the incentives of medical professionals. While the US healthcare system has come under fire for lack of openness,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-18" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[18]</sup>&nbsp;new legislation may encourage greater openness. There is a perceived tension between the need for transparency on the one hand and such issues as patient confidentiality and the possible exploitation of information for commercial gain on the other.</a></div> <h3 class="in-block" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table; font-size: 1.2em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0.5em 0px; vertical-align: baseline; word-break: break-word;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Delivery" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-size: 19.2px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 272px;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Delivery</a></span><span class="mw-editsection" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-size: 19.2px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page" data-section="4" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medicine&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.833333em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 3.5em;" title="Edit section: Delivery">Edit</a></span></h3> <div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="background: none rgb(248, 249, 250); border: 0px; color: #54595d; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 5px 7px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">See also:&nbsp;Health care,&nbsp;clinic,&nbsp;hospital, and&nbsp;hospice</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Provision of medical care is classified into primary, secondary, and tertiary care categories.</a></div> <div class="thumb tright" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.6em 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div class="thumbinner" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: flex; flex-flow: column wrap; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; place-content: flex-start center; vertical-align: baseline; width: 172px;"> <a class="image" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nurses_at_Butawin_Urban_Clinic,_PNG_(10711159465).jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" data-alt="photograph of three nurses" data-class="thumbimage" data-height="255" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Nurses_at_Butawin_Urban_Clinic%2C_PNG_%2810711159465%29.jpg/170px-Nurses_at_Butawin_Urban_Clinic%2C_PNG_%2810711159465%29.jpg" data-width="170" style="background: none rgb(234, 236, 240); border: 0px; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 255px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 170px;">&nbsp;</span></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; -webkit-box-ordinal-group: 1; -webkit-box-pack: justify; background: none; border: 0px; color: #54595d; flex: 1 0 100%; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; justify-content: space-between; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; order: 1; padding: 0px !important; vertical-align: baseline; width: 172px;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Nurses in&nbsp;Kokopo,&nbsp;East New Britain,&nbsp;Papua New Guinea</a></div> </div> </div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Primary care&nbsp;medical services are provided by&nbsp;physicians,&nbsp;physician assistants,&nbsp;nurse practitioners, or other health professionals who have first contact with a patient seeking medical treatment or care. These occur in physician offices,&nbsp;clinics,&nbsp;nursing homes, schools, home visits, and other places close to patients. About 90% of medical visits can be treated by the primary care provider. These include treatment of acute and chronic illnesses,&nbsp;preventive care&nbsp;and&nbsp;health education&nbsp;for all ages and both sexes.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Secondary care&nbsp;medical services are provided by&nbsp;medical specialists&nbsp;in their offices or clinics or at local community hospitals for a patient referred by a primary care provider who first diagnosed or treated the patient. Referrals are made for those patients who required the expertise or procedures performed by specialists. These include both&nbsp;ambulatory care&nbsp;and&nbsp;inpatient&nbsp;services,&nbsp;Emergency departments,&nbsp;intensive care medicine, surgery services,&nbsp;physical therapy,&nbsp;labor and delivery,&nbsp;endoscopy&nbsp;units, diagnostic&nbsp;laboratory&nbsp;and&nbsp;medical imagingservices,&nbsp;hospice&nbsp;centers, etc. Some primary care providers may also take care of hospitalized patients and deliver babies in a secondary care setting.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Tertiary care&nbsp;medical services are provided by specialist hospitals or regional centers equipped with diagnostic and treatment facilities not generally available at local hospitals. These include&nbsp;trauma centers,&nbsp;burntreatment centers, advanced&nbsp;neonatology&nbsp;unit services,&nbsp;organ transplants, high-risk pregnancy,&nbsp;radiation&nbsp;oncology, etc.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Modern medical care also depends on information – still delivered in many health care settings on paper records, but increasingly nowadays by&nbsp;electronic means.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">In low-income countries, modern healthcare is often too expensive for the average person. International healthcare policy researchers have advocated that "user fees" be removed in these areas to ensure access, although even after removal, significant costs and barriers remain.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-19" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[19]</sup></a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Separation of prescribing and dispensing&nbsp;is a practice in medicine and pharmacy in which the&nbsp;physician&nbsp;who provides a&nbsp;medical prescription&nbsp;is independent from thepharmacist&nbsp;who provides the&nbsp;prescription drug. In the&nbsp;Western world&nbsp;there are centuries of tradition for separating pharmacists from physicians. In Asian countries it is traditional for physicians to also provide drugs.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-20" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[20]</sup></a></div> </div> <h2 aria-controls="content-collapsible-block-3" aria-haspopup="true" class="in-block section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" style="background: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(234, 236, 240); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; clear: left; cursor: pointer; display: table; font-family: &quot;Linux Libertine&quot;, Georgia, Times, serif; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px 0px 0.5em; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0.5em 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline; word-break: break-word;" tabindex="0"> <div class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-mf-arrow mw-ui-icon-element mf-mw-ui-icon-rotate-flip indicator" style="background: none; border: 0px; float: left; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.4em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0.7em 0px 0px -1em; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 3.5em;" title=""> </div> <span class="mw-headline" id="Branches" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 248px;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Branches</a></span><span class="mw-editsection" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page" data-section="5" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medicine&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.666667em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; visibility: visible; width: 3.5em;" title="Edit section: Branches">Edit</a></span></h2> <div aria-expanded="true" aria-pressed="true" class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block open-block" id="content-collapsible-block-3" style="background: none; border: 0px; clear: left; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div class="thumb tleft" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.6em 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div class="thumbinner" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: flex; flex-flow: column wrap; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; place-content: flex-start center; vertical-align: baseline; width: 222px;"> <a class="image" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Drawing_by_Marguerite_Martyn_of_a_visiting_nurse_with_medicine_and_four_babies,_1918.jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage image-lazy-loaded" height="142" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/0b/Drawing_by_Marguerite_Martyn_of_a_visiting_nurse_with_medicine_and_four_babies%2C_1918.jpg/220px-Drawing_by_Marguerite_Martyn_of_a_visiting_nurse_with_medicine_and_four_babies%2C_1918.jpg" style="animation: fadeInImage 0.3s ease-in 0s 1 normal none running; background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 142px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 220px;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; -webkit-box-ordinal-group: 1; -webkit-box-pack: justify; background: none; border: 0px; color: #54595d; flex: 1 0 100%; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; justify-content: space-between; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; order: 1; padding: 0px !important; vertical-align: baseline; width: 222px;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">February 1918 drawing by&nbsp;Marguerite Martyn&nbsp;of a visiting nurse in St. Louis, Missouri, with medicine and babies</a></div> </div> </div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Working together as an&nbsp;interdisciplinary team, many highly trained&nbsp;health professionalsbesides medical practitioners are involved in the delivery of modern health care. Examples include:&nbsp;nurses,&nbsp;emergency medical technicians&nbsp;and paramedics, laboratory scientists,&nbsp;pharmacists,&nbsp;podiatrists,&nbsp;physiotherapists,&nbsp;respiratory therapists,&nbsp;speech therapists,&nbsp;occupational therapists, radiographers,&nbsp;dietitians, and&nbsp;bioengineers,&nbsp;surgeons,&nbsp;surgeon's assistant,&nbsp;surgical technologist.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">The scope and sciences underpinning human medicine overlap many other fields.&nbsp;Dentistry, while considered by some a separate discipline from medicine, is a medical field.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">A patient admitted to the hospital is usually under the care of a specific team based on their main presenting problem, e.g., the cardiology team, who then may interact with other specialties, e.g., surgical, radiology, to help diagnose or treat the main problem or any subsequent complications/developments.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Physicians have many specializations and subspecializations into certain branches of medicine, which are listed below. There are variations from country to country regarding which specialties certain subspecialties are in.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">The main branches of medicine are:</a></div> <ul style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; list-style: square outside; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 1em; vertical-align: baseline;"> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Basic sciences of medicine; this is what every physician is educated in, and some return to in&nbsp;biomedical research</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_specialties" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Medical specialties">Medical specialties</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: inherit; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Interdisciplinary fields, where different medical specialties are mixed to function in certain occasions.</a></li> </ul> <h3 class="in-block" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table; font-size: 1.2em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0.5em 0px; vertical-align: baseline; word-break: break-word;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Basic_sciences" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-size: 19.2px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 272px;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Basic sciences</a></span><span class="mw-editsection" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-size: 19.2px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page" data-section="6" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medicine&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.833333em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 3.5em;" title="Edit section: Basic sciences">Edit</a></span></h3> <ul style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; list-style: square outside; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 1em; vertical-align: baseline;"> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Anatomy</i>&nbsp;is the study of the physical structure of&nbsp;organisms. In contrast to&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">macroscopic</i>&nbsp;or&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">gross anatomy</i>,&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">cytology</i>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">histology</i>&nbsp;are concerned with microscopic structures.