Info world

Stop killing Bangla's People-India

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Wed, 4 Apr 2012 05:27:00 -0700

Contract managememt

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Wed, 24 Mar 2010 11:01:00 -0700

Define: contract managememt

What we learn from practical field is that, for issuing a contract regularly or first time the owner need to ensure project phases.

For execution of the project the owner need to assign any agencies or 3rd party who has the expertise knowledge for the operation. As the owner doesn't posses the knowledge, an agencies will be conduct for the fulfillment of the operation and this known as contract management.

Sequence of business contract

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Wed, 24 Mar 2010 10:27:00 -0700

Learning: Business contract sequence

Enquiry: issuing notice inventing tender to a selected parties or to a newspaper by a contract authority.
Offer: submission of tender document to the bidder.
Acceptance: communicating with the the recipent offer to the bidder and enter into an agreement of the same bidder.
Agreement: offer and acceptance in a legal form will be entrasted in duly signed of both of parties.
Contract: the document will be signed in a stamped paper with the varification of both parties.

Do you know what is Business contract is?

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Wed, 24 Mar 2010 05:45:00 -0700

Define: Business contract

In today’s class we learn what is business contract, simple definition that is:

A business contract is an agreement between two or more parties in a written form. Business contract are those kinds of contract that is enforceable by law, so in one word, a business contract is an agreement between two or more competent parties with written form that is legal enforceable law as well as details will be form in the payment of money.

Port

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 5 Mar 2010 10:36:00 -0800

Parallel Port:

1. Type A – DV25 Port. 25 pin
2. Type B – Centronics Connector . 36 pin.
3. Type C – Mini connector. 36 pin

Communication Method
Communication Method are of two types:

1. Serial Communication ------ 1-0-1-1-1-1-1-1
2. Parallel Communication ----- 1-1
0-0
1-1
1-1

Serial Communication are of two types:

1. Synchronous – Total data at a time as a Frame. Router use this method.
2. Asynchronous – Single character at a time, by different channel & different signal. 1 channel - 1 bit. Modem device use this method.

Computer’s support Parallel Communication. Data receive by computer parallely, but after receive by port it become Serial.

What is Hand Shaking?
When two modem establish communication with each other then its called hand-Shaking.

How Modem Work?
Modem works on bps.

What is Modulation And Demodulation?

What is Frequency?
Frequency means Wave. Like device man has frequency also. As - Frequency of brain which called Telepathy.

Wireless Connection:
Wireless Connection can be of 3 types:
1. Infrared: Infrared works by Ray.
2. Radio Frequency: It has no limitation, it can connect device to device device to man.
Blue tooth : Same as like Radio Frequency but by default it is limited. It can connect device to device

What is ROM?

Rom is non-volatile Memory. Its about 4 kinds:

1. ROM (Read-only Memory) - It’s a chip which can’t be altered. Technically, its called Masked ROM Chip.
2. PROM (Progammable Read-only Memory) - It’s a blank Rom chip, which is burned on a special kind of Rom Burner. In this chip the instruction remain burn, Later which can’t be changed, update and add.
3. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-only Memory) – Its like as PROM, but a square crystal reside on its top, by which data can be erased. UV Light is used to change the binary data of EPROM to its original state.After erasing the data, by using Rom Writer, data can be write again on EPROM
4.EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read only Memory) – Its called flash ROM also. It’s a chip which can be reprogram by BIOS/Chip Manufacturer, they ues software to do this. This process is called Flashing.
To reprogramm EEPROM we don’t need to remove this from the system. Like – PenDrive & BIOS which can electrically read, write and delete data.

Difference between the EEPROM of Pendrive & Bios
Pendrive & BIOS both can electrically read, write and delete data, but pen drive’s EEPROM is not CIMOS, BIOS’s EEPROM is CIMOS.

What is Propritery?
Many notebook use Proprietery formats for their Memory Modules. Then to upgrade or replace RAM, we need to upgrade or replace the RAM from the company who has the propritery of the RAM.

Monitor

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 5 Mar 2010 10:32:00 -0800

Monitor

Monitor’s are of two types:
1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Monitor
2. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Monitor

1. CRT: Connectors – DV15. In Bangladesh this type of connectors are common for Monitor.

2. LCD: Connectors are of Two type:
a. CRT: Pin – 15
b. DVI : DVI are of two types:
a. DVI – I : More then 8 pin
b. DVI – D: Less then 8 pin.

Measure the Performance of AGP:
By Display characteristics we can measure the performance of AGP:

1. Dot Pitch: Every picture is a collection of Dot. The distance of these Dot is called Dot Pitch. When the dot pitch become less, the Picture become more Sharp.

2. Resolution: By counting the dot of row and column we can measure the resolution. Resolution = row * column ## (640*480) - this resolution is common.

3. Refresh Rate: By which speed the picture or the dot of picture come to the monitor is called Refresh Rate. If refresh rate speed is less then 60 hertz the picture on the monitor will be moving.

4. Color Depth: The main color of computer is RGB.

5. Font: The style of writing.

6. Display Settings:
i. Brightness
ii. Contrast
iii. Destortions
iv. Diguss

Classifications of RAM

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 5 Mar 2010 10:24:00 -0800

Classifications of RAM

RAM: It can access any memory Randomly, so its called RAM.

Memory can be divided into two topics:
1. Physical Memory – Physical memory consists of hardware components.
2. Logical Memory – Logical Memory relates to how memory is looked at and accessed by the CPU.

