Materials Review

Steel making : start to finish

2012-03-24T08:21:00.001+07:00

To know the step by step of steel making started from iron making during raw material (iron ore, scrap) and casting process to process the raw material become molten and the end product is a slab, steel making starting from reheating. rolling, this step to process slab to flat product like hot rolled coil (HRC) or long product like billet.

The sqeuence of the steel making process we can know from below video:

The end product from steel making are flat product then processed to finish product like pipe, beam, sheet pile etc. and long product to become finish product like bar for steel construction.

Privacy Policy for materialsreview.blogspot.com

2012-03-24T06:22:00.001+07:00

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NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 - Petroleum and natural gas industries-Materials for use in H2S-containing environments in oil and gas production

2012-03-20T14:51:00.000+07:00

NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 as international standard which in harmonizing between NACE (National Association for Corrosion Engineer) and ISO (the international organization for Standardization). These standard was prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 67, Materials, equipment and offshore structures for petroleum and natural gas industries.

NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 as first edition was issued on 2001 has general title Petroleum and natural gas industries-Materials for use in H2S-containing environments in oil and gas production. Consist of the following part:

- Part 1: General principles for selection of cracking-resistant materials

- Part 2: Cracking-resistant carbon and allow steels

- Part 3: Cracking-resistant CRAs (corrosion-resistant alloys) and other alloys

This part of standard describe general principles and give requirements and recommendations for the selection and qualification of metallic materials for service in equipment used in oil and gas production and in natural gas sweetening plants in h2S-containing environments, where the failure of such equipment could pose a risk to the health and safety of the public and personnel or to the environment. This standard also can be applied to avoid cost due to corrosion damage to the equipment itself such as line pipe, valve etc.

As part of materials selection to determine the service is in sour or sweet condition can be obtained by use the actual data from the field especially H2S content to get h2S partial pressure which limited in 0.05 psi more than this pressure categorized as sour service condition. Designing of material selection shall consider the material such carbon steel or corrosion alloy which can withstand to sour gas condition. To know that materials which will be used as part of the equipment based on this standard also give recommendation such kind of testing which shall be conducted to determine the resistant of steel during exposed on H2S gas without crack which exceeding from acceptance criteria. The kinds of testing which normally applied are Hydrogen Induced Cracking (HIC) and Sulfide Stress Corrosion Cracking (SSCC) with the test method refers to NACE TM 0284 and NACE TM 0177 respectively.

Duplex Stainless Steel

2012-03-19T06:36:00.000+07:00

Duplex stainless steel mean that mixed micro structure of about equal portion of austenite and ferrite. Duplex are family of grade combining good corrosion resistance with high strength and easy fabrication.

Modern duplex steels can be divided into five groups:

Lean duplex such as 2304, which contains no deliberate Mo additions;

Standard duplex such as 2205, the workhorse grade accounting for more that 80% of duplex use

Super duplex by definition is a duplex stainless steel has 25% chromium or more and have pitting corrosion equivalent (PRE) > 40, PRE = %Cr + 3.3(%Mo+0.5%W) + 16(%N). Common examples are S32760 (Zeron 100), S32750 (2507) and S32550 (Ferralium), but not all ferralium are super duplex grade.

Hyper duplex, defined as a highly alloyed duplex stainless steel with PREN in excess of 45

Base on microstructure view, by adding nickel the crystallographic structure change from ferritic body-center cubic (BCC) to austenitic face-center cubic (FCC) at least 6% nickel.

Increasing the nickel content change the microstructure of stainless steel from feritic to duplex to austenite.

Especially for super duplex stainless steel below a video which will help to understand its materials was made.

Some application of duplex are fitting, steel pipe, marine chemical tank.

For more in detail explanation regarding duplex stainless steel may find in link below:

Practical Guidelines for the Fabrication of Duplex stainless steel

Open Access Journal

2012-03-18T04:38:00.000+07:00

Once again I inform open access journal related to International Journal of Engineering, science and Metallurgy.

The aim of this journal is a refereed peer reviewed open access international journal with a key objective to provide the academic and industrial community a medium for presenting original cutting edge research.

