2011 Public Law

2012 Mazda 5

2011-08-08T03:26:00.000-07:00

The Mazda5 fills so many niches that you might call it a wagon; others would say van, while my summation is a mini-minivan with sporty overtones.

That’s not using several words where one would do, but to more adequately describe this fun-to-drive little runabout.

It is even a vision of the near future. Ford’s upcoming Grand C-Max will have a lot in common with the Mazda5 . And both can look at the new Focus and call it kinfolk.

Ford and Mazda have had a financial and manufacturing alliance since 1979. Ford once held a controlling interest in the Japanese auto maker, but in recent years has cut the stake to 3%.

Even if Mazda did soften the ride a bit for the new model year, the Mazda5 still has a sporty nature on back-country roads. With 157 horsepower at 6,000 rpm and 163 pound-feet of torque from its inline 4, the Mazda moved out quickly from red lights and stop signs — a nice surprise. But try to merge onto a fast-moving interstate and the need for more grunt makes itself known.

From a dead stop to a 60mph takes less than 10 seconds with the aid of a fast-acting, five-speed automatic transmission. Yet a driver’s left to wonder, “What would this be like with a small turbo?”

No, that wouldn’t do much to help gas mileage, rated at 21-28 mpg by the EPA. It runs on regular unleaded and gave me 25 mpg overall.

When it comes to the comfort side of the equation, there should be few complaints. There’s plenty of room for a 6-foot-tall driver. The tachometer and speedometer are placed in twin pods right in front of the driver. Auxiliary information comes from a small window in the instrument pane, and a bigger one just above the central stack.

Auto writers have complained for some time that the center stack info window washes out on even at the hint of a sunny day because of its poor contrast. And still, only after sunset, or in the shade, will you see what you have been missing all day.

The two bucket seats that comprise the second-row seating are multi-adjustable to accommodate wee ones on up to budding basketball players. They also get to control their own ventilation via vents and buttons at the end of the center console.

Wide open, the sunroof generates only a little wind noise and thanks to the overall mini-minivan design, eats up very little headroom. More athletically inclined kids can select the third-row seat. It’s a great launchpad for harassing their older siblings. The sliding side doors are easy to open and third-row seats are quite firm.

With all three rows of seating up, storage space is limited to 5.6 cubic feet. You may be able to stash a case of beer back there, but it would be sitting on its side. A case of your favorite wine would require folding the third-row of seats, easily done via the rear hatch. That increases carrying capacity to 27 cubic feet. Folding the second row increases that to 55.4 cubic feet for serious hardware store visits.

Three models are offered, with our tested Grand Touring package topping the list. With only two small options, the test vehicle went out the door at $24,720 including transportation.

Interior materials were on the economy side of the ledger. Fit and finish were good.

For those who don’t need the space available in a large van or sport utility, the Mazda makes for a very wise choice. The price is right; it will haul a fair amount of stuff, is economical and has a “recommended” rating from Consumer Reports.

It won’t turn heads in the neighborhood, but will mark the owners as very smart consumers.

2011 Ford Mustang GT: They Are Spicing It Up!

2011-06-07T00:44:00.000-07:00

We all know that Ford has switched and changed their gears quite a bit and now – now they are spicing up a lot of their cars – the 2011 Ford Mustang GT included. This particular car is actually something that I look forward to seeing and I can tell you for sure that the 2011 Ford Mustang GT is going to be incredible.

Not only do they have some awesome specs that all come standard with it but I can tell you for sure that the base model – still awesome is press inexpensive. Just coming in under twenty-two hundred dollars makes the brand new 2011 Ford Mustang GT worth it.

If you have been looking forward to the 2011 Ford Mustang GT – you need to make sure that you check it out, it’s pretty awesome – and they’re a perfect example of the return of the pony car

The Cadillac XTS Platinum Concept!

2011-06-07T00:41:00.000-07:00

When it comes to concept cars, what better cars to talk about than luxury cars? Constantly, the stream of luxury cars is changing and evolving and I think that this brand new concept by Cadillac is absolutely incredible! Not only does the Cadillac XTS Platinum Concept have some incredible technique and body-work, but I have to say that this particular car is making waves everywhere.

