Skripsi

A SYNTACTIC STUDY ON ADVERBIAL CLAUSE FOUND IN SHORT STORIES OF C’N S MAGAZINE

2009-10-15T07:41:00.000-07:00

ABSTRACT

This study discusses adverbial clause found in short stories of C’n S magazine published in 2007-2009. This paper aims at describing the types of adverbial clause, identifying the patterns of adverbial clause and describing which types and patterns of adverbial clause are commonly used.

This study belongs to qualitative research and it applies syntactic approach to identify and analyze the data. In collecting the data, the writer uses observation method and noting technique as its advanced technique. Then, the writer employs structural analysis method and distributional method to analyze the data of adverbial clause which are taken from short stories of C’n S magazine published in 2007-2009.

The result of this study shows that there are nine types and nine patterns of adverbial clause found in short stories of C’n S magazine published in 2007-2009. Those types are adverbial clause of time, place, contrast, cause, result, purpose, condition, manner, and degree, while those patterns are SV, SVC, SVO, SVA, SVOA, SVCA, SVOO, SVOC, and SVAA. From 162 data analyzed, the most frequent types of adverbial clause are headed by adverbial clause of time (93 or 57.40%), pursued by condition (21 or 13%), cause (18 or 11.11%), result (9 or 5.55%), then contrast and manner (6 or 3.70%), degree (5 or 3.08%), purpose (3 or 1.85), and place (1 or 0.61%), whereas the most frequent patterns of adverbial clause is started by SVO (44 or 27.16%), followed by SVOA (29 or 17.9%), SV (27 or 16.66%), SVC (22 or 13.58%), SVA (21 or 13%), SVCA (11 or 6.79%), then SVAA (4 or 2.45%), SVOC (3 or 1.85%) and the lowest frequency is SVOO (1 or 0.61%). Therefore, the most frequent occurrence of the usage of the types is adverbial clause of time and the highest frequency of the clause pattern is SVO.

THE ANALYSIS OF SPEECH ACTS IN EDWARD SCISSORHANDS FILM SCRIPT: A PRAGMATIC STUDY

2009-10-05T07:07:00.000-07:00

THE ANALYSIS OF SPEECH ACTS IN EDWARD SCISSORHANDS FILM SCRIPT: A PRAGMATIC STUDY

ABSTRACT

The title of this research is The Analysis of Speech Acts in Edward Scissorhands Film Script: A Pragmatic Study. The aim of this research is describing illocutionary acts and perlocutionary acts in term of forms, meanings and functions found in Edward Scissorhands film script.

This research uses pragmatic study. The objects of this research are illocutionary acts and perlocutionary acts uttered by the characters in Edward Scissorhands film script. The script of Edward Scissorhands film is the data source of this research. In collecting the data, the writer uses observation method. After being collected, the data are classified according to particular classification that is illocutionary and perlocutionary acts. Then the writer notes the data on data card in the form of tables.

The result of this research is divided into two parts that are illocutionary acts and perlocutionary acts. The analysis of Illocutionary acts is the first part, the writer finds: 1) The form of illocutionary acts. They are imperative with frequency of 91, declarative with frequency of 59, and interrogative with frequency of 11. 2) The function of illocutionary acts. They are 9 frequencies of assertive, 126 frequencies of directives, 8 frequencies of commissives, 17 frequencies of expressive, and 1 frequency of declaration. 3) The meaning of illocutionary acts. They are 2 data of advising, 2 data of informing, 2 data of opine, 53 data of command, 2 data of begging, 54 data of requesting, 12 data of promising, 8 data of expressive, 9 data of thanking, 1 data of greeting, 3 data of apology, 5 features of asserting, 1 data of suggesting, 1 data of offering, 1 data of warning, 1 data of forbid, 1 data of threaten, 1 data of announcing. Then the second part is perlocutionary acts. In this part the writer finds; 1) The forms of perlocutionary acts are imperative with 83 frequencies, declarative with 27 frequencies and interrogative with 8 frequencies. 2) The function of perlocutionary: 5 data of bringing hearer to learn that, 4 data of persuading, 2 data of encouraging, 2 data of frightening, 7 data of amuse, 96 data of getting hearer to do and 2 data of relieve tension.3) The meaning of perlocutionary acts depends on hearer response, such as refuse, angry, happy, etc.

LANGUAGE STYLE USED IN THE DIALOGUE AMONG THE CHARACTERS IN TITANIC MOVIE: SOSIOLINGUISTIC STUDY

2009-10-05T06:52:00.000-07:00

LANGUAGE STYLE USED IN THE DIALOGUE AMONG THE CHARACTERS IN TITANIC MOVIE: SOSIOLINGUISTIC STUDY

ABSTRACT

This research entitled Language Style Used in the Dialogue among the Characters in Titanic Movie: Sociolinguistic Study is intended to find out the levels of formality’s language in Titanic Movie. The writer’s aims are a) to describe the level of formality in Titanic Movie and b) to describe which level types are frequently used in Titanic Movie.

This is a descriptive qualitative research. The researcher analyzes descriptive data in a written form. The technique that is used in collecting data is noting technique. To analyze the data the writer uses referential method by Sudaryanto and contextual method by Poedjosudarmo. The writer uses Martin Joos theory to analyze the level of formality namely; Frozen Style, Formal Style, Consultative Style, Casual Style and Intimate Style.

The result of this research shows that the writer can find levels of formality in Titanic Movie. All of the levels can be found in this movie. They are Frozen Style (5.15%), Formal Style (38.14%), Consultative Style (27.84%), Casual Style (17.53 %) and Intimate Style (11.34%). The highest frequency of the level of formality is formal language. It is assume that in 1912 is the glory of United Kingdom that mostly the people usually use formal language to speak to others. The passengers in this ship mostly come from England that commonly uses formal language. So many characters in Titanic Movie use formal style to make conversation with other people who have higher position than she/he.

THE STUDY OF ASSERTIVE UTTERANCES FOR GIVING MESSAGES USED IN KANG GURU MAGAZINE

2009-10-05T06:42:00.000-07:00

THE STUDY OF ASSERTIVE UTTERANCES FOR GIVING MESSAGES USED IN KANG GURU MAGAZINE

ABSTRACT

This research entitled “The Study of Assertive Utterances for Giving Messages Used in Kang guru Magazine” is intended to describe the forms of assertive utterances for giving messages, to describe the kinds of assertive utterances for giving messages, and to describe the factors that influence the use of assertive utterances for giving messages taken from Kang Guru Magazine.

To obtain the data of the research, the writer uses descriptive qualitative method. The object of the research includes messages of assertive utterances that are taken from Kang Guru Magazine in the publication March 2007 – December 2008. She picks out 7 editions of Kang Guru Magazine. The writer collects the data of assertive utterances from Kang Guru Magazine as data source of this research. The technique that is used in collecting the data is noting technique. The analysis of this data is descriptive analysis. This analysis is used to analyze the sentences.

The result of this study shows the form of assertive utterances which consists of two forms. The forms are indirect and direct assertive. The kind of assertive utterances can be classified into five types, namely; stating, reporting, complaining, suggesting, and boasting. There are three factors which influence the people to use an assertive utterance, such as; depression, frustration, anxiety.

AN ERROR ANALYSIS ON DEPENDENT CLAUSES MADE BY THE FOURTH SEMESTER STUDENTS OF ENGLISH EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM OF AHMAD DAHLAN UNIVERSITY

2009-10-05T06:26:00.000-07:00

AN ERROR ANALYSIS ON DEPENDENT CLAUSES MADE BY THE FOURTH SEMESTER STUDENTS OF ENGLISH EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM OF AHMAD DAHLAN UNIVERSITY

ABSTRACT

This thesis is a research report about error analysis on dependent clauses made by the fourth semester students of English Education Study Program of Ahmad Dahlan University.The objectives are to identify and to describe the kinds of grammatical errors and to find the causes or sources of those errors.

The population of this study consists of 408 students of the fourth semester students of English education study Program of ahmad Dahlan University. The sampling used is proportioate random sampling technique. The sample is 25 % of populatio. To collect the data needed, the researcher analyzed the mid- examination papers of the writing subject from some lecturers. The writer uses descriptive qualitative method to anlyze the data.