Scope of this journal consist of :

Mechanical Engineering

Civil Engineering

Applied Biosciences

Other Engineering Fields

As informed from this journal the benefit for publishing with IJSM: no processing charges, no longer waiting time, no per page charges. The frequency of publication is 4 issues in a year.

Please checkout in : www.ijesm.com

or other material media online may be found here

How To Make Diamond

2012-03-17T08:45:00.001+07:00

Did you know, how a diamond was made? detail what is diamond have explained in previous post "Diamond"
Now I want to share a video how a diamond was made.

As we know the element of diamond same as if a wood was burn become charcoal, but the diamond have receipt very hard process with high pressure and temperature become diamond.

New material: the lightest material invented

2012-03-16T11:39:00.000+07:00

Researcher from HRL Laboratories Limited liability Company , USA and Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, USA and Division of Engineering and Applied Sciences, California Institute of technology, Pasadena, USA have collaborated to invention the lightest material which called “ Ultralight Metallic Microlattices”.

The material was categorized as ultralight if the density <10 milligrams per cubic centimeter. Some application of these material are thermal insulation for cellular, battery electrodes, catalyst support, and acoustic, vibration, or shock energy damping.

These material fabricated by starting template formed by self-propagating photopolymer wave guide prototyping, coating the template by electroless nickel plating. The researches claim that the density of material was 0.9 milligram per cubic centimeter even Styrofoam is 100 times heavier than it is describe Science 18 November 2011.

The material as seen in the picture above is made of 90 % nickel. The researcher informed that the material, extraordinarily strong and shock-absorbent, is like feather floats down, and its terminal velocity depends on the density. When dropped for shoulder high it takes 10 seconds to touch the ground.

Open Access and Journal of Applied Polymer

2012-03-15T06:01:00.002+07:00

The Journal of Applied Polymer science is the largest scientific publication in polymer science, over a million articles can download per year. However, even the Journal of Applied Polymer cannot reach everyone, especially in today’s interdisciplinary research environment. We appreciate that authors might want to make their articles accessible to as vast readership as possible.

The journal of Applied Polymer Science is as part of Wiley Online Open which make author possible to making their articles. The articles can downloaded with have an “unlocked padlock” symbol and will be free to access even for non-subscribers.

The choice to go online open is entirely the author’s, and it can be made at acceptance of the article by filling and submitting the Wiley Online Open form. The process is therefore completely transparent to the editors and referees handling the manuscript, and whether an author chooses Online open or not has no influence on the peer review process.

In addition, online open papers authored by NIH grantees are automatically included in PubMedCentral, aside from being indexed in all the other databases that the journal of applied polymer science is listed in.

Capture First-Ever images of Atoms Moving In a Molecule

2012-03-14T19:08:00.003+07:00

Vibration of two atoms in a molecule was recorded real time image using new ultrafast camera by researchers in Columbus-Ohio.

As mentioned in issue of the journal Nature, is the usage of energy of molecule’s own electron as a kind of “flash bulb” to illuminate the molecular motion.

The team used ultrafast laser pulses to knock one electron out of its natural orbit in a molecule. The electron then fell back toward the molecule scattered off of it, analogous to the way a flash of light scatters around an object, or a water ripple scatters in a pond.

“Through these experiment, we realized that we can control the quantum trajectory of the electron when it comes back to the molecule, by adjusting the laser that launches it, “ said Lois Dimauro, who is a professor of physic at Ohio State. “The next step will be to see if we can steer the electron in just the right way to actually control a chemical reaction.”

A technique called laser induced electron diffraction (LIED) is commonly used surface to study solid materials. Here, the researchers used it to study the movement of atoms in a single molecule.

The molecule they choose to study were simple ones: N2, O2 are common atmospheric gases, and scientist already know every detail of their structure, so these two very basic molecules made a good test for the LIED method.

In each case, the researchers hit the molecule with laser light pulses of 50 fem to seconds, or quadrillionths of a second. They were able to knock a single electron out of the outer shell of the molecule and detect the scattered signal of the electron as it re-collided with the molecule.

