KVCPharmaGROUP

Get to know Hepatitis B

2013-06-19T23:29:00.001+07:00

What is hepatitis B?

Hepatitis B is a virus that infects the liver. Most adults who get hepatitis B have it for a short time and then get better. This is called acute hepatitis B.

You can have hepatitis B and not know it. You may not have symptoms. If you do, they can make you feel like you have the flu. But as long as you have the virus, you can spread it to others.

Sometimes the virus causes a long-term infection, called chronic hepatitis B. Over time, it can damage your liver. Babies and young children infected with the virus are more likely to get chronic hepatitis B.

What causes hepatitis B?

Hepatitis B is caused by the hepatitis B virus. It is spread through contact with theblood and body fluids of an infected person.

You may get hepatitis B if you:

Have sex with an infected person without using a condom.
Share needles (used for injecting drugs) with an infected person.
Get a tattoo or piercing with tools that were not cleaned well.
Share personal items like razors or toothbrushes with an infected person.

A mother who has the virus can pass it to her baby during delivery. If you arepregnant and think you may have been exposed to hepatitis B, get tested. If you have the virus, your baby can get shots to help prevent infection with the virus.

You cannot get hepatitis B from casual contact such as hugging, kissing, sneezing, coughing, or sharing food or drinks.

What are the symptoms?

Many people with hepatitis B do not know they have it, because they do not have symptoms. If you do have symptoms, you may just feel like you have the flu. Symptoms include:

Feeling very tired.
Mild fever.
Headache.
Not wanting to eat.
Feeling sick to your stomach or vomiting.
Belly pain.
Diarrhea or constipation.
Muscle aches and joint pain.
Skin rash.
Yellowish eyes and skin (jaundice). Jaundice usually appears only after other symptoms have started to go away.

Most people with chronic hepatitis B have no symptoms.

How is hepatitis B diagnosed?

A simple blood test can tell your doctor if you have the hepatitis B virus now or if you had it in the past. Your doctor also may be able to tell if you have had the vaccine to prevent the virus.

If your doctor thinks you may have liver damage from hepatitis B, he or she may use a needle to take a tiny sample of your liver for testing. This is called a liver biopsy.

How is it treated?

In most cases, hepatitis B goes away on its own. You can relieve your symptoms at home by resting, eating healthy foods, drinking plenty of water, and avoiding alcohol and drugs. Also, find out from your doctor what medicines and herbal products to avoid, because some can make liver damage caused by hepatitis B worse.

Treatment for chronic hepatitis B depends on whether your infection is getting worse and whether you have liver damage. Most people with chronic hepatitis B can live active, full lives by taking good care of themselves and getting regular checkups. There are medicines for chronic hepatitis B, but they may not be right for everyone. Work with your doctor to decide whether medicine is the right treatment for you.

Sometimes, chronic hepatitis B can lead to severe liver damage. If this happens, you may need a liver transplant.

Can hepatitis B be prevented?

The hepatitis B vaccine is the best way to prevent infection. The vaccine is a series of 3 or 4 shots. Adults at risk and all babies, children, and teenagers should be vaccinated.

A combination vaccine (Twinrix) that protects against both hepatitis B and hepatitis A also is available.

To avoid getting or spreading the virus to others:

Use a condom when you have sex.
Do not share needles.
Wear latex or plastic gloves if you have to touch blood.
Do not share toothbrushes or razors.

Copy right of: WebMD Medical Reference from Healthwise

New Compound Excels at Killing Persistent and Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis

2013-06-18T15:46:00.002+07:00

June 17, 2013 — An international team led by scientists at The Scripps Research Institute (TSRI), the Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University has identified a highly promising new anti-tuberculosis compound that attacks the tuberculosis (TB) bacterium in two different ways.

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"These findings represent an effort to help solve one of the major global health crises of our time -- the resurgence of TB and its dangerous drug-resistant strains," said Peter G. Schultz, the Scripps Family Chair Professor of Chemistry at TSRI, who was senior author of the study with William R. Jacobs, Jr., member of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute and professor of microbiology & immunology and of genetics at Albert Einstein College of Medicine.

"In cell cultures and in mice, this compound showed powerful activity against ordinary active TB bacteria, non-replicating TB bacteria and even extensively drug-resistant TB strains," said Feng Wang, a member of the Schultz lab at TSRI and first author of the study with Dhinakaran Sambandan of the Jacobs lab and Rajkumar Halder of the Schultz lab.

The paper appears in this week online ahead of print in an Early Edition of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

Global Health Crisis

Although isoniazid and rifampin, the two front-line TB drugs, came into use in 1952 and 1967 respectively, new TB infections still occur at the rate of roughly one per second. At any moment about a third of the existing human population is infected -- mostly with inactive, latent TB, although active TB still kills over one million people each year. Russia, Africa, China and Southeast Asia have been especially hard hit by the epidemic.

Increased urbanization, public health complacency and immunity-weakening HIV have been major enablers of TB's spread in recent decades. But the bacterium that causes TB --Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) -- also happens to be unusually well adapted for persisting in humans. Among other strategies, it frequently reverts to a dormant, non-replicating state and also creates attack-resistant cell colonies called biofilms, which contain a high proportion of non-replicating TB.

Compared to ordinary, fast-replicating TB, these other forms of TB are much less susceptible to existing drugs. Effective TB therapy thus requires months to years of regular dosing. But many patients quit before completing such long courses of treatment and end up incubating drug-resistant TB strains. Some strains are now "extensively drug-resistant" (XDR) and virtually untreatable -- and usually fatal.

Killing the Persisters

"The big challenge here has been to find a drug that clears TB infection more quickly, which means it has to be effective against both replicating and non-replicating TB," said Wang, now also a scientist at the California Institute for Biomedical Research (CALIBR), a non-profit organization founded by Schultz for the early-stage development of new medicines.

Most existing TB drugs work poorly against non-replicating TB, having been developed principally for their ability to kill actively replicating TB. Wang therefore set up a different kind of screening test -- one to detect compounds that block TB's persistence-related ability to form biofilms.

Because experiments with live TB require a special (level 3) biosafety facility, Wang used a related but non-disease-causing mycobacterium for his initial, high-throughput test. Screening a diverse library of 70,000 compounds, he quickly found one, dubbed TCA1, that stood out for its ability to inhibit mycobacterial biofilms.

Tests in Jacobs's biosafety level 3-certified laboratory confirmed that TCA1 also has powerful activity against TB. "Surprisingly, it turned out to kill both non-replicating and replicating TB," Wang said.

In cell culture tests, TCA1 on its own killed more than 99.9% of ordinary, actively replicating TB bacteria within three weeks, and in combination with isoniazid or rifampin, could kill 100% within that period. TCA1 also showed strong effectiveness against drug-resistant TB strains, removing all signs of one common strain within a week when combined with isoniazid. Against a highly fatal "super-bug" strain from South Africa, which resists all conventional TB drugs, the new compound on its own had a kill rate of more than 99.999% within three weeks.

As expected, TCA1 also showed potent effects against non-replicating TB. Tests in mice confirmed TCA1's effectiveness and suggested that the combination of TCA1 and isoniazid could be more powerful than existing drug regimens. TCA1 showed no sign of toxicity or adverse side effects in cell culture and mouse experiments, and also showed almost no tendency to induce drug resistance in TB.

A Complex Mechanism

Working with the laboratories of Gurdyal S. Besra and Klaus Fütterer at the University of Birmingham, UK, Katarina Mikusova at Comenius University in Slovakia, and Kai Johnson at Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) in Switzerland, the team next did structural and biochemical analyses to determine how the new compound kills Mtb so efficiently.

The researchers found it works in an apparently unique way, largely by targeting two Mtb enzymes, one supporting TB replication and the other TB dormancy and persistence. "I don't know of any other antibiotic that kills replicating bacteria through one pathway and non replicating bacteria through another, as this one does," Wang said.

Now funded by the Global Alliance for TB Drug Development, Wang and his colleagues are working to devise improved variants of TCA1. "We already have analogs of TCA1 that are more potent and look very promising as TB drug candidates," said Wang.

Assuming that preclinical tests are completed successfully, he added, the group hopes to find a pharmaceutical company partner to sponsor clinical trials in TB patients.

The study was funded in part by the National Institutes of Health (grants AI26170 and A10-97548), the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (260872), the Global Alliance for TB Drug Development and the Albert Einstein College of Medicine Center for AIDS Research (AI0-51519).

Story Source:

The above story is reprinted from materials provided byScripps Research Institute.

Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. For further information, please contact the source cited above.