If you are looking for the future in the form of a car, the Cadillac XTS Platinum Concept is definitely it. Not only does the darkness and the beauty of it match the beauty of fine jewelry but the overall appeal of this particular sedan is something that people are constantly looking at.

If you want luxury inside of an affordable car with a great name, the Cadillac XTS Platinum Concept is definitely it!

Buick Velite Concept — Beautiful, Breathtaking … Youthful!

2011-06-07T00:39:00.000-07:00

Buick is a brand that is known for making fantastic cars … that are always geared toward the older generation versus the newer and younger generation. The brand new Buick Velite Concept is actually just a concept right now but it proves that Buick is trying to move into the younger generation, which is where their focus needs to be.

To me, the biggest problem with Buick is the fact that their cars are too luxury and not enough sport and that is what the Buick Velite Concept will bring in … if it does go through.

This is a car that I would buy and I’m 25 – that is saying a lot right? Keep up the good work Buick and hopefully, the Buick Velite Concept will go through!

Impress Your Friends with this New Benz

2011-06-07T00:35:00.000-07:00

“Oh Lord, won’t you buy me a Mercedes Benz?
My friends all drive Porsches, I must make amends.
Worked hard all my lifetime, no help from my friends.
So Lord, won’t you buy me a Mercedes Benz?”

Janis Joplin had it right, don’t you think? And even those who might night be fans of the big Benz, you guys have to admit that the new concept, the F800 Style, is a seriously sexy looking machine.

This beauty will get its big reveal next month at the big motor show in Geneva. Mercedes’ traditional design aesthetic has been seriously reinterpreted with this concept, the idea being to showcase where the automaker intends to go in the future.

And the F800 Style is definitely futuristic, not to mention sleek and somehow sensual, stylish and so speedy looking you can practically hear the tires scream.

*Lyrics from Janis Joplin’s “Mercedes Benz.”

The Lexus CT 200h: Winner or Loser

2011-06-07T00:32:00.000-07:00

Typically, I am a fan of Lexus. I may not be a huge fan of every single model but I can usually find at least a little something to love.

Not so much with the new Lexus CT 200h, which is a compact model emerge from the luxury brand created by … Toyota.

I do not like this thing.

Apparently the interior is way better, with lots of metallic finishes as well as dark surfaces that are soft to the touch, and some great displays.

All I can say is, they should start showing pictures of the inside, then.

Outwardly, the CT 200h looks like a big, boring marshmallow. There is nothing memorable about it.

Buying guide: E55 AMG by Mercedes-Benz

2011-06-07T00:28:00.000-07:00

The E55 AMG of Mercedes-Benz is a game changer. Under £20k, a used E55 AMG is of great value. With this post we list down tips on what to look for when buying one.

Brakes

The pads and discs are reasonably priced at around £450 per set. Fitting the brakes will add a bit to the tag especially when the brake fluid will be changed. This generation of Benz requires you to plug it to a computer when you change the fluid.

Cabin

When you get an E55 with high specs you can expect that the cabin will have a ton of gadgets. You have to take note that these systems will be expensive to fix.

Chassis

The brand speaks for itself through the years and it has been known to produce tough chassis with no weak joints or bushes.

Engine

The powerplant of the E55 is hand-built and you will be able to see the names of the persons who assembled it.

Bodystyle

You only have an option between a saloon or an estate. The wagon is easier to put again onto the market later, and still you can give it a good price.

Wheels and tires

Every corner will cost you about £200. We advise that you avoid the aftermarket rims since an original wheel set on the car that is chip-free will give a hint of a careful owner who is careful with parking or spent some sum to take care of the car.

Rolls Royce plans to produce greener luxury vehicles; sales jump by 171%

2011-06-07T00:24:00.000-07:00

The gas consumption of the Rolls Royce Phantom is pegged at 15 miles for every gallon and these numbers just do not mix if you want to be a greener car owner with lesser carbon foot prints. Well this may actually change as the luxury carmaker plans to produce a rechargeable electric limousine. Yes. With nada, zilch, zero emissions.