The key, explained Blaga (Postdoctoral researcher Ohio State), is that during the brief span of time between when the electron is knocked out of the molecule and when it re-collides, the atoms in molecules have moved. The LIED method can capture this movement, “similar to making a movie of the quantum world”.

Ultimately, this research is to really understand how chemical reaction take place. And the greater impact to science will come when can study reactions between more complex molecules.

Open access journal publishing

2012-03-14T13:45:00.000+07:00

Journal of Cheminformatics is an open access journal publishing original peer-reviewed research in all aspects of cheminformatics and molecular modelling.

Coverage includes, but is not limited to:

· chemical information systems, software and databases, and molecular modelling

· chemical structure representations and their use in structure, substructure, and similarity searching of chemical substance and chemical reaction databases

· computer and molecular graphics, computer-aided molecular design, expert systems, QSAR, and data mining techniques

Please visit to: http://www.jcheminf.com

Developing of Composite Materials

2012-03-14T12:58:00.001+07:00

Find out NASA and Industry developing composite material to change our world.

And here new composite material was invented.

Invention: Self-replicating materials

2012-03-13T14:37:00.001+07:00

"While nature teems with organisms that readily reproduce, no one has yet succeeded in making an artificial material that can repeatedly copy itself," say Paul Chaikin and colleagues at New York University, US. They want to change all that using micrometre-scale particles that, when in solution, self-organise into units able to reproduce.

Their idea, described in a new patent application, is based on the fact that sequences of DNA can be designed to recognise and bond with each other. By carefully designing these sequences, it is possible to build structures from them - for example, microscopic relief maps of the Americas.

Chaikin and colleagues point out that these techniques can be used to build with micrometre-sized particles of plastic, glass or metal, by coating them with DNA. Using the right sequences, they can induce such particles to assemble themselves into complex objects.

These assemblies can in turn self-replicate by corralling other DNA-tagged particles into more versions of the same thing. Heating and cooling the mixture can forge or break the DNA bonds, and chemicals can be used to modify the binding sequences in between each round of replication so as to produce very complex structures.

The ability to create new materials in this way could provide new routes to building regular structures like those used in microelectronics. Or it could produce entirely new materials, such as photonic crystal that control the movement of light through them in a way akin to how electricity flows through a semiconductor.

The team say the idea is particularly well suited to colloids - micrometre-sized particles suspended in a fluid. Experiments on colloids have proved that self-replication is possible, they say. By tagging colloid particles with a range of DNA coatings that fluoresce at different wavelengths, they were able to see how a mixture gradually turned into a collection of ordered lines of particles after a self-replicating "seed" structure was added.

Detail can be clicks to : http://www.newscientist.com

Materials Engineering, Science, Processing and Design

2012-03-11T18:51:00.002+07:00

Science-led or Design-led? Two approaches to materials teaching

Most things can be approached in more than one way. In teaching this is especially true. The way to teach a foreign language, for example, depends on the way the student wishes to use it—to read the literature, say, or to find accommodation, order meals and buy beer. So it is with the teaching of this subject.

The traditional approach to it starts with fundamentals: the electron, the atom, atomic bonding, and packing, crystallography and crystal defects. Onto this is built alloy theory, the kinetics of phase transformation and the development of microstructure on scales made visible by electron and optical microscopes. This sets the stage for the understanding and control of properties at the millimeter or centimeter scale at which they are usually measured. The approach gives little emphasis to the behavior of structures, methods for material selection, and design.

The other approach is design-led. The starting point is the need: the requirements that materials must meet if they are to perform properly in a given design. To match materials to designs requires a perspective of the range of properties they offer and the other information that will be needed about them to enable successful selection. Once the importance of a property is established there is good reason to ‘drill down’, so to speak, to examine the science that lies behind it—valuable because an understanding of the fundamentals itself informs material choice and usage.

There is sense in both approaches. It depends on the way the student wishes to use the information. If the intent is scientific research, the first is the logical way to go. If it is engineering design, the second makes better sense. This book follows the second.

What is different about this book?