Some important findings are reported as follows: from the data collected, the total sentences are 1500 sentences. There are 680 dependent clauses or 45. 333 % dependent clauses from the total of sentences. In the dependent clauses, there are 100 dependent clauses errors or 14, 705 % of the total number of dependent clauses, while the total of correct dependent clause is 580 or 85. 294 % of the total number of dependent clauses.The errors are described into the errors in using relative pronoun, the errors in using connectors, and the errors in subject- verb agreement. Those errors are distributed into addition, omission, and missformation. The addition happens because the students add the items which should not appear in a well- formed utterence. The omission is caused by the students who omit the items that must appear in a well- formed utterence. Misformation is caused by the use of the wrong form of the morpheme or structure. The causes or sources of errors are interlingual transfer (the interference of mother tongue) and intralingual transfer (over- generalization and ignorance of rule restrictions). It is caused by interlingual transfer because the students are still influenced by their first language, while intralingual transfer is caused by the complexity of the role of English sentence itself. Intalingual transfer causes over- generalization because the students create a deviant structure on the basis of his experience of other structures in the target language. It also causes ignorance of role restrictions because the students fail the restrictions or existing structures, that is, the application of the rules to context where they do not apply.

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

2009-10-05T05:35:00.000-07:00

This is chapter 1 of the research report entitled "A STUDY ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN OBSTRUENT AND RESONANT CONSONANTS IN ENGLISH SYLLABLE STRUCTURES. In this chapter, the writer divides the discussion into six sections. They are
the background of the study, identification of the problems, limitation of the
problem, formulation of the problems, objectives of the problem, and
significances of the study.

A." Background of the Study
Humans need to communicate with other to maintain their life. Since
communication is important in human life, there appears a language as a
means of communication. Language is used by human to convey, to obtain, to
ask and to give information. Language can be defined as a the unitary system
of linguistic communication which subsumes a number of mutually
intelligible varieties (Ronald Wardaugh, 1986:29) Language role as the way of
human shows its existence and attributes and provides way of communication
with the other in the community.

As everybody knows every language has its own characteristics both in
spoken and written usage. Each of the characteristics has great influence on
the interpretation of every utterance in a language. Every language also has its
own system including its grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. For each
speaker to know the language systems are very important since it takes great
influence toward the meaning of language used. In the other words, to know

the language well, even to master the language, one must learn all the
language aspects both in spoken and written usage.
Since all language is spoken, it has a close relationship toward
language sounds. The sound of language is including the sound system and the
sound pattern of language itself. Consequently language sounds produce in
some language is varied. Therefore, pronunciation must be a great problem for
the learner to learn a new language for example the Indonesian who learns
English as a second and foreign language.

English as well as other language in the world has its own structure.
English also has its own sound system including segmental and
suprasegmental sounds. Every language including English has its own feature
on the phonotactic that is the way of arranging phonemes to form
phonological units. Phonemes as the smallest distinctive unit (of sound) of al
language, takes very important role to the variation of language meaning.
According to Ladefoged (1982: 24) phonemes are the abstract units that form
the basis writing down a language systematically and unambiguously.
The variation of language produced by each language is influenced by
some factors including the phonological and phonotactic system or rule of that
language itself. Thus since the language are spoken, there must be phonetic
and phonology.

Through phonology one can describe the system and pattern of speech
sound in a language since it is concerned with the abstract or mental aspect of
the sound in language rather than the actual physical articulation of speech
sound. According to Ramelan (1985:3) phonology is the study of phones or
speech sounds, while grammar is the study of meaningful unit of sounds and
their arrangement into longer utterances. Meanwhile phonetic is concerned
with the physical properties of speech sound, phonology deals with the
abstract or psychological level of sounds, the level of which speech sounds are
in our mind. Different elements in sound system between the native and the
foreign language may be several kinds. One of them is the existence of a given
sound in their letter, which is not found in his language.

The phonological system of a language includes various unit plus
patterns, which are used to combine the unit into larger units. The units of
phonological system including, features, segments (sounds), syllables and
words. Generally, language sound produced by human being can be divided
into two groups namely vowels and consonants. However in English there are
also diphthongs. English has 12 vowels, 9 diphthongs, and 24 consonants.
From those language sounds, it can be form a language utterance, such as
words, phrases, and sentences. Similarly, in the phonological system,
consonants and vowels correspond to make up the bigger unit called syllable.

A syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of the speech
sounds. It is a rhythmic unit of speech, which exists to make the speech stream
easier for the human mind to process. As a phonological system in general,
syllable also has its structure. It means that syllable made up under any pattern
and restriction. Syllable is typically made up by some element including the
essential part namely nucleus and the accompanying part namely onset and coda. The nucleus is normally a vowel while the onset and coda is normally consonant or consonant cluster. Commonly, a complete syllable simply described as CVC structure that is the initial C is the onset, V is the nucleus and the final C is the coda.

In syllable, we sometimes find a number of consonant that occur together. Those consonant are usually called consonant cluster. Just as a single consonant, consonant cluster may take any position in a syllable. They usually take the onset position and the coda position. It means that consonant cluster is accompanying the nucleus that becomes the core of the syllable. From a number of consonants in English, consonants are generally divided into two groups namely obstruent and resonant consonant. As consonant in general, obstruent and resonant consonant also has it role in the syllable structure.

They may take the onset position that is preceding the nucleus (vowel or the other sonorous element). They may also take the coda position that is following the nucleus. In order to take the onset or coda position, both obstruent and resonant may appear in the form of a single or in a cluster. However it is not easy to make up consonant cluster since there must be some restriction. Based on that phenomena, the researcher is attracted to studying those phenomena deeply, especially toward the relationship between each sound that is consonant in a syllable structures.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

2009-06-21T12:37:00.000-07:00

This is the CHAPTER IV (BIBLIOGRAPHY) of the research entitled " A Comparative Study between Mandarin and English Phonological System.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Chaer, Abdul. 2007. Kajian Bahasa: Struktur Internal, Pemakaian, dan Pemelajaran. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta.

Echols, John M. 1996. Kamus Inggris-Indonesia. Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama.

Fries, Charles C. 1957. Linguistics Across Cultures. Michigan: University of Michigan.

Fromkin, Victoria and friends. 1988. An Introduction to Language. Australia: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston Inc.

Hyman, Larry M. 1975.2^nd Australian ed. Phonology: Theory and Analysis. United States of America: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston Inc.

Mahsun. 2006. Metode Penelitian Bahasa. Jakarta: PT. RajaGrafindo Persada.

Moleong, Lexy. 1989. Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif. Bandung: CV. Remadja Karya.

Tim Kamus Universitas Peking. 2001. Kamus Praktis Indonesia – Tionghoa dan Tionghoa-Indonesia. Jakarta: Dian Rakyat.

Wibadayulastuti. 2003. A Comparative Study on the Bangkanese Malay and the English Phonological System. Yogyakarta: Ahmad Dahlan University.

ELECTRONIC SOURCE

“Allophone”. 15 February 2008.

“Phoneme”. March 27^th, 2008.

“Phonetics: Speech Sound”. 2005.

“Phonology: sound systems of language”. 2005.

“Pinyin”. October 2006. 18 December 2006

“Pronunciation of Mandarin Chinese”. 18 December 2006. sinosplice.com/lang/pronunciation>

“Prosody (Linguistics). 22 February 2007.

“Segment”. March 2007.<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/>

“Standard English”. April 2008.

“Standard Mandarin”. June 2007.

Previous chapter :
CHAPTER IV

CHAPTER IV : CONCLUSIONS

2009-06-21T12:28:00.000-07:00

This is the CHAPTER IV (CONCLUSIONS) of the research entitled " A Comparative Study between Mandarin and English Phonological System.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Conclusions
This research analyzes the difference phonemic system between Mandarin and English. The different speech sounds (phone) between English and Mandarin are in:

1. initial sounds
a) Labial :[b], [p],
b) Alveolar: [d], [t],
c) Velar [g], [k], [h],
d) Palatal: [j], [q], [x],
e) Dental sibilant: [z], [c],
f) Retroflex: [zh], [ch],
g) Other comments on initial letters in Mandarin Chinese: [y].
2. final sounds
a) Simple one vowel
It has some difference with English in the:
1) Mandarin pinyin “e” which is pronounced [ә];
2) Mandarin pinyin “i” which is pronounced [i] or [ә];
3) Mandarin pinyin “o” which is pronounced [w] or [u];
4) Mandarin pinyin “u” which is pronounced [u] or [ü];
b) Compound final sounds (two vowels/diphongs)
1) Mandarin pinyin “iao/yao” which is pronounced /yau/;
2) Mandarin pinyin “you” which is pronounced /you/;
3) Mandarin pinyin “-ou” which is pronounced /ou/
4) Mandarin pinyin “üe” which is pronounced /üe/
5) Mandarin pinyin “ uo” which is pronounced /uo/
c) Nasal final sounds
1) Front nasal
i. Mandarin pinyin “ian” which is pronounced /iәn/
ii. Mandarin pinyin “üan” which is pronounced / üan /
iii. Mandarin pinyin “ün” which is pronounced /ün/
2) Back Nasal
i. Mandarin pinyin “eng” which is pronounced /әŋ/
ii. Mandarin pinyin “ong” which is pronounced /uŋ/

The allophonic variations of Mandarin and English phone are very different. It is known that in English phonetics, an allophone is shown in [p], [t], and [k] phones. But in Mandarin, aspiration is not an allophone because Mandarin speakers treat aspirated sound as different sound.

