Splendid Cosmos

How to Convert Numbers to Roman Numerals in Excel Using VBA Macro

2026-07-22T23:19:22.569-07:00

Sub ConvertToRoman()

Dim cell As Range

For Each cell In Selection

If IsNumeric(cell.Value) And cell.Value > 0 And cell.Value < 4000 Then

cell.Value = Application.WorksheetFunction.Roman(cell.Value)

End If

Next cell

End Sub

VBA Macro To Fill Cells Automatically

2026-07-14T23:26:23.919-07:00

Sub ApplyHexColors()

Dim cell As Range

Dim hexVal As String

Dim r As Integer, g As Integer, b As Integer

On Error Resume Next

For Each cell In Selection

' Strip the "#" if present

hexVal = Replace(cell.Value, "#", "")

If Len(hexVal) = 6 Then

' Convert Hex to RGB

r = CInt("&H" & Mid(hexVal, 1, 2))

g = CInt("&H" & Mid(hexVal, 3, 2))

b = CInt("&H" & Mid(hexVal, 5, 2))

' Apply as background fill

cell.Interior.Color = RGB(r, g, b)

End If

Next cell

End Sub

Safeda Tree (Gum Tree): A Curse or Blessing

2026-06-08T04:47:36.243-07:00

Safeda tree is most controversial tree in the world due to its high taking water ability. This tree is so thristy, took massive amount of water. Hence, many people curse it. However, it is good for those who cultivated along canals. Safeda tree is also known as Eucalyptus or Gum tree widely cultivated in the world. This tree leaves are narrow and spear shaped with a clear pale vein straight in the middle. Gum tree is widely used in vapor rubs, balms, and cough drops to soothes the blocked noses. It also helps in you breathe easier. Safeda tree is fantastic for drying up swampy, muddy areas where mosquitoes breed. Also See

What is a Witches’ Broom? (The Truth About These "Bird Nests")

2026-06-03T23:50:09.063-07:00

So, how does a tree end up growing a broom? It all comes down to a glitch in its biology. Normally, a tree's branches grow outward in an organized, beautiful pattern. But sometimes, that regular growth gets completely disrupted. Instead of a long, straight branch, dozens or even hundreds of tiny shoots suddenly sprout out from a single point all at once. They crowd together, creating a thick, bushy clump that looks like the bristles of an old broom. What causes this sudden cellular chaos? The culprits are usually tiny, invisible invaders. Fungi are the most common troublemakers. They infect the wood and literally hijack the tree’s growth hormones. For example, a specific fungus called Taphrina betulina loves to target birch trees, creating massive, spectacular brooms. But it isn't just fungi. Viruses, bacteria, tiny mites, and even parasitic plants like dwarf mistletoe can mess with the tree's internal coding. Sometimes, it is just a simple, random genetic mutation. See More

American Yellow Warbler Images

2025-12-19T02:03:00.000-08:00

Wasim Akram ODI debut vs New Zealand at Faisalabad in Nov 1984

2025-05-25T22:11:00.000-07:00

This must be a surprise for cricket fans, that Wasim Akram made his odi debut as a T20 bowler. In the 2^nd second ODI on November 23, 1984 between Pakistan vs New Zealand at Faisalabad, the match for cut short due to rain. Once the rain stopped, the match decided to be played 20 overs each side. Wasim Akram bowled first three overs cleverly, but in the last Over, New Zealand Tall batsman Jermey Coney takes inexerpeinced Wasim Akram and samshed 4 fours when they needed 21 in the last over. On the last ball New Zealand needs six runs, but Wasim Akram hold his nerve and Pakistan won the match the match by 5 runs. In this spell Wasim Akram bowled 4 overs 31 runs and no wicket. Lets cherish the old memories and watch young Wasim Akram bowling in the first odi of his career.