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Biochemistry</i>&nbsp;is the study of the chemistry taking place in living organisms, especially the structure and function of their chemical components.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Biomechanics</i>&nbsp;is the study of the structure and function of biological systems by means of the methods of&nbsp;Mechanics.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Biostatistics</i>&nbsp;is the application of statistics to biological fields in the broadest sense. A knowledge of biostatistics is essential in the planning, evaluation, and interpretation of medical research. It is also fundamental to&nbsp;epidemiology&nbsp;and evidence-based medicine.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Biophysics</i>&nbsp;is an interdisciplinary science that uses the methods of&nbsp;physics&nbsp;and&nbsp;physical chemistry&nbsp;to study biological systems.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: inherit; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Cytology</i>&nbsp;is the microscopic study of individual&nbsp;cells.</a></li> </ul> <div class="thumb tright" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.6em 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div class="thumbinner" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: flex; flex-flow: column wrap; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; place-content: flex-start center; vertical-align: baseline; width: 222px;"> <a class="image" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Edelfelt_-_Louis_Pasteur_-_1885.jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" data-alt="" data-class="thumbimage" data-height="268" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Albert_Edelfelt_-_Louis_Pasteur_-_1885.jpg/220px-Albert_Edelfelt_-_Louis_Pasteur_-_1885.jpg" data-width="220" style="background: none rgb(234, 236, 240); border: 0px; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 268px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 220px;">&nbsp;</span></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; -webkit-box-ordinal-group: 1; -webkit-box-pack: justify; background: none; border: 0px; color: #54595d; flex: 1 0 100%; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; justify-content: space-between; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; order: 1; padding: 0px !important; vertical-align: baseline; width: 222px;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.8px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Louis Pasteur</i>, as portrayed in his laboratory, 1885 by&nbsp;Albert Edelfelt</a></div> </div> </div> <ul style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; list-style: square outside; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 1em; vertical-align: baseline;"> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Embryology</i>&nbsp;is the study of the early development of organisms.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Endocrinology</i>&nbsp;is the study of hormones and their effect throughout the body of animals.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Epidemiology</i>&nbsp;is the study of the demographics of disease processes, and includes, but is not limited to, the study of epidemics.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Genetics</i>&nbsp;is the study of genes, and their role in&nbsp;biological inheritance.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Histology</i>&nbsp;is the study of the structures of&nbsp;biological tissues&nbsp;by light&nbsp;microscopy,&nbsp;electron microscopy&nbsp;and&nbsp;immunohistochemistry.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Immunology</i>&nbsp;is the study of the&nbsp;immune system, which includes the innate and adaptive immune system in humans, for example.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Medical physics</i>&nbsp;is the study of the applications of physics principles in medicine.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Microbiology</i>&nbsp;is the study of&nbsp;microorganisms, including&nbsp;protozoa,&nbsp;bacteria,&nbsp;fungi, and&nbsp;viruses.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Molecular biology</i>&nbsp;is the study of molecular underpinnings of the process of&nbsp;replication,&nbsp;transcription&nbsp;and&nbsp;translation&nbsp;of the genetic material.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Neuroscience</i>&nbsp;includes those disciplines of science that are related to the study of the&nbsp;nervous system. A main focus of neuroscience is the&nbsp;biology&nbsp;and physiology of the human brain and&nbsp;spinal cord. Some related clinical specialties include&nbsp;neurology,&nbsp;neurosurgery&nbsp;and&nbsp;psychiatry.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Nutrition science</i>&nbsp;(theoretical focus) and&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">dietetics</i>&nbsp;(practical focus) is the study of the relationship of food and drink to health and disease, especially in determining an optimal diet. Medical nutrition therapy is done by dietitians and is prescribed for&nbsp;diabetes,&nbsp;cardiovascular diseases, weight and eating&nbsp;disorders, allergies,&nbsp;malnutrition, and&nbsp;neoplastic&nbsp;diseases.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Pathology as a science</i>&nbsp;is the study of disease—the causes, course, progression and resolution thereof.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Pharmacology</i>&nbsp;is the study of drugs and their actions.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Photobiology</i>&nbsp;is the study of the interactions between&nbsp;non-ionizing radiation&nbsp;and living organisms.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Physiology</i>&nbsp;is the study of the normal functioning of the body and the underlying regulatory mechanisms.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Radiobiology</i>&nbsp;is the study of the interactions between&nbsp;ionizing radiation&nbsp;and living organisms.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: inherit; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Toxicology</i>&nbsp;is the study of hazardous effects of drugs and&nbsp;poisons.</a></li> </ul> <h3 class="in-block" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table; font-size: 1.2em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0.5em 0px; vertical-align: baseline; word-break: break-word;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Specialties" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-size: 19.2px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 272px;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Specialties</a></span><span class="mw-editsection" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-size: 19.2px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page" data-section="7" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medicine&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.833333em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 3.5em;" title="Edit section: Specialties">Edit</a></span></h3> <div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="background: none rgb(248, 249, 250); border: 0px; color: #54595d; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 5px 7px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Main article:&nbsp;Medical specialty</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">In the broadest meaning of "medicine", there are many different specialties. In the UK, most specialities have their own body or college, which have its own entrance examination. These are collectively known as the Royal Colleges, although not all currently use the term "Royal". The development of a speciality is often driven by new technology (such as the development of effective anaesthetics) or ways of working (such as emergency departments); the new specialty leads to the formation of a unifying body of doctors and the prestige of administering their own examination.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Within medical circles, specialities usually fit into one of two broad categories: "Medicine" and "Surgery." "Medicine" refers to the practice of non-operative medicine, and most of its subspecialties require preliminary training in Internal Medicine. In the UK, this was traditionally evidenced by passing the examination for the Membership of the&nbsp;Royal College of Physicians&nbsp;(MRCP) or the equivalent college in Scotland or Ireland. "Surgery" refers to the practice of operative medicine, and most subspecialties in this area require preliminary training in General Surgery, which in the UK leads to membership of the&nbsp;Royal College of Surgeons of England(MRCS). At present, some specialties of medicine do not fit easily into either of these categories, such as radiology, pathology, or anesthesia. Most of these have branched from one or other of the two camps above; for example anaesthesia developed first as a&nbsp;faculty&nbsp;of the Royal College of Surgeons (for which MRCS/FRCS would have been required) before becoming the&nbsp;Royal College of Anaesthetists&nbsp;and membership of the college is attained by sitting for the examination of the Fellowship of the Royal College of Anesthetists (FRCA).</a></div> <h4 class="in-block" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0.5em 0px; vertical-align: baseline; word-break: break-word;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Surgical_specialty" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 272px;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Surgical specialty</a></span><span class="mw-editsection" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page" data-section="8" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medicine&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 3.5em;" title="Edit section: Surgical specialty">Edit</a></span></h4> <div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="background: none rgb(248, 249, 250); border: 0px; color: #54595d; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 5px 7px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Main article:&nbsp;Surgery</a></div> <div class="thumb tright" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.6em 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div class="thumbinner" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: flex; flex-flow: column wrap; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; place-content: flex-start center; vertical-align: baseline; width: 222px;"> <a class="image" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Surgeons_at_Work.jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" data-alt="" data-class="thumbimage" data-height="153" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Surgeons_at_Work.jpg/220px-Surgeons_at_Work.jpg" data-width="220" style="background: none rgb(234, 236, 240); border: 0px; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 153px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 220px;">&nbsp;</span></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; -webkit-box-ordinal-group: 1; -webkit-box-pack: justify; background: none; border: 0px; color: #54595d; flex: 1 0 100%; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; justify-content: space-between; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; order: 1; padding: 0px !important; vertical-align: baseline; width: 222px;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Surgeons in an&nbsp;operating room</a></div> </div> </div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><b style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Surgery</b>&nbsp;is an ancient medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a patient to investigate or treat a&nbsp;pathological&nbsp;condition such as&nbsp;disease&nbsp;or&nbsp;injury, to help improve bodily function or appearance or to repair unwanted ruptured areas (for example,&nbsp;a perforated ear drum). Surgeons must also manage pre-operative, post-operative, and potential surgical candidates on the hospital wards. Surgery has many sub-specialties, including&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">general surgery,&nbsp;ophthalmic surgery,&nbsp;cardiovascular surgery,&nbsp;colorectal surgery,&nbsp;neurosurgery,&nbsp;oral and maxillofacial surgery,&nbsp;oncologic surgery,&nbsp;orthopedic surgery,&nbsp;otolaryngology,&nbsp;plastic surgery,&nbsp;podiatric surgery,&nbsp;transplant surgery,&nbsp;trauma surgery,&nbsp;urology,&nbsp;vascular surgery, and&nbsp;pediatric surgery.</i>&nbsp;In some centers,&nbsp;anesthesiology&nbsp;is part of the division of surgery (for historical and logistical reasons), although it is not a surgical discipline. Other medical specialties may employ surgical procedures, such as&nbsp;ophthalmology&nbsp;and&nbsp;dermatology, but are not considered surgical sub-specialties per se.