For Mandarin speaker, an allophone occurs in vowel [o], [a], and [u].
The most contrastive suprasegmental phoneme between Mandarin and English is tone. In Mandarin, tone produces a different meaning when a syllable is produced with a different tone contour. Besides, English uses intonation to express emphasis, contrast, emotion, or other such atmospheres.

Previous chapter :
CHAPTER III

CHAPTER III FINDING AND DISCUSSION

2009-05-28T22:54:00.000-07:00

This is the CHAPTER III (FINDING AND DISCUSSION) of the research entitled " A Comparative Study between Mandarin and English Phonological System.

CHAPTER III
FINDING AND DISCUSSION

According to theories above, the researcher explains the result of the research in this chapter. The researcher focuses on solving some problems which have been mentioned in Chapter I.

A. The Comparison Between Mandarin and English Phoneme Dealing with the Phonemic System

1. Initial Sounds

The initial sounds in Mandarin consonants are almost similar to English consonant, but, it is important to know the detail differences between them.

a) Labial

Labial is a sound made which uses one or both of lips.

1) Mandarin Pinyin “b”

Mandarin pinyin “b” is pronounced [p] with no aspiration. For example, the word bā (eight) is pronounced /pa/ with flat tone. English also has this phone like the word cap which is pronounced /kæp/. The difference between Mandarin and English is in Mandarin, the [p] is able to be placed in the initial syllable, but English does not have it, because if [p] is placed as the initial syllable, it must be pronounced aspirated [ph].

2) Mandarin pinyin “p”

Mandarin pinyin “p” is pronounced [ph]. For example, the word pa (scare, fear) is pronounced /pha/ with falling tone. English also has this phone such as the word pen which is pronounced /phen/.

3) Mandarin Pinyin “m” and “f”

Mandarin pinyin “m” and “f” are pronounced the same as English [m] and [f]. For example, the words ma (mother) and fan (rice) are pronounced /ma/ and /fan/. The examples of these phones in English are words me and fee which are pronounced /mi/ and /fi:/.

b) Alveolar

Alveolar is a sound that is formed by tip of tongue with teeth.

1) Mandarin pinyin “d”

Mandarin pinyin “d” is pronounced [t] with no aspiration. For example, the word da (big) is pronounced /ta/. English also has this phone like the word bat which is pronounced /bæt/. The difference between Mandarin and English is in Mandarin, the [t] is able to be placed in the initial syllable, but English does not have it. Because if [t] is able to be placed as the initial syllable, it must be aspirated [th].

2) Mandarin pinyin “t”

Mandarin pinyin “t” is pronounced [th]. For example, the word ta (he/she) is pronounced /tha/ with flat tone. English also has this phone such as in the word tape which is pronounced /theip/.

3) Mandarin pinyin “l” and “n”

Mandarin pinyin “l” and “n” are pronounced the same as [l] and [n] in English. For example, the words lai (come) and nan (difficult) are pronounced /lai/ and /nan/. The examples in English are the words loose and need which are pronounced /lu:s/ and /ni:d/.

c) Velar

Velar is sound which is formed with the back of the tongue close to or touching the soft part of the roof of the mouth.

1) Mandarin pinyin “g”

Mandarin pinyin “g” is pronounced [k] with no aspiration. For example, the word gan (sweet) is pronounced /kan/. English also has this phone like in word back which is pronounced /bæk/. The difference between Mandarin and English is in Mandarin, the [k] could be placed in the initial syllable, but English does not have it, because [k] which is placed in the initial position of word or syllable must be aspirated [kh].

2) Mandarin pinyin “k”

Mandarin pinyin “k” is pronounced [kh]. For example, the word kou (mouth) is pronounced /khou/. English also has this phone such as in the word cat which is pronounced /khæt/.

3) Mandarin pinyin “h”

Mandarin pinyin “h” is pronounced the same as [h] which English has. For example, the word hei (black) is pronounced /hei/. The example in English phone is in the word he which is pronounced /hi/.

d) Palatal

Palatal is sound which is formed with the back and middle part of the tongue close to or touching the roof of the mouth.

1) Mandarin pinyin “j”

Mandarin pinyin “j” is pronounced [c] with no aspiration. The example is the word jiao (sleep) which is pronounced /ciau/.

2) Mandarin pinyin “q”

Mandarin pinyin “q” is pronounced [k + c] with no aspiration. The example is the word qian which is pronounced /k+cien/. This is a special sound that Mandarin has but English does not have this phone.

3) Mandarin pinyin “x”

Mandarin pinyin “x” is pronounced [s] using the tongue body (see picture 3-a above). The example is the word xi (west) which is pronounced /si/. English does not have this phone, but it is almost similar to [s] in the word see which is pronounced /si:/.

e) Dental Sibilant

Dental Sibilant is sound which is formed with the tip of the tongue close to or touching the back of the upper front teeth.

1) Mandarin pinyin “z”

Mandarin pinyin “z” is pronounced [ts] without aspiration, but with an air pressure. It is almost similar to the “ts” in hats in English. The example is the word zi (son) which is pronounced /tsә /. In Mandarin, this is a phone, not a phoneme, because, it is a speech sound and not a stock of sound units. So, English does not have this sound as a phone.

2) Mandarin Pinyin “c”

Mandarin pinyin “c” is pronounced [tsh] with aspiration and almost similar to the "tsh" sound in "it's heavy". The example is the word can (shy) which is pronounced /tshan/. In Mandarin, this is a phone, not a phoneme, because, it is a speech sound and not a stock of sound units. So, English does not have this sound as phone.

3) Mandarin pinyin “s”

Mandarin pinyin “s” is pronounced [s] using the tongue tip (see picture 3-a above). The example is the word sì (four) which is pronounced /sә/. English has this phone. It is almost similar to [s].

f) Retroflex

Retroflex is sound which is formed with the tongue curled back so that it touches (or almost touches) the hard part of the roof of the mouth.

1) Mandarin Pinyin “zh”

In this sound, the tongue is thrown forward from the curled back position. It is pronounced [thsr] with no aspiration in English. It is almost similar to “rch” in “church”. The example is the word zhi (this) which is pronounced /thsrә /. English does not have this sound as a phone because in Mandarin this is a phone, not a phoneme. It is a speech sound and not a stock of sound units.

2) Mandarin pinyin “ch”

Mandarin pinyin “ch” is pronounced [ch] with aspiration. The example is the word che (eat) which is pronounced /chә /. This is a kind special sound that Mandarin has but English does not have this phone because there is no [c] with aspiration in English.

3) Mandarin Pinyin “sh”

Mandarin pinyin “sh” is pronounced [ ∫ ]. The example is the word shí (ten) which is pronounced / ∫ә /. English also has this kind of phone like the word she which is pronounced / ∫i /.

4) Mandarin pinyin “r”

Mandarin pinyin “r” is pronounced [r]. The example is the word ri (sun) which is pronounced /rә/. English has this phone. It is similar to [r] in the word race which is pronounced /reis/.

g) Other Comments on Initial Letters in Mandarin Chinese

1) Mandarin pinyin “w”

In Mandarin, this is a special case that the syllable "wu" is pronounced [u]. The example is the word wŭ (five) which is pronounced /u/. This case will be explained in allophone session. In general case, phone [w] is found in the word weì which is pronounced /wei/. English also has this kind of phone like the word we which is pronounced / wi /.

2) Mandarin pinyin “y”

In Mandarin, this is a special case the syllable “yi” is pronounced [i], and the syllable “yu” is pronounced [ü]. The example is the word yu (language) which is pronounced /ü/. It is similar when a native speaker of English says "yeee", then keeps the tongue exactly where it is and let the sound continue while the lip shape like saying “yuuu”.