It was an exiciting finish. It was the beginning of great fastest bowler of all times. Pakistan scored 157 for 5 in 20 overs. Salim Malik scored 41 off 34 balls. While Manzoor Elahi scored 39 not out off just 29 balls. In reply New Zealand scored 152 for 7 in allotted 20 overs. John Wright score 55, while Jermey Coney scored 17 not out off just 7 balls. Salim Malik declared player of the match. With this win Pakistan lead the 4 match series to 2-0. It was originally 40 overs match but cut short to 20 overs due to rain. This was ODI # 277, umpires were Amanullah Khan and Ikram Rabbani. From Pakistan Wasim Akram and Shoaib Muhammad Made ODI debut.

Asif Iqbal Captain Knock vs Australia World Cup 1979

2025-05-20T10:32:00.000-07:00

In the 1979 cricket world, Pakistan captain Asif Iqbal produce a lovely inning of 61 runs off 57 Balls in 75 Mins including 7 Fours vs Australia in the 7th Match, played at Nottingham, on June 13 - 14, 1979. In this important match Asif shared an important partnership with Javed Miandad. This innings helped Pakistan to beat Australia by 89 runs. Asif Iqbal declared player of the match for his lovely innings. Lets rejoice the past memories and watch Asif Iqbal innings.

Viv Richards dropped Three Catches in a One Day International against Pakistan in 1985

2025-03-26T00:25:00.000-07:00

Viv Richards is such a great player of the game. In his entire ODI career, he took 100 catches in 187 ond day international. He was such great fielder but on one bad day, he dropped 3 Catches vs Pakistan 1st Match, Sharjah, November 15, 1985, Rothmans Sharjah Cup. Lets watch his video. Although these drop catches didn’t effect on the match as West Indies won the match by 7 wickets. In the batting he scored brilliant 50 off 51 balls. But in the fielding, he had such a bad day by dropping three catches, that is a rare instance of his calibre.

Pobiti Kamani: The stone forest

2024-08-31T05:51:00.000-07:00

Pobiti Kamani, also known as the "Stone Forest," is a natural rock formation located in northeastern Bulgaria, near the city of Varna. It is one of the most mysterious and unique landmarks in the country, often compared to other famous stone structures around the world due to its peculiar appearance. Pobiti Kamani stands out as one of the most intriguing geological formations in the world, offering a glimpse into the Earth's ancient past and a place of wonder for those who visit. Source: CP

European Stonechat in Eclipse Plumage

2024-08-09T11:39:00.000-07:00

I captured European stonechat in eclipse plumage at Malam Jabba in June 2024. European stonechat is one of rare bird to spot in Pakistan. It is robin size bird but very active during the day.A small passerine bird Old World flycatcher family, Muscicapidae. The stonechat is 11.5–13 cm long and weighs 13–17 grams, slightly smaller than the European robin.The male's bird song is sweat high and twittering like a dunnock. Both male and female have a clicking call like stones knocking together.

Stunning Sapphire Tower Plant

2024-06-13T03:47:00.000-07:00

Many beautiful things prove exceptionally worth waiting for. Among these, particularly among nature's slow-moving wonders, is the Sapphire Tower plant. This large plant is native to the footlands of Chilean mountain regions, thriving in the cool, mountainous Andes region. The plant grows in elevations of up to 2,200 meters (about 7,218 feet).

The Sapphire Tower plant is scientifically known as “Puya alpestris”, a species among the bromeliad family of plants. It generally takes up to a decade to bloom in nature. It is a very slow-growing plant, so witnessing its spectacular blooms is exciting and rare. The favorable environments provide the perfect backdrop for its growth, characterized by well-drained soils and moderate rainfall. Understanding its natural habitat is crucial for mimicking these conditions in your garden or home.