Journal Reference:

Feng Wang, Dhinakaran Sambandan, Rajkumar Halder, Jianing Wang, Sarah M. Batt, Brian Weinrick, Insha Ahmad, Pengyu Yang, Yong Zhang, John Kim, Morad Hassani, Stanislav Huszar, Claudia Trefzer, Zhenkun Ma, Takushi Kaneko, Khisi E. Mdluli, Scott Franzblau, Arnab K. Chatterjee, Kai Johnson, Katarina Mikusova, Gurdyal S. Besra, Klaus Fütterer, William R. Jacobs, Jr., and Peter G. Schultz. Identification of a small molecule with activity against drug-resistant and persistent tuberculosis. PNAS, 2013 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1309171110

Learn the Signs and Symptoms of TB Disease

2013-06-18T11:02:00.003+07:00

Tuberculosis (TB) is a disease caused by bacteria that are spread through the air from person to person. The TB bacteria are put into the air when a person with TB disease of the lungs or throat coughs, sneezes, speaks, or sings. People nearby may breathe in these bacteria and become infected. The TB bacteria usually attack the lungs, but can attack any part of the body such as the kidney, spine, and brain. If not treated properly, TB disease can be fatal.

TB is NOT spread by

Shaking someone's hand
Sharing food or drink
Touching bed linens or toilet seats
Sharing toothbrushes
Kissing

Latent TB Infection and TB Disease

Not everyone infected with TB bacteria becomes sick with TB disease. People who become infected, but are not sick have what is called latent TB infection. People who have latent TB infection do not feel sick, do not have any symptoms, and cannot spread TB bacteria to others. But some people with latent TB infection go on to get TB disease. People who have TB disease do feel sick, have signs and symptoms, and may spread TB bacteria to others.

Symptoms of TB Disease

Symptoms of TB disease depend on where in the body the TB bacteria are growing. TB disease symptoms may include:

A bad cough that lasts 3 weeks or longer
Pain in the chest
Coughing up blood or sputum (phlegm from deep inside the lungs)
Weakness or fatigue
Weight loss
No appetite
Chills
Fever
Sweating at night

If you think you may have been exposed to someone with TB disease, contact your health care provider or your local or state TB control office.

TB Risk Factors

Not all people need a TB test. You should get a TB test if you are at increased risk. Generally people at high risk for developing TB disease fall into two categories:

People who have been recently infected with TB bacteria
People with medical conditions that weaken the immune system

Conditions or activities that place you at increased risk:

You have spent time with a person known to have TB disease or suspected to have TB disease
You have HIV infection or another condition that puts you at high risk for TB disease
You have signs and symptoms of TB disease
You are from a country where TB disease is very common
You live or work where TB disease is more common, such as a homeless shelter, migrant farm camp, prison or jail, and some nursing homes
You use illegal drugs

While anyone can get TB disease, some people who are infected with TB bacteria are more likely to get sick.

You have a higher chance of getting TB disease if you

Have HIV infection
Have been infected with TB bacteria in the last two years
Have other health problems that make it hard for your body to fight disease
Abuse alcohol or use illegal drugs
Were not treated correctly for TB infection or TB disease in the past

There are two kinds of tests that are used to determine if a person has been infected with TB bacteria: the tuberculin skin test and TB blood tests.

A positive TB skin test or TB blood test only tells that a person has been infected with TB bacteria. It does not tell whether the person has latent TB infection or has progressed to TB disease. Other tests, such as a chest x-ray and a sample of sputum, are needed to see whether the person has TB disease.

More info go to:

http://www.cdc.gov/Features/TBsymptoms/

http://www.webmd.com/lung/understanding-tuberculosis-basics

Classification of Viruses

2013-05-29T20:53:00.002+07:00

What you forget to think about Chewing Gum side effects!

2013-05-22T23:17:00.003+07:00

For ages, chewing gum represented popular pastime that was used all over the world. From the prehistoric men and women who chowed lumps of tree resin for enjoyment, Ancient Greeks who used tree resin to clean their teeth and freshen their breath, Maya Indians who used gummed chicle, and Europeans and American settlers who used hardened tree sap and beeswax. Sadly, even though use of chewing gum can undoubtedly have many positive effects, it can also endanger us. Here are some of the most common chewing gum side effects and disadvantages:

Tooth Decay

Sugared gums can with heavy use cause tooth decay, gum disease and cavities. This happens because sugar coats the teeth, and can slowly cause damaging of tooth enamel if they are not immediately brushed. To reduce harmful effects of sugared gums, seek out gum brands that use smaller quantities of sugar.

Artificial Sweetener Allergies

Almost all popular sugar brands use artificial sweeteners to make their products longer lasing, sweeter or to achieve special kind of taste. Some of those artificial sweeteners can cause allergic reaction, especially Aspartame and Sorbitol. Others can cause irritation or headaches.

Jaw Stress

Even though many gum manufacturers claim that their products can be used all the time and on any occasion, detailed studies show that habitual use of chewing gums may cause continuous stress on your jaws. If not regulated, this stress can lead to the condition called d Temporomandibular Joint Disorder (TJD), which is manifested with strong facial pain and great discomfort in the back of the neck.

Stomach Issues

Continuous chewing of gum can lead to the increased levels of stress to your stomach and intestines. After meals your stomach mush receive period of resting time for him to digest food, but chewing and continuous swallowing of saliva interferes with that rest. Stomach issues that can appear in those situations are irritation, aches, and aggravated gastritis. In some cases, you can even develop gastric ulcer!

Social distraction

In many modern cultures, people have accepted that chewing a gum in some social environments (public areas, school, workplace, etc.) is distracting and irritating. Please consider what social effects your chewing gum will cause in the people around you.

Masseter problems

Frequent chewing of gum can lead to masseter problems that are result of your constant grinding of teeth at night. If you are suffering from JMJ dysfunction, you must consider totally abandoning gums.

Kidney problems

If the cavities in your teeth are filled with mercury fillings, frequent chewing of gum may cause their dislodging and releasing of this dangerous material in your metabolism. The most common target of mercury is blood, urinary tract, nerves and brain.

Irregular development of facial muscles

Extensive chewing of gum in puberty may lead to the stimulation of jawbone and facial muscles and creation of larger face.

Drugs That Interact With Grapefruit on the Rise

2012-12-07T11:04:00.001+07:00

Nov. 27, 2012 -- The number of drugs that can be risky when taken with grapefruit is on the rise, largely due to the influx of new medications and chemical formulations, a new study shows.

As it stands, there are now more than 85 drugs that may interact with grapefruit. The number of drugs that may result in potentially fatal side effects when mixed with grapefruit increased from 17 to 43 during the past four years. This equates to more than six new potentially risky drugs a year.

The list includes some statins that lower cholesterol (such as atorvastatin,lovastatin, and simvastatin), some antibiotics, cancer drugs, and heart drugs. Most at risk are older people who use more prescriptions and buy more grapefruit.

Here’s what happens: Grapefruit contains furanocoumarins, which block an enzyme that normally breaks down certain medications in the body. When it is left unchecked, medication levels can grow toxic in the body.

It’s not just grapefruits, either. Other citrus fruits such as Seville oranges (often used in marmalade), limes, and pomelos also contain the active ingredients (furanocoumarins), but have not been as widely studied.

Grapefruit and Some Medications: Risky Business

Researchers searched the medical literature for articles on grapefruit and drug interaction using key terms. They also looked at prescribing information for recently approved drugs in Canada. Their findings appear in the Canadian Medical Association Journal.

Drugs that interact with grapefruit are taken by mouth. The degree of the grapefruit effect can vary. With some drugs, just one serving of grapefruit can make it seem like a person is taking multiple doses of the drug.

This interaction can occur even if grapefruit is eaten many hours before taking the medication. For example, simvastatin, when taken with about a 7-ounce glass of grapefruit juice once a day for three days, produced a 330% greater concentration of the drug compared to taking it with water. This can cause life-threatening muscle damage called rhabdomyolysis.

“Grapefruit and grapefruit products may interact with a broad class of medications ranging from cardiovascular to hormonal drugs,” says Tara Narula, MD, the associate director of cardiac care at Lenox Hill Hospital in New York City. “Some have more of an effect if you take them in close proximity to drinking grapefruit juice than if you space it out, but there can still be an interaction if you take the pill the night before or 12 hours before consuming grapefruit or grapefruit juice.”

“If you consume grapefruit juice and take medications, be careful,” Narula says. “If you need these drugs and there are not appropriate substitutes, you may need to limit or reduce your consumption of grapefruit juice and products.”

The researchers note that grapefruit interaction is specific to certain drugs and doesn’t necessarily affect an entire drug class. This can allow for grapefruit-friendly options.