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Surgical training in the U.S. requires a minimum of five years of residency after medical school. Sub-specialties of surgery often require seven or more years. In addition, fellowships can last an additional one to three years. Because post-residency fellowships can be competitive, many trainees devote two additional years to research. Thus in some cases surgical training will not finish until more than a decade after medical school. Furthermore, surgical training can be very difficult and time-consuming.</a></div> <h4 class="in-block" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0.5em 0px; vertical-align: baseline; word-break: break-word;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Internal_specialty" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 272px;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Internal specialty</a></span><span class="mw-editsection" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page" data-section="9" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medicine&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 3.5em;" title="Edit section: Internal specialty">Edit</a></span></h4> <div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="background: none rgb(248, 249, 250); border: 0px; color: #54595d; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 5px 7px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Main article:&nbsp;Internal medicine</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><b style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Internal medicine</b>&nbsp;is the&nbsp;medical specialtydealing with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of adult diseases. According to some sources, an emphasis on internal structures is implied.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-21" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[21]</sup>&nbsp;In North America, specialists in internal medicine are commonly called "internists." Elsewhere, especially in&nbsp;Commonwealth&nbsp;nations, such specialists are often called&nbsp;physicians.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Fowler_22-0" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[22]</sup>&nbsp;These terms,&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">internist</i>&nbsp;or&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">physician</i>&nbsp;(in the narrow sense, common outside North America), generally exclude practitioners of gynecology and obstetrics, pathology, psychiatry, and especially surgery and its subspecialities.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Because their patients are often seriously ill or require complex investigations, internists do much of their work in hospitals. Formerly, many internists were not subspecialized; such&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">general physicians</i>&nbsp;would see any complex nonsurgical problem; this style of practice has become much less common. In modern urban practice, most internists are subspecialists: that is, they generally limit their medical practice to problems of one organ system or to one particular area of medical knowledge. For example,&nbsp;gastroenterologists&nbsp;and&nbsp;nephrologists&nbsp;specialize respectively in diseases of the gut and the kidneys.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-23" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[23]</sup></a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">In the&nbsp;Commonwealth of Nations&nbsp;and some other countries, specialist&nbsp;pediatricians&nbsp;and&nbsp;geriatricians&nbsp;are also described as&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">specialist physicians</i>&nbsp;(or internists) who have subspecialized by age of patient rather than by organ system. Elsewhere, especially in North America, general pediatrics is often a form of&nbsp;primary care.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">There are many subspecialities (or subdisciplines) of&nbsp;internal medicine:</a></div> <div class="refbegin columns references-column-count references-column-count-3" style="background: none; border: 0px; columns: 35em 3; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <dl style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><dd style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow: auto; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><ul style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; list-style: square outside; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 1em; vertical-align: baseline;"> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Angiology/Vascular Medicine</a></i></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiology" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Cardiology">Cardiology</a></i></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_care_medicine" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Critical care medicine">Critical care medicine</a></i></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocrinology" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Endocrinology">Endocrinology</a></i></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastroenterology" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Gastroenterology">Gastroenterology</a></i></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geriatrics" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Geriatrics">Geriatrics</a></i></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hematology" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Hematology">Hematology</a></i></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatology" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Hepatology">Hepatology</a></i></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectious_disease_(medical_specialty)" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Infectious disease (medical specialty)">Infectious disease</a></i></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nephrology" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Nephrology">Nephrology</a></i></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurology" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Neurology">Neurology</a></i></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oncology" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Oncology">Oncology</a></i></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pediatrics" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Pediatrics">Pediatrics</a></i></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Pulmonology/Pneumology/Respirology/chest medicine</a></i></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheumatology" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Rheumatology">Rheumatology</a></i></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14.4px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: inherit; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_Medicine" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Sports Medicine">Sports Medicine</a></li> </ul> </dd></dl> </div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Training in internal medicine (as opposed to surgical training), varies considerably across the world: see the articles on&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">medical education</i>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">physician</i>&nbsp;for more details. In North America, it requires at least three years of residency training after medical school, which can then be followed by a one- to three-year fellowship in the subspecialties listed above. In general, resident work hours in medicine are less than those in surgery, averaging about 60 hours per week in the US. This difference does not apply in the UK where all doctors are now required by law to work less than 48 hours per week on average.</a></div> <h4 class="in-block" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0.5em 0px; vertical-align: baseline; word-break: break-word;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Diagnostic_specialties" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 272px;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Diagnostic specialties</a></span><span class="mw-editsection" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page" data-section="10" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medicine&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 3.5em;" title="Edit section: Diagnostic specialties">Edit</a></span></h4> <ul style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; list-style: square outside; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 1em; vertical-align: baseline;"> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Clinical laboratory&nbsp;sciences</i>&nbsp;are the clinical diagnostic services that apply laboratory techniques to diagnosis and management of patients. In the United States, these services are supervised by a pathologist. The personnel that work in these&nbsp;medical laboratory&nbsp;departments are technically trained staff who do not hold medical degrees, but who usually hold an undergraduate&nbsp;medical technology&nbsp;degree, who actually perform the&nbsp;tests,&nbsp;assays, and procedures needed for providing the specific services. Subspecialties include&nbsp;transfusion medicine,&nbsp;cellular pathology,&nbsp;clinical chemistry,&nbsp;hematology,&nbsp;clinical microbiology&nbsp;and&nbsp;clinical immunology.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Pathology as a medical specialty</i>&nbsp;is the branch of medicine that deals with the study of diseases and the morphologic, physiologic changes produced by them. As a diagnostic specialty, pathology can be considered the basis of modern scientific medical knowledge and plays a large role in&nbsp;evidence-based medicine. Many modern molecular tests such as&nbsp;flow cytometry,&nbsp;polymerase chain reaction&nbsp;(PCR),&nbsp;immunohistochemistry,&nbsp;cytogenetics, gene rearrangements studies and&nbsp;fluorescent in situ hybridization&nbsp;(FISH) fall within the territory of pathology.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Diagnostic&nbsp;radiology</i>&nbsp;is concerned with imaging of the body, e.g. by&nbsp;x-rays, x-ray&nbsp;computed tomography,&nbsp;ultrasonography, and&nbsp;nuclear magnetic resonancetomography. Interventional radiologists can access areas in the body under imaging for an intervention or diagnostic sampling.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Nuclear medicine</i>&nbsp;is concerned with studying human organ systems by administering radiolabelled substances (radiopharmaceuticals) to the body, which can then be imaged outside the body by a&nbsp;gamma camera&nbsp;or a PET scanner. Each radiopharmaceutical consists of two parts: a tracer that is specific for the function under study (e.g., neurotransmitter pathway, metabolic pathway, blood flow, or other), and a radionuclide (usually either a gamma-emitter or a positron emitter). There is a degree of overlap between nuclear medicine and radiology, as evidenced by the emergence of combined devices such as the PET/CT scanner.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: inherit; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Clinical neurophysiology</i>&nbsp;is concerned with testing the physiology or function of the central and peripheral aspects of the nervous system. These kinds of tests can be divided into recordings of: (1) spontaneous or continuously running electrical activity, or (2) stimulus evoked responses. Subspecialties include&nbsp;electroencephalography,&nbsp;electromyography,&nbsp;evoked potential,&nbsp;nerve conduction studyand&nbsp;polysomnography. Sometimes these tests are performed by techs without a medical degree, but the interpretation of these tests is done by a medical professional.</a></li> </ul> <h4 class="in-block" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0.5em 0px; vertical-align: baseline; word-break: break-word;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Other_major_specialties" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 272px;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Other major specialties</a></span><span class="mw-editsection" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page" data-section="11" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medicine&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 3.5em;" title="Edit section: Other major specialties">Edit</a></span></h4> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">The following are some major medical specialties that do not directly fit into any of the above-mentioned groups:</a></div> <ul style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; list-style: square outside; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 1em; vertical-align: baseline;"> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Anesthesiology</i>&nbsp;(also known as&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">anaesthetics</i>): concerned with the perioperative management of the surgical patient. The anesthesiologist's role during surgery is to prevent derangement in the vital organs' (i.e. brain, heart, kidneys) functions and postoperative pain. Outside of the operating room, the anesthesiology physician also serves the same function in the labor and delivery ward, and some are specialized in critical medicine.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Dermatology</i>&nbsp;is concerned with the skin and its diseases. In the UK, dermatology is a subspecialty of general medicine.