Physical Memory Module / Packaging:
1. DIPP - Easily distinguished from SIMMs or DIMMs. DIPP are usually mounted directly to system board via a series of prongs along each side of the microchip. This type of memory is no longer used to provide main system memory.
2. SIMM – Single-in-Line Memory module . SIMM are available in 30 pin & 72 pin forms. 30 pin SIMM’s are 8 – bit meaning it can transferred into or out of the module 8 bits at a time. 72 pins are 32 – bit. SIMM’s are older technology, they are typically used for fast-paged and EDORAM. You are not as likely to find a SIMM with SDRAM, since dual inline memory module (DIMMs) were the prevalent from when SDRAM was introduced.
3. DIMM –Duel Line Memory module. DIMM modules look similar to SIMMs but are slightly longer and are inserted into a different type of slot. DIMM have two rows of connectors, 168 connectors in all, and are 64 bits.
DIMMs are likely to contain either EDO RAM or SDRAM because those technologies were common when DIMMs were introduced.

Put on Dim Slot Singly. Its called SDRAM also. Now This kind of Ram is use Widely.
3. RIMM –Rambus Inline Memory module. RIMM is designed specially for use with RAMBUS memory.
RIMMs look just like DIMMs but have 184 connectors. They are also more proprietary and less common than SIMMs and DIMMs. RIMMs are 16 bit.
4. SoDIMM – Small Outline DIMM Memory. This kind of memory module frequently used in LAPTOP Computers.
The physical size is much smaller then DIMM. The most common pin configurations are 72 and 144 pin modules.
5. MicroDIMM – The MicroDIMM is a module designed primarily for subcompact and portable computers.
The MicroDIMM is half the size of an SoDIMM and allows for higher density of storage. The MicroDIMM module is not keyed but will only install property one way.

Memory Bank –
The bit width of a memory module is very important; the term refers to how much information the processor can access from or write to memory in a single cycle. A memory Bank represents the number of memory modules required to much the data bus width of the processor.

Calculating Memory Bank Size –
1. Determine the data bus width of the processor in your computer (16 bits for a 386SX, 32 bits for a 386DX or 486, 64 bits for the Pentium family).
2. Determine the bit width of the memory module (30 pin SIMMs are 8 bit, 72 pin SIMM are 32 bit, DIMMs are 64 bit, and RIMMs are 16 bit).
3. Divide the processor’s data bus width by the memroy’s bit wdth . The number you get is the number of memory modules you must install to create one full bank.

Logical Memory:
1. SRAM : Static Random Access Memory
2. DRAM: Dynamic Random Access Memory

1. SRAM: It’s the first type of RAM available. It’s the memory of Processor. It is more expensive and Faster than DRAM. It needs a continuing Power supply. It does not require regular updating and refreshing by the CPU. SRAM is typically used only for system cache. Made by Lache Circuit, which is very expensive, for this Circuit it doesn’t need to be Refresh.

Processor

L1: Internal Processing. L1 has to take help from L2 for processing.
L2: L1 & L2 cannot work alone. They are depend on each other. L2 works for Network Processing.
L3: Middle Cache Memory. Its Optional. It speed up the power of RAM..

2. DRAM: DRAM chips provide much slower access than SRAM chips but can store several megabytes of data on a single chip. Because of its low cost and high capacity, DRAM is used as main memory in the computer.

a. EDORAM: Extended Data out RAM improves on traditional DRAM by performing more than one task at a time. When one piece of data is being sent to the processor, another is being retrieved from the RAM module. While that piece of data is being transferred the EDO RAM is looking for the next piece to retrieve for the processor. EDO Ram chips can only in a computer system whose processor and motherboard support its use.
b. SDRAM: Synchronous dynamic RAM or SDRAM, is about twice as fast as EDO RAM because it is able to run at the speed of the system bus(up to 100 –133MHz).
c. RDRAM: Rambus Dynamic Ram gets its name from the company that developed it, Rambus Inc. RDRAM can be used only in computers with special RDRAM channels and slots. RDRAM is fairly new, so don’t expect to see it in computers that were manufactured before 1999.
d. DDR: Double-data rate Ram doubles the rate of speed at which standard SDRAM can process data. That means DDR is roughly twice as faster as standard RAM.

These RAM are of two types-
DDR1- 1 nouch
DDR2- 2 nouch

e. VRAM: Video Ram is a specialized type of memory that is used only with video adapters. The video adapter is one of the computer’s busiest components, so to keep up with video requirements, many adapters have an on-board micro-microprocessor and special video RAM. Faster version of Video memory have been introduced, including WRAM.
f. WRAM: Window Ram is another type of video RAM but it provide faster access than VRAM.

Computer Parts

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 5 Mar 2010 10:16:00 -0800

Devices of Computer

1. Mother Board –
2. Daughter Board –

Different Slot of Mother Board:

1. EISA/ISA Slot – VGA Card Black color (Large size)
2. AGP Slot – AGP Card Brown Color (Medium Size)
3. PCI Express Slot - PCI Express Card, Black Color - (Medium Size)
4. CNR Slot – 3 types of card (Sound Card, NIC/LAN Card, Modem(Internal)), Brown – (Small size)
5. Slot Processor Slot – SECC / Slot Processor
6. PCI Slot – Sound, AVG/VGA, TV Card, White Color – (Medium Size)

Port:
1. RJ45 – PC to PC/Hub/Switch Connection - RJ45 Connector
2. RJ11 – T.P/Modem – RJ11 Connector
3. BNCT – Sattelite/Dish Cable Connection

Connector:
1. RJ45 Connector – ASH Color - UTP Cable
2. RJ11 Connector – White Color - Two Pair Cable
3. BNCT Connector - Black Color – Co-axial Cable
4. Din Connector – White color – To Connect Mouse/ Keyboard

About Card:
7. Sound Card – Line In – Blue Color, Line Out – Green Color, Mice In – Pink Color, Game/Midi Port – Pink Color - DV25 port.
8. VGA/AGP/PCI Express Card – Interface DV15.