Rumors have been going around in the past few years that Rolls Royce is working on an electric model and recently, the car manufacturer revealed plans of an experimental electic limo.

The super green Rolls Royce might just roll out in time for the upcoming Olympics next year where BMW is set to showcase its green technologies to the whole world. The sporting event is the perfect marketing venue for the Rolls Royce electric car which may be used to bring the thousands of VIPs to the different venues.

Insiders confirm that they are considering the plan but clarify that Rolls Royce is looking at all options and is not rushing things just to produce a green vehicle for the brand. The parent company, BMW has already produced the MINI-E that can be recharged using the mains.

Rolls Royce had a jump of 171% in terms of sales in 2010. The big leap is attributed to female buyers getting the smaller Ghost models. The United States is still Rolls Royce’s biggest market followed closely by China and the United Kingdom.

The Need For An Injury Lawyer

2011-05-02T10:02:00.000-07:00

There are many reasons why you need an injury lawyer. Panama City Beach residents will tell you how important a good attorney is. He/she not only handles your case properly but they also help you relax and recover from the injuries sustained. As a victim you need to find an injury lawyer, and you need to find one quick. There are a few ways by which you can pick out the right candidate. Take your time to review the services of a few attorneys before you select one. This way you can choose the lawyer who offers you the best services.

Taking advice from close friends and relatives is a good way of locating a credible lawyer. All you need to do is call them up and ask them whether they know of any injury attorneys. A close family friend will always give you all the information (whether good or bad) you need. You can make a well informed decision on the basis of all the facts you receive. The right attorney can get you the compensation you deserve and many of them are known to fight aggressively for a positive result. Finding a legal representative who has considerable experience in the sphere of injury cases should be your top priority.

The World Wide Web is another platform for attorneys to inform prospective clients about their services. A simple search will hand you a long list of lawyers who are eager to take up your case. However, you need to be wary of the ones that boast of their legal acumen. Take your time to conduct some basic research by reading the official website of an attorney. This way you can come to a conclusion about his/her credibility. A counsel who offers free consultations and who can be reached on any day of the week is a good example of a reliable lawyer.

Many people have different ways of selecting an injury lawyer. Panama City Beach is home to some good attorneys who have built up a solid reputation for themselves in and around the city. If you are a victim of someone else's carelessness then you should most certainly file for compensation. The unnecessary physical and financial hardship cannot be erased but it can certainly be compensated for. Only a trustworthy injury attorney can help you get what you deserve. Justice will be yours once you find the right lawyer.

Aspects to consider for selecting child support attorney California

2011-05-02T10:01:00.000-07:00

A very emotional as well as financial loss experience of the parents would be when they have to fight for the custody of the child. Every one that is in this situation would like to do out of court settlement but then there are majority of the parents that will have to go through the court procedures. Therefore those that are not lucky and will have to go to court will have to take the help of child support attorney California. In case you are one among them and you will have to check out some of the factors while selecting child attorney California.

You will actually be going through the bad time of divorce and would surely like to win the custody of the child and so it is important that you look for the attorney that is experienced and good. The main reason behind this is that the experienced attorney would be the one that has fought many such cases and so know to tackle them all. This can take the case on the winning path. You will require to take the hold of attorney that specializes and have experience is child support field because in case you hire the one that is expert in criminal law will not be able to help you well in the child support.

It is very important that you look for the child support attorney California that has wide knowledge with the laws that are related to child support. It is important that the attorney you hire has the knowledge regarding the particular case of law and also on laws as well as formalities related to it. The main reason behind this sit hat there are innumerable aspects involved in winning child support cases. There are two main things that you need to pay attention to while looking for child California that is wide experience as well as working knowledge.

At the time of searching for child support attorney California it is important that you research well. This is because if you research well you will be able to get the right attorney for your needs. One of the best places to search and research on attorney would be online. This is because there have been many child attorney California that have their websites over internet. So get started with researching and getting the right attorney with the right deals. Best source to research al these is through online World Wide Web.