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Emergency medicine</i>&nbsp;is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of acute or life-threatening conditions, including&nbsp;trauma, surgical, medical, pediatric, and psychiatric emergencies.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: inherit; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Family medicine</i>,&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">family practice</i>,&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">general practice</i>&nbsp;or&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">primary care</i>&nbsp;is, in many countries, the first port-of-call for patients with non-emergency medical problems. Family physicians often provide services across a broad range of settings including office based practices, emergency department coverage, inpatient care, and nursing home care.</a></li> </ul> <div class="thumb tright" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.6em 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div class="thumbinner" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: flex; flex-flow: column wrap; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; place-content: flex-start center; vertical-align: baseline; width: 222px;"> <a class="image" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Changing_lives_for_girls_and_women_every_week_(12330467294).jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" data-alt="" data-class="thumbimage" data-height="147" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Changing_lives_for_girls_and_women_every_week_%2812330467294%29.jpg/220px-Changing_lives_for_girls_and_women_every_week_%2812330467294%29.jpg" data-width="220" style="background: none rgb(234, 236, 240); border: 0px; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 147px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 220px;">&nbsp;</span></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; -webkit-box-ordinal-group: 1; -webkit-box-pack: justify; background: none; border: 0px; color: #54595d; flex: 1 0 100%; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; justify-content: space-between; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; order: 1; padding: 0px !important; vertical-align: baseline; width: 222px;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Gynecologist&nbsp;Michel Akotionga of&nbsp;Ouagadougou,&nbsp;Burkina Faso</a></div> </div> </div> <ul style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; list-style: square outside; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 1em; vertical-align: baseline;"> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Obstetrics&nbsp;and&nbsp;gynecology</i>&nbsp;(often abbreviated as&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">OB/GYN</i>&nbsp;(American English) or&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Obs &amp; Gynae</i>&nbsp;(British English)) are concerned respectively with childbirth and the female reproductive and associated organs.&nbsp;Reproductive medicine&nbsp;and&nbsp;fertility medicine&nbsp;are generally practiced by gynecological specialists.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Medical genetics</i>&nbsp;is concerned with the diagnosis and management of hereditary disorders.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Neurology</i>&nbsp;is concerned with diseases of the nervous system. In the UK, neurology is a subspecialty of general medicine.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Ophthalmology</i>&nbsp;is exclusively concerned with the eye and ocular adnexa, combining conservative and surgical therapy.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Pediatrics</i>&nbsp;(AE) or&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">paediatrics</i>&nbsp;(BE) is devoted to the care of infants, children, and adolescents. Like internal medicine, there are many pediatric subspecialties for specific age ranges, organ systems, disease classes, and sites of care delivery.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Pharmaceutical medicine</i>&nbsp;is the medical scientific discipline concerned with the discovery, development, evaluation, registration, monitoring and medical aspects of marketing of medicines for the benefit of patients and public health.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Physical medicine and rehabilitation</i>&nbsp;(or&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">physiatry</i>) is concerned with functional improvement after injury, illness, or&nbsp;congenital disorders.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Podiatric medicine</i>&nbsp;is the study of, diagnosis, and medical &amp; surgical treatment of disorders of the foot, ankle, lower limb, hip and lower back.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Psychiatry</i>&nbsp;is the branch of medicine concerned with the&nbsp;bio-psycho-social&nbsp;study of the&nbsp;etiology, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of&nbsp;cognitive,&nbsp;perceptual,&nbsp;emotional&nbsp;and&nbsp;behavioral&nbsp;disorders. Related non-medical fields include&nbsp;psychotherapyand&nbsp;clinical psychology.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: inherit; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Preventive medicine</i>&nbsp;is the branch of medicine concerned with preventing disease.</a><ul style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; list-style: disc outside; margin: 0px 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px 0px 0px 1em; vertical-align: baseline;"> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: inherit; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Community health</i>&nbsp;or&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">public health</i>&nbsp;is an aspect of health services concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on&nbsp;population healthanalysis.</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h3 class="in-block" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table; font-size: 1.2em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0.5em 0px; vertical-align: baseline; word-break: break-word;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Interdisciplinary_fields" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-size: 19.2px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 272px;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Interdisciplinary fields</a></span><span class="mw-editsection" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-size: 19.2px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page" data-section="12" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medicine&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.833333em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 3.5em;" title="Edit section: Interdisciplinary fields">Edit</a></span></h3> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Some interdisciplinary sub-specialties of medicine include:</a></div> <ul style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; list-style: square outside; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 1em; vertical-align: baseline;"> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Aerospace medicine</i>&nbsp;deals with medical problems related to flying and&nbsp;space travel.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Addiction medicine</i>&nbsp;deals with the treatment of addiction.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Medical ethics</i>&nbsp;deals with&nbsp;ethical&nbsp;and&nbsp;moralprinciples that apply values and judgments to the practice of medicine.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Biomedical Engineering</i>&nbsp;is a field dealing with the application of&nbsp;engineeringprinciples to medical practice.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Clinical pharmacology</i>&nbsp;is concerned with how systems of&nbsp;therapeutics&nbsp;interact with patients.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Conservation medicine</i>&nbsp;studies the relationship between human and animal health, and environmental conditions. Also known as ecological medicine,&nbsp;environmental medicine, or&nbsp;medical geology.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Disaster medicine</i>&nbsp;deals with medical aspects of emergency preparedness, disaster mitigation and management.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Diving medicine</i>&nbsp;(or&nbsp;hyperbaric medicine) is the prevention and treatment of diving-related problems.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Evolutionary medicine</i>&nbsp;is a perspective on medicine derived through applying&nbsp;evolutionary theory.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Forensic medicine</i>&nbsp;deals with medical questions in&nbsp;legal&nbsp;context, such as determination of the time and cause of death, type of weapon used to inflict trauma, reconstruction of the facial features using remains of deceased (skull) thus aiding identification.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Gender-based medicine</i>&nbsp;studies the biological and physiological differences between the human sexes and how that affects differences in disease.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Hospice and Palliative Medicine</i>&nbsp;is a relatively modern branch of clinical medicine that deals with pain and symptom relief and emotional support in patients with&nbsp;terminal illnesses&nbsp;including cancer and&nbsp;heart failure.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Hospital medicine</i>&nbsp;is the general medical care of hospitalized patients. Physicians whose primary professional focus is hospital medicine are called&nbsp;hospitalists&nbsp;in the United States and&nbsp;Canada. The term Most Responsible Physician (MRP) or attending physician is also used interchangeably to describe this role.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Laser medicine</i>&nbsp;involves the use of lasers in the diagnostics or treatment of various conditions.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Medical humanities</i>&nbsp;includes the&nbsp;humanities(literature,&nbsp;philosophy,&nbsp;ethics, history and religion),&nbsp;social science&nbsp;(anthropology,&nbsp;cultural studies,&nbsp;psychology,&nbsp;sociology), and the arts (literature, theater, film, and&nbsp;visual arts) and their application to&nbsp;medical education&nbsp;and practice.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Health informatics</i>&nbsp;is a relatively recent field that deal with the application of computers and&nbsp;information technology&nbsp;to medicine.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Nosology</i>&nbsp;is the classification of diseases for various purposes.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Nosokinetics</i>&nbsp;is the science/subject of measuring and modelling the process of care in health and social care systems.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Occupational medicine</i>&nbsp;is the provision of health advice to organizations and individuals to ensure that the highest standards of health and safety at work can be achieved and maintained.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Pain management</i>&nbsp;(also called&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">pain medicine</i>, or&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">algiatry</i>) is the medical discipline concerned with the relief of pain.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Pharmacogenomics</i>&nbsp;is a form of&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">individualized medicine</i>.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Podiatric medicine</i>&nbsp;is the study of, diagnosis, and medical treatment of disorders of the foot, ankle, lower limb, hip and lower back.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Sexual medicine</i>&nbsp;is concerned with diagnosing, assessing and treating all disorders related to sexuality.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Sports medicine</i>&nbsp;deals with the treatment and prevention and rehabilitation of sports/exercise injuries such as&nbsp;muscle spasms,&nbsp;muscle tears, injuries to ligaments (ligament tears or ruptures) and their repair in&nbsp;athletes,&nbsp;amateur&nbsp;and&nbsp;professional.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Therapeutics</i>&nbsp;is the field, more commonly referenced in earlier periods of history, of the various remedies that can be used to treat disease and promote health.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-24" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[24]</sup></a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Travel medicine</i>&nbsp;or&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">emporiatrics</i>&nbsp;deals with health problems of international travelers or travelers across highly different environments.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Tropical medicine</i>&nbsp;deals with the prevention and treatment of tropical diseases. It is studied separately in temperate climates where those diseases are quite unfamiliar to medical practitioners and their local clinical needs.