Processor:
Two type of Processor:
1. SECC Slot Processor
2. PGA /PLGA Socket Processor – Pin Grid Array/ Pixlen – Flatpin

Power Supply:
Three types of Ware:
1. ATX -
2. MOLEX -
3. BERG -

Modem:
Two Types:
1. Internal -
2. External -

HDD:
1. Platter:
2. Splinder:
3. Splinder Motor:
4. Voice Coial:
5. Armiteture:
6. Head of the Hard Disk:

Data Cable:
1. IDE(Integrated Data Interchange)/ATA Cable:
Two types:
a. 40 Pin –
b. 80 Pin –
2. SATA(Serial Advanced Technology Attachment):

Peripheral: The device which are connected to the CPU externally, are called Peripherals. Like – UPS, Monitor, Keyboard, Mouse.
Ports: The Peripherals are connected to the CPU or Motherboard by different Port.
1. PS2 (Personal System 2) Port –
a. Green Color – to connect Mouse
b. Parple Color – to connect Keyboard.
2. USB (Universal Serial Bus) Port –
a. USB device
b. Pendrive
c. USB data Cable
3. Serial Port – Its called Com (Commercial) Port .Its also called male Port. It has 9/25 pin. External Modem’s are connected to the 9 pin Serial Port.
4. CRT Port – Its called DB15 Port, and also Female port. The Cable of Monitor is connected with this port. The Cable is called CRT Cable.
5. Parallel Port – Its called LPT Port and also DB 25 Port. Its called female port also. To connect Printer this Port is Used widely. External Modem, CD Rom, Removable Cartridge, tape drive are also use this port.
6. IDE/ATA Cable Port or Slot – To connect Harddisk & CDRom by IDE/ATA Cable with the Motherboard his kind of port is used.
7. Floppy Cable Port - To connect Floppy drive by Floppy data Cable with Motherboard this type of Port is used.

Talk to men will listen

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Tue, 20 Oct 2009 10:46:00 -0700

How to talk so men will listen

Did you ever watch one of your colleague take credit for your ideas, been accused of being emotional, taken jokes too personally or been interrupted frequently in a meeting?

Most women will nod yes to such scenarios, say the authors of "Code Switching: How to Talk So Men Will Listen," a new book on communication, or the lack thereof, between men and women.

Men and women communicate differently, say authors Claire Damken Brown and Audrey Nelson, in ingrained styles learned from birth and deeply embedded in the workplace structure.

They propose "code switching," which they describe as using knowledge of more than one culture and language to communicate.

"It's a travel guide, in a way, to another country with another culture," Nelson said in an interview with Reuters about the book, published by Alpha Books.

The differences in men's and women's styles create a persistent "credibility gap," where women are credited with less authority and power than men, they write.

"The biggest complaint I have gotten for 30 years from all levels, all professions of women, is, 'How can I get men to take me seriously?'" Nelson said. "This book is to build a bridge in that credibility gap."

Men have lost about three-quarters of the jobs during the recession, but having more women in the workplace does not necessarily bring change, the authors say.

"There are more of us but do not assume because the person is a woman that she is on board," Nelson said.

"There are a number of women out there that are still happy to accommodate men, that do not want to rock the boat, that have no assertive skills and don't want them."

Signs of the gender difference are everywhere, they write. Women apologize more than men, play the role of "office mom" to whom everyone confides and offer more subjective opinions.

Men tell more jokes, but women laugh at them more. Men want solutions to problems while women look for understanding of problems, and men like to play devil's advocate while women want to help everyone to agree, they say.

Even in e-mails, men banter and write short to-the-point messages, while women share personal information and express appreciation and support in longer messages, they say.

Brown hailed from the corporate world, where she worked at companies like AT&T and Lucent Technologies, while Nelson is a veteran communication consultant.

Their book proposes tools to help women bridge that communication gap, such as steps to respond to interruptions, with suggested phrases and body language.

"Part of our goal in this book is to make women more self-conscious," said Nelson. "Step up to the plate. Do something about it."

It was not intended to be a "whining, bitching session," said Nelson. Nor is it "male bashing," Brown added.

Memory Enhancement Techniques

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Wed, 13 May 2009 23:17:00 -0700

Memory Enhancement Techniques

It is common for people to fail tests in which they are required to recall what they have just done minutes earlier. As individuals are required to recall increasing amounts of information, it is important to strengthen strategies for developing memory skills to successfully meet the challenges of today. Memory improvement can take place four simple techniques, which include activating the mind, invoking enthusiasm, using association, and conducting a mental review.

One important technique for enhancing memory skills is to activate the mind. According to Daly, Gaulding, Barrett, Hanson, and Pulakos, when adult learners take an active role in their “learning by asking questions, responding creatively, and processing new information in other ways, you are automatically storing the information in a richer, more elaborate form, connecting it with other data”. Often adults rely on previous learning techniques, which are ineffective. Instead, a more active, selfengaging mode of “learning will result in increased recall ability”.

A second strategy for sharpening memory is to invoke personal enthusiasm for that which is being learned.Gene Malcolm and Paul Trumann of the Center for Advanced Learning (CAL) note that people who view learning as an exciting opportunity and see new intellectual activity as an adventure are three times more likely to retain that which is being learned. However, passive learners often are unable to recall new information after a 24 hour period. The CAL findings indicated that by simply becoming excited about learning itself, one can improve memory. Harrison and Schmiechen confirm this claim that stimulating opportunities are more likely to be retained if the learning environment is interactive (2003).

Using association is another memory enhancement technique, which makes a connection between facts by utilizing creative, sequential, and exaggerated images. Tony Buzan provides key theorems for making a connection between feelings, thoughts, and ideas in one’s mind or imagination. By making these associations, the learner is more likely to remember the new information because it is being related to something already established.

Association simple is important. If the connection is too complex, the link becomes confusing and indirect, thereby less effective. Furthermore, by “developing connections with mnemonic strategies, one is able to retain information for extended periods of times”. To associate real world experiences are a critical part of memory because many times the generalizations made from memory recall with regard to daily application enhances association made between previous and new experiences. Lemar Borman and Maria Lopez contend,

Our brains evolved to code and interpret complex stimuli images, colors, structures, sounds, smells, tastes, touch, positions, emotions, and language. We use these to make sophisticated models of the world we live in. Our memories store all of these very effectively.