2. Final Sounds

Final sounds in Mandarin contain some vowels. Some of them are simple final sound which contains one vowel; and compound and nasal final sounds which contain more than one vowel or nasal sounds.

a) Simple Final Sounds (One Vowel)

1) Mandarin pinyin “a”

Mandarin pinyin “a” is always pronounced [a], like the word mā (mother). It is pronounced /ma/ in high level flat tone. It is the same as [a] in the word nà (that). It is pronounced /na/ in falling tone. English also has this phone like in the word larva which is pronounced /larvә/.

2) Mandarin pinyin “e”

In Mandarin language there is no [æ]. The letter “e” is always pronounced [ә]. For example, the word dēng (lamp) is pronounced /tәng/. But in some cases pinyin “e” will be pronounced [e] when it is connected with other vowel. This case will be explained in the session of compound vowel sounds and allophone variations. English also has this phone like in the word larva which is pronounced /larvә/.

3) Mandarin pinyin “i”

Mandarin pinyin “i” is pronounced [i] as almost languages in the world have it. For example, the word nĭ (you) is pronounced [ni]. There are specific cases with vowel “i”. The first case is if the initial sounds are retroflex [ch], [zh], [sh], [r] or dental sibilant [c], [s], [z]; the “i” is pronounced [ә]. For example in the word lǎoshī (teacher) is pronounced /laushә/.

4) Mandarin pinyin “o”

Mandarin pinyin “o” is sometimes pronounced [o] when the initial phone is [w] or [u]. But it will be pronounced [u] when it is connected to several phones. This will be explained in compound final sounds and nasal final sounds.

5) Mandarin pinyin “u”

In many cases pinyin “u” is pronounced [u], but there is a special case. It is pronounced [ü] when the beginning of the syllables is pinyin “j” [c], “q” [k+c], “x” [s], or “y” [i]. For example, the word qu (go) which is pronounced /k+cü/. This will be explained in session allophone.

b) Compound Final Sounds (two vowels)

This type of final sounds is the same as diphthong. It is two vowels which are compounded and make new phone or phoneme. Generally it is almost the same as English diphthong except in some cases, Mandarin has own rules.

1) Mandarin pinyin “ai”

Mandarin pinyin “ai” is pronounced /ai/. For example, the word mǎi (to buy) is pronounced /mai/. The phoneme /ai/ is similar to the word I in English. So, this diphthong is also owned by English phonetic system.

2) Mandarin pinyin “ao”

Mandarin pinyin “ao” is pronounced /aw/. For example, the word hǎo (good/nice) is pronounced /haw/. It is similar to the word how in English. So, this diphthong is also owned by English phonetic system.

3) Mandarin pinyin “-ei”

Mandarin pinyin “ei” is pronounced /ei/. Both Mandarin and English have this phone. The example in English is the word lay which is pronounced /lei/ and in Mandarin, weì (Hello in telephone) is pronounced /wei/.

4) Mandarin pinyin “ia” or “ya”

Mandarin pinyin “ia” or “ya” are pronounced /ia/. Both Mandarin and English have this diphthong phone. The example in English is the word via which is pronounced /via/ and in Mandarin deng yixia (wait a minute) is pronounced /təng i:sia/.

5) Mandarin pinyin “iao” or “yao”

Mandarin pinyin “iao” or “yao” is pronounced /yau/; the example is the word xiao (small) which is pronounced /syau/. English does not have this diphthong’s phone.

6) Mandarin pinyin “ie” or”ye”

Mandarin pinyin “ie” or “ye” is pronounced /ye/ by native speaker of Mandarin. The example is the word xie (to write) which is pronounced /sie/.

7) Mandarin pinyin “you”

Mandarin pinyin “you” is pronounced /you/, the example is the word méi yŏu (nothing or does not have) which is pronounced /mei:you/. English does not have this kind of diphthong.

8) Mandarin pinyin “-ou”

Mandarin pinyin “ou” is pronounced /ou/ with a stressing in the [o]. For example, in the word gŏu (dog) is pronounced /kou/ with a stressing in the phone [o]. English phonetic system does not have this kind of diphthong, yet Mandarin has it.

9) Mandarin pinyin “wa”

Mandarin pinyin “wa” is pronounced /wa/. Both Mandarin and English have this phoneme. For example, in English the word wow is pronounced /waw/ and in Mandarin, the word qīngwā (frog) is pronounced /k+ciŋwa/.

10) Mandarin pinyin “-uai”

Mandarin pinyin “uai” is pronounced /wai/. For example, the word kuài (hurry) is pronounced /khwai/. English does not have this phoneme.

11) Mandarin pinyin “-üe”

Mandarin pinyin “üe” is pronounced / üe /. For example, the word xüé (to study) is pronounced /süe/. English does not have this kind of phoneme.

12) Mandarin pinyin “uo”

Mandarin pinyin “uo” is pronounced /uo/ just like in the word shuō (to talk). It is pronounced /∫uo/. English does not have this diphthong phoneme.

c) Nasal Final Sounds

Nasal final sounds are single or compound vowel followed by [n] or [ŋ] as the final phone of a syllable. Nasals are pronounced through the nose. In Mandarin Chinese, a sound which ends with [n] (an alveolar nasal) is known as front nasals, while a sound which ends with [ŋ] (a velar nasal) is known as back nasals.

1) Front Nasal

i. Mandarin pinyin “an”

Mandarin pinyin “an” is pronounced /an/. The example is the word kàn (to see/to watch) which is pronounced /khan/. English also has this phoneme as the final syllable like in the word fun which is pronounced /fan/.

ii. Mandarin pinyin “en”

Mandarin pinyin “en” is pronounced /әn/. For example, the word fēn (divide) is pronounced /fәn/. English also has this phoneme as the final syllable like in word moment which is pronounced /mowmәnt/.

iii. Mandarin pinyin “ian”

Mandarin pinyin “ian” is pronounced /ian/. For example, the word qian (money) is pronounced /k+cien/. This is a kind of allophone “e” in Mandarin and will be discussed in allophone variation session.

iv. Mandarin pinyin “in”

Mandarin pinyin “in” is pronounced /in/. The example is the word xīn (new) which is pronounced /sin/. English also has this phoneme as the final syllable like in word bin which is pronounced /bin/.

v. Mandarin pinyin “üan”

Mandarin pinyin “uan” is pronounced /üan/. For example, the word xuán (to spin) is pronounced /süan/. English does not have final /wan/ in its phonetic system.

vi. Mandarin pinyin “ün”

This sound occurs only in the syllables jun /cün/, qun /k+cün/, xun /sün/ and yun /ün/. English absolutely does not have this kind of the phoneme as the final syllable.

2) Back Nasal

i. Mandarin pinyin “-eng”

In Mandarin, pinyin “eng” is pronounced /әŋ/ like in the word neng (can/able) which is pronounced /nәŋ/. English does not have this phonetic system.

ii. Mandarin pinyin “-ang”

Mandarin pinyin “ang” is pronounced /aŋ/, e.g. the word yinháng (bank) is pronounced /i:nhaŋ/. English has this phonetic system just like in word swung which is pronounced /swaŋ/.

iii. Mandarin pinyin “-ing”

Mandarin pinyin “ing” is pronounced /iŋ/. The example is in the word líng (zero) which is pronounced /liŋ/. English has this phoneme as the final syllable such as in word swimming which is pronounced /swimmiŋ/.

iv. Mandarin pinyin “-ong”

Mandarin pinyin “ong” is pronounced /uŋ/ like in word long (dragon) which is pronounced /luŋ/. English does not have this phonetic system.

d) Special Case of the Final [~r]

Sometimes the syllable "er" () is added to the end of words – especially on nouns. This is the most common in Chinese spoken by people from Beijing. yidianr (a little) is pronounced /itien~r/. Basically, this added [~r] changes the pronunciation of the previous syllable, so that the entire final part of the syllable is pronounced as a retroflex with an [~r] at the end. In short, the [~r] moves the pronunciation of the syllable backwards in the mouth.

A. The Comparison of the Allophone Variations of Mandarin and English Phone

It is known that in English phonetics, an allophone is shown in [p], [t], and [k] phones. [pʰ] in pin and [p] in spin are allophones of the phoneme /p/ in English because they occur in complementary distribution. English speakers generally treat these as the same sound, but they are different; the first is aspirated and the second is unaspirated (plain). Plain [p] also occurs like the “p” in cap /kæp/, or the second “p” in paper /pʰeipɚ/. In contexts where plain p appears in English like spin, cap, paper, speakers may hear it like /b/ since the “p” in these contexts lacks the burst of air found with the “p” in pin.

In Mandarin, aspiration is not an allophone because Mandarin speakers treat aspirated sound as different sound (Huang and Friends, 1997). [t] is different phone from [th]. It is not like in English phonetic system. Besides, for Mandarin speaker an allophone occurs in vowel [o], [a], and [u].