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Urgent care</i>&nbsp;focuses on delivery of unscheduled, walk-in care outside of the hospital emergency department for injuries and illnesses that are not severe enough to require care in an emergency department. In some jurisdictions this function is combined with the emergency department.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Veterinary medicine;&nbsp;veterinarians&nbsp;apply similar techniques as physicians to the care of animals.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Wilderness medicine</i>&nbsp;entails the practice of medicine in the wild, where conventional medical facilities may not be available.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: inherit; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Many other&nbsp;health science&nbsp;fields, e.g.&nbsp;dietetics</a></li> </ul> </div> <h2 aria-controls="content-collapsible-block-4" aria-haspopup="true" class="in-block section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" style="background: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(234, 236, 240); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; clear: left; cursor: pointer; display: table; font-family: &quot;Linux Libertine&quot;, Georgia, Times, serif; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px 0px 0.5em; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0.5em 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline; word-break: break-word;" tabindex="0"> <div class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-mf-arrow mw-ui-icon-element mf-mw-ui-icon-rotate-flip indicator" style="background: none; border: 0px; float: left; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.4em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0.7em 0px 0px -1em; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 3.5em;" title=""> </div> <span class="mw-headline" id="Education_and_legal_controls" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 248px;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Education and legal controls</a></span><span class="mw-editsection" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page" data-section="13" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medicine&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.666667em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; visibility: visible; width: 3.5em;" title="Edit section: Education and legal controls">Edit</a></span></h2> <div aria-expanded="true" aria-pressed="true" class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block open-block" id="content-collapsible-block-4" style="background: none; border: 0px; clear: left; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="background: none rgb(248, 249, 250); border: 0px; color: #54595d; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 5px 7px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Main articles:&nbsp;Medical education&nbsp;and&nbsp;Medical license</a></div> <div class="thumb tright" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.6em 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div class="thumbinner" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: flex; flex-flow: column wrap; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; place-content: flex-start center; vertical-align: baseline; width: 222px;"> <a class="image" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Medical_students_learning_about_stitches_(2760577402).jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage image-lazy-loaded" height="148" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Medical_students_learning_about_stitches_%282760577402%29.jpg/220px-Medical_students_learning_about_stitches_%282760577402%29.jpg" style="animation: fadeInImage 0.3s ease-in 0s 1 normal none running; background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 148px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 220px;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; -webkit-box-ordinal-group: 1; -webkit-box-pack: justify; background: none; border: 0px; color: #54595d; flex: 1 0 100%; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; justify-content: space-between; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; order: 1; padding: 0px !important; vertical-align: baseline; width: 222px;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Medical students learning about stitches</a></div> </div> </div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Medical education and training varies around the world. It typically involves entry level education at a university&nbsp;medical school, followed by a period of supervised practice or&nbsp;internship, or&nbsp;residency. This can be followed by postgraduate vocational training. A variety of teaching methods have been employed in medical education, still itself a focus of active research. In Canada and the United States of America, a&nbsp;Doctor of Medicine&nbsp;degree, often abbreviated M.D., or a&nbsp;Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine&nbsp;degree, often abbreviated as D.O. and unique to the United States, must be completed in and delivered from a recognized university.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Since knowledge, techniques, and medical technology continue to evolve at a rapid rate, many regulatory authorities require&nbsp;continuing medical education. Medical practitioners upgrade their knowledge in various ways, including&nbsp;medical journals, seminars, conferences, and online programs. A database of objectives covering medical knowledge, as suggested by national societies across the United States, can be searched at&nbsp;http://data.medobjectives.marian.edu/.&nbsp;<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-medObjectives_25-0" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[25]</sup></a></div> <div class="thumb tleft" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.6em 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div class="thumbinner" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: flex; flex-flow: column wrap; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; place-content: flex-start center; vertical-align: baseline; width: 222px;"> <a class="image" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Organizaci%C3%B3n_M%C3%A9dica_Colegial_de_Espa%C3%B1a.jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage image-lazy-loaded" height="255" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Organizaci%C3%B3n_M%C3%A9dica_Colegial_de_Espa%C3%B1a.jpg/220px-Organizaci%C3%B3n_M%C3%A9dica_Colegial_de_Espa%C3%B1a.jpg" style="animation: fadeInImage 0.3s ease-in 0s 1 normal none running; background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 255px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 220px;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; -webkit-box-ordinal-group: 1; -webkit-box-pack: justify; background: none; border: 0px; color: #54595d; flex: 1 0 100%; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; justify-content: space-between; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; order: 1; padding: 0px !important; vertical-align: baseline; width: 222px;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Headquarters of the&nbsp;Organización Médica Colegial de España, which regulates the medical profession in Spain</a></div> </div> </div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">In most countries, it is a legal requirement for a medical doctor to be licensed or registered. In general, this entails a medical degree from a university and accreditation by a medical board or an equivalent national organization, which may ask the applicant to pass exams. This restricts the considerable legal authority of the medical profession to physicians that are trained and qualified by national standards. It is also intended as an assurance to patients and as a safeguard against&nbsp;charlatans&nbsp;that practice inadequate medicine for personal gain. While the laws generally require medical doctors to be trained in "evidence based", Western, or&nbsp;HippocraticMedicine, they are not intended to discourage different paradigms of health.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">In the European Union, the profession of doctor of medicine is regulated. A profession is said to be regulated when access and exercise is subject to the possession of a specific professional qualification. The regulated professions database contains a list of regulated professions for doctor of medicine in the EU member states, EEA countries and Switzerland. This list is covered by the Directive 2005/36/EC.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Doctors who are negligent or intentionally harmful in their care of patients can face charges of&nbsp;medical malpractice&nbsp;and be subject to civil, criminal, or professional sanctions.</a></div> </div> <h2 aria-controls="content-collapsible-block-5" aria-haspopup="true" class="in-block section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" style="background: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(234, 236, 240); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; clear: left; cursor: pointer; display: table; font-family: &quot;Linux Libertine&quot;, Georgia, Times, serif; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px 0px 0.5em; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0.5em 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline; word-break: break-word;" tabindex="0"> <div class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-mf-arrow mw-ui-icon-element mf-mw-ui-icon-rotate-flip indicator" style="background: none; border: 0px; float: left; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.4em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0.7em 0px 0px -1em; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 3.5em;" title=""> </div> <span class="mw-headline" id="Medical_ethics" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 248px;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Medical ethics</a></span><span class="mw-editsection" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page" data-section="14" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medicine&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.666667em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; visibility: visible; width: 3.5em;" title="Edit section: Medical ethics">Edit</a></span></h2> <div aria-expanded="true" aria-pressed="true" class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block open-block" id="content-collapsible-block-5" style="background: none; border: 0px; clear: left; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="background: none rgb(248, 249, 250); border: 0px; color: #54595d; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 5px 7px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Main article:&nbsp;Medical ethics</a></div> <div class="thumb tright" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.6em 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div class="thumbinner" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: flex; flex-flow: column wrap; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; place-content: flex-start center; vertical-align: baseline; width: 172px;"> <a class="image" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HippocraticOath.jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage image-lazy-loaded" height="240" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/HippocraticOath.jpg/170px-HippocraticOath.jpg" style="animation: fadeInImage 0.3s ease-in 0s 1 normal none running; background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 240px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 170px;" width="170" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; -webkit-box-ordinal-group: 1; -webkit-box-pack: justify; background: none; border: 0px; color: #54595d; flex: 1 0 100%; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; justify-content: space-between; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; order: 1; padding: 0px !important; vertical-align: baseline; width: 172px;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">A 12th-century&nbsp;Byzantinemanuscript of the&nbsp;Hippocratic Oath</a></div> </div> </div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Medical ethics is a system of moral principles that apply values and judgments to the practice of medicine. As a scholarly discipline, medical ethics encompasses its practical application in clinical settings as well as work on its history, philosophy, theology, and sociology. Six of the values that commonly apply to medical ethics discussions are:</a></div> <ul style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; list-style: square outside; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 1em; vertical-align: baseline;"> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">autonomy&nbsp;– the patient has the right to refuse or choose their treatment. (<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Voluntas aegroti suprema lex</i>.)</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">beneficence&nbsp;– a practitioner should act in the best interest of the patient. (<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Salus aegroti suprema lex</i>.)</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">justice&nbsp;– concerns the distribution of scarce health resources, and the decision of who gets what treatment (fairness and equality).