The tough, stiffly protruding, parallel-veined leaves run into a sharp point, and have a length of over 1 meter and a width of 2 to 2.5 centimeters. The leaf margin is reinforced with hooked, curved, spines that are approximately 0.5 cm long. The underside of the leaf is dense white scales. The tips of the partial inflorescences are germ-free. The flower stalk is about 7 mm long. The hermaphrodite flower is threefold. The three greenish sepals are about 2.3 cm long and hairy or bald. The three teal petals with blunt tips are about 4.5 cm long and spiral in as they fade. The six stamens have bright orange anthers. The flowers produce high amounts of nectar. During the flowering period, hummingbirds and other birds pollinate the flowers. The plant blooms between October and December in habitat.

Physically, the Sapphire Tower Plant is a sight to behold. The flowers themselves are a vibrant blue-green, giving the plant its common name. These blooms attract various pollinators, adding to the plant's ecological value. This plant has been featured in various botanical collections and admired by plant enthusiasts worldwide.

Spring and early summer are ideal for planting, giving the plant time to establish before the cooler months. The Sapphire Tower plant is a stunning and exotic plant that captivates with its brilliant blue-green flowers and unique structure. It's a marvel in any garden or indoor plant collection, offering a touch of the extraordinary to plant enthusiasts and casual gardeners alike. The Sapphire Tower Plant is a magnificent addition to any plant lover's collection, offering unique beauty and numerous benefits. By understanding its needs and providing proper care, you can enjoy this stunning plant for years to come.

10th-century silver Viking Bracelet Discovered in Orupgård, On the Falster Island, Denmark

2024-04-29T03:43:00.000-07:00

This 10th-century AD, silver Viking bracelet was discovered in Orupgård, located on the island of Falster in Denmark. This bracelet is a testament to the exquisite craftsmanship of the Norsemen and provides valuable insights into their culture and lifestyle. The bracelet is now housed at the National Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen, where it is displayed for public viewing. The intricate design and the material used—silver, in this case—highlight the Vikings’ metalworking skills and access to precious metals. Source

Acropolis is an iconic ancient Greek monument

2024-04-23T05:23:00.000-07:00

Acropolis is an iconic ancient Greek monument that was constructed in 5th Century BC, atop a rocky outcrop overlooking the city of Athens. Pericles, the influential Athenian statesman, initiated its construction during the Golden Age of Athens.

Parthenon, the most famous building on the Acropolis, was built under the supervision of the architects Ictinus and Callicrates, while the sculptor Phidias oversaw its decorative elements. Acropolis housed various temples dedicated to gods and goddesses, including Athena, the city’s patron deity. Acropolis comprises several notable structures, including the Erechtheion, dedicated to both Athena and Poseidon, and the Propylaea, an impressive gateway. Parthenon, a Doric temple dedicated to Athena Parthenos, is still a prime example of classical Greek architecture, adorned with intricate sculptures and friezes depicting mythological narratives.

Muzaffar Shams Balkhi (1320-1381)

2024-04-01T06:57:00.000-07:00

Muzaffar Shams Balkhi was born to a family from Balkh in Afghanistan, the date of his birth is unknown but may have been in the decade of the 720s/1320s. After an education in Delhi, he joined his father in Bihar Sharif. His intellectual disposition led him to become a disciple of Sharaf al-Din Ahmad Maneri (d. 783/1381) instead of Ahmad Carmpush, his father's poetically inclined but less well-educated guide. Muzaffar was sent back to Delhi again for further studies, and then the Tughlukid Sultan Firuz Shah appointed him a lecturer in the royal madrasa.

After a conversion experience, he returned to Bihar, where Sharaf al-Din Maneri continued his spiritual formation. He reached the stage when he felt liberated from all worldly attachments, except his wife, but exclaimed to his guide that he would divorce her. Approving of the sentiment, but not of the idea, Sharaf al-Din announced that his training was complete.

