tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-88228635091428773622011-11-27T16:24:42.108-08:00HAMZAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18338230146675736720noreply@blogger.comBlogger3125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8822863509142877362.post-54406780170099128082010-01-11T08:05:00.000-08:002010-01-11T08:05:18.344-08:002010-01-11T08:05:18.344-08:00<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV, AIDS) Index Glossary <br /> <br /> <br /> Human Immunodeficiency Virus<br /> (HIV Management)<br /> AIDS Retrospective Slideshow <br /> <br /> <br /> Medical Author: Eric S. Daar, MD <br /> Medical Editor: Jay W. Marks, MD <br /> <br /> When was HIV discovered, and how is it diagnosed? <br /> How is HIV spread (transmitted)? <br /> What happens after an exposure to the blood or genital secretions of an HIV-infected person? What are symptoms of primary HIV infection? <br /> What laboratory tests are used to monitor HIV-infected people? <br /> What are the key principles in managing HIV infection? <br /> Factors to consider before starting antiviral therapy <br /> When to start antiviral therapy <br /> Initial therapy for HIV <br /> Side effects of HIV therapy <br /> Monitoring antiviral therapy <br /> Viral load increasing while on HIV therapy <br /> Missing doses or stopping HIV antiviral therapy <br /> Should patients with the "flu"- or "mono"-like illness of primary HIV infection be treated? <br /> What about treatment for HIV during pregnancy? <br /> What about treating non-HIV-infected people who are exposed to the blood or genital secretions of an HIV-infected person? <br /> What can be done for people who have severe immunosuppression? <br /> What is in the future for HIV-infected individuals and for those at risk to contract HIV? <br /> HIV At A Glance <br /> <br /> Unprotected Sex Between HIV-Infected Partners: What's the Harm?<br /> Medical Author: Eric S. Daar, M.D.<br /> Medical Editor: Jay W. Marks, M.D. <br /> <br /> At least once a week, I am asked by one of my HIV-infected patients whether they need to continue to practice safe sex if they are in a monogamous (one mate only) relationship with an HIV-infected partner. Put another way, since both partners already have HIV, what's the harm of unprotected sex? Actually, this is not an easy question to answer fully. My belief, however, is that the best approach is to provide as much information as possible; emphasizing what is known versus what is uncertain. Such a complete disclosure is the only way I can remain credible while allowing the patient to make a fully informed decision. <br /> <br /> My response to this question generally begins by telling the patient what is known about the risks of unsafe (unprotected) sex between HIV-infected partners. First of all, we know that in this situation, the spread of other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), such as gonorrhea, chlamydia, syphilis, and herpes remains a risk, as usual. What's more, these so-called traditional STDs are well known to be associated with serious complications.<br /> <br /> Both gonorrhea and chlamydia initially can cause infections of the urethra (urethritis) and anus, or rectum (proctitis). Subsequently, these infections can progress to serious complications in these areas and even spread to other parts of the body. In addition, in women, gonorrhea and chlamydia are associated with increased risks of infertility and ectopic pregnancy, which at times can be life-threatening. (An ectopic pregnancy occurs when the fertilized egg implants outside of the uterus; for example, in the tubes.)<br /> <br /> Read More »<br /> <br /> Top Searched STDs in Women Terms:<br /> std symptoms, types - chlamydia, genital herpes, genital warts (hpv), Gonorrhea, std tests, HIV/AIDS, syphilis, pubic lice, scabies, std prevention, straight men have gay sex <br /> <br /> <br /> When was HIV discovered, and how is it diagnosed?<br /> <br /> In 1981, homosexual men with symptoms of a disease that now are considered typical of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) were first described in Los Angeles and New York. The men had an unusual type of lung infection (pneumonia) called Pneumocystis carinii (now known as Pneumocystis jiroveci) pneumonia (PCP) and rare skin tumors called Kaposi's sarcomas. The patients were noted to have a severe reduction in a type of cell in the blood that is an important part of the immune system, called CD4 cells. These cells, often referred to as CD4 T cells, help the body fight infections. Shortly thereafter, this disease was recognized throughout the United States, Western Europe, and Africa. In 1983, researchers in the United States and France described the virus that causes AIDS, now known as the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and belonging to the group of viruses called retroviruses. In 1985, a blood test became available that measures antibodies to HIV that are the body's immune response to the HIV. This blood test remains the best method for diagnosing HIV infection. Recently, tests have become available to look for these same antibodies in blood and saliva, some providing results within 20 minutes of testing.