</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">non-maleficence&nbsp;– "first, do no harm" (<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">primum non-nocere</i>).</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">respect for persons&nbsp;– the patient (and the person treating the patient) have the right to be treated with dignity.</a></li> <li style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: inherit; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">truthfulness&nbsp;and&nbsp;honesty&nbsp;– the concept of&nbsp;informed consent&nbsp;has increased in importance since the historical events of the&nbsp;Doctors' Trial&nbsp;of the Nuremberg trials,&nbsp;Tuskegee syphilis experiment, and others.</a></li> </ul> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Values such as these do not give answers as to how to handle a particular situation, but provide a useful framework for understanding conflicts. When moral values are in conflict, the result may be an ethical&nbsp;dilemma&nbsp;or crisis. Sometimes, no good solution to a dilemma in medical ethics exists, and occasionally, the values of the medical community (i.e., the hospital and its staff) conflict with the values of the individual patient, family, or larger non-medical community. Conflicts can also arise between health care providers, or among family members. For example, some argue that the principles of autonomy and beneficence clash when patients refuse&nbsp;blood transfusions, considering them life-saving; and truth-telling was not emphasized to a large extent before the HIV era.</a></div> </div> <h2 aria-controls="content-collapsible-block-6" aria-haspopup="true" class="in-block section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" style="background: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(234, 236, 240); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; clear: left; cursor: pointer; display: table; font-family: &quot;Linux Libertine&quot;, Georgia, Times, serif; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px 0px 0.5em; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0.5em 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline; word-break: break-word;" tabindex="0"> <div class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-mf-arrow mw-ui-icon-element mf-mw-ui-icon-rotate-flip indicator" style="background: none; border: 0px; float: left; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.4em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0.7em 0px 0px -1em; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 3.5em;" title=""> </div> <span class="mw-headline" id="History" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 248px;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">History</a></span><span class="mw-editsection" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page" data-section="15" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medicine&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.666667em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; visibility: visible; width: 3.5em;" title="Edit section: History">Edit</a></span></h2> <div aria-expanded="true" aria-pressed="true" class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block open-block" id="content-collapsible-block-6" style="background: none; border: 0px; clear: left; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="background: none rgb(248, 249, 250); border: 0px; color: #54595d; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 5px 7px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Main articles:&nbsp;History of medicine&nbsp;and&nbsp;Timeline of medicine and medical technology</a></div> <div class="thumb tleft" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.6em 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div class="thumbinner" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: flex; flex-flow: column wrap; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; place-content: flex-start center; vertical-align: baseline; width: 222px;"> <a class="image" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Imhotep-Louvre.JPG" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage image-lazy-loaded" height="293" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Imhotep-Louvre.JPG/220px-Imhotep-Louvre.JPG" style="animation: fadeInImage 0.3s ease-in 0s 1 normal none running; background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 293px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 220px;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; -webkit-box-ordinal-group: 1; -webkit-box-pack: justify; background: none; border: 0px; color: #54595d; flex: 1 0 100%; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; justify-content: space-between; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; order: 1; padding: 0px !important; vertical-align: baseline; width: 222px;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Statuette of ancient Egyptian physician&nbsp;Imhotep, the first physician from antiquity known by name.</a></div> </div> </div> <h3 class="in-block" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table; font-size: 1.2em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0.5em 0px; vertical-align: baseline; word-break: break-word;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Ancient_world" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-size: 19.2px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 272px;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Ancient world</a></span><span class="mw-editsection" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-size: 19.2px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page" data-section="16" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medicine&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.833333em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 3.5em;" title="Edit section: Ancient world">Edit</a></span></h3> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Prehistoric medicine&nbsp;incorporated plants (herbalism), animal parts, and minerals. In many cases these materials were used ritually as magical substances by priests,&nbsp;shamans, or&nbsp;medicine men. Well-known spiritual systems include&nbsp;animism&nbsp;(the notion of inanimate objects having spirits),&nbsp;spiritualism(an appeal to gods or communion with ancestor spirits);&nbsp;shamanism&nbsp;(the vesting of an individual with mystic powers); and&nbsp;divination&nbsp;(magically obtaining the truth). The field of&nbsp;medical anthropology&nbsp;examines the ways in which culture and society are organized around or impacted by issues of health, health care and related issues.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Early records on medicine have been discovered from&nbsp;ancient Egyptian medicine,&nbsp;Babylonian Medicine,&nbsp;Ayurvedic&nbsp;medicine (in the&nbsp;Indian subcontinent),&nbsp;classical Chinese medicine&nbsp;(predecessor to the modern&nbsp;traditional Chinese medicine), and&nbsp;ancient Greek medicine&nbsp;and&nbsp;Roman medicine.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">In Egypt,&nbsp;Imhotep&nbsp;(3rd millennium BCE) is the first physician in history known by name. The oldest&nbsp;Egyptian medical text&nbsp;is the&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus</i>&nbsp;from around 2000 BCE, which describes gynaecological diseases. The&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Edwin Smith Papyrus</i>&nbsp;dating back to 1600 BCE is an early work on surgery, while the&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Ebers Papyrus</i>&nbsp;dating back to 1500 BCE is akin to a textbook on medicine.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Acker_26-0" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[26]</sup></a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">In China, archaeological evidence of medicine in Chinese dates back to the&nbsp;Bronze AgeShang Dynasty, based on seeds for herbalism and tools presumed to have been used for surgery.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-27" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[27]</sup>&nbsp;The&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Huangdi Neijing</i>, the progenitor of Chinese medicine, is a medical text written beginning in the 2nd century BCE and compiled in the 3rd century.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Unsc_28-0" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[28]</sup></a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">In India, the surgeon&nbsp;Sushruta&nbsp;described numerous surgical operations, including the earliest forms of&nbsp;plastic surgery.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Singh_29-0" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[29]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: nowrap;">[<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (July 2010)">dubious</span>&nbsp;<span class="metadata" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">–&nbsp;discuss</span></i>]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Longfellow_30-0" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[30]</sup>&nbsp;Earliest records of dedicated hospitals come from Mihintale in&nbsp;Sri Lanka&nbsp;where evidence of dedicated medicinal treatment facilities for patients are found.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-31" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[31]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-32" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[32]</sup></a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">In Greece, the&nbsp;Greek physician&nbsp;Hippocrates, the "father of modern medicine",<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-pmid18392218_33-0" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[33]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-blackwellpublishing.com_34-0" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[34]</sup>&nbsp;laid the foundation for a rational approach to medicine. Hippocrates introduced the&nbsp;Hippocratic Oath&nbsp;for physicians, which is still relevant and in use today, and was the first to categorize illnesses as&nbsp;acute,&nbsp;chronic,&nbsp;endemic&nbsp;and epidemic, and use terms such as, "exacerbation,&nbsp;relapse, resolution, crisis,&nbsp;paroxysm, peak, and&nbsp;convalescence".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-garrison97_35-0" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[35]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-mart90_36-0" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[36]</sup>The Greek physician&nbsp;Galen&nbsp;was also one of the greatest surgeons of the ancient world and performed many audacious operations, including brain and eye surgeries. After the fall of the&nbsp;Western Roman Empire&nbsp;and the onset of the&nbsp;Early Middle Ages, the Greek tradition of medicine went into decline in Western Europe, although it continued uninterrupted in the&nbsp;Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Most of our knowledge of ancient&nbsp;Hebrew medicine&nbsp;during the&nbsp;1st&nbsp;millennium&nbsp;BC&nbsp;comes from the&nbsp;Torah, i.e.&nbsp;the Five Books of&nbsp;Moses, which contain various health related laws and rituals. The Hebrew contribution to the development of modern medicine started in the&nbsp;Byzantine Era, with the physician&nbsp;Asaph the Jew.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-37" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[37]</sup></a></div> <h3 class="in-block" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table; font-size: 1.2em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0.5em 0px; vertical-align: baseline; word-break: break-word;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Middle_Ages" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-size: 19.2px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 272px;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Middle Ages</a></span><span class="mw-editsection" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-size: 19.2px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page" data-section="17" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medicine&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.833333em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 3.5em;" title="Edit section: Middle Ages">Edit</a></span></h3> <div class="thumb tleft" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.6em 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div class="thumbinner" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: flex; flex-flow: column wrap; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; place-content: flex-start center; vertical-align: baseline; width: 222px;"> <a class="image" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Al-Risalah_al-Dhahabiah.JPG" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" data-alt="" data-class="thumbimage" data-height="374" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Al-Risalah_al-Dhahabiah.JPG/220px-Al-Risalah_al-Dhahabiah.JPG" data-width="220" style="background: none rgb(234, 236, 240); border: 0px; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 374px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 220px;">&nbsp;</span></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; -webkit-box-ordinal-group: 1; -webkit-box-pack: justify; background: none; border: 0px; color: #54595d; flex: 1 0 100%; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; justify-content: space-between; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; order: 1; padding: 0px !important; vertical-align: baseline; width: 222px;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">A manuscript of&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 12.8px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Al-Risalah al-Dhahabiah</i>&nbsp;by&nbsp;Ali al-Ridha, the eighth Imam of&nbsp;Shia Muslims. The text says: "Golden dissertation in medicine which is sent by Imam Ali ibn Musa al-Ridha, peace be upon him, to&nbsp;al-Ma'mun."