Unfortunately, information we have to remember is almost always presented in only one way as words printed on a page. While it [language] is one of the most important aspects of human evolution, it is only one of the many skills and resources available to our minds. Using mnemonic strategies for remembering sequence, lists, or patterns is a highly effective technique for not only remembering details, but strengthening the brain.

A final memory enrichment technique is to conduct mental reviews. Once a task is selected, a mental note should be made. About five minutes later, the learner should review the main points. Again, the key factors should be reviewed about an hour later. This step is to be repeated about three hours later, then six hours, and before going to sleep. If the learner will repeat the process again over the next few days, spaced evenly throughout the day, the authors maintain that the material will remain “fresh in the mind… making it easy.

NIIT

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Wed, 13 May 2009 23:17:00 -0700

INTRODUCTION

The Blue Valley High School

Case study: 02

PROBLEM STATEMENT:

The Blue valley high school situated in Boston is one of the prestigious and widely renowned schools. It offers graduate programs in management and sciences. The high school campus also provides a hostel, which can accommodate 500 students. Recently, the high school management has realized the growing need of network connectivity, round the clock library facility and mailing services for students. Therefore, the management has decided to connect the whole campus over a single network and provide online library and mailing services to the students residing in the campus. The future plans are to connect to their university network in California.

Goals to be achieved:

a. Requirement analysis
b. Logical design
c. Physical design
d. Investment justification
e. Scalability analysis
f. Security measures

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY:

Blue valley high school is one of the well known schools in Boston. It provides to students variety of course in management and science and a large campus. Off late, the management decided to connect the whole campus with network connectivity for library facility and mailing service of the students. In future they have planned to expand their network in California.

Requirement analysis:

For the Blue valley high school the Single are network or Local area network (LAN) has to be planned in such a way where all services have to available (online round the clock library facility and mailing services for students). ..............................

SCALABILITY ANALYSIS

1. In future, if the main School wants expand its branches and like to connect to those branches, the existing web server can be utilized, one more NIC can be put on the web server to connect to the internet and firewall and router device will be required for the same.

2. For the better communication and facilitating more use of internet in both of domain there is the possibility to add more computers for 500 students. There will no create any such problem for in near future if introducing more computers.

3. For a better database server the school would use Oracle for the better database management in future.

SECURITY MEASURES

-Login information of the students is created by Active directortory service in both operating systems. So whenever the user tries to connect, the user authenticated will be verified by user name and password
-The administrator will give the access for that information that is beneficial for the students not the critical and confidential data.
-The machines are protected by antivirus software for virus attacks.
-Database server, web server and mail server should not be accessed by students for the security measurements.
-There should be a firewall in router for the unauthorized attacks.

REFERENCE:

1. Introduction to protocols and TCP/IP-Computer networks and internet by Douglas E.Comer, URL: http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk/itodoc/routing.html
2. Network security: Firewalls and internet security by William R. cheswick, Steven M. Bellovin, Aviel D. Rubin,
URL: http://www.ssh.com/support/cryptography/introduction/cryptanalysis.html
3. Networking fundamentals: network certification by Michael Meyers, URL: http://www.eecg.toronto.edu/~de/Cn-L3.pdf

Contact me for more details.............

Project charter

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 27 Apr 2009 01:02:00 -0700

Project charter:

For a company executing the project either regularly or for the 1st time it would be necessary for the chief executive to issue what may be called a project charter. Soon after the project manager is appointed the charter at its minimum may define the project scope, project goal, name of the project manager and his directing authority, name to the project recovering authority and request co operation of all consultant in the execution of the project.

Project organization:

An organization chart is most cases simple and quickest way to demonstrate to the project manger authorities. Detail such s where the project manager in position to whom he reports, those with whom he communicate all those who report to him will tell much about a project manger authority through not in very clear terms.

What Affects Memory?

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Tue, 21 Apr 2009 21:48:00 -0700

What Affects Memory?

People in there 50’s or 60’s generally begin to experience a decline in their ability to remember things. This age-associated memory impairment appears to affect short-term memory more than long-term memory. The process of retrieval also slows down with age. Other factors affecting memory include:

some prescription drugs.
fatigue.
depression.
poor nutrition.
hearing and/or vision problem.
alcohol overuse.
brain trauma.
certain diseases, e.g. stroke, Alzheimer’s.
external distractions, e.g. noise.
internal distractions, e.g. physical discomfort, emotions.

Memory Improvement Tips

Just as regular physical exercise helps your body to stay healthy, being mentally active helps your mind and memory to stay fit. Here are some ways to help you improve your memory:

1. Make up rhymes or songs.
2. Compose a mental picture.
3. Apply association. By linking new information with something that is already stored in long-term memory, your chance of remembering increases. For instance, you have just been introduced to a group of people and the only name you can remember is Sally because your sister’s name is Sally. Your mind has automatically associated the new Sally with the old Sally.
4. Make use of the five senses to store new information, whenever possible. For example, when you meet someone new, find the person’s unique characteristics by studying the person’s face and paying. attention to his/her voice. Wear prescription glasses or hearing aid when necessary.
5. Repeat and rehearse new information.
6. Eat a healthy diet. A poor diet can affect your overall health. There is no magic food or pill that can boost your memory. Contrary to traditional beliefs, eating animal brains will not improve your memory. In fact, animal brains are high in cholesterol and may clog up your arteries.
7. Get adequate rest. Concentration and learning decrease when you’re tired.
8. Stay mentally active. Play games that stimulate your memory, e.g. chess, bridge. Go to lectures or classes.
9. Stay physically active. Exercise improves the flow of blood and oxygen to the brain.