<br /> <br /> <br /> How is HIV spread (transmitted)?<br /> <br /> HIV is present to variable degrees in the blood and genital secretions of virtually all individuals infected with HIV, regardless of whether or not they have symptoms. The spread of HIV can occur when these secretions come in contact with tissues such as those lining the vagina, anal area, mouth, or eyes (the mucus membranes), or with a break in the skin, such as from a cut or puncture by a needle. The most common ways in which HIV is spreading throughout the world include sexual contact, sharing needles, and by transmission from infected mothers to their newborns during pregnancy, labor (the delivery process), or breastfeeding. (See the section below on treatment during pregnancy for a discussion on reducing the risk of transmission to the newborn.)<br /> <br /> Sexual transmission of HIV has been described from men to men, men to women, women to men, and women to women through vaginal, anal, and oral sex. The best way to avoid sexual transmission is abstinence from sex until it is certain that both partners in a monogamous relationship are not HIV-infected. Because the HIV antibody test can take up to six months to turn positive after infection occurs, both partners would need to test negative six months after their last potential exposure to HIV. If abstinence is out of the question, the next best method is the use of latex barriers. This involves placing a condom on the penis as soon as an erection is achieved in order to avoid exposure to pre-ejaculatory and ejaculatory fluids that contain infectious HIV. For oral sex, condoms should be used for fellatio (oral contact with the penis) and latex barriers (dental dams) for cunnilingus (oral contact with the vaginal area). A dental dam is any piece of latex that prevents vaginal secretions from coming in direct contact with the mouth. Although such dams occasionally can be purchased, they are most often created by cutting a square piece of latex from a condom.<br /> <br /> The spread of HIV by exposure to infected blood usually results from sharing needles, as in those used for illicit drugs. HIV also can be spread by sharing needles for anabolic steroids to increase muscle, tattooing, and body piercing. To prevent the spread of HIV, as well as other diseases including hepatitis, needles should never be shared. At the beginning of the HIV epidemic, many individuals acquired HIV infection from blood transfusions or blood products, such as those used for hemophiliacs. Currently, however, because blood is tested for both antibodies to HIV and the actual virus before transfusion, the risk of acquiring HIV from a blood transfusion in the United States is extremely small and is considered insignificant.<br /> <br /> There is little evidence that HIV can be transferred by casual exposure, as might occur in a household setting. For example, unless there are open sores or blood in the mouth, kissing is generally considered not to be a risk factor for transmitting HIV. This is because saliva, in contrast to genital secretions, has been shown to contain very little HIV. Still, theoretical risks are associated with the sharing of toothbrushes and shaving razors because they can cause bleeding, and blood can contain large amounts of HIV. Consequently, these items should not be shared with infected people. Similarly, without sexual exposure or direct contact with blood, there is little if any risk of HIV contagion in the workplace or classroom.<br /> <br /> 1 2<br /> 3<br /> 4<br /> 5<br /> 6<br /> 7<br /> 8<br /> Next »<br /> <br /> Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV, AIDS) Index Glossary <br /> <br /> Next: What happens after an exposure to the blood or genital secretions of an HIV-infected person? What are symptoms of primary HIV infection? »<br /> <br /> Printer-Friendly Format | Email to a Friend <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Suggested Reading by Our Doctorsinterferon - Describes the medication interferon (Roferon-A, Intron-A, Rebetron, Alferon-N, Peg-Intron, Avonex, Betaseron, Infergen, Actimmune, Pegasys), a drug used in managing many diseases that involve the immune system. <br /> Circumcision: The Medical Pros and Cons - Get information on the medical pros and cons of newborn circumcision. Circumcised infants have fewer UTIs. STDs and penis cancer are more common in uncircumcised men. <br /> Pneumonia - Learn pneumonia symptoms, causes, treatment, signs, diagnosis and types: viral and bacterial (Pneumocystis carinii, Klebsiella, Mycoplasma, Chlamydia pneumoniae). <br /> Read more Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV, AIDS) related articles »<br /> Latest Medical News<br /> Rabies Vaccine Protects Against Monkey Version of HIV <br /> Scientists Spot Source of Hurdle to AIDS Vaccine <br /> HIV Therapy Linked to Fewer Suicides <br /> Stem Cells Turned Into AIDS Killers in Lab Tests <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Privacy PolicyWebMD Daily<br /> Get breaking medical news.