There are many books about the science of engineering materials and many more about design.

What is different about this one?

First, a design-led approach specifically developed to guide material selection and manipulation.

The approach is systematic, leading from design requirements to a prescription for optimized material choice. The approach is illustrated by numerous case studies. Practice in using it is provided by Exercises.

Second, an emphasis on visual communication and a unique graphical presentation of material properties as material property charts. These are a central feature of the approach, helpful both in understanding the origins of properties, their manipulation and their fundamental limits, as well as providing a tool for selection and for understanding the ways in which materials are used.

Third, its breadth. We aim here to present the properties of materials, their origins and the way they enter engineering design. A glance at the Contents pages will show sections dealing with:

• Physical properties

• Mechanical characteristics

• Thermal behavior

• Electrical, magnetic and optical response

• Durability

• Processing and the way it influences properties

• Environmental issues

Here link for download:

http://www.ziddu.com/download/18826432/MaterialsEngineeringScienceProcessingandDesign.pdf.html

Physics of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials

2012-03-11T18:50:00.002+07:00

The first accounts of magnetism date back to the ancient Greeks who also gave magnetism its name. It derives from Magnesia, a Greek town and province in Asia Minor, the etymological origin of the word “magnet” meaning “the stone from Magnesia.” This stone consisted of magnetite and it was known that a piece of iron would become magnetized when rubbed with it.

More serious efforts to use the power hidden in magnetic materials were made only much later. For instance, in the 18th century smaller pieces of magnetic materials were combined into a larger magnet body that was found to have quite a substantial lifting power. Progress in magnetism was made after Oersted discovered in 1820 that a magnetic field could be generated with an electric current. Sturgeon successfully used this knowledge to produce the first electromagnet in 1825. Although many famous scientists tackled the phenomenon of magnetism from the theoretical side (Gauss, Maxwell, and Faraday) it is mainly 20th century physicists who must take the credit for giving a proper description of magnetic materials and for laying the foundations of modem technology. Curie and Weiss succeeded in clarifying the phenomenon of spontaneous magnetization and its temperature dependence. The existence of magnetic domains was postulated by Weiss to explain how a material could be magnetized and nevertheless have a net magnetization of zero. The properties of the walls of such magnetic domains were studied in detail by Bloch, Landau,and Néel.

Magnetic materials can be regarded now as being indispensable in modern technology. They are components of many electromechanical and electronic devices. For instance, an average home contains more than fifty of such devices of which ten are in a standard family car. Magnetic materials are also used as components in a wide range of industrial and medical equipment. Permanent magnet materials are essential in devices for storing energy in a static magnetic field. Major applications involve the conversion of mechanical to electrical energy and vice versa, or the exertion of a force on soft ferromagnetic objects. The applications of magnetic materials in information technology are continuously growing.

In this treatment, a survey will be given of the most common modern magnetic materials and their applications. The latter comprise not only permanent magnets and invar alloys but also include vertical and longitudinal magnetic recording media, magneto-optical recording media, and head materials. Many of the potential readers of this treatise may have developed considerable skill in handling the often-complex equipment of modern information technology without having any knowledge of the materials used for data storage in these systems and the physical principles behind the writing and the reading of the data. Special attention is therefore devoted to these subjects.

Although the topic Magnetic Materials is of a highly interdisciplinary nature and combines features of crystal chemistry, metallurgy, and solid state physics, the main emphasis will be placed here on those fundamental aspects of magnetism of the solid state that form the basis for the various applications mentioned and from which the most salient of their properties can be understood.

It will be clear that all these matters cannot be properly treated without a discussion of some basic features of magnetism. In the first part a brief survey will therefore be given of the origin of magnetic moments, the most common types of magnetic ordering, and molecular field theory. Attention will also be paid to crystal field theory since it is a prerequisite for a good understanding of the origin of magnetocrystalline anisotropy in modern permanent magnet materials. The various magnetic materials, their special properties, and the concomitant applications will then be treated in the second part.