Other Techniques To Help You

Remember

1. Use memory aids:
- calendar or appointment books to keep track of birthdays, doctor’s appointment, payment due dates, etc. timer or alarm clocks to remind you to turn things on and off.
- notebooks to make lists and to write things down.
- medication organizers (boxes) to help you.
- remember when to take your medications.
2. Organize your home. Use file cabinets or drawers to keep important documents, bills, bank statements, etc. in order.
3. Designate a specific place for your personal items such as eyeglasses, wallet, and keys. Always put them in the same place each time.
4. Ask friends or family members to remind you.

Hedging Foreign Exchange

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Tue, 14 Apr 2009 10:46:00 -0700

Solution for Hedging Foreign Exchange Risk in Microfinance Investments

Introduction

As the number of microfinance institutions (MFIs) that rely on commercial sources of funding grows, the issue of foreign exchange (FX) risk is becoming a more prevalent concern for
both investors and MFIs. The risk to investments posed by currency fluctuations has led many microfinance investment vehicles (MIVs) to lend predominately in dollars or euros. While this practice of lending in hard currency protects investors, it shifts the FX risk to MFIs, which employ the hard currency debt to fund portfolios of micro loans denominated in local currency. This currency mismatch between the MFIs’ loans and the capital that funds MFIs creates risk to the MFI: if the local currency of the country in which an MFI operates depreciates against the U.S. dollar, then the MFI will be saddled with a largerthan-anticipated debt obligation. Recognizing that MFIs are poorly equipped to manage FX risk, the microfinance industry is
currently seeking ways to minimize or eliminate the FX risk inherent to its global business.

One proposal in particular, appears promising: creating a “natural
hedge” by pooling loans denominated in different emerging market
currencies.

1. Creating a pool of currency risks that would be managed by financial advisors familiar with FX trading and risk management; and

2. Employing capital sourced from the philanthropic community to create a "backstop" that would allow the portfolio to weather short-term turbulence in the markets.

To achieve optimal FX risk management, it is essential that the microfinance industry benefit from the risk management expertise of the financial sector. Therefore propose a partnership between the private sector and philanthropic community to overcome a major obstacle which currently prevents the private sector from providing risk management services to the microfinance industry. It would draw upon the established infrastructure and expertise of the former and the patient capital of the latter. Such a collaborative effort will build a portfolio of currency exposures that assumes the FX risks facing MFIs. The partnership will allow MFIs to reduce or eliminate FX risk, thereby alleviating the mismatch between revenue and debt, securing the real value of their debt obligations, and providing added stability to their business models. By effectively leveraging the expertise and resources of one and the financial resources of the other, such collaboration across sectors has the potential to eradicate a major source of risk to microfinance investments.

Creating a pool of FX risks

The creation of a foreign exchange risk management service (or RMS) that would pool together the FX risk of microfinance investments across different MIVs. RMS would assume the FX risk by entering into a forward contract that allows an MIV to lock in a future exchange rate. In this way, an MIV would be immune to future fluctuations in exchange rates, and RMS would be able to manage the FX risk through diversification. There have been efforts that seek to mitigate FX risk through portfolio diversification, but so far, a solution tailored to the needs of the microfinance community has yet to exist.

The concept of mitigating risk through diversification is based on modern portfolio theory, which proposes that grouping relatively uncorrelated and diversified investments will reduce the risk of an overall portfolio, allowing the portfolio to weather economic disruptions that impact specific investments. Underperformance or value loss that affects some portions of the portfolio should be counteracted by the positive performance of other portions of the portfolio. With sufficient diversification across positions that move independently from one another over time, the portfolio will aim to produce stable long-term returns.

RMS takes a slightly different approach by allowing investors to parcel out the FX risk from the credit risk of their investments through the use of derivatives. The separation of FX risk from credit risk allows investors to issue local currency loans to MFIs without facing the risk of local-currency depreciation. By eliminating currency risk, MIVs will be able to focus on their core business of analyzing and managing the credit risk of loans to MFIs. This separation of FX risk from credit risk would ultimately benefits MFIs, as loan margins would then reflect only their credit risk. Given the fact that many of the MFIs receiving commercial funding have a strong credit standing, this should reduce the overall cost of debt. Diagram 1 below illustrates how hedging the FX risk lowers the cost of borrowing to MFIs.

To create a portfolio of FX risk, RMS enters into non-deliverable forward contracts (NDF) with MIVs. NDFs are forward contracts that set an exchange rate for a future date. The term “non-deliverable” refers to the fact that no actual exchange of currencies takes place. Rather, at the settlement of the contract, the two parties settle the difference between the spot exchange rate and the previously agreedupon exchange rate in a hard currency (generally U.S. dollars). By allowing settlement in hard currency, NDFs avoid the potential problems of converting and expatriating illiquid currencies. As each NDF contract matures, RMS will either make a payment to, or receive a payment from, the MIV counterparty, depending on whether the currency depreciated or appreciated relative to the U.S. dollar. The settlement amount will be determined by comparing the exchange rate specified in the NDF contract with the spot exchange rate on the date of settlement and multiplying the difference by the notional value of the contract. All settlements will be in USD, thereby avoiding the complexities and costs of delivering local currencies. A significant benefit of NDFs is the absence of an upfront cost—the cost of the hedge is factored into the future exchange rate. For currencies that are traded, like the Indian rupee and the Mexican peso, there are NDF markets from which RMS can take its price. For other currencies, however, RMS will set a price based on the principle of covered interest rate parity. Covered interest rate parity postulates that the differential between the forward exchange rate and the spot exchange rate is determined by the interest rate differential between the two countries, such that no arbitrage opportunities exist to crystallize profit by shifting capital to higher interest rate countries.

Finance concept

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Sat, 11 Apr 2009 11:43:00 -0700

Finance concept

Today i decided to write something about the concept about Fiance. What is finance? To find out this question lets try to put some definition, likewise, Finance is the core topic of economics. Before 1890 Finance was the part of economics. But now a days it has its well distinction that apart from it to different branches.