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> From WebMDResources for Staying Well<br /> Could You Be Depressed? Check Your Symptoms <br /> Is Your Home Making You Sick? <br /> No Time to Exercise? Get Fit in a Flash <br /> Featured Centers<br /> 12 Ways to Prevent the Spread of Viruses <br /> 6 Tips to Relieve Dry Skin Fast <br /> Sad? Irritable? Assess Your Symptoms <br /> Healthy Home: To Buy or Not to Buy Organic? <br /> Health Solutions From Our Sponsors<br /> Osteoporosis Info <br /> Overactive Bladder Rx <br /> <br /> <br /> Human Immunodeficiency VirusAntibiotic Resistance (Drug Resistance, Antimicrobial Resistance) »<br /> <br /> Quick facts<br /> Increasing use of antimicrobials in humans, animals, and agriculture has resulted in many microbes developing resistance to these powerful drugs. <br /> Many infectious diseases are increasingly difficult to treat because of antimicrobial-resistant organisms, including HIV infection, staphylococcal infection, tuberculosis, influenza, gonorrhea, candida infection, and malaria. <br /> Between 5 and 10 percent of all hospital patients develop an infection, leading to an increase of about $5 billion in annual U.S. healthcare costs. <br /> About 90,000 of these patients die each year as a result of their infection, up from 13,300 patient deaths in 1992. <br /> People infected with antimicrobial-resistant organisms are more likely to have longer hospital stays and may require more complicated treatment. <br /> <br /> Definitions...<br /> <br /> Read the Antibiotic Resistance (Drug Resistance, Antimicrobial Resistance) article »<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Featured on MedicineNet<br /> Tips to Ease Nighttime Pain Check Your Fibromyalgia Symptoms Depression Tips Slideshow Are You at Risk for Diabetic Nerve Pain? 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See additional information.<br /> <br /> <br /> <div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/8822863509142877362-5440678017009912808?l=hamzadairy.blogspot.com' alt='' /></div> <p><a href="http://feedads.g.doubleclick.net/~a/rI4bbfVn2g_lvXj3pJI4Q90r9Ks/0/da"><img src="http://feedads.g.doubleclick.net/~a/rI4bbfVn2g_lvXj3pJI4Q90r9Ks/0/di" border="0" ismap="true"></img></a><br/> <a href="http://feedads.g.doubleclick.net/~a/rI4bbfVn2g_lvXj3pJI4Q90r9Ks/1/da"><img src="http://feedads.g.doubleclick.net/~a/rI4bbfVn2g_lvXj3pJI4Q90r9Ks/1/di" border="0" ismap="true"></img></a></p><img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/blogspot/pnrj/~4/anteTJA-awY" height="1" width="1"/>HAMZAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18338230146675736720noreply@blogger.com0http://hamzadairy.blogspot.com/2010/01/causes-of-hivaids.htmltag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8822863509142877362.post-33318859697440689772009-10-24T11:00:00.001-07:002009-10-24T11:00:19.251-07:002009-10-24T11:00:19.251-07:00<h3 class="post-title entry-title"> <a href="http://hamzadair.blogspot.com/2009/05/reproduction.html">ह्यूमन REPRODUCTION</a> </h3><div class="post-body entry-content"> <a href="" name="Sexual_Reproduction_in_Humans">Sexual Reproduction in Humans</a><br /> Index to this page<br /> <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/Sexual_Reproduction.html#Sex_Organs_of_the_Human_Male">Sex Organs of the Human Male</a><br /> <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/Sexual_Reproduction.html#Spermatogenesis">Spermatogenesis</a><br /> <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/Sexual_Reproduction.html#Sperm">Sperm</a><br /> <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/Sexual_Reproduction.html#LH">LH</a><br /> <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/Sexual_Reproduction.html#FSH">FSH</a><br /> <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/Sexual_Reproduction.html#Sex_Organs_of_the_Human_Female">Sex Organs of the Human Female</a><br /> <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/Sexual_Reproduction.html#Oogenesis">Oogenesis</a><br /> <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/Sexual_Reproduction.html#Ovulation">Ovulation</a><br /> <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/Sexual_Reproduction.html#Copulation_and_Fertilization">Copulation and Fertilization</a><br /> <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/Sexual_Reproduction.html#Pregnancy">Pregnancy</a><br /> <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/Sexual_Reproduction.html#allograft">The placenta is an allograft</a><br /> <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/Sexual_Reproduction.html#ART">Assisted Reproductive Technology ("ART")</a><br /> <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/Sexual_Reproduction.html#IVF">In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)</a><br /> <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/Sexual_Reproduction.html#ICSI">Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI)</a><br /> <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/Sexual_Reproduction.html#ooplasmic">Ooplasmic Transfer</a><br /> <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/Sexual_Reproduction.html#Birth">Birth and Lactation</a><br /> <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/Sexual_Reproduction.html#BirthControl">Birth Control</a><br /> <a href="" name="The_Problems_to_be_Solved">The Problems to be Solved</a>Sexual reproduction is the formation of a new individual following the union of two gametes. In humans and the majority of other eukaryotes — plants as well as animals — the two gametes<br /> differ in structure ("anisogamy") and<br /> are contributed by different parents.Gametes need<br /> motility to be able to meet and unite<br /> food to nourish the developing embryo.In animals (and some plants), these two rather contrasting needs are met by anisogametes:<br /> sperm that are motile (and small)<br /> eggs that contain food.<br /> <a href="" name="Sex_Organs_of_the_Human_Male">Sex Organs of the Human Male</a>The reproductive system of the male has two major functions:<br /> production of sperm<br /> delivery of these to the reproductive tract of the female. Sperm production — spermatogenesis — takes place in the testes.<br /> Each testis is packed with seminiferous tubules (laid end to end, they would extend more than 20 meters) where spermatogenesis occurs.<br /> <a href="" name="Spermatogenesis">Spermatogenesis</a><br /> The walls of the seminiferous tubules consist of <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/D/D.html#diploid">diploid</a> spermatogonia, <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/S.html#stem_cell">stem cells</a> that are the precursors of sperm. Spermatogonia<br /> divide by <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/M/Mitosis.html">mitosis</a> to produce more spermatogonia or<br /> differentiate into spermatocytes.<br /> <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/M/Meiosis.html">Meiosis</a> of each spermatocyte produces 4 <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/H/H.html#haploid">haploid</a> spermatids. This process takes over three weeks to complete.<br /> Then the spermatids differentiate into sperm, losing most of their cytoplasm in the process. For simplicity, the figure shows the behavior of just a single pair of homologous chromosomes with a single crossover. With 22 pairs of <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/A/A.html#autosome">autosomes</a> and an average of two crossovers between each pair, the variety of gene combinations in sperm is very great.<br /> <a href="" name="Sperm">Sperm</a>Sperm cells are little more than flagellated nuclei. Each consists of<br /> a head, which has<br /> an acrosome at its tip and<br /> contains a haploid set of chromosomes in a compact, inactive, state.<br /> a midpiece containing <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/C/CellularRespiration.html">mitochondria</a> and a single <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/C/Cytoskeleton.html#centrioles">centriole</a><br /> a tail<br /> This electron micrograph (courtesy of Dr. Don W. Fawcett and Susumu Ito) shows the sperm cell of a bat. Note the orderly arrangement of the mitochondria. They supply the <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/A/ATP.html">ATP</a> to power the whiplike motion of the tail.<br /> An adult male manufactures over 100 million sperm cells each day. These gradually move into the epididymis where they undergo further maturation. The acidic environment in the epididymis keeps the mature sperm inactive. In addition to making sperm, the testis is an endocrine gland. Its principal hormone, testosterone, is responsible for the development of the secondary sex characteristics of men such as the beard, deep voice, and masculine body shape. Testosterone is also essential for making sperm.<br /> <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/SexHormones.html#testosterone">Link to more on testosterone.