You need those e-book please download to below link:

http://www.ziddu.com/download/18825219/PhysicsOfMagnetismAndMagneticMaterials.pdf.html

The Future of Protective Coating

2012-03-11T18:49:00.003+07:00

While the use of protective coatings is becoming more and more important to prevent the metal from degradation due to corrosion, there have been change drastically both paint and the protective coating industries.

Environment become more extreme such as air pollution, hazardous waste disposal etc. followed by rate of corrosion also increase, existing protective coating need to be improved to protect the metal from extreme environment.

The variety of materials within a coating and the in-numerable conditions under which it must performed thus give rise to hundred of different types of coatings. Each variation is developed to address differences in material, application, or use. Todays concept " anyone can paint and brush" was obsolete. Coating are vital to protection of all types of structure used by society which are, in themselves, becoming more complex and subject to increasingly more corrosive environments. Thus, coatings are becoming so vital to their protection that they should be considered an actual part of the structure and not simply a last-minute detail.

Even more variables are introduced by the drying process. Industrial product finishes have been developed to limit many of the draying variables by controlling the type of application and the speed and temperature at which the coating is cured. Unfortunately, most industrial coatings are applied to structure where the curing of the coating cannot be accurately controlled. This is usually due to variables such as weather, humidity, surface condition, the type of substrate, surface cleanliness, application technique. It may also be necessary to deal with a rather wide variety of coatings, which often dry in radically different ways, affecting the final film.

Cathodic Disbondment Testing

2012-03-11T18:48:00.003+07:00

Cathodic Disbondment Testing is one of test method to evaluate the long-term performance of coating which protecting metal pipe going into underground pipelines.

Corrosion reaction which happened on metal surface under coating layer will cause the cathodic delamination which effect to destruction of adhesion between a coating and the coated surface.

Cathodic Disbondment Test (less disbondment) means that have better corrosion resistance and longevity.

Many standards which develop as test method for Cathodic Disbondment Testing with some different variable. Standard for CDT are ASTM G8, ASTM G42, ASTM G95, CSA Z245.20, ISO 15711, AS3862, NF A 49-711. Different standard have some different variable detailed as below:

Standard	Voltage [V]	Temperature [^oC]	Solution [aqueous]	Duration [days]
ASTM G8	1.5	RT	Triple solution	Selection
ASTM G42	1.5	Selection	Triple solution	30
ASTM G80	1.5	RT	Triple solution	60
ASTM G95	1.5	RT	3% NaCl	90
CSA Z2.45.20	1.5 or 3.5	Selection	3% NaCl	Selection
ISO 15711	1.05	RT	Sea water	182
AS 3862	3 mA	Selection	3% NaCl	Selection
NF A 49-711	1.5	Selection	3% NaCl	Selection

Notes: 1. Triple solution is 1/1/1 % solution of NaCl, Na₂SO₄, Na₂CO₃

2. Selection means multiple choices

3. Artificial sea water used

Lightest vs Strongest Materials

2012-03-11T18:47:00.001+07:00

Incredible discovery have been found the lightest and the strongest material in the world, please enjoy the below video which give inspiration for developing others material.

The combination of both material properties (light and strength) is very useful especially for aerospace material.

Free Access Journal

2012-03-11T18:46:00.000+07:00

I found free access journal in many categorize such as agriculture, biology, coating etc. which you can enjoy as reference for you research, job,or you update knowledge.

You just search to : www.mdpi.com

MDPI is a publiser of peer-reviewd, open access journal since its establishment in 1996

Please enjoyed.

Concise Dictionary of Materials Science Structure and Characterization of Polycrystalline Materials

2012-03-11T18:43:00.000+07:00

My experience during study for graduates and postgraduates, and consulting to industry convinced

me that one of the main problems in reading the specialized literature on materials science is a particular kind of language barrier. In fact, the number of terms in the specialized literature is four to five times greater than in the textbooks and other educational aids. However, there appears to be no reference source available to help overcome this difficulty. Another problem, especially for self-educated readers, is establishing interrelations between the phenomena the terms denote. The available reference handbooks, containing mostly the definitions, offer little in the way of help. This book is designed to solve both problems: it bridges the terminological gap between the textbooks and professional literature while also affording the reader a coherent idea of structure formation and evolution.