1. Allophone of Mandarin [o]

The allophone of Mandarin [o] occurs when [o] begins with [u]; and when it begins with any phone which ends with nasal [ŋ]. When phone [o] begins with initial sound [u] or [w], the phone [o] sounds like the standard IPA’s [o]. For example, the word wŏ (I/me) it is pronounced /wo/. But, when [o] begins with any phone which is ended with nasal [ŋ], the phone [o] becomes [u]. The example in the word lōng (dragon) will be pronounced /luŋ/.

2. Allophone of Mandarin [u]

The Allophone of Mandarin [u] occurs when [u] begins with palatal as the initials. The phone [u] becomes [ü]. The examples of syllables which should be pronounced [u], but pronounced [ü] are as follows:

1) Ju (to catch) is pronounced [cü]

2) qu (go) is pronounced [k+cü]

3) xue (to study) is pronounced [süe]

4) yu (language) is pronounced [ü], the initial consonant is not pronounced.

3. Allophone of Mandarin [a]

Mandarin has phone [a] like the word mā (mother) which is pronounced [ma]. But there is an allophone of [a] in mandarin. The allophone of [a] occurs when [a] begins with [i] and ends with nasal [n]. The phone [a] becomes [e]. The example is the word qian (money) which is not pronounced [k+cian] but it is pronounced [k+cien].

B. The Comparison Between Mandarin and English Suprasegmental Phoneme

In this research, the researcher only focuses on one suprasegmental phoneme, the Tone or pitch of the language. The researcher focuses on it because the tone is the most contrastive within both languages English and Mandarin. Alwarg states that tonal languages such as Mandarin also contain lexical tones, tones which produce a different meaning when a syllable is produced with a different tone contour (2007: par. 7). Besides, English uses intonation to express emphasis, contrast, emotion, or other such atmospheres.

In Mandarin Chinese there are four tones:

1. The 1^st tone is marked with a line ("ma" + "^-" = "mā").

This is a high and constant tone; it is a steady high sound.

2. The 2^nd tone is marked with a rising line ("ma" + "´" = "má").

This is a rising tone that grows stronger; it is a sound that rises from mid-level tone to high.

3. The 3^rd tone is marked with a hook ("ma" + "^v" = "mă").

This tone is first falling and fading, then rising and growing strong. It has a mid-low to low descent; at the end of a sentence or before a pause, it is then followed by a rising pitch.

4. The 4^th tone is marked with a falling line ("ma" + "`" = "mà").

This is a quickly falling and fading tone. It features a sharp downward accent from high to low, and is a shorter tone, similar to curt commands (“tones and marking of tones”, 2006: par.1).

Mandarin not only has the allophone, but also allotone. An allotone is one of several similar tones that belong to the same phoneme which depends on the sequences of tone (“Standard Mandarin-tones”, 2007:par. 2). When a Mandarin native speaker pronounces a sequence of tones, the tones will not always remain the same. The most common details to be noted are:

1. The word yī which is meant "one" is usually of the 1^st tone. However this word will be pronounced with the 2^nd tone when directly preceding the 4^th tone. It will be pronounced with the 4^th tone when directly preceding the 2^nd or the 3^rd tones. Example: yīgè is pronounced as yígè, while yīběn is pronounced as yìběn.

2. The word bù (no) is usually of the 4^th tone. However this word will be pronounced with the 2^nd tone when directly preceding the 4^th tone. Example: bùshì (is not) is pronounced as búshì

3. Every syllable that is usually pronounced with the 3^rd tone will turn into the 2^nd tone when directly preceding the 3^rd tone. For example: liăng běn shū (two books) is pronounced as "liáng běn shū.

Previous chapter :
CHAPTER I
CHAPETR II

6.Phonological System of English

2009-05-28T22:38:00.000-07:00

The phones of English are divided into two main categories: vowels and consonants.

a) Vowel
Vowels are speech sounds that are produced without significant constriction of airflow through the vocal tract. Tongue position during pronunciation is the most critical factor affecting English vowels, although lip position plays a part, too. (“Phonetics: Speech Sound”, 2005: par.12)
It is said in another article that a vowel is a sound in spoken language, such as English ah! /ɑː/ or oh! /oʊ/, pronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis. (“Vowel”, 2008: par.1).

From the explanation above, the vowels in English is speech sounds which are produced by human speech organ. The vocal tract is opened, so that the airflow passes without any obstruction. In English’s writing systems based on the Latin alphabet, the letters A, E, I, O, U, and sometimes W and Y are all used to represent vowels. In many languages, including English, there are other more complex vowels, called diphthongs, which have a sound that glides from one vowel quality to another because the tongue moves around as it is spoken, such as /bait/ in word bite.

b) Consonant
In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the upper vocal tract, the upper vocal tract being defined as that part of the vocal tract that lies above the larynx. Consonants have an obstruction somewhere in the vocal tract as the speech sound is produced.
The word consonant is also used to refer to a letter of an alphabet that denotes a consonant sound. Consonant letters in the English alphabet are B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, X, Z, and usually Y: The letter Y stands for the consonant [j] in "yoke", and for the vowel [ɪ] in "myth".

Each consonant can be distinguished by several features:
1) The manner of articulation is the method that the consonant is articulated, such as nasal (through the nose), stop (complete obstruction of air), or approximant (vowel like).

2) The place of articulation is where in the vocal tract the obstruction of the consonant occurs, and which speech organs are involved. Places include bilabial (both lips), alveolar (tongue against the gum ridge), and velar (tongue against soft palate). Additionally, there may be a simultaneous narrowing at another place of articulation, such as palatalisation.

3) The phonation of a consonant is how the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. When the vocal cords vibrate fully, the consonant is called voiced; when they do not vibrate at all, it's voiceless.

Previous topic : 5. The History of English

5.History of English

2009-05-16T16:39:00.000-07:00

This part is the sub topic of Theoretical Framework in Chapter II Theoretical Approach and Framework of the research entitled "A Comparative study between Mandarin and English phonological System".
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The earliest known residents of the British Isles were the Celts, who spoke Celtic languages—a separate branch of the Indo-European language family tree. Over the centuries the British Isles were invaded and conquered by various peoples, who brought their languages and customs with them as they settled in their new lives. There is now very little Celtic influence left in English. The earliest time when we can say that English was spoken was in the 5th century CE (Common Era—a politically correct term used to replace AD).

The connection of word “England” is from “Engla Land” or “Angle Land” (Land of the Angles, a people of northern old Germany). Their name lives on in the district of England named East Anglia, and also in the Anglican Church. In the present day there is still a region of Germany known as Angeln, which is likely the same area from which the original Angles came. Angeln lies in Schleswig-Holstein on the eastern side of the Jutland peninsula near the cities of Flensburg and Schleswig.

Previous topic : 4. Phonological System of Mandarin

4. Phonological System of Mandarin

2009-05-16T16:05:00.000-07:00

The phonemic structure of Mandarin is quite simple. Each character corresponds to one syllable (which corresponds to a part of an English word, and entire word or more than one word). Chinese syllables consist of three elements: initial sound, final sound and tone. The initial sounds are consonants and the final sounds contain at least one vowel. Some syllables consist only of an initial sound or a final sound.

a) Consonant (Initial sound)

In Mandarin Chinese there are 21 initial sounds:

	Unaspirated	Aspirated	Nasal	Voiceless fricative	Voiced fricative
Labial	b	p	m	f
Alveolar	d	t	n		l
Velar	g	k		h
Palatal	j	q		x
Dental sibilant	z	c		s
Retroflex	zh	ch		sh	r

(“Mandarin Chinese Phonetics”, 2008: par.2)

b) Vowel (Final sound)

In Mandarin Chinese there are 29 final sounds:

6 simple finals:

a, e, i, o, u, ü

13 compound finals:

ai, ao, ei, ia, iao, ie, iou, ou, ua, uai, üe, uei, uo

10 nasal finals:

6 front nasals: an, en, ian, in, üan, ün

4 back nasals: ang, eng, ing, ong

(“Mandarin Chinese Phonetics”, 2008: par.2)

c) Tone

In Chinese it is always very important to pronounce words with correct tone. In transliterated Chinese, tone markings are written over the central vowels in most syllables. Some syllables have no specific tone or zero tone, and then no sign is put above any vowel. In Mandarin Chinese there are four tones:

1) The 1^st tone is marked with a line ("ma" + "^-" = "mā"). This is a high, even and constant tone.