Never stop taking prescription medication without first talking to your doctor. “Say, ‘I am on these medications, do I need to be careful about grapefruit juice?’”

If you are not taking any drugs that can interact with grapefruit, it is fine to eat and drink grapefruit and grapefruit products, which can be a healthy part of the diet, says Despina Hyde, RD. She is a registered dietitian at New York University Langone Medical Center.

But better safe than sorry. “Double check with your doctor or pharmacist, as it doesn’t really require a lot of grapefruit juice to produce a dangerous interaction,” she says.

By Denise Mann

View Article Sources

SOURCES:

Bailey, D.G. Canadian Medical Association Journal, published online Nov. 26, 2012.

Despina Hyde, RD, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York City.

Tara Narula, MD, associate director, cardiac care, Lenox Hill Hospital, New York City.

KVCPharmaGROUP: THE CLASSIC STAGES OF CLINICAL INFECTIONS

2012-08-19T20:45:00.002+07:00

KVCPharmaGROUP: THE CLASSIC STAGES OF CLINICAL INFECTIONS: As the body of the host responds to the invasive and toxigenic activities of a parasite, it passes through four distinct ...

THE CLASSIC STAGES OF CLINICAL INFECTIONS

2012-08-19T20:45:00.000+07:00

The incubation period the time form initial contact with the infectious agent to the appearance of the first symptoms. During the incubation period, the agent is multiplying at the portal of entry but has not yet caused enough damage to elicit symptoms. Although this period is relatively well defined and predictable for each microorganism, it does vary according to host resistance, degree of virulence, and distance between the target organ and the portal of entry (the farther apart, the longer the incubation period). Overall, an incubation period can range from several hours in pneumonic plaque to several years in leprosy. The majority of infections, however, have incubation periods ranging between 2 and 30 days.

The earliest notable symptoms of infection appear as a vague feeling of discomfort, such as head muscle aches, fatigue, upset stomach, and general malaise. This short period (1-2 days) is known as the prodromal stage. The infectious agent next enters a period of invasion, during which it multiplies at high levels, exhibits its greatest toxicity, and becomes well established in its target tissue. This period is often marked by fever and other prominent and more specific signs and symptoms, which can include cough, rashes, diarrhea, loss of muscle controls, swelling, jaundice, discharge of exudates, or severe pain, depending on the particular infection. The length of this period is extremely variable.

As the patient begins to respond to the infection, the symptoms decline- sometimes dramatically, other times slowly. During the recovery that follows, called the convalescent period, the patient’s strength and health gradually return owing to the healing nature of the immune response. An infection that results in death is called terminal. This term is particularly applicable if the infection is the immediate cause of death in a patient already suffering from a degenerative disease or cancer. Thus, an alcoholic might succumb to terminal pneumonia, or an AIDS patient will actually die from a secondary infection.

The transmissibility of the microbe during these four stages must be considered on an individual basis. A few agents are release mostly during incubation (measles, for example); many are released during the invasive period (shigella); and others can be transmitted during all of these periods (hepatitis B).

KVCPharmaGROUP: A POSITIVE VIEW OF VIRUSES

2012-08-19T20:43:00.001+07:00

KVCPharmaGROUP: A POSITIVE VIEW OF VIRUSES: Looking at this beautiful tulip, one would never guess that it derives its pleasing appearance from a vira...

A POSITIVE VIEW OF VIRUSES

2012-08-19T20:42:00.003+07:00

Looking at this beautiful tulip, one would never guess that it derives its pleasing appearance from a viral infection. It contains tulip mosaic virus, which affect the development of the plant cells and causes complex patterns of colors in the petals. Aside from this, the virus does not cause severe harm to the plants. Despite the reputation of viruses as cell killers, there is another side of viruses – that of being harmless, and in some cases, even beneficial.

Although there is no agreement on the origins of viruses, it is highly likely that they have been in existence for billions of years. Virologists are convinced that viruses have been an important force in the evolution of living things. This is based on the fact that they interact with the genetic material of their host cells and that they carry genes from on host to another (transduction). It is convincing to imagine that viruses arose early in the history of cells as loose pieces of genetic material that became dependent nomads, moving from cell to cell. Viruses are also a significant factor in the functioning of many ecosystems because of the effects they have on their host cells. For example, it is documented that seawater can contain 10 millions viruses per milliliter. Since viruses are made of the same elements as living cells, it is estimated that the sum of viruses in the ocean represent 270 million metric tons of organic matter.

Over the past several years, biomedical experts have been looking at viruses as vehicles to treat infections and disease. Viruses are already essential for production of vaccines to treat viral infections such as influenza, polio, and measles. Vaccine experts have also engineered new types of viruses by combining a less harmful virus such as vaccinia or adenovirus with some genetic material from a pathogen such HIV and herpes simplex. This technique creates a vaccine that provides immunity but does not expose the person to the intact pathogen. Several of these types of vaccines are currently in development.

The “harmless virus” approach is also being used to treat genetic diseases such cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anemia. With gene therapy the normal gene is inserted into a retrovirus, such as the mouse leukemia virus, and the patient is infected with this altered virus. It is hoped that the virus will introduce the needed gene into the cells and correct the defect. Dozens of experimental trials are currently underway to develop potential cures for diseases, with some success.

Virologists have also created mutant adenoviruses (ONYX) that target cancer or cells. These viruses cannot spread among normal cells, but when they enter cancer cells, they immediately cause the cells to self-destruct. One problem has been that infection with these mouse viruses has led to development of cancer in some patients.

An older therapy getting a second chance involves use of bacteriophages to treat bacterial infections. This technique was tried in the past with mixed success, but was abandoned for more efficient antimicrobic drugs. The basis behind the therapy is that bacterial viruses would seek out only their specific host bacteria and would cause complete destruction of the bacterial cell. Newer experiments with animals have demonstrated that this method can control infections as well as traditional drugs. Some potential applications being considered are adding phage suspension to grafts to control skin infections and to intravenous fluids for blood infections.

KVCPharmaGROUP: THE SERENDIPITY OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD: DISCOVER...

2012-08-19T20:41:00.001+07:00

KVCPharmaGROUP: THE SERENDIPITY OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD: DISCOVER...: The discoveries in science are not always determined by the strict formulation and testing of a formal hypothesis. Quite...

THE SERENDIPITY OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD: DISCOVERING DRUGS

2012-08-19T20:40:00.002+07:00

The discoveries in science are not always determined by the strict formulation and testing of a formal hypothesis. Quite often, they involve serendipity and the luck of being in the right place and time, followed by a curiosity and willingness to change the direction of an experiment. This is especially true in the field of drug discoveries. The first antibiotic, penicillin, was discovered in the late 1920s by Dr. Alexander Fleming, who found a mold colony growing on a culture of bacteria that was wiping out the bacteria. He isolated the active ingredient that eventually launched the era of antibiotics. The search for new drugs to treat infections and cancer has been a continuous focus since that time. Even though the detailed science of testing a drug and working out its chemical structure and action required sophisticated scientific technology, the first and most important part of discovery often lies in a keen eye and an open mind.

In 1987, Dr. Michael Zasloff, a physician and molecular biologist, was doing research in gene expression, using African clawed frogs as a source of eggs. After performing surgery on the frogs and routinely placing them back in a nonsterile aquarium, he was surprised to notice that most of the time the frogs did not get infected or die. If the animal had been a mammal such as a mouse, it would probably not have survived the nonsterile surgery. This led him to conclude that the frog’s skin must provide some form of natural protection. He observed that when the skin was stimulated by injury or irritants, it formed a thick white coating in a few moments that reminded him of a self-made “bandage” over the wound. He took a section of skin and extracted the components that were responsible for killing the microbes. His tests showed that they were small proteins called peptides, which he named magainins, after the Hebrew word for shield. Within 6 months of these finding, Dr. Zasloff made the decision to completely change the subject of his research and started up a new biotechnology company (Magainin Pharmaceuticals) to explore the therapeutic potential for magainins as well as other frog peptides.

The initial tests on this new class of drugs would indicate that they do indeed destroy a variety of bacteria as well as fungi, protozoa, and viruses. Although they are toxic to human cells too, this makes them a possible candidate for cancer treatment. Currently the drugs are being synthesized and tested in the lab for effectiveness and safety. Dr. Zasloff’s intriguing observation and subsequent experiments had the impact of opening up a whole new area of biology: isolating antimicrobic peptides form multicellular organisms. Additional studies have shown that these compounds are widespread among amphibians, fish, birds, mammals, and plants. A number of companies are involved in developing applications for animal peptides. This discovery has been well timed, since resistance among microorganisms to traditional is a continuing problem.