Undergraduate, graduate, and postgraduate students studying materials science and engineering at universities and colleges, as well as members of training and refresher courses, will find this book invaluable. At the same time, it will be useful to research and technological personnel in metallurgical and metalworking industries. The book will offer great help to material-oriented physicists, researchers, and

engineers developing crystalline materials for electronic applications. Moreover, chemists and engineers involved in microstructure research and the design of crystalline ceramics will discover a great deal of information usually lacking in textbooks, dictionaries, and reference books on ceramics.

The concise dictionary is also recommended as a reliable guide to nontechnical readers, such as managers, marketing and purchasing specialists, economists, insurance experts, and anyone else interested in materials science and engineering.

Please click to link below:

http://www.ziddu.com/download/18825280/ov-ConciseDictionaryofMaterialsScienceCRC19994AH.pdf.html

Crack Tip Opening Displacement Testing (CTOD)

2012-03-11T18:39:00.002+07:00

Test Objective

Charpy V-notch testing enables engineers to make judgments about risks of brittle fracture

occurring in steels but a CTOD test measures a material property- fracture toughness.

Fracture toughness data enables engineers to carry out fracture mechanics analyses such as:

calculating the size of a crack that would initiate a brittle fracture under certain stress conditions at a particular temperature
the stress that would cause a certain sized crack to give a brittle fracture at particular temperature

This data is essential for making an appropriate decision when a crack is discovered during inspection of equipment that is in-service.

Test Specimens

A CTOD specimen is prepared as a rectangular (or square) shaped bar cut transverse to the axis of the butt weld. A V-notch is machined at the center of the bar, which will be coincident with the test position - weld metal or HAZ.

A shallow saw cut is then put into the bottom of the notch and the specimen is then put into a machine that induces a cyclic bending load until a shallow fatigue crack initiates from the saw cut. The specimens are relatively large – typically having a cross section B x 2B and length ~10B (B = full thickness of the weld). The test piece details are shown in the schematic below.

Fig.1. Proportional rectangular cross section CTOD specimen

Test Method

CTOD specimens are usually tested at a temperature below ambient and the temperature of the specimen is controlled by immersion in a bath of liquid that has been cooled to the required test temperature. A load is applied to the specimen to bend cause bending and induce a concentrated stress at the tip of the crack and a clip gauge, attached to the specimen across the mouth of the machined notch, gives a reading of the increase in width of the mouth of the crack as the load is gradually increased. For each ‘test condition’ (position of notch and

test temperature) it is usual practice to carry out three tests.

The schematics below illustrate the main features of the CTOD test.

Fig.2. Typical test arrangement. The specimen can be easily immersed in a cooling bath

Fig.3. Position of CTOD specimen immediately prior to crack propagation

Fracture toughness is expressed as the distance that the crack tip opens without initiation of a brittle crack. The clip gauge enables a chart to be generated showing the increase in width of the crack mouth against applied load from which a CTOD value is calculated.

Acceptance Criteria

An application standard or Client may specify a minimum CTOD value that indicates ductile tearing. Alternatively, the test may be ‘for information’ so that a value can be used for an engineering critical assessment. A very tough steel weldment will allow the mouth of the crack to open widely by ductile tearing at the tip of the crack whereas a very brittle weldment will tend to fracture when the applied load is quite low and without any extension at the tip of the crack. CTOD values are expressed in millimetres - typical values might be << ~ 0.1mm = brittle behaviour; > ~1mm = very tough behaviour.

The Piping Material Selection Guide for Process System

2012-03-11T18:35:00.002+07:00

The Piping Material Selection Guide for Process System, as the title states, is guide for the piping engineer who is faced with the challenge of choosing the correct piping materials of construction.

The list of codes and standard in ASME B31.3 that apply to process plant design is huge, and it is impossible to cover them all in one book.

The Piping Material Selection Guide for Process System is written to be useful to all piping engineers and designers invloved in the design, construction, and commisioning of oil, gas, and petrochemical facilities.