2) The 2^nd tone is marked with a rising line ("ma" + "´" = "má"). This is a rising tone that grows stronger.

3) The 3^rd tone is marked with a hook ("ma" + "^v" = "mă"). This tone is first falling and fading, then rising and growing strong.

4) The 4^th tone is marked with a falling line ("ma" + "`" = "mà"). This is a quickly falling and fading tone. (“Tones and Marking of Tones”, 2006: par.1)

There is a tone which is different from those four tones, it sounds like gliding tone. It is also known as “neutral tone”. The tone is usually placed at the end where the previous syllable ended. The neutral tone is particularly difficult for non-native speakers to master correctly because it is so rarely used.

previous topic : 3. The History of Mandarin (Chinese Language)

TYPES OF ENGLISH SENTENCE USED IN "BRIEFING" COLUMN OF TIME MAGAZINE

2009-05-08T04:00:00.000-07:00

TYPES OF ENGLISH SENTENCE USED IN "BRIEFING" COLUMN OF TIME MAGAZINE

By
Lisman Miranda
04026061

ABSTRACT

The research entitled Types of English Sentence Used in "Briefing" Column of Time Magazine is intended to explain English sentences in Time magazine. The discussion involves types of sentence, patterns of sentence and types of sentence which is frequently used in Time magazine.

The research is qualitative research because the data are in the form of word. The number of data which is taken by the writer from Time magazine consists of 290 data. Besides, noting techniques is chosen as a method of collecting data. Furthermore, to analyze the data.

The results of the study shows that there are four types of sentence used in Time magazine, they are: simple sentence, compound sentence, complex sentence and compound-complex sentence. In addition, the sentence patterns that are used in Time magazine include SV, SVC, SVO, SVA, SVOC, SVOA, and SVOO. For the last, the analysis prove that the simple sentence becomes the most frequently type of sentence that is used in Time magazine, which takes place 175 out of 290 or 60.34 % of sentence. It means that simple sentence becomes the most alternative choices of sentence of Time magazine. It is understood that it is very simple and easy to be understood; so, it will make the reader easy to get information in a great quantity presenting in Time magazine. On the contrary, SVO is the most frequently of sentence pattern used in Time magazine

3. The History of Mandarin (Chinese Language)

2009-04-21T15:29:00.000-07:00

This part is the sub topic of Theoretical Framework in Chapter II Theoretical Approach and Framework of the research entitled "A Comparative study between Mandarin and English phonological System".

Since ancient history, the Chinese language has always consisted of a wide variety of dialects. Confucius, for example, used yǎyán, or "elegant speech". It is a little bit different from daily dialects. Besides, text during the Han Dynasty refers to tōngyǔ, or "common language". However, all of these standard dialects were probably unknown outside the educated elite; even among the elites, pronunciations may have been very different, as the unifying factor of all Chinese dialects was a written standard, not a spoken one.

The Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1644) and the Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1912) began to use the term guānhuà or "official speech". It refers to the speech used at the courts. The term "Mandarin" comes directly from the Portuguese. The word mandarin was first used to name the Chinese bureaucratic officials (i.e., the mandarins), because the Portuguese, under the misapprehension that the Sanskrit word (mentri) that was used throughout Asia to denote "an official" which had some connection with the Portuguese word mandar (to order somebody to do something), and having observed that these officials all "issued orders", chose to call them mandarins. Because of this case, the Portuguese immediately started to use the special language that these officials spoke amongst themselves as "Guanhua" "the language of the mandarins", "the mandarin language" or, simply, "Mandarin". It is a fact that Guanhua was, to a certain extent, an artificial language based upon a set of conventions. It is precisely what makes it such an appropriate term for Modern Standard Chinese (i.e., Northern Chinese family of languages for grammar and meaning, and the specific pronunciation of Beijing for its utterance).

It seems that during the early part of this period, Beijing dialect became increased. In the 17th century, the Empire had set up an Academy as an effort to make pronunciation conform to the Beijing standard. But these attempts just had little success. At 19th century, it is difficult for the emperor to understand some of his own ministers in court, who did not always try to follow any standard pronunciation. Nevertheless, by 1909, fall of Qing Dynasty had established the Beijing dialect as guóyǔ, or the "national language".

After the Republic of China was established in 1912, there was more success in promoting a common national language. A Commission on the Unification of Pronunciation was convened with delegates from the entire country. At first there was an attempt to introduce a standard pronunciation with elements from regional dialects. But this was deemed too difficult to promote, and in 1924 this attempt was abandoned and the Beijing dialect became the major source of standard national pronunciation, due to the status of that dialect as a prestigious dialect since the Qing Dynasty. Elements from other dialects continue to exist in the standard language, but as exceptions rather than the rule.

In 1949, the Republic of China People continued the effort. In 1955, guóyǔ was renamed pǔtōnghuà or "common speech. After the handovers of Hong Kong, the term pǔtōnghuà is used in Special Administrative Regions of the People Republic of China, and the pinyin system is widely used.

In both mainland China and Taiwan, the use of Standard Mandarin is the main language used in the educational system. As a result, Standard Mandarin is spoken fluently by most people in Mainland China and in Taiwan. However in Hong Kong, due to historical and linguistic reasons, the language of education and both formal and informal speech remains the local Standard Cantonese but standard Mandarin is becoming increase.

The advent of the 20th century has seen many profound changes in Standard Mandarin. Many polite and humble words which were in use in imperial China have almost entirely disappeared in daily modern-day’s conversation. Standard Mandarin, such as jiàn (my humble) and guì (your honorable).

2. Phonological System

2009-04-21T07:40:00.000-07:00

This part is the sub topic of Theoretical Framework in Chapter II Theoretical Approach and Framework of the research entitled "A Comparative study between Mandarin and English phonological System".

a) Phonology & Phonetics
Phonology is the study of sound systems and abstract sound units such as phonemes and distinctive features. In phonology, there is a subfield of segmental phonology. It deals with the analysis of speech into phonemes (or segmental phonemes), which correspond fairly well to phonetic segments of the analyzed speech. (“Segments”, 2007: par. 4).
Fromkin and friends (1990: 64) state that Phonology is the study of the sound patterns of human language; it is also the kind of knowledge that speaker has about the sound patterns of their particular language. According to Hyman (1975: 2), Phonology has been defined as the study of sound systems, that is, the study of speech sounds structure and function in languages.
According to Fromkin and friends, Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that are utilized by all human language to represent meanings (1990: 27). Another source states that Phonetics is the study of the sounds of human speech. It is concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds (phones), and their production, audition and perception (“Segments”, 2007: par. 6).
According to Hyman, a phonetic study tells how the sounds of a language are made and what their acoustic properties are. A phonological study tells how these sounds are used to convey meaning (1975: 2).

Phonetics has three main branches:
1) articulatory phonetics, concerned with the positions and movements of the lips, tongue, vocal tract and folds and other speech organs in producing speech;

2) acoustic phonetics, concerned with the properties of the sound waves and how they are received by the inner ear; and

3) auditory phonetics, concerned with speech perception, principally how the brain forms perceptual representations of the input which is received.

There are over a hundred different phones recognized as distinctive by the International Phonetic Association and transcribed in their International Phonetic Alphabet. International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a system of phonetic notation based on the Latin alphabet, devised by the International Phonetic Association as a standardized representation of the sounds of spoken language. The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are distinctive in spoken language: phonemes, intonation, and the separation of words and syllables. To represent additional qualities of speech such as tooth-gnashing, lisping, and sounds made with a cleft palate, an extended set of symbols called the Extended IPA is commonly used.(International Phonetic Alphabet, 2008: par. 1)

b) Phoneme
It is known that phoneme is the smallest structural unit that distinguishes meaning. Phonemic is a transcription that only indicates the different phonemes of a language. Such transcriptions are enclosed within virgules (slashes), / /; these show that each enclosed symbol is described as phonemically meaningful. Besides, a transcription that indicates more detail, such as allophonic variation is called phonetic, and is enclosed in square brackets, [ ]. (“Phoneme”, 2008: par. 1)
Fries states that phonemes are not a letter although sometimes a letter of alphabet may represent a phoneme, as the p in pin, but a phoneme is never a letter; it is a unit of sound. Hanzi Chinese does not have alphabetical letter, yet it has phonemes. (1957: 9). Phoneme is different from letter; the letter p in telegraph does not represent the phoneme /p/ there.
According to Fromkin and friends (1990: 66), the first rule to determine the phonemes of any language is when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string is called minimal pair. Another source states that phonemes could be assigned if two sounds which are phonetically similar occur in the same phonetic environment, and if the substitution of one sound for the other results in a difference meaning (Hyman, 1975: 60). For examples of minimal pairs are sip and zip; man and can; run and fun; those words are minimal pairs.