2012-07-21T20:33:00.001+07:00

E71 (the MS

KVCPharmaGROUP: The ELISA

2012-03-09T22:33:00.001+07:00

KVCPharmaGROUP: The ELISA: ELISA is stand for Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. It is an immunological or serological test to check antigen present in the serum. It h...

The ELISA

2012-03-09T21:48:00.000+07:00

ELISA is stand for Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. It is an immunological or serological test to check antigen present in the serum. It have 2 types Direct ELISA or Sandwich ELISA Test and Indirect ELISA test. For Direct ELISA test, it is used to diagnose various microbial infections (such as HIV, Hepatitis A and C, Cholera Vibrio, Helicobacter pylori,...), cancer and other immunological disorders. Different from Direct ELISA, Indirect ELISA is used to diagnosed Hantavirus, rubella virus, toxoplasma....

Procedure of Sandwich ELISA

Pour known antigen of specific antibodies on well containing micro titer plate and wait for 2-3 hours or over night then wash with buffer to remove unbound antibodies.
Add patient serum specimen on the well and wait for 1-2 hours and then wash with buffer.
Add Enzyme labelled (linked or conjugated) antibodies on the well and wash with buffer.
Finally, add the substrate (colorless substance) on the well and wait for 1-2 hours to observe the reaction.

Result: if the color develops confirm Positive.
if no color develops confirm Negative.

Procedure of Indirect ELISA

Add unknown amount of specific antigen on the micro titer well and wait for 2-3 hours followed by wash with buffer.
Add patient serum on the well and wait for 1-2 hours then wash with buffer.
Add enzyme labelled anti-antibody and wait for 1-2 hours followed by wash with buffer.
Add substrate and observe the color change.

Result: Positive: Color develops
Negative: No color develops.

ELISA

2012-03-07T22:01:00.001+07:00

ELISA test is stand for Enzyme-linked immunosorbent Assay which also known as Enzyme immunoassay (EIA), contains an enzyme-antibody complex that can be used as a color tracer for antigen-antibody reactions. The enzymes used most often are horseradish and alkaline phosphatase, both of which release a dye (chromogen) when exposed to their substrate. This technique also relies on a solid support such as a plastic micro titer plate that can absorb (attract on its surface) the reactants.
The Indirect ELISA test can detect antibodies in a serum sample. As with other indirect test, the final positive reaction is achieved by means of an antibody-antibody reaction. The indicator antibody is complexed to an enzyme that produces a color change with positive serum sample. The starting reactant is a known antigen that is absorbed to the surface of a well. To this, unknown serum is added. After rinsing, an enzyme-Ab reagent that can react with the unknown test antibody is placed in the well. The substrate to the enzyme is then added, and the wells are scanned for color changes. Color development indicates that all the components reacted and that the antibody was present in the patient's serum. This is he common screening test for the antibodies to HIV (AIDS virus), various rickettsial species, hepatitis A and C, the cholera false positives can occur, a verification test may be necessary (such as Western blot for HIV).
The Capture ELISA or Direct ELISA or sandwich test, a known antibody is adsorbed to the bottom of a well and incubated with a solution containing unknown antigen. After excess unbound components have been rinsed off, an enzyme-antibody indicator that can react with the antigen added. If antigen is present, it will attract the indicator-antibody and hold it in place. Next, the substrate to the enzyme is placed in the wells and incubated. Enzymes affixed to the antigen will hydrolyze the substrate and release a colored dye. Thus, any color developing in the wells is a positive result. Lack of color means that the antigen was not present and that capture technique is used to detect antibodies to hantavirus, rubella virus, and Toxoplasma.
A newer technology uses electronic monitors that directly read out antibody-antigen reactions. Without belaboring the technical aspects, these systems contain computer chips that sense the minute changes

ELISA test

2012-03-07T21:49:00.001+07:00

Elisa stand for Enzyme-linked immunosorbent Assay which also known as enzyme immunoassay (EIA), contains an enzyme-antibody complex that can be used as a color tracer for antigen-antibody reaction. The enzymes used most often are horseradish peroxidase and alkaline phosphatase, both of which release a dye (chromogen) when exposed to their substrate. This technique also relies a solid support such as a plastic micro titer plate that can absorb (attract on its surface) the reactants.

ក្រមសីលធម៌ឱសថការី

2012-03-01T23:26:00.001+07:00

ក្រមសីលធម៌ឱសថការី

១. និយមន័យក្រមសីលធម៌វិជ្ជាជីវៈឱសថ?

ចំៈ គឺជាកាតព្វកិច្ចដែលឱសថការីត្រូវបំេពញ ចំពោះអតិថិជន សហការី អ្នកផ្តល់សេវាខាភិបាល និស្សិត វិជ្ជាជីវៈ និង អាជ្ញាធរមានសមត្ថកិច្ចក្នុងការអនុវត្តវិជ្ជាជីវៈឱសថ។

២. លក្ខណៈខុសគ្នារវាង ក្រមសីមធម៌វិជ្ជាជីវៈ និងនិតិក្រម?

ចំៈ មាន៣ចំនុចៈ

- ការរៀបចំ៉ (development)៖

ក្រមសីលធម៌ត្រូវបានរៀបចំដោយគណៈឱសថការីកម្ពុជា (pharmacy professional ethic)

រីនិតិក្រមត្រូវបានរៀបចំដោយស្ថាប័ននិតិបញ្ញត្តិ ឬស្ថាប័ននិតិប្រតិបត្តិ

- ដែននៃការអនុវត្ត (the field of implementation)៖

ក្រមសីធម៌វិជ្ជាជីវៈត្រូវអនុវត្តចំពោះតែឱសថការីណាដែលប្រកបវិជ្ជាជីវៈឱសថ

រីនិតិក្រមត្រូវអនុវត្តចំពោះរូបវ័ន្តបុគ្គល (Physical person) និងនិតិបុគ្គល (ស្ថាប័នឬក្រសួង..)

- ទោសបញ្ញត្តិ

ការប្រព្រឹត្តល្មើសនិងក្រមសីលធម៌វិជ្ជាជីវៈ ត្រូវទទួលទោសដែលមានលក្ខណៈជាអង្គការវិន័យ ដែលវិនិច្ឆ័យដោយ ក្រុមប្រឹក្សាគណៈឱសថការី ដូចជាការស្តីបន្ទោស ការប្រមានជាលាយ លក្ខអក្សរ ការផ្ជួរសមាជិកភាពជាបណ្តោះ អាសន្ន និងការដកហូតសមាជិកភាពជាអចិន្ត្រៃ៌។

រីការប្រព្រឹត្តល្មើសនិងនិតិក្រមត្រូវផ្តន្ទាទោសដែលមានលក្ខណៈជាព្រហ្មទណ្ឌ ដូចជាការពិន័យជាប្រាក់ និង ជាប់ពន្ឋនាគារ។

៣. គោលដៅនៃក្រមសីលធម៌វិជ្ជាជីវៈគឺ

ដើម្បីលើកកំពស់ការទទួលខុសត្រូវរបស់ឱសថការី ក្នុងការប្រកបវិជ្ជាជីវៈឪសថ

ដើម្បីលើកំពស់គុណភាពសេវារបស់ឱសថការីចំពោះអតិថិជន រួមចំនែកក្នុងការថែរក្សាសុខភាពរបស់ប្រជាពល រដ្ឋ។

ដើម្បីពង្រឹងការទំនាក់ទំនងល្អរវាងអ្នកផ្តល់េសវាសុខាភិបាល

៤. កតព្វកិច្ចរបស់ឪសថការីចំពោះវិជ្ជាជីវៈឱសថ៖

ចំ

· ត្រូវប្រកបវិជ្ជាជីវៈដោយឈរលើស្មារតីទទួលខុសត្រូវ និង មានមនសិកា

· ចូលរួមក្នុងការអប់រំសុខភាព

· មិនត្រូវប្រកបអាជីវកម្ម ឬ ធ្វើសកម្មភាពណាដែលប៉ះពាល់ដល់វិជ្ជាជីវៈ

· ត្រូវប្រកបវិជ្ជាជីវៈ ដោយគោរពច្បាប់និងលក្ខ័ណបច្ចេកទេសដូចជា GMP, GPP, GSP(good storage practice) ...