</a></div> </div> </div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">The concept of hospital as institution to offer medical care and possibility of a cure for the patients due to the ideals of Christian charity, rather than just merely a place to die, appeared in the&nbsp;Byzantine Empire.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-38" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[38]</sup></a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Although the concept of&nbsp;uroscopy&nbsp;was known to Galen, he did not see the importance of using it to localize the disease. It was under the Byzantines with physicians such of&nbsp;Theophilus Protospatharius&nbsp;that they realized the potential in uroscopy to determine disease in a time when no microscope or stethoscope existed. That practice eventually spread to the rest of Europe.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-39" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[39]</sup></a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">After 750 CE, the Muslim world had the works of Hippocrates, Galen and Sushruta translated into&nbsp;Arabic, and&nbsp;Islamic physicians&nbsp;engaged in some significant medical research. Notable Islamic medical pioneers include the&nbsp;Persianpolymath,&nbsp;Avicenna, who, along with Imhotep and Hippocrates, has also been called the "father of medicine".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-40" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[40]</sup>&nbsp;He wrote&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The Canon of Medicine</i>, considered one of the most famous books in the history of medicine.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-41" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[41]</sup>Others include&nbsp;Abulcasis,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-42" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[42]</sup>&nbsp;Avenzoar,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Rabie2006_43-0" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[43]</sup>&nbsp;Ibn al-Nafis,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-44" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[44]</sup>&nbsp;and&nbsp;Averroes.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-45" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[45]</sup>&nbsp;Rhazes<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Tschanz_46-0" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[46]</sup>&nbsp;was one of the first to question the Greek theory of&nbsp;humorism, which nevertheless remained influential in both medieval Western and medieval&nbsp;Islamic medicine.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-47" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[47]</sup>&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Al-Risalah al-Dhahabiah</i>&nbsp;by&nbsp;Ali al-Ridha, the eighth Imam of&nbsp;Shia Muslims, is revered as the most precious Islamic literature in the Science of Medicine.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-al_islam_48-0" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[48]</sup>&nbsp;The Persian&nbsp;Bimaristan&nbsp;hospitals were an early example of&nbsp;public hospitals.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-49" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[49]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Barrett_50-0" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[50]</sup></a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">In Europe,&nbsp;Charlemagne&nbsp;decreed that a hospital should be attached to each cathedral and monastery and the historian&nbsp;Geoffrey Blainey&nbsp;likened the&nbsp;activities of the Catholic Church in health care&nbsp;during the Middle Ages to an early version of a welfare state: "It conducted hospitals for the old and orphanages for the young; hospices for the sick of all ages; places for the lepers; and hostels or inns where pilgrims could buy a cheap bed and meal". It supplied food to the population during famine and distributed food to the poor. This welfare system the church funded through collecting taxes on a large scale and possessing large farmlands and estates. The&nbsp;Benedictine&nbsp;order was noted for setting up hospitals and infirmaries in their monasteries, growing medical herbs and becoming the chief medical care givers of their districts, as at the great&nbsp;Abbey of Cluny. The Church also established a network of&nbsp;cathedral schools&nbsp;and universities where medicine was studied. The&nbsp;Schola Medica Salernitana&nbsp;in Salerno, looking to the learning of&nbsp;Greek&nbsp;and&nbsp;Arab&nbsp;physicians, grew to be the finest medical school in Medieval Europe.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-51" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[51]</sup></a></div> <div class="thumb tright" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.6em 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div class="thumbinner" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: flex; flex-flow: column wrap; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; place-content: flex-start center; vertical-align: baseline; width: 222px;"> <a class="image" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SantaMariaDellaScalaSienaBack.JPG" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" data-alt="" data-class="thumbimage" data-height="147" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/SantaMariaDellaScalaSienaBack.JPG/220px-SantaMariaDellaScalaSienaBack.JPG" data-width="220" style="background: none rgb(234, 236, 240); border: 0px; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 147px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 220px;">&nbsp;</span></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; -webkit-box-ordinal-group: 1; -webkit-box-pack: justify; background: none; border: 0px; color: #54595d; flex: 1 0 100%; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; justify-content: space-between; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; order: 1; padding: 0px !important; vertical-align: baseline; width: 222px;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Panorama of Siena's&nbsp;Santa Maria della Scala Hospital, one of Europe's oldest hospitals. During the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church established universities which revived the study of sciences - drawing on the learning of Greek and Arab physicians in the study of medicine.</a></div> </div> </div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">However, the fourteenth and fifteenth century&nbsp;Black Death&nbsp;devastated both the Middle East and Europe, and it has even been argued that Western Europe was generally more effective in recovering from the pandemic than the Middle East.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-52" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[52]</sup>&nbsp;In the early modern period, important early figures in medicine and anatomy emerged in Europe, including&nbsp;Gabriele Falloppio&nbsp;and&nbsp;William Harvey.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">The major shift in medical thinking was the gradual rejection, especially during the&nbsp;Black Death&nbsp;in the 14th and 15th centuries, of what may be called the 'traditional authority' approach to science and medicine. This was the notion that because some prominent person in the past said something must be so, then that was the way it was, and anything one observed to the contrary was an anomaly (which was paralleled by a similar shift in European society in general – see&nbsp;Copernicus's rejection of&nbsp;Ptolemy's theories on astronomy). Physicians like&nbsp;Vesaliusimproved upon or disproved some of the theories from the past. The main tomes used both by medicine students and expert physicians were&nbsp;Materia Medica&nbsp;and&nbsp;Pharmacopoeia.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Andreas Vesalius&nbsp;was the author of&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">De humani corporis fabrica</i>, an important book on&nbsp;human anatomy.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-53" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[53]</sup>&nbsp;Bacteria and microorganisms were first observed with a microscope by&nbsp;Antonie van Leeuwenhoek&nbsp;in 1676, initiating the scientific field&nbsp;microbiology.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Brock_54-0" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[54]</sup>&nbsp;Independently from&nbsp;Ibn al-Nafis,&nbsp;Michael Servetus&nbsp;rediscovered the&nbsp;pulmonary circulation, but this discovery did not reach the public because it was written down for the first time in the "Manuscript of Paris"<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-55" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[55]</sup>&nbsp;in 1546, and later published in the theological work for which he paid with his life in 1553. Later this was described by&nbsp;Renaldus Columbus&nbsp;and&nbsp;Andrea Cesalpino.&nbsp;Herman Boerhaave&nbsp;is sometimes referred to as a "father of physiology" due to his exemplary teaching in Leiden and textbook 'Institutiones medicae' (1708).&nbsp;Pierre Fauchard&nbsp;has been called "the father of modern dentistry".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-56" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[56]</sup></a></div> <h3 class="in-block" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table; font-size: 1.2em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0.5em 0px; vertical-align: baseline; word-break: break-word;"> <span class="mw-headline" id="Modern" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-size: 19.2px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 272px;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Modern</a></span><span class="mw-editsection" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-size: 19.2px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page" data-section="18" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medicine&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.833333em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 3.5em;" title="Edit section: Modern">Edit</a></span></h3> <div class="thumb tleft" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.6em 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div class="thumbinner" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: flex; flex-flow: column wrap; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; place-content: flex-start center; vertical-align: baseline; width: 222px;"> <a class="image" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Paul-Louis_Simond_injecting_plague_vaccine_June_4th_1898_Karachi.jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" data-alt="" data-class="thumbimage" data-height="161" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Paul-Louis_Simond_injecting_plague_vaccine_June_4th_1898_Karachi.jpg/220px-Paul-Louis_Simond_injecting_plague_vaccine_June_4th_1898_Karachi.jpg" data-width="220" style="background: none rgb(234, 236, 240); border: 0px; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 161px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 220px;">&nbsp;</span></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; -webkit-box-ordinal-group: 1; -webkit-box-pack: justify; background: none; border: 0px; color: #54595d; flex: 1 0 100%; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; justify-content: space-between; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; order: 1; padding: 0px !important; vertical-align: baseline; width: 222px;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Paul-Louis Simond&nbsp;injecting a plague vaccine in Karachi, 1898</a></div> </div> </div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Veterinary medicine was, for the first time, truly separated from human medicine in 1761, when the French veterinarian&nbsp;Claude Bourgelat&nbsp;founded the world's first veterinary school in Lyon, France. Before this, medical doctors treated both humans and other animals.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Modern scientific&nbsp;biomedical research&nbsp;(where results are testable and&nbsp;reproducible) began to replace early Western traditions based on herbalism, the Greek "four humours" and other such pre-modern notions. The modern era really began with&nbsp;Edward Jenner's discovery of the&nbsp;smallpox vaccine&nbsp;at the end of the 18th century (inspired by the method of&nbsp;inoculationearlier practiced in Asia),&nbsp;Robert Koch's discoveries around 1880 of the transmission of disease by bacteria, and then the discovery of&nbsp;antibiotics&nbsp;around 1900.