c) Allophone
In phonetics, an allophone is one of several similar phones that belong to the same phoneme; speakers of a particular language perceive a phoneme as a single distinctive sound in that language. Thus an allophone is a phone considered as a member of one phoneme (“Allophone”, 2007: par.1). For example, [pʰ] as in pin and [p] as in spin are allophones for the phoneme /p/ in the English language because they occur in complementary distribution. English speakers generally treat these as the same sound, but they are different; the first is aspirated and the second is unaspirated (plain). Plain [p] also occurs as the p in cap [kæp], or the second p in paper [pʰeɪ.pɚ]. In contexts where plain p appears in English like spin, cap, paper, speakers may hear it as b since the p in these contexts lacks the burst of air found with the “p” in pin.

d) Suprasegmental Phoneme or Prosody.
In phonetics, segment is used primarily “to refer to any discrete unit that can be identified, either physically or auditorily, in the stream of speech”. (“Segment”, 2007: par.1). So that, segment is a phonetic alphabet which represents individual speech sound. Besides, suprasegmental phoneme is acoustic properties of speech that cannot be predicted from a local window on the orthographic (or similar) transcription. (“Prosody”, 2007: par.1). These properties are pitch, length, and stress. In this research, the researcher only focuses on pitch (tone).

A speaker in all language has an ability to control the pitch of his voice including when a speaker is speaking. There are two kinds of controlled pitch movement; it is high-voice pitch and low-voice pitch. These movements are known in human language as tone.

Tone is the use of pitch in language to distinguish words. All languages use intonation to express emphasis, contrast, emotion, or other such atmospheres, but not every language uses tone to distinguish lexical meaning (“Tone”, 2007: par.1). According to the explanation about tone, it is very closely related to the pitch, or frequency of the voice. According to Laver in Man Gao, there are two types of tone system: word-based tone system and syllable-based tone system. Some languages -such as English- use word-based tone system whose pitch is associated with the entire word. But Mandarin Language uses syllable-based tone system whose pitch is associated with the syllable (2002: 6-7).

Tone Language is a language that uses pitch of individual syllables to contrast meanings (Hyman, 1975: 85). Tonal language has two broad categories: Register tone systems and contour tone systems. Register tone systems is tones that signal meaning differences. But in some languages, tones change pitch on single syllables. Moving pitches that signal meaning differences are called contour tone system.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Other Topics of research are here.

A SEMANTIC STUDY OF IDIOMS USED IN ANTOINE FUQUA’S TEARS OF THE SUN

2009-04-21T07:25:00.000-07:00

ABSTRACT

This research entitled A Semantic Study of Idioms Used in Antoine Fuqua’s Tears of the Sun is aimed at giving the description of idioms in the film. It focuses on the forms and the types of Idiom and the relationship between the idiomatic meaning and the literal meaning of individual words of the Idiom commonly used in the film.

This research belongs to qualitative type. It does not use any statistical procedure. The writer takes Idioms in the film. The process of collecting the data analysis includes data reduction, data display and data conclusion drawing. First, data reduction is done. In this stage, the data are selected. Data reduction involves the film which contains the idiom. The second step is display. The selected data are analyzed and classified. The idiom is classified into the forms and types and the relationship between the idiomatic meaning and the literal meaning of individual words in idiom. Based on the display of the data, the idiom words in Tears of the Sun film are analyzed carefully to find out the forms and types of idiom and the relationship between the idiomatic meaning and the literal meaning of individual words in idiom.

The result of the study shows that the idioms found in Tears of the Sun film are based on the forms and types and the relationship between the idiomatic meaning and the literal meaning of individual words in idiom. The forms of idiom found are idiom of two-merged verb, idiom of three merged verb, idiom of separable verb, and idiom of inseparable verb. The types of idiom found are ideational idiom, interpersonal idiom and relational idiom. The relationship between the idiomatic meaning and the literal meaning of the Idiom can be analyzed into idiomatic meaning merged literal meaning, idiomatic meaning added some part of literal meaning, and idiomatic meaning is different from literal meaning’s

COHESION IN THE COMIC STRIP “THE BORN LOSER” IN THE JAKARTA POST

2009-04-11T08:31:00.000-07:00

ABSTRACT

The research entitled “Cohesion in The Comic Strip The Born Loser in The Jakarta Post” is intended to reveal the cohesive ties formed in the comic strips The Born Loser in Jakarta Post and the portion of each of the types that takes place.

This research belongs to a descriptive qualitative research since the data are presented qualitatively and analyzed descriptively. It describes the condition of the data in whatever it is. The object of the research is grammatical and lexical cohesion in the comic strip The Born Loser in Jakarta Post. The researcher takes the data from The Jakarta Post daily newspaper. In collecting the data, this research is done by using observation method to the determined comic strips and tapping technique. The researcher discusses based on the types of cohesion in the comic strip the Born Loser by observing cohesive items in each sentence number of each edition and describing distance of items and also finding out presupposed item. Finally, she accounts the portion of each the types that take place.

This research shows that the types of cohesion in the comic strip the Born Loser are reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, reiteration and collocation. While, most of the direction is anaphoric with the presupposed element preceding. The forms of presupposition are immediate tie, mediated tie and remote tie and also there are some formed ties which are both mediated and remote. Then, it also shows the distance separating the presupposing from the presupposed item that is the number of intervening sentences. Whereas, from the data of the identified cohesive items, the greatest portion of the grammatical cohesion type is reference and the lowest is substitution. While reiteration particularly repetition is the greatest portion of the lexical cohesion type and the lowest is synonym. Of the grammatical cohesion, the reference is about 53.33%, substitution is about 2.66%, ellipsis is about 27.11%, and conjunction is about 16.88%. Reference type particularly personal reference is more dominant than others as it, in the text, acts to keep track of participants throughout the text. Whereas, the lowest frequency is substitution particularly verbal substitution because, to avoid the redundancy of repetition of lexical item is more effective by omitting. While, from the lexical cohesion, reiteration is about 71.31% and collocation is about 28.67%. While the form of reiteration particularly repetition form is the most dominant because it is to keep track the timing, characters and events. Whereas, the synonym is the lowest frequency because to state the same meaning in repetition form more often is stronger impressive than in synonym form.

MAXIM ANALYSIS ON PRAIRIE SONGS BY PAM CONRAD: A PRAGMATIC STUDY

2009-04-11T08:17:00.000-07:00

ABSTRACT

The research entitled Maxim Analysis on Prairie Songs by Pam Conrad; a Pragmatic Study tries to analyze the utterances uttered by the characters in the novel Prairie Songs by Pam Conrad dealing with observance and non-observance in applying Grice’s cooperative principle and Leech’s politeness principle. The objectives of the research are to identify the kinds of maxim in the utterances uttered by characters in Prairie Song, and to find out violations of maxim in the utterances uttered by characters in Prairie Songs.

This descriptive qualitative research uses pragmatic approach which refers to the speaker and the hearer as the participants in communication. In this analysis, the writer uses noting and recording technique to collect the data, then it is followed by its following techniques. The obtained data from the object of the research are analyzed by using Referential Method .

The result of the analysis shows that the writer finds ninety utterances which have obeyed and violated maxim. From those identified utterances, forty six utterances have obeyed cooperative principle while twenty four utterances have obeyed politeness principle, and also eighteen utterances have violated cooperative principle; those are quality maxim, quantity maxim, relation maxim and manner maxim.

A SYNTACTIC STUDY OF SENTENCES USED IN LIVE FOOTBALL COMMENTARY

2009-03-22T08:54:00.000-07:00

ABSTRACT

This research entitled “A Syntactic Study of Sentences Used in Live Football Commentary” is intended to find out the syntactic characteristics and the frequency of occurrence of syntactic characteristic of football commentary.

This research uses descriptive qualitative method because the researcher describes the data in whatever they are and the produced data are more in the form of words rather than numbers. The researcher uses the sentence delivered by football commentator as the data source of this research. The techniques used in collecting the data are recording technique, transfering technique, and noting technique. The researcher records the football matches and then she takes some notes of the sentences delivered by the football commentator and finally she transfers the data into data cards. In analysing the data, the researcher applies descriptive technique. The researcher identifies and classifies the syntactic characteristic of the collected data, and then she presents the data in the form of sentence, she then counts each of the syntactic characteristic forms and presents it in the form of table.