· ត្រូវមានវត្តមាននៅគ្រឹះស្ថានឱសថដើម្បីទទួលខុសត្រូវ រួមទាំងបទល្មើសដែលប្រព្រឹត្តដោយសហការី។

· មិនត្រូវសំរួលដល់ការជួញដូរខុសច្បាប់

· ត្រូវរាយការណ៌ដល់គណៈឱសថការីអំពីការបើក ការបិទ ការប្តូរទីតាំង ការផ្លាស់អ្នក ទទួលខុសត្រូវបច្ចេកទេស

៤. កតព្វកិច្ចរបស់ឪសថការីចំពោះអតិថិជន

· ត្រូវចាត់ទុកសុខភាព និង សុវត្ថិភាពរបស់អតិថិជនជាបញ្ហាសំខាន់

· មិនត្រូវផ្តល់លិខិតបពា្ជាក់ ឬ វិញ្ញាបនប័ត្រ ដែលមិនពិតប្រាកដ ដើម្បីបំពេញចិត្តរបស់ អតិថិជន

· ត្រូវស្មោះត្រង់និយាយតែការពិត និងត្រូវរក្សាការសំងាត់របស់អតិថិជន

· មិនត្រូវណែនាំអោយប្រើប្រាស់ថ្នាំដែលគ្មានសុវត្ថិភាព ដូចជា ថ្នាំញៀន និងថ្នាំប្រព័ន្ឋសរសៃប្រសាទ

· មិនត្រូវទទួលអំណោយដែលគ្មានកិត្តិយស ផ្តល់ដោយក្រុមហ៊ុន សហគ្រាសផលិត សិស្សនិស្សិត ឬអតិថិជន

· ត្រូវគោរពសិទ្ឋរបស់អតិថិជនក្នុងការជ្រើសរើសសេវាសុខាភិបាលដែលគេទុកចិត្ត

· មិនត្រូវអូសទាញអតិថិជនដោយការប្រកួតប្រជែងមិនស្មោះត្រង់

· មិនត្រូវមានកិច្ចសន្យាឬកិច្ចព្រមព្រៀងណាមួយជាមួយវេជ្ជបណ្ឌិតដែលអាចប៉ះពាល់ដល់ផលប្រយោជន៌របស់អតិថិជន

· មិនត្រូវបពា្ចុះថ្លៃ ឬតម្លើងថ្លៃែដលមិនសមស្រប

· ត្រូវវត្តមានក្នុងឪសថស្ថានដើម្បីផ្តល់ឱសថ និងែណនាំដល់អតិថិជនដើម្បីប្រើប្រាស់ឱសថសមស្រប

· ត្រូវផ្តល់តែឪសថដែលមានគុណភាពល្អ ត្រឹមត្រូវ និង តម្លៃសមស្របពិសេសក្នុងករណីអ្នកជម្ងឺមកពិគ្រោះផ្ទាល់នៅឱសថស្ថាន

· ត្រូវប្រុងប្រយ័ត្នក្នុងការទិញឱសថដើម្បីទទួលបានឱសថពិត

· ត្រូវផ្តល់តែឱសថណាដែលពិត ឱសថមានចុះបញ្ជិការ ឱសថមិនផុតកំនត់ការប្រើប្រាស់ និងឱសថត្រឹមត្រូវ

· ក្នុងករណីមានការសង្ស័យលើចំនុចណាមួយក្នុងវេជ្ជបញ្ជារ ត្រូវសំុការបញ្ជាក់ពីគ្រូពេទ្យមុននឹងបញ្ចេញលក់ឱសថ

៦. កតព្វកិច្ចរបស់ឱសថការីចំពោះអាជ្ញាធរ (ក្រសួងសុខាភិបាល) :

ចំ

· ត្រូវទុកចិត្តនិងបង្កការងាយស្រួលដល់ភ្នាក់ងារត្រួតពិនិត្យក្នុងការបំពេញបេសកកម្ម

· ត្រូវគោរពដល់បទបញ្ជារនិងការណែនាំរបស់អាជ្ញាធរមានសមត្ថកិច្ច

· ត្រូវចូលរួមក្នងការប្រជំុឬសិក្ខាសាលា ដែលរៀបចំដោយអាជ្ញាធរមានសមត្ថកិច្ច

៧. គោលបំណងនសការបេង្កើតស្តីពីការបង្កើតគណៈឱសថការីកម្ពុជា

ចំ៉៖

· ដើម្បីប្រមូលផ្តុំឱសថការីដែលប្រកបវិជ្ជាជីវៈឱសថ និង វិជ្ជាជីវៈ Para clinic មន្ទីពិសោធន៌

· ដើម្បីធានាភាពគង់វង្សនិងប្រសិទ្ឋភាពវិជ្ជាជីវៈ

· ការពារសេចក្តីថ្លៃថ្នូរ និង ផលប្រយោជន៌ស្របច្បាប់នៃវិជ្ជាជីវៈ

· ត្រួតពិនិត្យការអនុវត្តក្រមសីលធម៌ក្នុងការប្រកបអាជីវកម្មឱសថ

៨. តួរនាទីនិងភារកិច្ច

· រៀបចំក្រមសីលធម៌ឱសថ

· ត្រួតពិនិត្យការអនុវត្តក្រមសីលធម៌វិជ្ជាជីវៈឪសថក្នុងការប្រកបអាជីវកម្មឪសថរបស់ឱសថការី

· ដើម្បីធានាភាពគង់វង្ស និង ប្រសិទ្ឋភាពវិជ្ជាជីវៈ

· ការពារឥស្សរភាព និង ភាពស្របច្បាប់នៃវិជ្ជាជីវៈ

· ផ្តល់យោបល់លើសេចក្តីព្រៀងច្បាប់ ឬ បទបញ្ជាណាមួយដែលពាក់ព័ន្ឋនិងវិជ្ជាជីវៈ ឱសថ

· ផ្តល់ការឧបត្ថម្ភ ផ្នែកហិរញ្ញវត្ថុដល់ឱសថការីដែលជួបការលំបាក

· រៀបចំបញ្ជីរឈ្មោះសមាជិកគណៈឱសថការីកម្ពុជា

៩. រចនាសម្ព័ន្តចាត់តាំងនៃគណៈឱសថការីកម្ពុជា

ចំ៖

· នៅមជ្ឈឹមគណៈឱសថការីកម្ពុជាដឹកនាំដោយក្រុមប្រឹក្សាគណៈឱសថការីជាតិ

· នៅភូមិភាគនិមួយៗគណៈឱសថការីកម្ពុជាដឹកនាំដោយក្រុមប្រឹក្សាគណៈឱសថការី ភូមិភាគ ដែលមានការិយាល័យនៅតាមខេត្ត សរុបទូទាំងប្រទេសមានក្រុមប្រឹក្សាគណៈឱសថការី ចំនួន៥ (ភូមិភាគ ១ ២ ៣ ៤ ៥)

· នៅតាមខេត្តនិមួយៗ ដែលមានឱសថការីលើសពី១០នាក់ គណៈឱសថការីកម្ពុជាត្រូវ បានដឹកនាំដោយក្រុមប្រឹក្សា គណៈឱសថការីេខត្ត។

១០. និតិវិធីបោះឆ្នោតជ្រើសរើសក្រុមប្រឹក្សាគណៈឱសថការីៈ

ចំ៖

· សមាជិកពេញសិទ្ធ និងសមាជិកជំនួសនៃក្រុមប្រឹក្សាគណៈឱសថការីជាតិ តំបន់ និង ខេត្តត្រូវបានជ្រើសរើសសំរាប់រយៈពេល៦ឆ្នាំម្តង ដោយការបោះឆ្នោតក្នុងសម័យប្រជំុ ពេញអង្គនៃគណៈឱសថការីកម្ពុជា

· សមាជិកនៃក្រុមប្រឹក្សាខេត្តត្រូវបានជ្រើសរើសក្នុងចំណោមឱសថការីនៃខេត្តសមីុ

· សមាជិកនៃក្រុមប្រឹក្សាភូមិភាគត្រូវបានជ្រើសរើសក្នុងចំណោមឱសថការីនៃខេត្តចំនុះ ឬក្រោមឱវាទ

· សមាជិកនៃក្រុមប្រឹក្សាគណៈឱសថការីជាតិត្រូវបានជ្រើសរើសក្នុងចំណោមឱសថការីតំណាងនៃខេត្តនិមួយៗ និងតំណាងរបស់នាយកដ្ឋានឱសថ របស់ក្រសួងសុខាភិ បាល និងមហាវិទ្យាល័យឱសថសាស្រ្ត

· សមាភាពក្រុមប្រឹក្សាជាតិ ក្រុមប្រឹក្សាភូមិភាគ និងក្រុមប្រឹក្សាខេត្ត ព្រមទាំងការិយា ល័យត្រូវផ្លាស់ប្តូរសមាជិក 1/3 រៀងរាល់២ឆ្នាំម្តងក្នុងចំណោមឱសថការីជំនួស