So, Finance in a simple word, its an art of collecting fund and utilizing those fund efficiently and effectively. But it is narrow concept.

According to the prof Stevenson,

"Finance means the ways by which funds can be collected and management and distribute of the funds become possible."

Broadly speaking, Finance is the analysis of think in advance and future fund for finding out the following questions:

1. what to do?
2. how to do?
3. when to do?

Marginal Productivity

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Sat, 4 Apr 2009 02:27:00 -0700

Marginal Productivity Theory

Thomas Palley with more on the acceptance of heterodox views within the economics profession. Thomas discusses the neoclassical theory of income distribution. Since this theory was first published by J. B. Clark over a century ago, it has been controversial. J.M. Clark, his son and also a prominent economist, wrote that his father's ideas on marginal productivity and the distribution of income are ethical statements "oriented at Marx, and are best construed as an earnest, and not meticulously qualified, rebuttal of Marxian exploitation theory." Clark believed that each factor of production would receive a return just equal to its contribution to society (the value of its marginal product) and hence the distribution of income was ethically correct.

There have been many, many objections to the normative conclusions drawn by Clark from his marginal product theory. To name a few, it requires perfect competition, it rewards factors, not individuals (owning capital and land gives the owners income, but the income is for the contribution of the factors, not for the contributions of individuals receiving the income), there is no meaningful way to separate the contributions of factors to total product (when crops grow, was it the hoe used to weed the plot of land, or the person operating it?)

Marginal productivity theory gives an explanation for why income is distributed in a particular way. The question is whether it provides an adequate theory for understanding the flow of income to the factors of production, and I think it does provide such a basis. So it helps us to understand why income is distributed as it is, but arguing about whether the result is equitable or not is fruitless since it will depend upon the definition of equity used to evaluate the outcome, and the definition can differ across individuals.

My own view is that we don't need, at least not yet, to discard the standard theoretical model. Instead, and there has been a lot of work in this direction, we should first be sure that incorporating market and political power relationships into the standard structures won't explain what we observe in the world. Dani Rodrik states this as "I think the best antidote against the blind spots is neoclassical economics itself." When someone invokes marginal productivity theory's ethical implications, as they do, say, when they argue that CEO pay is justified because it reflects CEO's contributions to the firm's output (and hence to society more generally), they are implicitly assuming that the assumptions of the perfectly competitive market hold when it's doubtful that they do. Markets can fail in a variety of ways and the neoclassical model of pure competition can serve as a useful benchmark for understanding how departures from an idealized structure will resolve themselves as people interact in the marketplace. Too many people argue from the standpoint of the perfectly competitive model when it simply doesn't apply and I would be happy, at least as a start, if the discussions of these issues would do a better job at recognizing that the competitive model is an idealized benchmark to evaluate actual markets, but not an outcome we should necessarily expect in the real world.

Leadership role

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 3 Apr 2009 08:59:00 -0700

Leadership role

Preparing your employees for future leadership roles consists of two activities: planning and development. Planning includes the following activities:

• identifying employees who show potential for assuming greater responsibility

• assessing those individuals against some kind of leadership model to understand their strengths and development needs

• developing your leadership model or set of models that describe the elements of leadership critical to your organization

• identifying the kinds of roles that will need to be filled

• ensuring a flow of succession opportunities even if it means removing current leaders that are performing adequately in their role

Developing future leaders goes beyond the classroom. In fact, successful leaders cite other factors besides training when asked to describe their best source of preparation:

• stretch experiences
• a formative mentor
• dealing with hardship and conflict

Project Termination

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 3 Apr 2009 08:47:00 -0700

"Project Termination"

Project termination activities recognize key learning's from the project, acknowledge the client's development, and identify next steps for you and your client. They also help to avoid "project creep" where the project never ends because the requirements for success keep expanding.

Possible Organizational Development Activities ("Interventions") to Use in Change Management Processes. The field of Organization Development uses a variety of processes, approaches, methods, techniques, applications, etc., (these are often termed "interventions") to address organizational issues and goals in order to increase performance.

How People Choose Organizational Development Activities. There are no standard activities that always successfully address certain types of issues in organizations. Many times, the success of a project lies not with having selected the perfect choice of activities, but rather with how honest and participative people were during the project, how much they learned and how open they were to changing their plans for change.

However, there are some basic considerations that most people make when selecting from among the many choices for organizational development, or capacity building, activities. Considerations include:

First, does the change-management method (if one was used) suggest what organizational development activities to use now, for example, the method of strategic management might suggest that a SWAT analysis be done, strategic goals be established along with action plans for each goal, and then implementation of the action plans be closely monitored. Is the activity most likely to address the findings from the discovery, that is, to solve the problems or achieve the goals? To find out, review any research about use of the activity, discuss the potential outcomes with experts and also with members of the organization. Consider posing your questions in online groups of experts about change. Does the nature of the activity match the culture of the organization? The best way to find out is to discuss the activity with members of the organization. Does the change agent and key members of the organization have the ability to conduct the activity?

For example, techno structural and strategic interventions sometimes require technical skills that are not common to many people. Does the activity require more time to conduct than the time available in which to address the problem or goal?

For example, a cash crisis requires immediate attention, so while a comprehensive strategic planning process might ultimately be useful, the four to five months to do that planning is impractical. Does the client's organization have the resources that are necessary to conduct the activity, considering resources such as funding, attention and time from people and facilities.

Change Management

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 3 Apr 2009 08:38:00 -0700

Overview of Change Management

Clearing Up the Language About Organizational Change and Development There are several phrases regarding organizational change and development that look and sound a lot alike, but have different meanings. As a result of the prominence of the topic, there seems to be increasingly different interpretations of some of these phrases, while others are used interchangeably. Without at least some sense of the differences between these phrases, communications about organizational change and development can be increasingly vague, confusing and frustrating.