Does the landlord have any legal rights over the tenant in California?

2011-03-08T03:23:00.000-08:00

Landlords usually have the same power over the tenants in all the states of the USA and hardly there is something that the landlord cannot enjoy over his tenant in any other state. All the states have equal landlord rights and no state is over any other state in that matter.

California is one of the most exotic and modern places in the world to live and it is not easy to purchase homes in California easily. There are some places in California which are one of the most expensive places in the world to live. The value of property is much more in California as compared to other states and cities like Los Angeles is one of the most expensive places in the world to live.

If you do not have enough cash to buy property in California then you can take the place on rental basis or buy off the place by taking mortgage from the bank. You should be aware that taking mortgage from a bank can be risky too because incase if you cannot pay the mortgage regularly then the bank will take action against you and will take the property from you.

Other than that you can take any property you like on rental basis and that depends on the owner of the place if he wishes to give the property on rental basis. If you are taking the property on rental basis then there are some rights of the landlord over you.

There will be a written agreement between you and the tenant and there will be legal clauses and terms that will settle the agreement and these terms have to be followed by both the landlord and the tenant.

There are some clauses which favor the tenant such as receiving the rent on particular date of the months and the payment should not take more time than the given period. If you are not able to pay the rent on the deadline then you can talk and convince your landlord to give you some extra time to pay the rent.

Your landlord is limited to some of his rights too and some of them are that your landlord cannot make you leave forcefully until he has informed you to leave the place in advance time. Usually a landlord has to inform the tenants a month before to leave the place so that the tenant can find another place in the time period. Finding property on rent is not an easy task in California because most of the places are usually taken and some places have much higher rents that many people cannot afford.

If the tenant pays the rent after the deadline then you can charge them extra five to fifteen percent of the amount for the late payment. If the tenant has done any property damage then he is liable to fix the damage on his own expense.

Landlords also enjoys the legal power to evict the tenants who are not leaving.

Principles of Public International Law

2011-02-21T23:19:00.001-08:00

Principles of Public International Law has been shaping the study and application of international law for over 40 years. Written by a world-renowned expert, this book was the first to bring human rights into the mainstream of international law.

This seventh edition, fully updated since 2003, continues to provide the balance, clarity and expertise expected by Brownlie readers. The depth of knowledge displayed by the author, along with the detailed referencing and logical structure, make this title an indispensible resource for students, scholars and practitioners working in or studying international law.

* The most well established and authoritative textbook on international law on the market - readers know that they will be accessing unequalled expertise and knowledge in this book

* Gives readers a carefully balanced perspective on international issues from the point of view of someone who has had substantial experience as Counsel and Advocate in international tribunals and also as Arbitrator. The book has appeared in local language editions in countries including China, Japan, Korea, Portugal and Russia.

* Superb coverage of jurisprudence and historical materials allowing readers to follow and gain a deeper understanding of the development of international law, which is essential to its comprehension

* Includes rigorously detailed references and a particularly thorough and comprehensive index, making it the ideal reference text or stand alone resource

LLM Maritime Law

2011-02-01T23:20:00.000-08:00

Maritime law is a fascinating blend of commercial law and environmental law, of private law and public law, of national law and international law. Characters include salvors and scuttlers, pirates and pilots, treasure hunters and tug owners. Maritime law unfolds against the most dramatic of backdrops, such as war and invasion, storms and pollution disasters. It addresses issues as diverse as the liability of carriers of goods to the exploitation of fish stocks, the legal response to stowaways to the insurance response to smuggling.

Public International Law Articles

2011-01-21T23:20:00.000-08:00

Blackstone Chambers is experienced in advising and representing governments, corporate bodies and individual litigants on international disputes, constitutional affairs and human rights issues before a range of international courts. Barristers have particular experience in international boundary disputes, state and diplomatic immunity and international protection of human rights. They appear regularly before the International Court of Justice, international arbitration tribunals (for example ICSID, the International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes) and before domestic courts in cases involving issues of public international law.