Muzaffar Shams Balkhi was incapable of staying in one place. He journeyed far and wide, spending time in Mecca and eventually dying at Aden in 803/1400. He received more than 200 letters from his spiritual guide Sharaf al-Din, of which only 28 are extant. There is an extant, though unpublished collection of Muzaffar's letters (Khuda Bakhsh Library, Patna, Pers. no. 2619, and Acc. no. 1859/2 (181 letters in each ms.); a third ms. in the private library of Balkhi Sahib, Patna) and a small diwan (ed. Patna, 1959). His compendious commentary on Radi al-Din Sanghani's Masharik al-anwar has not come to light.

Although he was the chief successor to Sharaf al-Din Maneri, he is more remembered as an intellectual than as a spiritual guide. He was succeeded in this latter role by his nephew Husayn.

How to write the theta symbol in the MS Word (On Keyboard)

2024-02-08T01:15:00.000-08:00

Method: 1 Alt Code

Θ (lowercase theta symbol) ALT + 952

Θ (Uppercase theta symbol) ALT + 233

Method: 2

Lowercase Theta Code: θ (03B8 and press ALT + X)

Uppercase theta Code: Θ (0398 and Press Alt + X)

Method: 3

Θ (Character Map)

Method: 4

Θ Character Code: 03B8

Θ Character Code: 0398

9,000-year-old necklace found in the tomb

2024-01-17T23:04:00.000-08:00

9,000-year-old necklace found in the tomb of an 8-year-old child, probably a girl. Made of over 2,500 beads, reconstructed by archeologists.

olive-backed oriole (Oriolus sagittatus)

2024-01-08T03:56:00.000-08:00

The most widely distributed of all Australasian orioles, the olive-backed oriole (Oriolus sagittatus), sometimes known as the white-bellied oriole, is a common medium-sized passerine bird found in northern and eastern Australia as well as south-central New Guinea. It is also quite noisy and noticeable. Olive-backed with little dark streaks, and with black lines running the length of its light chest, it is not a brilliant bird; females have cinnamon-edged wings, and both sexes have reddish beak and eyes. Source: CP

This picture was taken in 1950 during a routine military expedition in the Chukchi Peninsula, Soviet Union.

2023-12-13T02:39:00.000-08:00

This picture was taken in 1950 during a routine military expedition in the Chukchi Peninsula, Soviet Union. Despite the freezing temperatures, the soldiers began to feed the starving and destitute bears and cubs on a regular basis. They would use a tin-opener to open the tin, which they would then give to the bear after it had licked all the milk, and then feed her little bears with it. Condensed milk, also known as sgushchennoye moloko in Russian, was a common dessert in the army as well.

What is a charitable trust?

2023-10-12T21:59:00.003-07:00

A charitable trust is a gift, to be applied consistently with existing laws, for the benefit of an indefinite number of persons, either by bringing their minds or their hearts under the influence of education or religion, by relieving their bodies from disease, suffering, or constraint, by assisting them to establish themselves in life, or by erecting and maintaining public buildings or works, or otherwise lessening the burdens of government; a gift to general public use, which extends to the poor as well as the rich. To create a valid trust, sufficient words, a definite subject, and an object are necessary. In charitable trusts, the object is generally uncertain. This is because if the object were clearly defined, it would cease to be charity and be governed by trust rules.

At one time it was held that charitable trusts were created by an act passed during Queen Elizabeth's reign, known as the statute of beneficial uses. However, it has been shown that these trusts existed long before that act was passed. Charitable trusts are recognized in all States of the Union, while some States have never adopted the statute at all. It is held that trusts, even when they are not in compliance with the statute, may be considered good if they are in compliance with its spirit. Uncertainty of the object is one of the characteristics of a charitable trust, and it has led to what is known as the “cy pres” doctrine, which is that the courts will interpret instruments creating charitable trusts so that if the exact object of the donor cannot be carried out the donation will be applied to something of a nature similar to that specified by the donor.

When a testator leaves property to his executors in such a manner that they are to be the sole judges of its use, and the executors die before the testator, it is doubtful whether the trust will come into existence, as the executors were the only persons who could designate for what the donation was to be applied. In some jurisdictions, the rule is that if the property can be applied to other than charitable needs, it can be considered indefinite.