This book also brief which include in piping material selection which include:

The piping material engineer
Process industry Codes and Standards
Materials
Piping components
Joints for process piping Systems
Bolts and gaskets
Valve

Very interesting book which written by Peter Smith and published by Elsevier with 356 pages.

Please click to below link:

http://www.ziddu.com/download/18825415/Elseviers_PipingMaterialsGuide.pdf.html

Diamond

2012-03-11T18:32:00.000+07:00

Natural history

The formation of natural diamond requires very specific conditions-exposure of carbon-bearing materials to high pressure, ranging approximately between 45 and 60 kilobars (4.5 and 6 GPa, but at a comparatively low temperature range between approximately 900–1300 °C. These conditions are met in two places on Earth; in the lithospheric mantle below relatively stable continental plates, and at the site of a meteorite strike. How the diamond process made can view in interesting video" How Make Diamond".

Diamonds are formed over a period of a billion or more years deep within earth’s crust – about 150km (90 miles) deep – and is pushed to the surface by volcanoes. Most diamonds are found in volcanic rock, called Kimberlite, or in the sea after having been carried away by rivers when they were pushed to the surface.

Material Properties

A diamond is a transparent crystal of tetrahedrally carbon atoms (sp3) that crystallizes into the diamond lattice which is a variation of the face centered cubic structure. Diamonds have been adapted for many uses because of the material's exceptional physical characteristics. Most notable are its extreme hardness and thermal conductivity (900–2,320 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹), as well as wide bandgap and high optical dispersion. Above 1,700°C (1,973 K / 3,583 °F) in vacuum or oxygen-free atmosphere, diamond converts to graphite; in air, transformation starts at ~700 °C. Diamond's ignition point is 720 - 800 °C in oxygen and 850 - 1,000 °C in air. Naturally occurring diamonds have a density ranging from 3.15–3.53 g/cm³, with pure diamond close to 3.52 g/cm³. The chemical bonds that hold the carbon atoms in diamonds together are weaker than those in graphite. In diamonds, the bonds form an inflexible three-dimensional lattice, whereas in graphite, the atoms are tightly bonded into sheets, which can slide easily over one another, making the overall structure weaker.

Theoretically predicted phase diagram of carbon

Diamond and graphite are two allotropes of carbon: pure forms of the same element that differ in structure.

The largest diamond

The world’s largest diamond was the Cullinan, found in South Africa in 1905. It weighed 3,106.75 carats uncut. It was cut into the Great Star of Africa, weighing 530.2 carats, the Lesser Star of Africa, which weighs 317.40 carats, and 104 other diamonds of nearly flawless color and clarity. They now form part of the British crown jewels.

The Cullinan was three times the size of the next largest diamond, the Excelsior, which was also found in South Africa. The world’s largest documented polished diamond – unearthed in 1986, also in South Africa – is called Unnamed Brown. It weighs 545 carats and was cut down from a 700 carat rough diamond. It took an international team of expert cutters 3 years to complete the masterpiece. Another impressive diamond that also took 3 years to cut, and also is part of the British crown jewels, is the Centenary Diamond. It weighs 273.85 carats and is the world’s largest flawless diamond.

The biggest diamond in the entire universe is thought to be Lucy, a crystallized white dwarf star, a star consisting of diamonds. It’s weight is 10 billion trillion trillion carat. Named after the Beatles song, Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds, it is technically known as BPM 37093.

Diamond colors

Not all diamonds are white. Impurities lend diamonds a shade of blue, red, orange, yellow, green and even black. Vivid blue, green and pink mined diamonds are the rarest. They are not the rarest gemstones, however. That title goes to a pure red ruby. Diamonds actually are found in abundance; thousands are mined every year. 80% of them are not suitable for jewelery – they are used in industry or in cheap rings.