Chambers’ expertise in this area is anchored in individuals who have a strong academic background in public international law, for example Maurice Mendelson QC (Chair of International Law, UCL from 1987-2001) and Guy Goodwin-Gill (Senior Research Fellow at All Souls College, Oxford, and Professor of International Refugee Law at Oxford University from 1998-2002).

Democratic Governance and International Law

2011-01-01T23:25:00.000-08:00

Democratic Governance and International Law (Cambridge University Press ) 2000 Editor

From Amazon.com: "This book considers how the post-Cold War democratic revolution has affected international law. Traditionally, international law said little about the way in which governments were chosen. In the 1990s, however, international law has been deployed to encourage transitions to democracy, and to justify the armed expulsion of military juntas that overthrow elected regimes. In this volume, leading international legal scholars assess this change in international law and ask whether a commitment to democracy is consistent with the structure and rules of the international legal system."

ECSC Graduated 576 Civil Servants of Public Internationl Law

2010-09-21T23:24:00.000-07:00

The Ethiopian Civil Service College graduated 576 students in nine fields of study with bachelor and masters degrees on July 17, 2010. The college graduated 438 students in post graduate programs and 138 students in undergraduate programs. The programs include, among others, Urban Management, International Law, Comparative Public Law and Good Governance, Public Financial Management, Urban Engineering, Development Management.
Opening the graduation ceremony, Dr. Haile-Michael Abera, President of the Ethiopian Civil Service College underscores that performance capacity building is one of the key government policies which are designed to promote peace, democracy and good governance and secure development in the country. Our Performance capacity building objective is securing all sided development and successfully implementing policies, strategies and programs which benefit the people at large said, Dr. Haile-Michael.

In achieving this objective, said Dr. Haile Michael, the entire peoples of Ethiopia including the private sector are exerting concerted efforts, and remarkable achievements are being registered as a result. He also added that with respect to capacity building, a lot of reform works which build the capacity of the civil service in knowledge, skills, attitude, performance and organization are underway.
Dr. Haile Michael added to support these efforts, the College has done a lot in offering undergraduate and postgraduate programs, delivering short term trainings, conducting researches and giving consultancy services which focuses on the civil service sector and important for the development of peace, democracy and good governance in the country.
The president further said for the past four years the college carried out the task of assisting the federal ministries and agencies and regional governments in their effort to study and implement business process reengineering activities and balanced scorecard.

Dr. Haile-michael emphasized along with the teaching and learning business, the college has been continuously building its internal capacity and is now able to offer 13 undergraduate and post graduate programs through the six institutes. The number of students reaches more than 9,000 in regular, evening and distance sessions and 260 PhD and masters holder lecturers and consultants are giving their services. Including today’s graduates, the College graduated 5506 civil servants in bachelor degrees, 1740 in master degrees, and 8000 in regular diploma and distance education, Dr. Haile-michael said.
Besides the College offered short term trainings in identified areas which are crucial to enhance the capacity of the civil service and reform package via face to face, E-learning and video conference. So far 20,000 trainees from federal, regional and non-governmental organizations participated
Finally Dr. Haile-Michael stated that the college is now actively involved in expanding its programs in collaboration with inland and external organizations to benefit the public. Accordingly the college opened Public Procurement and Asset Management Department for the purpose of building the capacities of the public service sector in managing and auditing the public assets and procurements. Additionally the College is on the way to open Leadership Institute in the coming year.

According to the president the College signed Memorandum of Understanding with Kehl University, in Germany to open Public Policy Studies Centre in masters degree and conduct research work in the area. The College is also designing a project in collaboration with Toronto University, Canada to offer masters program in Ethics, Anti Corruption and Good Governance.
Later graduates of the year took their degrees from the College President and Four students, two of them are female, awarded gold medals.
Finally, graduates conducted a swearing of an oath to serve the public with honesty, integrity and provide quality, efficient and effective service devoid of corruption and other malpractices.