In cases in which the particular charitable purpose does not exhaust the whole fund if from the instrument creating the fund, the intention appears that the entire amount is for charity, the surplus will be devoted to another charity and will not form a resulting trust for the heir or next of kin. A gift may be made to a charity that is no longer in existence. A gift to a specific charity will not fail because of the lack of a trustee.

After the trust has come into existence, if the purpose for which the trust was created fails for any reason, it will be applied to some other purpose of a similar character, so as to fulfill as nearly as possible the purpose for which it was intended.

Charitable trusts are not subject to the rule against perpetuities, which is that property cannot be tied up for more than a life or lives in being and 21 years thereafter. If property left to a charitable trust is limited to another estate, not a charitable trust, and the first estate is in violation of the rule against perpetuities, the trust will not be sustained; but after the trust comes into existence the rule against perpetuities is not applied to it. In New York, charitable trusts are governed by the same rules as others.

By English law all bequests for charitable purposes, to be valid, must be strictly for the public benefit; that is to say, in favor of institutions for the advancement of learning, science, and art; for the support of the poor; or for other objects connected with the welfare of the public; and such bequests include those in favor of the Church or of other religious bodies sanctioned by the law.

Bequests for superstitious purposes are null and void. A body of commissioners (the charity commissioners), under whose superintendence such benevolent trusts are placed, was established under the Charitable Trusts Act of 1853. They have the power to inquire into the administration of all English public charities.

Crimson Rosella

2022-10-08T22:33:00.003-07:00

We will know some interesting facts about Crimson Rosella. The crimson rosella is a parrot native to eastern and southeastern Australia which has been introduced to New Zealand and Norfolk Island. The crimson rosella’s colors are eye-catching, and its whistle sounds are equally enchanting. It is commonly found in, but not restricted to, mountain forests and gardens.

Lifespan

The Crimson Rosella life span is 30 years.

Behavior

Almost all rosellas are sedentary, although occasional populations are considered nomadic; no rosellas are migratory. Outside of the breeding season, crimson rosellas tend to congregate in pairs or small groups and feeding parties. The largest groups are usually composed of juveniles, who will gather in flocks of up to 20 individuals. When they forage, they are conspicuous and chatter noisily. Rosellas are monogamous, and during the breeding season, adult birds will not congregate in groups and will only forage with their mate. According to a new study crimson rosellas can identify birds of their own subspecies based on the smell of other birds.

Distribution Habitats.

Crimson rosellas are common in coastal and mountain forests at all altitudes. They primarily live in forests and woodlands, preferring older and wetter forests. They can be found in tropical, subtropical, and temperate rainforests, both wet and dry sclerophyllous forests, riparian forests, and woodlands, all the way from sea level up to the tree line. They will also live in human-affected areas such as farmlands, pastures, fire breaks, parks, reserves, gardens, and golf courses. They are rarely found in treeless areas. At night, they roost on high tree branches.

Diet

Crimson rosellas forage in trees, bushes, and on the ground for the fruit, seeds, nectar, berries, and nuts of a wide variety of plants. Despite feeding on fruits and seeds, rosellas are not useful to the plants as seed-spreaders, because they crush and destroy the seeds in the process of eating them. Rosellas will also eat many insects and their larvae, including termites, beetles, weevils, caterpillars, moths, and water boatmen.

Rosella Care

Rosellas need space and a good diet in order to thrive. The largest cage you can afford is ideal, but be careful that the bars are the correct spacing for a bird with this head size. An aviary situation is ideal for rosellas, which will live peacefully with others of their kind in a large enough space. Crimson rosellas love to bathe, so frequent bathing opportunities are a must. This is a good way to reinforce the bond between you and your bird, and you can feed him tidbits from your plate.