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">The post-18th century&nbsp;modernity&nbsp;period brought more groundbreaking researchers from Europe. From&nbsp;Germany&nbsp;and Austria, doctors&nbsp;Rudolf Virchow,&nbsp;Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen,&nbsp;Karl Landsteiner&nbsp;and&nbsp;Otto Loewimade notable contributions. In the&nbsp;United Kingdom,&nbsp;Alexander Fleming,&nbsp;Joseph Lister,&nbsp;Francis Crick&nbsp;and&nbsp;Florence Nightingale&nbsp;are considered important.&nbsp;Spanish&nbsp;doctor&nbsp;Santiago Ramón y Cajal&nbsp;is considered the father of modern&nbsp;neuroscience.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">From New Zealand and Australia came&nbsp;Maurice Wilkins,&nbsp;Howard Florey, and&nbsp;Frank Macfarlane Burnet.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Others that did significant work include&nbsp;William Williams Keen,&nbsp;William Coley,&nbsp;James D. Watson&nbsp;(United States);&nbsp;Salvador Luria(Italy);&nbsp;Alexandre Yersin&nbsp;(Switzerland);&nbsp;Kitasato Shibasaburō&nbsp;(Japan);&nbsp;Jean-Martin Charcot,&nbsp;Claude Bernard,&nbsp;Paul Broca&nbsp;(France);&nbsp;Adolfo Lutz&nbsp;(Brazil);&nbsp;Nikolai Korotkov&nbsp;(Russia);&nbsp;Sir William Osler&nbsp;(Canada); and&nbsp;Harvey Cushing&nbsp;(United States).</a></div> <div class="thumb tright" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.6em 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div class="thumbinner" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: flex; flex-flow: column wrap; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px auto; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; place-content: flex-start center; vertical-align: baseline; width: 222px;"> <a class="image" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alexander_Fleming.jpg" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" data-alt="" data-class="thumbimage" data-height="165" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Alexander_Fleming.jpg/220px-Alexander_Fleming.jpg" data-width="220" style="background: none rgb(234, 236, 240); border: 0px; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: 165px; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 220px;">&nbsp;</span></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="-webkit-box-flex: 1; -webkit-box-ordinal-group: 1; -webkit-box-pack: justify; background: none; border: 0px; color: #54595d; flex: 1 0 100%; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; justify-content: space-between; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; order: 1; padding: 0px !important; vertical-align: baseline; width: 222px;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Alexander Fleming's discovery of penicillin in September 1928 marks the start of modern antibiotics.</a></div> </div> </div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">As science and technology developed, medicine became more reliant upon&nbsp;medications. Throughout history and in Europe right until the late 18th century, not only animal and plant products were used as medicine, but also human body parts and fluids.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-57" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[57]</sup>&nbsp;Pharmacology&nbsp;developed in part from&nbsp;herbalism&nbsp;and some drugs are still derived from plants (atropine,&nbsp;ephedrine,&nbsp;warfarin,&nbsp;aspirin,&nbsp;digoxin,&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">vinca</i>&nbsp;alkaloids,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-58" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[58]</sup>taxol,&nbsp;hyoscine, etc.).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-59" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[59]</sup>&nbsp;Vaccines&nbsp;were discovered by&nbsp;Edward Jenner&nbsp;and&nbsp;Louis Pasteur.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">The first antibiotic was&nbsp;arsphenamine(Salvarsan) discovered by&nbsp;Paul Ehrlich&nbsp;in 1908 after he observed that bacteria took up toxic dyes that human cells did not. The first major class of&nbsp;antibiotics&nbsp;was the&nbsp;sulfa drugs, derived by German chemists originally from&nbsp;azo dyes.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Pharmacology has become increasingly sophisticated; modern&nbsp;biotechnology&nbsp;allows drugs targeted towards specific physiological processes to be developed, sometimes designed for compatibility with the body to reduce&nbsp;side-effects.&nbsp;Genomics&nbsp;and knowledge of&nbsp;human genetics&nbsp;and&nbsp;human evolution&nbsp;is having increasingly significant influence on medicine, as the causative&nbsp;genes&nbsp;of most monogenic&nbsp;genetic disorders&nbsp;have now been identified, and the development of techniques in&nbsp;molecular biology,&nbsp;evolution, and&nbsp;geneticsare influencing medical technology, practice and decision-making.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Evidence-based medicine is a contemporary movement to establish the most effective&nbsp;algorithms&nbsp;of practice (ways of doing things) through the use of&nbsp;systematic reviews&nbsp;and&nbsp;meta-analysis. The movement is facilitated by modern global&nbsp;information science, which allows as much of the available evidence as possible to be collected and analyzed according to standard protocols that are then disseminated to healthcare providers. The&nbsp;Cochrane Collaboration&nbsp;leads this movement. A 2001 review of 160 Cochrane systematic reviews revealed that, according to two readers, 21.3% of the reviews concluded insufficient evidence, 20% concluded evidence of no effect, and 22.5% concluded positive effect.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Ezzo2001_60-0" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[60]</sup></a></div> </div> <h2 aria-controls="content-collapsible-block-7" aria-haspopup="true" class="in-block section-heading collapsible-heading open-block" style="background: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(234, 236, 240); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; clear: left; cursor: pointer; display: table; font-family: &quot;Linux Libertine&quot;, Georgia, Times, serif; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px 0px 0.5em; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0.5em 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline; word-break: break-word;" tabindex="0"> <div class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-mf-arrow mw-ui-icon-element mf-mw-ui-icon-rotate-flip indicator" style="background: none; border: 0px; float: left; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.4em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0.7em 0px 0px -1em; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 3.5em;" title=""> </div> <span class="mw-headline" id="Traditional_medicine" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 248px;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Traditional medicine</a></span><span class="mw-editsection" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-element mw-ui-icon-minerva-edit-enabled edit-page" data-section="19" href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medicine&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" style="background: none; border: 0px; color: #5a3696; display: inline-block; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.666667em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0px; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; visibility: visible; width: 3.5em;" title="Edit section: Traditional medicine">Edit</a></span></h2> <div aria-expanded="true" aria-pressed="true" class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block open-block" id="content-collapsible-block-7" style="background: none; border: 0px; clear: left; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note" style="background: none rgb(248, 249, 250); border: 0px; color: #54595d; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.8em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 5px 7px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Main article:&nbsp;Traditional medicine</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Traditional medicine (also known as indigenous or folk medicine) comprises knowledge systems that developed over generations within various societies before the introduction of modern medicine. The&nbsp;World Health Organization&nbsp;(WHO) defines traditional medicine as "the sum total of the knowledge, skills, and practices based on the theories, beliefs, and experiences indigenous to different cultures, whether explicable or not, used in the maintenance of health as well as in the prevention, diagnosis, improvement or treatment of physical and mental illness."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-WHO_61-0" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[61]</sup></a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">In some&nbsp;Asian&nbsp;and&nbsp;African&nbsp;countries, up to 80% of the population relies on traditional medicine for their&nbsp;primary health care&nbsp;needs. When adopted outside of its traditional culture, traditional medicine is often called&nbsp;alternative medicine.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-WHO_61-1" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[61]</sup>&nbsp;Practices known as traditional medicines include&nbsp;Ayurveda,&nbsp;Siddha medicine,&nbsp;Unani,&nbsp;ancient Iranian medicine,&nbsp;Irani,&nbsp;Islamic medicine,&nbsp;traditional Chinese medicine,&nbsp;traditional Korean medicine,&nbsp;acupuncture,&nbsp;Muti,&nbsp;Ifá, and&nbsp;traditional African medicine.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">The WHO notes however that "inappropriate use of traditional medicines or practices can have negative or dangerous effects" and that "further research is needed to ascertain the efficacy and safety" of several of the practices and medicinal plants used by traditional medicine systems.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-WHO_61-2" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[61]</sup>&nbsp;The line between alternative medicine and&nbsp;quackery&nbsp;is a contentious subject.</a></div> <div style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> <a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Traditional medicine may include formalized aspects of folk medicine, that is to say longstanding remedies passed on and practised by lay people. Folk medicine consists of the&nbsp;healing&nbsp;practices and ideas of body&nbsp;physiology&nbsp;and&nbsp;health&nbsp;preservation known to some in a culture, transmitted informally as general knowledge, and practiced or applied by anyone in the culture having prior experience.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-62" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[62]</sup>&nbsp;Folk medicine may also be referred to as traditional medicine,&nbsp;alternative medicine,&nbsp;indigenous medicine, or&nbsp;natural medicine. These terms are often considered interchangeable, even though some authors may prefer one or the other because of certain overtones they may be willing to highlight. In fact, out of these terms perhaps only&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">indigenous medicine</i>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">traditional medicine</i>&nbsp;have the same meaning as&nbsp;<i style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">folk medicine</i>, while the others should be understood rather in a modern or modernized context.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-63" style="background: none; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.75em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;">[63]</sup></a></div> </div> <h2 aria-controls="content-collapsible-block-8" aria-haspopup="true" class="in-block section-heading collapsible-heading" style="background: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(234, 236, 240); border-bottom-style: solid; border-image: initial; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; clear: left; cursor: pointer; display: table; font-family: &quot;Linux Libertine&quot;, Georgia, Times, serif; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px 0px 0.5em; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0.5em 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline; word-break: break-word;" tabindex="0"> <div class="mw-ui-icon mw-ui-icon-mf-arrow mw-ui-icon-element indicator" style="background: none; border: 0px; float: left; font-family: inherit; font-size: 0.4em; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0.7em 0px 0px -1em; max-width: 3.5em; min-height: 1.5em; min-width: 3.5em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; text-indent: -999px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 3.5em;" title=""> </div> <span class="mw-headline" id="See_also" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: middle; width: 248px;"><a href="https://aahtowfiq.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Medical More...</a></span><span class="mw-editsection" style="background: none; border: 0px; display: table-cell; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; 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