International Law and Politics

2010-06-21T23:23:00.000-07:00

Professor Hilary Charlesworth
Professor of International Law and Director of the Centre for International and Public Law in the Faculty of Law, ANU

“Is the War on Terror Compatible with Human Rights?: An International Law Perspective” [View paper (PDF, 180KB)]

Abstract: The paper will consider the particular challenges raised for the international human rights system by the 'war on terror' declared in the wake of the events of 11 September 2001. Taking an international focus, it will argue that a human rights framework is critical for the success of such an enterprise and will examine the practical and legal implications of acting otherwise.

Bio: Hilary Charlesworth is Professor and Director of the Centre for International and Public Law at the Australian National University. She was educated at the University of Melbourne and Harvard Law School. She has taught at the universities of Melbourne and Adelaide and has been a visiting professor at Washington & Lee School of Law, Harvard Law School and the Global Law Faculty at New York University.

Working for international students at UiO

2009-12-21T23:27:00.000-08:00

President: Sven Thorstensen

"My name is Sven Rudolf Thorstensen. I am an Austrian lawyer doing his a master of international public law here in Norway. The program will last one year. The reason why I chose Norway as destination is that my father is Norwegian. Therefore I have his Norwegian name. Norway is a beautiful country. My aim is to provide for every international student a beautiful experience here in Norway. This is why we are here. We will help you for every problem."

Peace Education

2009-02-21T23:21:00.000-08:00

In the following extract, Ernst-Otto Czempiel explains the effect of international law as a peace strategy, while at the same time highlighting the limitations of this strategy, which is dependent on consensus between the states. One of the most significant achievements of international law is the codification of human rights.

"Given that peace - and its opposite, war - represent interaction, it follows both in historical and logical terms that strategies for peace should seek to influence directly these relationships. (...) Two large and important attempts in this direction [exist] (...): international law and the concept of international organization. By 1625 at the very latest, following the publication of Hugo Grotius' „three books on the lawfulness of war and peace“, international law has seen the right to peace as one of its characteristics. This understanding, however, has come more and more to the fore as international law has developed. International law seeks to influence interaction between states by codifying their rules. (...)

In theory, the relationship between pace and international law can be easily defined. Jurisdiction is the highest and most peaceful form of resolving conflict, because it links non-violence and justice to each other. To this end, jurisdiction is justifiably controlled by the opposing side of the conflict resolution continuum.

Codifying the law does not mean creating it. And it because of this that international law is often accused of describing and preserving dissatisfaction in its current state. This is only correct to a certain extent and plausible from a retrospective position. Indeed, it would have made little sense to have postulated nothing but ideals. Given that there is no law-making and law-sanctioning authority in the international system, international law is only able to put down in words the things that the states that participate in the system are prepared to accept as being binding. Putting progress down in writing represents (...) another advancement.

But has international law failed to have its own direct influence on the peace process? Well, for one, it has introduced into international politics a way of dealing with conflict through arbitration and judgment and with the permanent court of arbitration 1899, the permanent international court of justice 1920 and the ICJ set up authorities for this purpose.

Secondly, international law has also developed approaches for peacefully changing unjust situations, albeit only by introducing a small number of rules into the statute of the League of Nations and the United Nations . And, thirdly, it has also paved the way for the further development of international law by developing new legal norms that are far ahead of the current circumstances and current state of awareness. This achievement mostly concerns the period following the Second World War in connection with the United Nations. It is, of course, also possible to argue that the first two were achieved by nation states, with assistance from international law, which is personified by political science. The third of these achievements can be attributed exclusively to international law.

Apart from that, political interests have also played their part in the further development of international law: for instance European pacifism during the 19th century, which played a major role in driving forward the establishment of the international courts of arbitration and courts of justice; and the Third World, which introduced the right to development into international law. The term international law, then, is used here as a shorthand expression to encompass a number of players: states, the science of international law and interest groups. These different players are integrated in seeking to limit and eradicate the use of force in the international system using a legal process to rule over interaction between states. (...)