*ឱសថការីដែលប្រកបអាជិវកម្ម នៅេខត្តត្រូវសូមចូលជាសមាជិកនៅេខត្តនោះ*

បទបញ្ញត្តិ និង បទបញ្ជារ

១១. និយមន័យលិខិតក្បួនច្បាប់ ឬលិខិតបទដ្ឋានៈ (Rule)

ចំ៖ លិខិតក្បួនច្បាប់គឺជា បទបញ្ញត្តិ ឬបទបញ្ជារដែលប្រកាសឲអនុវត្តដោយ ស្ថាប័ននិតិ បញ្ញត្តិ ឬនិតិប្រតិបត្តិ ដែលគ្រប់រូបវ័ន្តបុគ្គល និងនិតិបុគ្គលត្រូវគោរព និងអនុវត្ត។

ឧទាហរណ៍ ច្បាប់ព្រះរាជក្រម ឬ ព្រះរាជក្រិត្យ អនុក្រិត្យប្រកាសដិការ សេចក្តីសំេរច សារាចរណ៍…

១២. និយមន័យបទបញ្ញត្តិ និងបទបញ្ជា និងឧទាហរណ៍ (legislation and regulation):

ចំ៖

· បទបញ្ញត្តិ គឺជាលិខិតក្បួនច្បាប់ដែលប្រកាសឲប្រើដោយព្រះមាហាក្សត្ស ឬ ប្រធានា ធិបតី រួមមានច្បាប់ព្រះរាជក្រម ព្រះរាជក្រិត្យ

· បទបញ្ជា ជាលិខិតក្បួនច្បាប់ដែលប្រកាសឲអនុវត្តដោយស្ថាប័ននិតិប្រតិបត្តិ (ដូចជា រាជរដ្ឋាភិបាល ក្រសួង អភិបាល េខត្តក្រុង)

ឧទាហរណ៍ៈ អនុក្រិត្រប្រកាសដិកា សារាចរណ៍ េសចក្តីសំេរច

១៣. និយមន័យ ច្បាប់ ព្រះរាជក្រម ព្រះរាជក្រិត្យៈ

· ច្បាប់ ជាលិខិតក្បួនច្បាប់ដែលមានអនុភាពខ្ពស់ជាងគេ អនុម័តដោយសមាជិករដ្ឋសភា លើសពី 51% លើសពី63នាក់ សមាជិករដ្ឋសភា លើសពី 51% (32នាក់) និងប្រកាសឲអនុវត្ត ឬដាក់ចូលជាធរ មានដោយព្រះមហាក្សត្រ។

· ព្រះរាជក្រម លិខិតតែងតាំងពីព្រះមហាក្សត្រដើម្បីតែងតាំងមន្រ្តីជាន់ខ្ពស់ដែលបោះ ឆ្នោតអនុម័តដោយរដ្ឋសភា ព្រឹទ្ធសភា ឬជាលិខិតប្រកាសឲអនុវត្តរបស់ព្រះមហា ក្សត្រ ចំពោះច្បាប់ណាមួយដែលបានអនុម័តដោយរដ្ឋសភា ព្រឹទ្ធសភា។

កំណត់សំគាល់ៈ ក្នុងប្រទេសដែលមានសង្គ្រាមដែលចំនួនសមាជិករដ្ឋសភាមិនអាចបំពេញ តាមលក្ខណ្ឌគោរម្យ2/3 ព្រះមហាក្សត្រជាអ្នកចេញព្រះរាជក្រមដែលមានអនុភាពខ្ពស់ដូចជា ច្បាប់ដែរដោយមិនចាំបាច់មានការអនុម័តពីរដ្ឋសភា និងព្រឹទ្ធសភា។

· ព្រះរាជក្រិត គឺជាលិខិតក្បួនច្បាប់ដែលមានអនុភាពទាបឬបន្ទាប់ពីច្បាប់ប្រកាសឲ អនុវត្តដោយព្រះមហាក្សត្រ (ចុះហត្ថលេខាយោងតាមសំនើររបស់រាជរដ្ឋាភិបាល ដោយពុំចាំបាច់ឆ្លងសម័យប្រជំុរដ្ឋសភា ព្រឹទ្ធសភា)។

ឧទាហរណ៍ៈ ព្រះរាជក្រិតស្តីពីការបង្កើតគណៈឱសថការីកម្ពុជា។

១៤. និយមន័យ អនុក្រិត្យ (sub degree)

ចំ៖

· អនុក្រិត ជាលិខិតក្បួនច្បាប់ដែលមានអនុភាពបន្ទាប់ពីព្រះរាជក្រិត្យ ប្រកាសឲអនុវត្ត ដោយនាយករដ្ឋមន្ត្រីដើម្បីគ្រប់គ្រងគ្រប់សកម្មភាពក្នុងប្រទេស

· ប្រកាស ជាលិខិតក្បួនច្បាប់ដែលមានអនុភាពបន្ទាប់ពីអនុក្រិិត្យប្រកាសឲអនុវត្ត ដោយរដ្ឋមន្រ្តី ដើម្បីគ្រប់គ្រងគ្រប់សកម្មភាពដែលស្ថិតនៅក្រោមសមត្ថកិច្ច របស់ក្រ សួង។

១៥.និយមន័យ ដិការ សេចក្តីសំេរច និង សារាចរណ៍ (Order, Decision, and Circular):

ចំ៖

· ដិការ ជាលិខិតក្បួនច្បាប់ដែលមានអនុភាពបន្ទាប់ពីប្រកាស ប្រកាសឲអនុវត្តដោយ អភិបាលខេត្ត-ក្រុងដើម្បីគ្រប់គ្រងគ្រប់សកម្មភាពដែលស្ថិតនៅក្រោមសមត្ថកិច្ចរបស់ខេត្ត-ក្រុងឬដើម្បីអនុវត្តលិខិតក្បួនច្បាប់របស់ថ្នាក់លើឲកាន់តែមានប្រសិទ្ធភាព

· សេចក្តីសំេរច មានពីរប្រភេទៈ សេចក្តីសំេរចរបស់រាជរដ្ឋាភិបាលដែលមានអនុភាព បន្ទាប់ពីអនុក្រិត្យ ប្រកាសឲអនុវត្តដោយនាយករដ្ឋមន្រ្តី, សេចក្តីសំេរចរបស់ក្រសួង ជាលិខិតក្បួនច្បាប់ដែលមានអនុភាពបន្ទាប់ពីប្រកាសឲអនុវត្តដោយរដ្ឋមន្រ្តី។

· សារាចរណ៍ មានបីរប្រភេទៈ សារាចរណ៍របស់រាជរដ្ឋាភិបាល គឺជាលិខិតក្បួនច្បាប់ ឬបទបញ្ជារដែលមានអនុភាពបន្ទាប់ពីសេចក្តីសំេរចរបស់រាជរដ្ឋាភិបាលប្រកាសឲអនុ វត្តដោយរដ្ឋាភិបាល (នាយករដ្ឋមន្រ្តី), សារចរណ៍របស់ក្រសួង គឺជាលិខិតក្បួនច្បាប់ ដែលមានអនុភាពបន្ទាប់ពីសេចក្តីសំរេចរបស់ក្រសួង និងប្រកាសឲអនុវត្តដោយក្រ សួង, សារារចរណ៍របស់ខេត្តក្រុង គឺជាលិខិតក្បួនច្បាប់ឬបទបពា្ជារ ដែលមានអនុភាពបន្ទាប់ពីដិការ និងប្រកាសឲអនុវត្តដោយអភិបាលខេត្តក្រុង។

១៦. រចនាសម្ព័ន្តនៃអំណាចរបស់កម្ពុជា (structure of country’s power of Cambodia)

ចំ៖ មានបីៈ

· អំណាចនិតិបញ្ញត្តិ (Legislation)តំណាងដោយរដ្ឋសភា

· អំណាចនិតិប្រតិបត្តិ (Executive power) តំណាងដោយរាជរដ្ឋាភិបាល, ក្រសួង លេធិការដ្ឋាន និងអាជ្ញាធរដែលស្ថិតនៅក្រោមឱវាទផ្ទាល់របស់រាជរដ្ឋាភិបាល

· អំណាចតុលាការ (Judicial power) តំណាងដោយតុលាការកំពូល តុលាកាឧទរ តុលាការខេត្តក្រុង

អំណាចទាំង៣នេះត្រូវបានគ្រប់គ្រងនិងសំរបសំរួលដោយព្រះមហាក្សត្រ

Have you ever think about the germs that around you everyday make your alive or die!