Range

The crimson rosella occurs from southeastern South Australia, through Tasmania, Victoria, and coastal New South Wales into southeastern Queensland. A disparate population occurs in North Queensland. The crimson rosella is native to eastern and southeastern Australia, where it inhabits open forests, woodlands, gardens as well as parks. Its wild diet consists many of native grass seeds, herbs, fruits and flowering buds.

2022-09-27T00:33:00.004-07:00

The harpy eagle is a neotropical species of eagle. The call is the strong, silent type, harpy eagles do not vocalize much. When heard, they wail (wheee, wheee-ooooo), croak, whistle, click, and mew. It is also called the American harpy eagle to distinguish it from the Papuan eagle, which is sometimes known as the New Guinea harpy eagle or Papuan harpy eagle. It is the largest and most powerful raptor found throughout its range, and among the largest extant species of eagles in the world. It usually inhabits tropical lowland rainforests in the upper canopy layer. Destruction of its natural habitat has caused it to vanish from many parts of its former range, and it is nearly extirpated from much of Central America. In Brazil, the harpy eagle is also known as royal hawk. This species is largely silent away from the nest.

There, the adults give a penetrating, weak, melancholy scream, with the incubating males' call described as "whispy screaming or wailing". The females' calls while incubating are similar but are lower-pitched. While approaching the nest with food, the male calls out "rapid chirps, goose-like calls, and occasional sharp screams". Vocalization in both parents decreases as the age of nestlings, while the nestlings become more vocal. The nestlings call chi-chi-chi...chi-chi-chi-chi, seemingly an alarm in response to rain or direct sunlight. When humans approach the nest, the nestlings have been described as uttering croaks, quacks, and whistles.

Rare throughout its range, the harpy eagle is found from Mexico, through Central America, and into South America to as far south as Argentina. In rainforests, they live in the emergent layer. The eagle is most common in Brazil, where it is found across the entire national territory. With the exception of some areas of Panama, the species is almost extinct in Central America, subsequent to the logging of much of the rainforest there. The Harpy Eagle is the largest, most powerful raptor in the Americas, bigger even than the Golden Eagle.

Wilson's Warbler

2022-08-13T02:36:00.003-07:00

Wilson's Warbler is one of the smaller members of the New World warbler family (Cardellina pusilla). A long, slim tail and rounded wings distinguish this species from others. It is a greenish bird above and yellowish below. Males have a black crown patch; females have a reduced or absent mark, depending on the subspecies. The underpart is yellow and green-brown is the only distinguishing characteristic of this bird.

White-capped water redstart

2022-08-04T00:25:00.003-07:00

The beautiful white-capped redstart or white-capped water redstart (Phoenicurus leucocephalus) is a passerine bird of the Old World flycatcher family Muscicapidae native to the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia and to certain regions of Central Asia. Both genders are black with red underparts and white crowns atop their heads.

Males' white-capped redstart have a larger white pattern on top of the head and brown or red spots under the wings. It is found in the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia, as well as some adjoining areas. The species ranges across Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Tajikistan, Thailand, Tibet, and Vietnam. Its natural habitat is temperate forests.

White-capped water redstart species was formerly placed in the monotypic genus Chaimarrornis but was moved to Phoenicurus based on the results of a molecular phylogenetic study published in 2010.

Giggle at Meerkats of Addo Elephant National Park

2022-06-21T03:34:00.002-07:00

There’s a good chance of seeing adorable meerkat youngsters. Few animals have the charisma of the diminutive meerkat. To properly appreciate their antics, head to a park such as Addo, in South Africa. Meerkat social life is built around a pack of ten to thirty members. The day starts with a session of grooming before a foraging expedition. A sentry is posted to cry out if a hawk flies over, but if a ground predator appears the pack jumps up and down together to give the illusion that they’re charging. Otherwise their day is spent tousling, rolling around, and playing ‘follow the leader’. Everyone pays attention to the pups that emerge from the burrows after January, and the pack takes turns at nursery duty.