The most significant aspect of international law lies in codifying the individual stages associated with the peace process. While Grotius (1584-1645) is regarded as the founder of modern international law, the Dominican de Vitoria was almost 100 years ahead of him as the creator of the first comprehensive codification of the existing laws surrounding peace and war, followed only a little later by the Spanish Jesuit Suarez (1548-1617). It was these three, but especially Grotius, who were responsible for the international law of modern times by making it to a system of regularity for intergovernmental relationships between the developing territorial states based on natural law. (...)

Regularity is the central term on which international law during modern history has been founded. While it didn't' do away with war, it did manage to „monitor“ it (Carl Schmitt). This was certainly of benefit to peace as non-war. By limiting and creating order to war, the horrors, which would have been caused by the unrestricted use of force, were reduced. War became a recognized political means, which could be implemented in certain circumstances and, therefore, lead to success. Its use was codified by classic international law, which remained valid until the First World War. It didn't contain peace strategies in the true sense, but rather served in regulating the use of war. To this end, it reflected the interests of the territorial state and absolutism, whose aims were more to do with capturing land and populations than bringing about their destruction.

This involved the use violent and non-violent methods. The international law of the Modern History period developed negotiation (colloquium), agreement (compromissum) and lots (lors). Of these means, agreement or rather compromise was the most important. It's important, however, not to attach too much weight to its former significance in terms of peace strategy. Indeed, if reaching a non-violent agreement was not possible, war was always available as an acceptable alternative.

Its position as „ultima ratio regis“ was undisputed in the ius publicum europaeum. The states and the people who lived in them were regarded as the private property of the sovereigns, whose relationship between each other was regulated by international law. The sovereign did not embody the state, they formed it - as was famously expressed by Ludwig XIV.

This means, then, that international law was firmly designed and intended as a strategy. International relations during the development of Modern History, in as far as they were politically relevant, were carried out between the sovereigns. Society was affected, but only in a selective way. Even when war did break out, it only affected small and limited parts of the country rather than its entirety. And anyway, the developing exchangeable economic relationships apart, there was hardly any interaction between the different parts of society worth mentioning. Indeed, horses were the fastest mode of transport and communication up until the 19th century. This also served in limiting the extent to which Absolutist power could be exercised; it did however serve in mediatising its subjects entirely in terms of the political interaction in the system. Only against this ruler-sociological background was it possible to place war and peace on an equal footing in the political and legal consciousness of Modern History.

Indeed, even the French Revolution, which replaced sovereignty of the king with sovereignty of the people, did not put an instant end to this situation. This new form of sovereignty did not abolish the mediatazation of the individual and even served in strengthening the foreign affairs of the political systems. These systems represented the state's interests vis-à-vis other states and demanded subordination below the rulers in return for security. The difference now was that these systems had to be functionally justified as a consequence of sovereignty of the people. The assent of the individual to a subject of politics, which was brought about by the French Revolution, resulted in an increasing demand for people's existence to be preserved. At first these demands were only raised in the special circumstances of war, when the protection and claim of the state were released to an equal extent; and it was for this reason that ius in bello was expanded. During the 19th century, however, this demand spread to encompass the entire scope of politics. And it was this demand that did away with the equal importance of war and peace, that made peace the primary desired state of international politics and, finally, de-legitimized the use of violence in the international system.

This process of democratization, which was triggered by the French Revolution, which slowly gathered pace during the 19th century, which accelerated during the 20th century and which still has a long way to go, has been significantly reflected in the development of international law. The Declaration Respecting Maritime Law in Paris in 1856 expanded the ius in bello and at the same time represented the birth of humanitarian international law. For the very first time it was becoming apparent - and this was also reflected subsequently in the first Geneva Convention in 1864 and especially in the Hague Agreement about the Regulation of Land War 1907 - that the individual had elementary rights which should not be mediatized and had to be respected by the state. (...)

The evolvement of the pacifist movement in the 19th century, which accompanied democratization, led to more and more vigorous demands for war to be abandoned and replaced with mediation as a peaceful means. While it might not have been triggered by this movement, the first institutionalized procedure for achieving a non-violent resolution to conflict at the end of the 19th century in the form of the court of arbitration was certainly brought about by it. Then, at the end of the First World War, the decisive if incomplete political measures were taken to limit considerably the "freedom to declare war". A peaceful arbitration process and a waiting period was slotted in ahead of war.