</a>Testosterone is made in the interstitial cells that lie between the seminiferous tubules.<br /> <a href="" name="LH">LH</a>Interstitial cells are, in turn, the targets for a hormone often called interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH). It is a product of the anterior lobe of the <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/Pituitary.html">pituitary gland</a>. However, ICSH is identical to the <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/Pituitary.html#LH">luteinizing hormone</a> (LH) found in females, and I prefer to call it LH.<br /> <a href="" name="FSH">FSH</a>Follicle-stimulating hormone (also named for its role in females) acts directly on spermatogonia to stimulate sperm production (aided by the LH needed for testosterone synthesis). [<a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/Pituitary.html#FSH">Discussion</a>]<br /> <a href="" name="Sex_Organs_of_the_Human_Female">Sex Organs of the Human Female</a><br /> The responsibility of the female mammal for successful reproduction is considerably greater than that of the male. She must<br /> manufacture eggs<br /> be equipped to receive sperm from the male<br /> provide an environment conducive to fertilization and <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/Sexual_Reproduction.html#Pregnancy">implantation</a><br /> nourish the developing baby not only before birth but after.<br /> <a href="" name="Oogenesis">Oogenesis</a><br /> Egg formation takes place in the ovaries. In contrast to males, the initial steps in egg production occur prior to birth. Diploid stem cells called oogonia divide by mitosis to produce more oogonia and primary oocytes. By the time the fetus is 20 weeks old, the process reaches its peak and all the oocytes that she will ever possess (~4 million of them) have been formed. By the time she is born, 1–2 million of these remain. Each has<br /> begun the first steps of the first meiotic division (<a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/M/Meiosis.html">meiosis I</a>) and then<br /> stopped.No further development occurs until years later when the girl becomes sexually mature. Then the primary oocytes recommence their development, usually one at a time and once a month.<br /> The primary oocyte grows much larger and completes the <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/M/Meiosis.html#meiosis_I">meiosis I</a>, forming a large secondary oocyte and a small polar body that receives little more than one set of chromosomes. Which chromosomes end up in the egg and which in the polar body is entirely a matter of chance.<br /> In humans (and most vertebrates), the first polar body does not go on to meiosis II, but the secondary oocyte does proceed as far as metaphase of <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/M/Meiosis.html#Meiosis_II">meiosis II</a> and then stops.<br /> Only if fertilization occurs will meiosis II ever be completed. Entry of the sperm restarts the cell cycle<br /> breaking down <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/C/CellCycle.html#Control_of_the_Cell_Cycle">MPF</a> (M-phase promoting factor) and<br /> turning on the <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/C/CellCycle.html#Control_of_the_Cell_Cycle">anaphase promoting complex</a> (APC).Completion of meiosis II converts the secondary oocyte into a fertilized egg or zygote (and also a second polar body).<br /> As in the diagram for spermatogenesis, the behavior o </div><div class="post-footer"> <div class="post-footer-line post-footer-line-1"> <span class="post-author vcard"> Posted by <span class="fn">HAMZA</span> </span> <span class="post-timestamp"> at <a class="timestamp-link" href="http://hamzadair.blogspot.com/2009/05/reproduction.html" rel="bookmark" title="permanent link"><abbr class="published" title="2009-05-30T06:16:00-07:00">6:16 AM</abbr></a> </span> <span class="reaction-buttons"> </span> <span class="star-ratings"> </span> <span class="post-comment-link"> <a class="comment-link" href="https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=6558794527718640644&amp;postID=2179259584136777105" onclick="">0 comments</a> </span> <span class="post-backlinks post-comment-link"> </span> <span class="post-icons"> <span class="item-action"> <a href="http://www.blogger.com/email-post.g?blogID=6558794527718640644&amp;postID=2179259584136777105" title="Email Post"> <img alt="" class="icon-action" height="13" src="img/icon18_email.gif" width="18" /> </a> </span> <span class="item-control blog-admin pid-1818002996"> <a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6558794527718640644&amp;postID=2179259584136777105" title="Edit Post"> <img alt="" class="icon-action" height="18" src="img/icon18_edit_allbkg.gif" width="18" /> </a> </span> </span> </div><div class="post-footer-line post-footer-line-2"> <span class="post-labels"> </span> </div><div class="post-footer-line post-footer-line-3"> <span class="post-location"> </span> </div></div><h2 class="date-header">Friday, November 7, 2008</h2><div class="post hentry uncustomized-post-template"> <a href="" name="8026534059573916126"></a> <h3 class="post-title entry-title"> <a href="http://hamzadair.blogspot.com/2008/11/life.html">LIFE</a> </h3><div class="post-body entry-content"> ಲೈಫ್!!!!!!