2012-02-27T20:32:00.000+07:00

I know if i mention about the germ you might focus only about it bad point. Yes in fact, Some of them are good and some are bad. Now I want to widen your knowledge about those little tiny things. You know! Microbes are so cute is you guy look deeply in it and try to understand about those life. It was like a miracle to found out about it. Let's start take a tour with me. Close your eyes and think through the following: inside your intestines, in your mouth and on your skin, there inside more than 100 000 000 000 000 microbial cells-100-fold more than the numbers of cells that make up the human body. We are not conscious of these colleagues any more than we are conscious of passing them round every time we shake hands, speak or touch a surface. Inoculation with just one microbes of the wrong type in the wrong way may kill you, yet we tolerate and indeed thrive on constant appropriate exposure to this unseen world.

Because microbes are generally hidden from our senses, an appreciation of microbiology and infection demands imagination. Our forebears who established the discipline lavished imagination on the problems they studied. Sadly it is lack of imagination that that now underpins serious problem such as hospital-acquired infection and antibiotic resistance.

Hard-won advances in microbiology have transformed the diagnosis, prevention and cure of infection and have made key contributions to improved human health and a doubling in life expectancy. The conquest of epidemic and fatal infections has sometimes seemed so conclusive that infections maybe dismissed as of minor concern to modern doctors in wealthy countries. However, infection is far from defeated. In resource-poor countries, an estimated 10 millions young children die each year from the effects of infectious diarrhea, measles, malaria, tetanus, diphtheria and whooping cough alone. Many other classical scourges, such tuberculosis, cholera, typhoid and leprosy, continue to take their role. Although we have the potential to prevent nearly all of those deaths, political and social issues constantly hinder progress, and more effective and economic means of delivery provide a constant challenge.

Even in wealthy nations, infections is still extremely common: at least a quarter of all illness for which patients consult their doctors in the UK are infective and around one in ten patients acquired infection while in hospital, sometimes with multi resistant organisms. Global communications and changes in production systems, particularly those affecting food, can have a profound effect on the spread of infectious diseases. The emergence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), new-variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD), severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), and avian influenza illustrate the need for continued vigilance.

The relative freedom of wealthy societies from fatal infections has been won through great struggles, which are all too easily forgotten. As generations grow up without the experience of loosing friends and relatives through infection. So the balance of perceived risk and benefit looks difference. So now, in addition to the old threats, which are ever present, we constantly face pressure to drop or modify measures such as public immunization. A historical understanding of infection status as is knowledge of contemporary progress.

In summary:

- Microbes are too small to be seen directly and special method are needed to investigate them. In daily life and in clinical practice we are forced to use our imagination to understand how our behavior influences and is influenced by them.

- Infections and microbes were considered as separate phenomena until the late nineteenth century when pasteur reconciled previous observations on the physical requirements for the transmission of infection with the nature of microbes and established the necessity of a chain of transmission in infection.

- Some infections can be prevented by interrupting transmission and/or by immunization.

- The role of specific microbes in specific infective conditions maybe established by propagating the microbe in pure laboratory culture and subsequently reproducing the disease in a suitable model.

- Molecular biology has opened up new ways of identifying microbes and establish microbes and establishing causality in infection.

- Transmission of infection is related to the resevior, immediate source and mode of transmission of the causal agent.

- Approximately 100 000 000 000 000 bacterial, fungal, and protozoan cells live on and in healthy human bodies. Most are harmless or even beneficial. Those that cause disease in otherwise healthy individuals are termed pathogens. The normal flora or microbiota constitutes the reservoir and immediate source for endogenous infection. Infections are termed endogenous infections.

- Many infections can now be treated with antimicrobial agents that posses selective toxicity. None the less, infection remains the most common cause of morbidly and premature death in the world.

KVCPharmaGROUP: Plasma VS Serum

2012-02-26T20:48:00.001+07:00

KVCPharmaGROUP: Plasma VS Serum: Serum Vs Plasma Not many of us have the slightest knowledge regarding blood serum vs plasma. Serum is plasma without clotting factors; where...

KVCPharmaGROUP: Blood types chart

2012-02-25T23:04:00.000+07:00

KVCPharmaGROUP: Blood types chart: Blood is the river of life, which courses through our bodies. It is the medium through which nutrients and oxygen are transported to each an...

Blood types chart

2012-02-25T23:03:00.000+07:00

Blood is the river of life, which courses through our bodies. It is the medium through which nutrients and oxygen are transported to each and every part of the body and waste is taken out. It also functions as the defense mechanism, through antigen mechanism present in red blood cells and the white blood cells. When blood transfusion, that is blood transfer from one man to another, was attempted, it was discovered that there are blood types! You cannot randomly transfer blood from one man to another without checking if their blood types match. This article explains why it's important to have a blood type test and how a blood group is determined. A ready reference in the form of a blood types chart has been provided, which indicates blood transfusion compatibility.

How is a Blood Type Determined?
Why are there blood types? How is a blood type determined? Before we talk about a blood types chart, let us find answers to these questions. To understand why there are blood types and how they are classified, one must understand what is blood made of. Blood is primarily made up of three components :

Plasma: It constitutes 55% of blood fluid and is made up of mostly water (about 90%), dissolved proteins, minerals, glucose, hormones, platelets and carbon dioxide
Red blood cells
White Blood Cells

The red blood cells primarily decide your blood type. The type is decided by certain inherited substances on the surface of red blood cells called 'Antibody Generators' or 'Antigens' for short. Anti bodies constitute the defense mechanism of the body. Antibodies are a sophisticated offensive mechanisms of the body against pathogens or germs. Like guided missiles, these antibodies are generated to exterminate specific target pathogens. The type of antigens that occur on your red blood cell surface are inherited from your mother and father. These antigens have the blueprint for creation of antibodies. For more information on this subject read on 'blood types explained'

So antigens are important parts of red blood cells and it is what determines a blood type. These antigens may be carbohydrates, glycoproteins, glycolipids or carbohydrate coatings on the red blood cells. One can classify blood into different types based on the presence or absence of these antigens on the red blood cells. There are 30 different blood classification systems or blood group systems based on the occurrence of different antigens.

ABO Blood Group System With Rh Factor
A complete blood group classification system will have to involve the recognition of about 30 types of antigens on the red blood cells. However the most widely used classification system is a combination of the ABO and the Rh (Rhesus Factor) classification systems. Under the ABO blood type classification system, blood type is decided by presence or absence of A-Antigens and B-Antigens. The Rhesus factor classification system is based on presence or absence of the Rhesus-D antigen. The blood types chart provided here is based on a combined ABO and Rhesus factor based system.

ABO blood group system.
Under the ABO blood group classification, there are four blood groups, as you can see in the illustration above. They are as follows:

Blood Type 'A': Red blood cells have the A-antigen which generates the Anti-B antibodies
Blood Type 'B': Red blood cells have the B-antigen and generate Anti-A antibodies
Blood Type 'AB': Red Blood cells have both, A-antigen and B-antigen but generate neither Anti-A nor Anti- B antibodies:
Blood Type 'O': Red Blood cells have neither A-antigen, nor B-antigen but generates both Anti-A and Anti-B antibodies

The Rhesus Factor
There is one more important antigen on the surface of red blood cells which also needs to be considered. It is called the Rhesus-D antigen. This antigen mechanism is again inherited from your mother or father. This adds another qualifier to a blood type under the ABO blood group classification system. A person with any of the four blood types may be Rhesus D positive (Rh+) or Rhesus D negative (Rh-). So that increases number of blood types to eight (A Rh+, A Rh-, B Rh+, B Rh-, AB Rh+, AB Rh-, O Rh+, O Rh-).

Although the antigen mechanism is inherited from your father and mother, it lies dormant until there is a need for it to get into action. The anti-A antibodies and Anti B-antibodies are created during the first months after birth, when an infant's gut is infected by bacteria, through food. The Rh-D antibody is generated through placental sensitization (that is when an Rh+ mother exchanges blood with the infant at birth) or through blood transfusion.

Compatible Blood Types Chart for Transfusion
The following blood types chart is intended to convey the compatibility issues during blood transfusion. The following blood types chart shows, which type of blood can be safely transfused to which other blood type. That is, it shows which blood types can be 'donors' to other type of blood type 'recipients'. There are three types of blood transfusions that can be made according to the blood components that are donated (Red Blood Cells, Plasma or Whole Blood). The compatibility for all three is different, as shown in the table below. Here the Rhesus factor is also taken into consideration.