An Orientation to Change Management

There are different overall types of organizational change, including planned versus unplanned, organization-wide versus change primarily to one part of the organization, incremental (slow, gradual change) versus transformational (radical, fundamental), etc. Knowing which types of change you are doing helps all participants to retain scope and perspective during the many complexities and frequent frustrations during change. Read the following article to understand more about each type of change.

Four Change Management Strategies

There are numerous well-organized approaches (or models) from which to manage a change effort. Some of the approaches have been around for many years we just haven't thought of them as such. For example, many organizations undertake strategic planning. The implementation of strategic planning, when done in a systematic, cyclical and explicit approach, is strategic management. Strategic management is also one model for ensuring the success of a change effort. The following links provide more perspectives on approaches to managing change. (Note that, with the maturation of the field of OD, there are now more strong opinions about which are change management approaches and which are not there seems to be no standard interpretation yet.)

Example of a Planned, Systemic Change Process Action Research A typical planned, systemic (and systematic) organizational development process often follows an overall action research approach (as described below). There are many variations of the action research approach, including by combining its various phases and/or splitting some into more phases. This section provides resources that are organized into one variation of the action research approach. Note that the more collaborative you are in working with members of the organization during the following process, the more likely the success of your overall change effort.

Phase 1: Clarifying Expectations and Roles for Change Process This phase is sometimes called the "Contracting" and/or "Entry" phase. This phase is usually where the relationship between you (the initial change agent) and your client starts, whether you are an external or internal consultant. Experts assert that this phase is one of the most -if not the most - important phases in the organizational change process. Activities during this stage form the foundation for successful organizational change. The quality of how this phase is carried out usually is a strong indicator of how the project will go. Types of Clients (this helps answer the critical question: "Who is the current client?")

Phase 2: Joint Discovery to Identify Priorities for Change The more collaborative the change agent is in working with members of the client's organization, the more likely that the change effort will be successful. Your client might not have the resources to fully participate in all aspects of this discovery activity the more participation they can muster, the better off your project will be. Whether you are an external or internal change agent in this project, you and your client will work together during this phase to understand more about the overall priority of the change effort and how you all can effectively address it. It might be a major problem in the organization or an exciting vision to achieve. Together, you will collect information, analyze it to identify findings and conclusions, and then make recommendations from that information. Sometimes the data-collection effort is very quick, for example, facilitating a large planning meeting. Other times, the effort is more extensive, for example, evaluating an entire organization and developing a complete plan for change. The nature of discovery also depends on the philosophy of the change agent and client. For example, subscribers to the philosophy of Appreciative Inquiry (referenced above) might conduct discovery, not by digging into the number and causes of problems in the organization, but by conducting interviews to discover the visions and wishes of people in the organization.

Sometimes, people minimize the importance of - or altogether skip this critical discovery phase, and start change management by articulating an ambitious and comprehensive vision for change. Many would argue that it is unethical to initiate a project for organizational change without fully examining (or discovering) the current situation in the client's organization. Focusing most of the change efforts on achieving a robust vision, without at least some careful discovery, often can be harmful to your client's organization because your project can end up dealing with symptoms of any current issues, rather than the root causes. Also, the project could end up pushing an exciting vision that, while initially inspiring and motivating to many, could be completely unrealistic to achieve especially if the organization already has many current, major issues to address. Therefore, when working to guide change in an organization that already is facing several significant issues, you are usually better off to start from where your client is at that usually means conducting an effective discovery to identify priorities for change.

Phase 3: Joint Planning of Organizational Development Activities to AddressPriorities. In the previous phase about discovery, you and your client conducted research, discovered various priorities that needed attention, generated recommendations to address those priorities, and shared your information with others, for example, in a feedback meeting. Part of that meeting included discussions and, hopefully, decisions about the overall mutual recommendations that your client should follow to in order address the priorities that were identified by you and your client during your discovery. This phase is focused on further clarifying those recommendations, along with developing them into various action plans. The various plans are sometimes integrated into an overall change management plan. Thus, the early activities in this phase often overlap with, and are a continuation of, the activities near the end of the earlier discovery phase. This is true whether you are an external or internal consultant. Action plans together can now provide a clear and realistic vision for change. They provide the "roadmap" for managing the transition from the present state to the desired future state. Development of the various action plans is often an enlightening experience for your client as members of their organization begin to realize a more systematic approach to their planning and day-to-day activities. As with other activities during change management, plans can vary widely in how they are developed. Some plans are very comprehensive and systematic (often the best form used for successful change). Others are comprised of diverse sections that are expected to somehow integrate with each other. Subscribers to the philosophy of Appreciative Inquiry (referenced above) might do planning by building on past positive outcomes and on the strengths of members of the organization.

Phase 4: Change Management and Joint Evaluation. During this phase, emphasis is on sustaining and evaluating the change effort, including by addressing resistance that arises from members of the organization and sometimes in the change agent, as well. Client's Ongoing Communication of Action Plans Basics of Writing and Communicating Plans (in context of strategic planning, but applies to change management plans, too)

During this phase, if the implementation of the plans gets stalled for a long time, for example, many months, then you might cycle back to an earlier phase in the process in order to update and restart the change management project. Projects can get stuck for a variety of reasons, e.g., if the overall situation changes (there suddenly are new and other priorities in
the client's organization), people succumb to burnout, key people leave the organization, the relationship between the consultant and client changes, or people refuse to implement action plans.

Performance Management

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 3 Apr 2009 01:50:00 -0700

Understanding Organizational Performance Management

Organizational change should not be conducted for the sake of change.

Organizational change efforts should be geared to improve the performance of organizations and the people in those organizations. Therefore, it's useful to have some understanding of what is meant by "performance" and the various methods to manage performance in organizations.