<br /> When Life Gets You Down Recently I've grown weary. Weary of waiting for an agent to pick me up, weary of writing day after day after day and not seeing any results from something that is my only income. So far that income is looking distinctly unhealthy. I have even become weary of doing this newsletter and have toyed with the idea of giving it up; after all, I've been doing it several years now.Yet, I know that I have a talent for writing; I believe a natural God-given ability to place words in such a manner as to make them interesting and sensible. And every time I think about giving up doing the editorial for this newsletter, I am encouraged by particularly supportive feedback, or God inspires me with a topic when I thought I'd exhausted everything I could write about.Life does get tiresome from time to time. A change can make all the difference - holiday, listening to music, a walk, or changing the routine. What about those other times when we come back and still feel the same? Less than enthused, in fact, depressed about the status of things.This is very much a spiritual issue as those feelings permeate our spirit and tend to colour life as a whole, when really it is only one or two aspects that aren't going so well. A walk may suffice, but for the times when that fails to lift your flagging spirit, try these little pick-me-ups. Go and visit someone, particularly someone who has few friends, is ill, or could do with a helping hand. Take them a gift, card, or packet of biscuits. Out of your own frustration, cheer someone else up and it might catch on.<br /> "A generous man will prosper; he who refreshes others will himself be refreshed." Proverbs 11:25 Take time to remember what you are doing and why. Often anything worthwhile takes time and the rewards can take even longer. Maybe you do need to take stock and make some changes to be more realistic or have a greater chance of achieving what you desire.<br /> "He who works his land will have abundant food, but he who chases fantasies lacks judgement." Proverbs 12:11 Are there attitudes or beliefs you hold which are contributing to a general weary mood? Perhaps the answers to a problem have been provided, but there is unwillingness to follow through or accept that guidance.<br /> "Pride only breeds quarrels, but wisdom is found in those who take advice." Proverbs 13:10 Though it is good to take advice, you also need to weigh it up. Is the advice sound? Does it serve to only boost your pride, or worse, do the opinions of others make you feel worthless and incompetent? The words of others can affect us very deeply, often more so than we care to admit.<br /> "The wise in heart are called discerning, and pleasant words promote instruction." Proverbs 16:21 Congratulate someone on their success. Think about the successes of people in the same area as you're attempting and realise it is possible to succeed. Use this to combat any jealousy that might be colouring your mood.<br /> "A heart at peace gives life to the body, but envy rots the bones." Proverbs 14:30 Examine your motives for wanting to achieve a certain goal. Is it healthy, honest, and worthwhile? Does it honour yourself, your family, your friends or colleagues...God?<br /> "All a man's ways seem innocent to him, but motives are weighed by the Lord." Proverbs 16:2 Take the time to ask God about what is giving you trouble. Pray for guidance and strength, commit the acts/goal to His service and glory. Ask Him to work on your behalf.<br /> "Commit to the Lord whatever you do, and your plans will succeed." Proverbs 16:3There are so many little things we forget as we go about living. How easy it is to get caught up in our own world and the issues within it. Bringing focus onto the broader picture and giving oneself a 'thought-process examination' can help bring perspective back to whatever is bringing us down.May you continue your journey with peace and joy in Christ.Till next time: </div><div class="post-footer"> <div class="post-footer-line post-footer-line-1"> <span class="post-author vcard"> Posted by <span class="fn">HAMZA</span> </span> <span class="post-timestamp"> at <a class="timestamp-link" href="http://hamzadair.blogspot.com/2008/11/life.html" rel="bookmark" title="permanent