Namibia: Struggle for Independence, 1970-1990

2022-05-09T22:34:00.010-07:00

There is a view (expressed in the work of Lauren Dobell [1998], for example) that the struggle for independence in Namibia was largely fought outside the country, chiefly by the diplomacy of the externally based South West African People’s Organization (SWAPO) leadership.

Within the country, certainly, SWAPO faced massive organizational problems, not only because of the way the population was dispersed across the land but also because the group’s attempts to organize were met with harsh repression and violent reactions. Nevertheless, at certain moments the internal struggle played an important role in the process which eventually led to independence. One of these moments came in 1971.

After the International Court of Justice ruled that South Africa’s rule of the territory was illegal, the two main Lutheran Church leaders wrote an open letter to the South African prime minister, John Vorster, which presented a stance of open support for independence; this was the first time that the churches had identified themselves with the movement for independence. Within months, from December 1971 to March 1972, a major strike took place that involved up to 13,000 contract workers, the backbone of the Namibian labor force. The external SWAPO leadership was taken by surprise by the scale of the strike but quickly tried to capitalize on it.

The new political consciousness born from the strike helped motivate the SWAPO Youth League to campaign against the imposition of the Bantustan policy in the north. The increasing resistance within the country to South African rule, and the threat of further mass action, undoubtedly played a part in the Vorster government’s decision to shift ground and accept the idea of independence for the de facto colony. But South Africa wanted to control that process, to bring into the office an independent Namibia—a government that would support, and not challenge, South African interests.

SWAPO was never banned in Namibia because of the international status of the territory, but its internal leadership suffered constant harassment at the hands of the South African authorities, and on a number of occasions its key officials were jailed; some of them were tortured and in September 1989 a top official was assassinated. As the increasingly vicious war in the north intensified, repression elsewhere grew harsher.

But in the mid-1980s, thanks to the reform program of the South African government, new space opened up for protest politics. The South African government knew that without international recognition of Namibian independence, the conflict with SWAPO would not end.

It was not prepared to implement the Western plan for a transition to independence, accepted by the United Nations in September 1978, because it would almost certainly bring into office a SWAPO government, and it sought to create in the territory an anti-SWAPO front that could form an alternative to SWAPO. It, therefore, influenced a group of internal parties to form the Multi-Party Conference (MPC) in 1983, a wider grouping than merely the Democratic Turnhalle Alliance, which had won the internal election of December 1978. The MPC then pressed for the establishment of a Transitional Government of National Unity (TGNU), which came into office in June 1985. There was no new election, but to give the TGNU some legitimacy, more freedom of expression was allowed, and SWAPO began to organize as it had not been able to for over twenty years.

It now again held mass rallies, and new leadership, returned from imprisonment on Robben Island, organized the first effective trade unions. The Namibian Union of Mineworkers under Ben Ulenga formed the backbone of the National Union of Namibian Workers, and the SWAPO Youth League gained a new lease of life.

In the crucial year 1988, when South Africa, at last, began negotiating the implementation of the Western plan, there were widespread protests within the country, beginning in the north, where scholars at schools next to army bases protested against their proximity to the bases and called a school boycott. The school boycott spread throughout Ovamboland and into other areas, and workers began to give their support to the students.

This growing internal crisis was one factor, argues Brian Wood, for the South African decision to go ahead with the implementation of the Western plan and to withdraw from Namibia. After a delay of over a decade, implementation began on April 1, 1989, and a large United Nations presence entered the country to supervise the election that took place in the first week of November that year.

SWAPO emerged victoriously, but with only 57.4 percent of the vote, and not the two-thirds majority that would have enabled it to write the constitution for the new country on its own. By February 1990 the new constitution had been accepted, and the country became independent on March 21, 1990. Any account of the road to that independence must allow some space for internal resistance and mass protest in extremely difficult circumstances.