The field of Organization Development is focused on improving the effectiveness of organizations and the people in those organizations.

Organizations, Leadership and Management

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 3 Apr 2009 01:45:00 -0700

Organizations, Leadership and Management

To really understand organizational change and begin guiding successful change efforts, the change agent should have at least a broad understanding of the context of the change effort. This includes understanding the basic systems and structures in organizations, including their typical terms and roles. This requirement applies to the understanding of leadership and management of the organizations, as well. That is why graduate courses in business often initially include a course or some discussion on organizational theory. This topic includes several links to help you gain this broad understanding. The following links (broadly reviewed in the following order) might be helpful to establish some sense about organizations, and their leadership and management.

Introduction to Organizations (to get a sense for the system, forms, roles and structures)

Introduction to Leadership (to get a sense for what leadership is, its scope, and where it might fit during change)

Introduction to Management (to get a sense about planning, organizing and controlling resources).

Organizational Change

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 3 Apr 2009 01:29:00 -0700

Organizational Change

Why Is It Critical for Leaders and Managers to Be Successful at Organizational Change?

Because It's Their Job Significant organizational change occurs, for example, when an organization changes its overall strategy for success, adds or removes a major section or practice, and/or wants to change the very nature by which it operates. It also occurs when an organization evolves through various life cycles, just like people must successfully evolve through life cycles. For organizations to develop, they often must undergo significant change at various points in their development. That's why the topic of organizational change and development has become widespread in communications about business, organizations, leadership and management.
Leaders and managers continually make efforts to accomplish successful and significant change it's inherent in their jobs. Some are very good at this effort (probably more than we realize), while others continually struggle and fail. That's often the difference between people who thrive in their roles and those that get shuttled around from job to job, ultimately settling into a role where they're frustrated and ineffective.

There are many approaches to guiding change some planned, structured and explicit, while others are more organic, unfolding and implicit. Some approaches work from the future to the present, for example, involving visioning and then action planning about how to achieve that vision. Other approaches work from the present to the future, for example, identifying current priorities (issues and/or goals) and then action planning about to address those priorities.

Different people often have very different and strong opinions about how change should be conducted. Thus, it is likely that some will disagree with some of the content in this topic. That's what makes this topic so diverse, robust and vital for us all.

Resources Based view(RBV)

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Thu, 2 Apr 2009 11:23:00 -0700

Resources Based view(RBV)

Firms differ from one another due to the some reasons like:

Tangible resources: can be easily identified and include production facilities and financial assets.

Intangible resources: can not be seen or touched but felt due to their benefits/ advantages. For example, brand names, company’s reputation.

Organizational capabilities: skills or ability to combine assets, people and process to transform inputs into outputs. For example, customer service, distribution coverage etc.

Team building in project management

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Thu, 2 Apr 2009 03:16:00 -0700

Team building in project management

To meet the uncertainties in project management a technique may be used for contact arrangement in project management is know as team building. If the people can be forget into a team there would not be any need for an celebrate contract, on the other hand any amount of contract can not make team and cause quaintly can not avoid all sorts of uncertainties that may arise due to the same amount of effort is therefore too much to build the team for the execution of a project.

7 c’s of team building

Conceiving: it is the interrelationship model that will become operative for the realization of the project objective likewise, one is depend to another which will become 1st coloring at 1st

Concurring: make the member concerning this (you have to inform when you start concurring the last)

Commitments: only when they obtain concur it then it would be possible to obtain commitments for them.

Communicating: there must be all round communication of the requirements and comittement made by each member.

Co-coordinating: a total co-ordination must exist so that a short fall any where in the line does not upset the team balance.

Council lings: the defaulting member must be cancelled to exercise more self control so that it makes an all out effort to meet his commitments.

Control: when self discipline does not work and the smoke e and harmonious working is being effected control must be exercised to bring that working in link with the requirements.

Working Your Way Through College

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Tue, 31 Mar 2009 02:08:00 -0700

Working Your Way Through College

The road ahead of you will be well worth it, but like anything good you must do some hard work to get to the end of that road. Working your way through college may be hard, but at the end it is a rewarding experience. Always remember, however, that while you are working your education is your highest priority. Your job should never make you come to work over going to school. If you work in a place like that then you should consider changing your employment place to one that appreciates your college education. A job should never come first before class or any class required activities. How you juggle extracurricular activities will be up to you. Also, remember that while you are working you are also paying for your education, which is just another good reason to go to class.
Depending on your degree, you may choose to find employment in an area that compliments your major. Gaining on the job experience while going to college is an awesome way to insure that you really want to pursue that career. You will get an idea of how you would feel working for that company for an extended period of time. You will also
get a taste of what life is like on a daily basis in that career. You will be able to make well-informed decisions on your major and degree plan. For example, if you are going to veterinarian school and you a pre-vet major, you would be wise to find local veterinarians who could use some help and will work around your school schedule. If you are an aspiring journalist or mass communications major, then you should look into part-time jobs at your
local newspapers, radio stations and new stations. Many colleges also have their own broadcasting networks in the college that employ college students or require working there as classes or labs.

You are bound to find many hardships while working your way through college and it is always a good idea to have a plan. Students should develop a budget and insure that they will be able to pay their rent, buy groceries, necessities and school supplies. Students should also consider saving as much money as possible while attending school. Base your work hours and your school schedule upon this budget. You will be able to figure out how many hours you will need to work per week to live happily.

Jobs that generally work well with school schedules are restaurants, grocery stores, retail stores and on-campus jobs. These jobs usually hire part-time employees and are generally flexible with your work hours. Other employers that are in your major will generally work with students to help them out and help them gain experience. They are usually excited to see students who want to enter their field and will provide you with as much information as possible. On-campus jobs are great because you can have your pay goes towards paying for your dorm and other school expenses. If those expenses are already paid for, then they will pay you directly and they have no choice but to work with your academic schedule.