link"><abbr class="published" title="2008-11-07T11:15:00-08:00">11:15 AM</abbr></a> </span> <span class="reaction-buttons"> </span> <span class="star-ratings"> </span> <span class="post-comment-link"> <a class="comment-link" href="https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=6558794527718640644&amp;postID=8026534059573916126" onclick="">0 comments</a> </span> <span class="post-backlinks post-comment-link"> </span> <span class="post-icons"> <span class="item-action"> <a href="http://www.blogger.com/email-post.g?blogID=6558794527718640644&amp;postID=8026534059573916126" title="Email Post"> <img alt="" class="icon-action" height="13" src="img/icon18_email.gif" width="18" /> </a> </span> <span class="item-control blog-admin pid-1818002996"> <a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6558794527718640644&amp;postID=8026534059573916126" title="Edit Post"> <img alt="" class="icon-action" height="18" src="img/icon18_edit_allbkg.gif" width="18" /> </a> </span> </span> </div><div class="post-footer-line post-footer-line-2"> <span class="post-labels"> </span> </div><div class="post-footer-line post-footer-line-3"> <span class="post-location"> </span> </div></div></div><div class="post hentry uncustomized-post-template"> <a href="" name="7708540349052795936"></a> <h3 class="post-title entry-title"> <a href="http://hamzadair.blogspot.com/2008/11/genetics.html">genetics</a> </h3><div class="post-body entry-content"> We will begin this course with the question: What is a gene?<br /> This question will take us four lectures to answer because there are actually several different definitions that are appropriate in different contexts.<br /> We will start with a physical definition of the gene. Conceptually this is the simplest and it will give me an excuse to briefly review some of the molecular biology that you probably already know.<br /> Genes are made of DNA<br /> For this course we will mostly think of DNA as an information molecule not as a chemical substance.<br /> In 1953, Watson and Crick deduced that the structure of DNA was a double helix. It was not the helical structure per se, but the discovery of complementary base pairing that revealed how information could be encoded in a molecule and how this information could be exactly duplicated each cell division. R<br /> In order to extract information from the DNA, the cell again uses the complementary base-pairing to make a copy of the information copied onto an RNA molecule. This is known as T. RNA is chemically less stable than DNA and mRNA can be thought of as a temporary copy of DNA’s information.<br /> <br /> T r<br /> : enzymes structural proteins membrane channels hormones<br /> G DNA segment needed to make a protein<br /> Genes are typically 103 - 104 base pairs in size although they can be much larger. For example, the human dystrophin gene is 2 x 106 base pairs.<br /> E.coli has about 4,200 genes which isn’t very many considering that at least 1,000 different enzymes are needed carry out just the basic biochemical reactions in a cell. The smallest genome for a free-living organism (i.e. a cell, not a virus) is that of the bacterium Mycoplasma genetalium which encodes only 467 genes. Humans are at the other end of the spectrum of complexity and have about 35,000 genes.<br /> <br /> In the demonstration in class you see how a mutation in the Shibire gene in the fly Drosophila gives a heat sensitive protein that is required for synaptic transmission. When the flies that carry this mutation are warmed by the projector lamp they become paralyzed.<br /> Gene — Protein — Cell Process — Organism “disease”<br /> (Shibire) (Dynamin) (Synaptic Signaling) (Paralyzed Fly)<br /> This example illustrates two powerful aspects of genetic analysis. First, we can follow microscopic changes in the DNA such as the Shibire mutation as they are revealed by the macroscopic consequences of the mutation such as a paralyzed fly. Second, we have a very precise way of studying the function of individual proteins by examining the consequences of eliminating just that one protein function in an otherwise normal organism.<br /> A different versions of the same gene<br /> Often alleles are referred to as mutants but actually this usage is often incorrect particularly when we discuss naturally occurring variants in a population.<br /> M an altered version of a gene when we have “witnessed” the alteration but not when it is preexisting in the population.<br /> G all alleles of an individual<br /> <br /> W defined standard genotype<br /> The concept of wild-type is used as a defined reference for organisms where we can do breeding experiments. Of course there is no realistic way to define a standard genotype for humans, therefore “wild type” has no meaning when we discuss human genetics.