The result shows that the syntactic characteristics used in live football commentary are syntactic reduction, syntactic inversion, heavy noun modification, routine and formula, and tense usage. The higest frequency is the syntactic reduction. The lowest percentage is the use of routine and formula.

A SEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF THE IDIOMS USED IN THE JAKARTA POST SHORT STORIES

2009-03-22T08:42:00.000-07:00

ABSTRACT

This research entitled A Semantic Analysis of the Idioms Used in The Jakarta Post Short Stories is aimed at giving the description of idioms in the Jakarta post short stories. It focuses on the kinds of idiom and the relationship between the literal meaning and the idiomatic meaning of the idiom commonly used in the Jakarta post short stories.

This research belongs to qualitative type. It does not use any statistical procedure. The writer takes idioms in the Jakarta post short stories. The process of collecting the data analysis includes data reduction, data display and conclusion. First, data reduction is done. In this stage, the data are selected. Data reduction involves the short story which contains the idiom. The second step is display. The selected data are classified. The idiom is classified into the kinds and the relationship between the literal meaning and the idiomatic meaning. Based on the display of the data, the idiom words in the Jakarta post short stories are analyzed carefully to find out the kinds of idiom and the relationship between the literal meaning and the idiomatic meaning of the idiom.

The result of the study shows that the idioms found in the Jakarta post short stories are based on the kinds and the relationship between the literal meaning and the idiomatic meaning. The kinds of idiom found are endocentric and exocentric idiom. The relationship between the literal meaning and the idiomatic meaning of the idiom can be analyzed into fully endocentric, partly endocentric and partly exocentric, and fully exocentric.

AN ANALYSIS OF FORM AND MEANING OF CONNOTATIVE EXPRESSIONS IN SEKAR LANGUAGE USED BY KOKAS SOCIETY, FAKFAK

2009-03-19T00:57:00.000-07:00

ABSTRACT

The research is entitled “An Analysis of Form and Meaning of Connotative Expressions Used by Kokas Society, Fakfak”. The objectives of this research are: (1) finding out the form of connotative expressions used by Kokas Society and (2) finding out the kinds of meaning of connotative expressions used by Kokas Society

In this study the writer uses descriptive method to analyze and to describe the data. Based on the earlier statement, the subject of the study is the connotative expressions used by Kokas society And the object of the study is form and meaning of connotative expressions used by Kokas Society. In collecting the data, the writer uses an observation and interview to get the data about the forms and kinds of meanings of connotative expression in Sekar language Kakas society. And, to analyze it, the writer applies the three steps conducting the research; they are presenting the data, analyzing the data, and finding out the result of the research.

The writer finds several forms of connotative expressions and meanings contained of in his research. Connotative Expressions Used by Kokas Society have several forms, namely: (1) idiom, (2) parable, (3) aphorism, (4) proverb. And, the kinds of meanings of Connotative Expressions in Sekar language are people interpretation by plants, people interpretation by animal, people interpretation by daily things, people interpretation by the organ, people interpretation by nature, implicit meaning of daily conversation which always describes moral value and philosophy of life Kokas Society, Fakfak.

THE ANALYSIS OF LAW JARGON USED IN JHON GRISHAM’S "THE CHAMBER"

2009-03-19T00:44:00.000-07:00

ABSTRACT

The research entitled “The analysis of law jargon used in Jhon Grisham’s The Chamber is intended to describe the forms of law jargon, the meaning of law jargon and the function of law Jargon.

The research belongs to a descriptive research. The use of a qualitative research is suitable because this research creates an analysis procedure and does not use any statistical procedure. The data of this research are word, phrase and acronym containing Jargons which are used by novel The Chamber. In collecting the data, the writer uses noting technique. In analyzing the data, the writer writes and reads novel The Chamber written by Jhon Grisham. Then the data are analyzed by using qualitative data analyzing technique based on the forms, the meanings and the functions of law jargon.

The result of this research shows there are three forms of law jargon namely word, phrase and acronym. The forms of jargon mostly used in law are words that have the highest frequency of occurrence that is 51.9% of the total data and then acronym forms have the lowest frequency of occurrence that is 9.6%. All of law jargons have denotative meaning. It is shown by the meaning of every law jargon that has a logic relation toward the meaning in the dictionary. Law jargon in the novel The Chamber has three functions, namely (1) to express concisely, (2) to signal membership, (3) to make easier communication.

A STUDY OF FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE IN “ROMEO AND JULIET” MOVIE REDIRECTED BY BAZ LUHRMANN

2009-03-09T02:11:00.000-07:00

ABSTRACT

This thesis entitled “A Study of Figurative Language in Romeo and Juliet Movie Redirected by Baz Luhrmann” aims to find out the kinds of figurative language and linguistic features used in figurative expressions.

This thesis belongs to qualitative research since it does not apply any statistical procedure. The object of this research is figurative language used in Romeo and Juliet Movie. The techniques of collecting the data are watching, reading and taking notes. Then the data are analyzed based on the kinds of figurative language and the linguistic features in figurative expressions.

The result shows that the figures of speech found in this research are metaphor, simile, personification, hyperbole, and understatement. The figurative language is found in form of phrase, clause and sentence.

THE TERMS OF ADDRESS USED BY THE CHARACTERS IN JANE AUSTANE’S PRIDE AND PREJUDICE: A SOCIOLINGUISTIC STUDY

2009-03-09T02:03:00.000-07:00

ABSTRACT

In the analysis, the researcher analyzes the terms of address that are used by the characters in Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice. In this thesis the researcher explains the form of the terms of address, distribution of the form of the terms of address in syntactic construction, the influences of the use and the function of the terms of address that are used by the characters in Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice.

To make the analysis easy, this thesis has sources of data, including main and supporting data. Main data are taken from novel Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen. In collecting the main data, the writer reads some materials and observes the novel Pride and Prejudice carefully and critically, and then the data are written in the data cards. The supporting data are the data that are related to support the main data. The supporting data are taken from some books, articles and internet that study about address terms to help the writer to interpret the novel Pride and Prejudice easier.. The researcher takes some theories from sources such as books, internet sites, or articles.

This thesis is qualitative research. In the analysis, the researcher uses observation method, because all data are taken from the dialogue from the novel itself. In method of analyzing data, the researcher also uses qualitative method, which is descriptive method and contextual method because terms of address can be analyzed from the context of sentence. In this thesis, the researcher uses sociolinguistics approach in analyzing the subject.
Based on the findings and discussion, the results of the research can be summarized that there are four elements of the terms of address that are used by the characters in Pride and Prejudice. In the form of address, there is only: basic form (100%). All of the terms of address in this novel is the basic form. There are three distributions of the terms of address. The percentage of the beginning is 32,69% while the middle has 30,76% and the end of the sentence has 36,53%. There are some influences of the terms of address. There are formal situation (31,81%) and informal situation (68,18%). The percentage of informal situation is dominant than formal situation because it is used more to address among the families or close friends. Other influences of the terms of address are social status (31,81%), age (9,09%), kinship (50%0, and intimacy (9.09%). Kinship has big percentage because it is used to address among the relatives. There are the function of the terms of address: sign of respect (20,40%), sign of intimation (8,16%), sing of love (57,14%), and sing of assert (14,28%). sign of love has big percentage because in this novel, many characters among the families or close friends.

A STUDY OF TEXTUAL ASPECT OF NARRATIVE DISCOURSE OF “JAGADING LELEMBUT” IN DJAKA LODANG MAGAZINE

2009-02-23T00:47:00.000-08:00

ABSTRACT

This research entitled “A Study of Textual Aspect of Narrative Discourse of “Jagading Lelembut” in Djaka Lodang Magazine” is intended to find out the types of grammatical cohesion and the types of lexical cohesion in narrative discourse of Jagading Lelembut in Djaka Lodang magazine.

The type of this research belongs to descriptive qualitative method because there is not any statistical procedure nor calculation. The object of this research is the narrative discourse of Jagading Lelembut in Djaka Lodang magazine published in May-July 2008. In collecting the data, the writer uses noting technique. She reads the data then writes down the sentences bearing grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion and analyzes them.

The result of the research shows that grammatical cohesion among sentences in the narrative discourse of Jagading Lelembut in Djaka Lodang can be classified into four types. They are reference (personal, demonstrative, and comparative), ellipsis (nominal, verbal, and clausal), substitution (nominal), and conjunction (coordinating and subordinating). The lexical cohesion among sentences in the narrative discourse of Jagading Lelembut in Djaka Lodang can be classified into two types. They are reiteration (repetition, synonym, antonym, hyponym, and metonym) and collocation.