This represented the beginning of the end for the classic international law phase. From now on war and peace were no longer equal partners in the international system; international law now called for "strict guidelines" to be put in place that are "appropriate" for effectively preserving peace between the peoples“ (Article 11). The development of international law was then pushed further forwards with the draft of the Geneva Protocol in 1924 and the Kellogg Pact in 1928, which included a clause whereby the states agreed to forgo war as an instrument of national politics. This pact was more important in principle than it was practically or politically, particularly since it gave up the link made in the Geneva Protocol between non-aggression and the peaceful resolution of conflicts. Nonetheless, it did document a change in sentiment and signalled the end of the ius ad bellum.

The sense of awareness brought about by the Second World War resulted in the United States leading the way to the United Nations Charta which, in art. 2 not only prohibited war but also the use of military aggression, which were replaced by a set of rules for reaching agreement laid out in chapters VI and VII. The Charta is justifiably referred to as "groundbreaking" in terms of international law. It went largely unnoticed, however, that in as successful as the Charta was in tuning the corner it also turned its back on the specific legal-based methods of solving conflict in the form of the international court of justice and arbitration and moved towards a political mechanism for reaching agreement, like the one made available to the Security Council. Therefore, the arrangements in place for resolving conflict under the United Nation's Charta should be seen in the context of international organization and not in the context of international law.

The contribution made by international law towards strategies for peace, however, should not be seen just in terms of codifying the agreements made by nation states. Although this function is important enough, it also serves in making sure that that which has been achieved in terms of resolving conflicts cannot be avoided or forgotten. The Charta of the United Nations, for instance, discriminates against any attempt to reintroduce international use of aggression through the backdoor of a „just cause“ such as for a fight for national independence, which would mean returning to the outdated concept of bellum iustum.

It should also be pointed out that international law has done more than just codify the agreements between nation states, that is, the consensus between them. It also sought to establish institutions for dealing with international conflicts, which were similar or analogous to domestic means of jurisdiction. At the two Congresses of Europe at The Hague during the period of the League of Nations and at the beginning of the United Nations, these institutions were able to attract a great deal of attention, but have since been rather neglected. (...)

A good example of the way in which international law has continued to develop through the formulation of new principles and norms, as well as the contribution made to this process by political science, is particularly well illustrated by the attempts made to anchor human rights into law on an international scale. Human rights were mentioned in the statue of the United Nations: in its preamble in article 1, par. 3, and also in article 13 of the Charta. They were also generally announced by the United Nations on the 10th of December 1948 in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. But human rights would have to wait until 1976 before they were made binding in international law, as the two „human rights pacts“ on civil and political rights and on economic and social rights came into force. As far as the signatories to these conventions were concerned, human rights became binding in law, even though it was left up to them to decide whether to adhere to the convention or not.

The limitations resulting from this, then, are considerable, especially in terms of implementing practical human rights observance measures. Yet for all this, the progress made by this convention is considerable. It documents the existence of a general set of rights that breaks through the vertical structure of the international system and puts the sovereignty of the state into perspective. It has made the individual the subject of policy with genuine rights and requirements that may not be encroached upon by the state.

Human rights make it clear that basic political interests exist which transcend all cultures and which are common to everyone in the world. That these rights are now demanding their place in the structure of world politics clearly demonstrates a new political human awakening and that at the very least a fundamental political standard has been established that is seeking recognition on a worldwide scale. To have put these into words and to have established them as an international norm represents the most significant achievement of international law and the political scientists involved. Changing political norms serves in changing awareness and influences, albeit indirectly and over the long-term, behavior; to this end, then, they make a contribution to peace.

On the other hand, however, it's important not to overestimate the codification of international law and its further development in functional terms. The most important reasons for this have already been mentioned. International law is and remains a consensus right, which depends on being accepted by all participating states. Its contribution to peace can only be as large as the members of the system will allow. To this end, it is up to states as to whether and to what degree international law can promote peace."