<br /> The physical definition of the gene is a very good one but there are many instances where we wish to study genes whose DNA sequences are not known. For example, say we have isolated a new mutant fly that is also paralyzed and we want to know whether this mutation is also in the Shibire gene. We will see in the next several lectures that we can answer this question without knowledge of the DNA sequence either by a test for gene function known as a complementation test or by a test of the chromosomal position of the mutation by recombinational mapping. In practice, these other ways of defining genes by function or by position are often much more useful than a definition based on the DNA sequence. </div><div class="post-footer"> <div class="post-footer-line post-footer-line-1"> <span class="post-author vcard"> Posted by <span class="fn">HAMZA</span> </span> <span class="post-timestamp"> at <a class="timestamp-link" href="http://hamzadair.blogspot.com/2008/11/genetics.html" rel="bookmark" title="permanent link"><abbr class="published" title="2008-11-07T11:04:00-08:00">11:04 AM</abbr></a> </span> <span class="reaction-buttons"> </span> <span class="star-ratings"> </span> <span class="post-comment-link"> <a class="comment-link" href="https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=6558794527718640644&amp;postID=7708540349052795936" onclick="">0 comments</a> </span> <span class="post-backlinks post-comment-link"> </span> <span class="post-icons"> <span class="item-action"> <a href="http://www.blogger.com/email-post.g?blogID=6558794527718640644&amp;postID=7708540349052795936" title="Email Post"> <img alt="" class="icon-action" height="13" src="img/icon18_email.gif" width="18" /> </a> </span> <span class="item-control blog-admin pid-1818002996"> <a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6558794527718640644&amp;postID=7708540349052795936" title="Edit Post"> <img alt="" class="icon-action" height="18" src="img/icon18_edit_allbkg.gif" width="18" /> </a> </span> </span> </div><div class="post-footer-line post-footer-line-2"> <span class="post-labels"> </span> </div><div class="post-footer-line post-footer-line-3"> <span class="post-location"> </span> </div></div></div><h2 class="date-header">Wednesday, November 5, 2008</h2><a href="" name="7059323306945154680"></a> <div class="post-body entry-content"> <span style="font-family: arial;">THIS IS MY FAMILY</span> </div><div class="post-footer-line post-footer-line-1"> <span class="post-author vcard"> Posted by <span class="fn">HAMZA</span> </span> <span class="post-timestamp"> at <a class="timestamp-link" href="http://hamzadair.blogspot.com/2008/11/this-is-my-family.html" rel="bookmark" title="permanent link"><abbr class="published" title="2008-11-05T07:07:00-08:00">7:07 AM</abbr></a> </span> <span class="reaction-buttons"> </span> <span class="star-ratings"> </span> <span class="post-comment-link"> <a class="comment-link" href="https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=6558794527718640644&amp;postID=7059323306945154680" onclick="">0 comments</a> </span> <span class="post-backlinks post-comment-link"> </span> <span class="post-icons"> <span class="item-action"> <a href="http://www.blogger.com/email-post.g?blogID=6558794527718640644&amp;postID=7059323306945154680" title="Email Post"> <img alt="" class="icon-action" height="13" src="img/icon18_email.gif" width="18" /> </a> </span> <span class="item-control blog-admin pid-1818002996"> <a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6558794527718640644&amp;postID=7059323306945154680" title="Edit Post"> <img alt="" class="icon-action" height="18" src="img/icon18_edit_allbkg.gif" width="18" /></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=6558794527718640644&amp;postID=7059323306945154680" title="Edit Post"> </a> </span> </span> </div><div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/8822863509142877362-3331885969744068977?l=hamzadairy.blogspot.com' alt='' /></div> <p><a href="http://feedads.g.doubleclick.net/~a/QqVONAtavexDqvcmhl9DbqjRV0Q/0/da"><img src="http://feedads.g.doubleclick.net/~a/QqVONAtavexDqvcmhl9DbqjRV0Q/0/di" border="0" ismap="true"></img></a><br/> <a href="http://feedads.g.doubleclick.net/~a/QqVONAtavexDqvcmhl9DbqjRV0Q/1/da"><img src="http://feedads.g.doubleclick.net/~a/QqVONAtavexDqvcmhl9DbqjRV0Q/1/di" border="0" ismap="true"></img></a></p><img src="http://feeds.feedburner.com/~r/blogspot/pnrj/~4/kflnqg7WND4" height="1" width="1"/>HAMZAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18338230146675736720noreply@blogger.com1http://hamzadairy.blogspot.com/2009/10/more-on-biology.htmltag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8822863509142877362.post-60788915011737627842008-11-07T08:02:00.000-08:002008-11-07T08:12:10.776-08:002008-11-07T08:12:10.776-08:00