Recipient's Blood Type	Red Blood Cell Donors	Whole Blood Donors	Plasma Donors
O Rh+	O Rh+, O Rh-	O Rh+, O Rh-	Any of types O, A, B or AB
O Rh-	O Rh-	O Rh-	Any of O, A, B or AB
A Rh+	A Rh+, A Rh-, O Rh+, O Rh-	A Rh+, A Rh-	Any of types A or AB
A Rh-	A Rh-, O Rh-	A Rh-	Any of types A, AB
B Rh+	B Rh+, B Rh-, O Rh+, O Rh-	B Rh+, B Rh-	Any of types B or AB
B Rh-	B Rh-, O Rh-	B Rh-	Any of types B or AB
AB Rh+	A Rh+, A Rh-, B Rh+, B Rh-, AB Rh+, AB Rh-, O Rh+, O Rh-	AB Rh+, AB Rh-	Any of type AB
AB Rh-	AB Rh-, A Rh-, B Rh-, O Rh-	AB Rh-	AB

Hope this blood types chart, discussing transfusion compatibility comes in handy. There are certain rare blood types which have certain rare antigens. A rare blood types chart is not provided here but for more on that read, 'Rare Blood Types'. If you compare blood types percentage around the world, O Rh+ blood type is the most common and AB Rh- is the rarest! As you can see in the blood types chart above, AB Rh+ is the universal recipient for red blood cells. O Rh-, although previously considered to be a universal donor of red blood cells, is no longer considered so, due to transfusion compatibility problems! Donate blood at least two times a year, as it can save lives of many people who are in need of it!

By Gray Pilgrim

http://www.buzzle.com/articles/blood-types-chart.html

The Classic Stage of Clinical Infections

2012-02-24T10:03:00.001+07:00

As the body of the host responds to the invasive and toxigenic activities of a parasite, it passes through four distinct phases of infection and disease: the incubation period, the prodromium, the period of invasion, and the convalescent period.
The incubation period is the time initial contact with the infectious agent (at the portal of entry) to the appearance of the first symptoms. During the incubation period period the agent is multiplying at the portal of entry but has not yet caused enough damage to elicit symptoms. Although this period is relatively well defined and predictable for each microorganism, it does vary according to host resistance, degree of virulence, and distance between the target organ and the portal of entry (the farther apart, the longer the incubation period). Overall, an incubation period can range from several hours in pneumonic plague to several years in leprosy. The majority of infections, however, have incubation periods ranging between 2 and 30 days.
The earliest notable symptoms of infection appear as a vague feeling of discomfort, such as head and muscle aches, fatigue, upset stomach, and general malaise. This short period (1-2days) is known as the prodromal stage. The infectious agent next enters a

2012-02-23T00:49:00.001+07:00

ការផ្តល់ដង្ហើមសិប្បសិម្មិត

2012-02-20T22:03:00.000+07:00

របៀបផ្តល់ដង្ហើមសិប្បនិមិ្មត

អ្នកនឹងអាចជួបនូវហេតុការណ៌ជាយថាហេតុដែលតម្រូវអោយអ្នកធ្វើការសង្គ្រោះជនរងគ្រោះជា បន្ទាន់តាមដែលអ្នកអាចធ្វើ បាន!

ការរផ្តល់ដង្ហើមសិប្បនិម្មិត គេអាចធ្វើសូម្បីតែនៅពេលជនរងគ្រោះនៅដង្ហើមខ្សោយផ្តឹកៗមិនទាន់ ដាច់ខ្យល់ក៏អាចធ្វើបានដែរ។ នៅពេលអ្នកផ្តល់ដង្ហើមសិប្បនិម្មិត អ្នកត្រូវផ្លុំខ្យល់ដង្ហើមចេញអោយ ស្របនិងការដកដង្ហើមរបស់ជនរងគ្រោះ។

ជំហានទី១

· ដាក់ជនរងគ្រោះអោយដេកផ្ងា មុខឡើងលើ

· ការឆ្លើយតប-តើជនរងគ្រោះដឹងខ្លួនរឺទេ?

· ពិនិត្យមើលចលនាដើមទ្រូងដាក់ត្រចៀករបស់អ្នកលើមាត់របស់ជនរងគ្រោះ ដើម្បីពិនិត្យមើលដង្ហើម។

· ហៅរកជំនួយ។

ជំហានទី២

លើកចង្កាឡើង បើសិន ក ជនរងគ្រោះគ្មានរបួស

· ផ្អៀងក្បាលជនរងគ្រោះដើម្បី “ហិតក្លិន” (មានក្លិនអ្វីចេញមករឺទេ) ដោយយកដៃម្ខាង ទៀតទ្រ ក របស់គាត់ចុះ ក្រោម។

· សង្កត់អណ្តាត និងចង្ការបស់ជនរងគ្រោះនៅចន្លោះម្រាមដៃរបស់អ្នក រួចជូតសំអាត វត្ថុដែលនៅជាប់ក្នុងមាត់របស់គាត់ចេញដោយប្រើម្រាមដៃ និង កូនកន្សែងដៃហើយ ពិនិត្យមើលអណ្តាតរបស់គាត់កុំឲធ្លាក់ទៅក្រោយ។

ជំហានទី៣

ច្របាច់ច្រមុះជនរងគ្រោះឲជិតរួចដកដង្ហើមរបស់អ្នកឲវែង ដាក់មាត់របស់អ្នកជាប់ពីលើមាត់របស់ ជនរងគ្រោះ ហើយផ្លុំខ្យល់ដង្ហើមបញ្ចូលមាត់របស់គាត់ ២ដងយ៉ាងលឿនជាប់ៗគ្នា។ បើសិនកូនក្មេង ដាក់មាត់របស់អ្នកពីលើច្រមុះ និងមាត់របស់គេ។

ជំហានទី៤

ដក់មាត់អ្នកចេញពីមាត់របស់ជនរងគ្រោះ។ ក្រលេកមើលទ្រូងរបស់គាត់ អ្នកអាចសង្កេតឃើញថា ចលនាដើមទ្រូងរបស់គាត់ធ្លាក់ចុះវិញ ហើយស្តាប់សំលេងខ្យល់ស្ទុះចេញមក។ អ្នកទទួលអារម្មណ៌ ថាខ្យល់ដង្ហើមរបស់គាត់ប៉ះមុខរបស់អ្នក។ បើសិនគ្មានទេ ចូរព្យាយាមបពា្ចូលខ្យល់តាមមាត់របស់ គាត់ម្តងទៀត។ ម្តងនេះត្រូវបញ្ចូលខ្យល់អោយខ្លាំងជាងមុន។ បើសិនជាទ្រូងរបស់គាត់នៅតែមិនធ្វើ ចលនាឡើងទេ នោះបំពង់ខ្យល់របស់គាត់អាចនឹងស្ទះហើយ។ បើសិនជនរងគ្រោះជាកូនក្មេង ទះ ខ្លាំងៗនៅចន្លោះស្មា ហើយសំអាតវត្ងុដែលធ្វើអោយស្ទះចេញពីមាត់របស់គេ។ បើសិនជនរងគ្រោះជា មនុស្សធំ ធ្វើវិធីប្រើកំលាំងជំរុញចុងដង្ហើម (Heimlich maneuver) (នឹងមានប្រាប់ពីវិធីនេះនៅអត្ថបទ ក្រោយ)។

ជំហានទី៥

បន្តផ្លុំខ្យល់បញ្ចូលសួតជនរងគ្រោះរាល់ប្រាំនាទីម្តង (ម្តងៗផ្លុំ ១២ ទៅ ១៤ដងក្នុងមួយនាទី) រហូត ទាល់តែជនរងគ្រោះដកដង្ហើមបានដូចធម្មតា ឬរហូតដល់ក្រុមសង្គ្រោះបន្ទាន់មកដល់។

ប្រយ័ត្នៈ នៅពេលដែលអ្នកបញ្ចូលខ្យល់ដង្ហើមមាត់ទល់នឹងមាត់ទៅលើទារក ឬក្មេងតូចៗ ចូរចាំថា ប្រហោងសួតរបស់គេតូចណាស់។ កំុផ្លុំខ្យល់ចូលសួតរបស់គេតឹងខ្លាំងពេក។ លោកអ្នកដកដង្ហើម បំពេញក្នុងថ្ពាល់របស់អ្នកប៉ុណ្ណោះ។ ផ្លុំបញ្ចូលខ្យល់តិចៗ ហើយសំឡឹងមើលទ្រូងរបស់គេឡើងចុះ។ បើផ្លូវខ្យល់ស្ទះចាប់ជើងរបស់ក្មេង លើកឡើងលើ ហើយទះនៅចន្លោះស្មារបស់គេ៕

ឯកសារយោងៈ សៀវភៅវេជ្ជសា្រស្តគ្រួសារ