Synthetic diamonds

Late in the 19th century, Scottish scientist James Ballantyne Hannay mixed lithium with bone oil and paraffin, sealed it in iron tubes and heated it to red hot. He claimed, in 1879, the resultant stones were diamonds. They were stored away and only many years later they were found to be diamonds, albeit synthetic. In 1892, Henri Moissan theorized that diamonds could be synthesized by crystallizing carbon under pressure. Today, synthetic diamonds is big business, outselling mined diamonds by far. Sometimes called cubic zirconia and synthetic moissanite, they are categorized and evaluated with the same grading scale process as mined diamonds but sell for much less. Synthetic moissanite is a diamond simulant with similar thermal characteristics to mined diamonds and most people, even so-called experts, can’t tell them apart.

Weighing diamonds

A diamond carat differs from a gold carat. The gold carat indicates purity – pure gold being 24 carats. One diamond carat, for mined or synthetics diamonds, is 200 milligrams (0.007055 oz). The word carat derives from the carob bean. Gem dealers used to balance their scales with carob beans because these beans all have same weight.

Lucy, the biggest diamond in the universe 2 485 miles (4000 km) across, 10 billion trillion trillion carat

The colorless Cullinan, the biggest diamond ever found on earth, weighed 0,62kg (one and a quarter pound) uncut - it can be replicated easily synthetically

The tradition of a diamond engagement ring started in 1477 when Archduke Maximillian of Austria gave a diamond ring to Mary of Burgundy. The modern tradition is the result of a clever advertising campaign designed by N.W.Ayer in the 1940s, a marketing gimmick still used today. The fact is that most diamonds have little resale or investment value. Diamonds also cause the death of millions of innocent people.

Influence of The Substitution of Mn and Ti on Magnetic And Microwave Absorption Properties of Strontium Hexaferrite Material

2012-03-11T18:29:00.000+07:00

M-type hexaferrite, with chemical formula of MeFe₁₂O₁₉ (Me = Ba, Sr and Pb) have been widely used as permanent magnet with great technical importance attracted an extensive attention for the last few decades. The increase in electromagnetic pollution due to the rapid development of gigahertz (GHz) electronic systems and telecommunications has resulted in a growing and intense interest in electromagnetic-absorber technology. Electromagnetic interference (EMI) can cause severe interruption of electronically controlled systems. It can cause device malfunctions, generate false images, increase clutter on radar and reduce performance because of system-to-system coupling. Recent developments in microwave absorber technology have resulted in materials that can effectively reduce the reflection of electromagnetic signals on the one hand, and have good physical performance and lower production cost on the other. There have been several reports regarding the use of ferrite materials for microwave absorbers. Spinel Mn-Zn type ferrite magnet is now widely used for application in microwave with lower frequencies (1-3 GHz). As compared to the usual spinel ferrites, the hexaferrites with planar magnetic anisotropy are of great interest for use as electromagnetic energy dissipation in the GHz range. Barium ferrite powders are ideal fillers for the development of electromagnetic attenuation materials at microwave, due to their low cost, low density, high stability, large electrical resistivity and high microwave magnetic loss. Whereas Garnet type is used for the applications in higher frequencies ( ~ 6 GHz) [6]. Even much higher frequencies absorber materials such as Radar employing hexagonal magnetic ferrites like SrFe₁₂O₁₉. Recently, several techniques have been developed to prepare intrinsic and doped hexagonal ferrites for recoding application and for microwave devices.

Latest research has been conducted by Tri Wahono and Azwar Manaf from Materials Science, Department of Mathematic and Natural Science, University of Indonesia, Indonesia. They are report on the relationship between magnetic properties and microstructure for SrO.6Fe_2-(x+y)Mn_xTi_yO₃ .

Strontium hexaferrite with nominal compositions SrO.6Fe_2–(x+y) MnxTiyO3(x = 0, y =0; x = 0.4, y = 0.6; x = 0.5, y = 0.5; x = 0.6, y = 0.4) have been synthesized by solid state reaction (mechanical milling). The four component powders were SrCO₃, Fe₂O₃, MnCO₃, and TiO₂ mixed with High Energy Milling for 10 hours and sintered at 1050°C in the air at atmosphere pressure for 15 hour and furnace cooling. X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM) and vector network analyzer were used to analyze its structure, electromagnetic and microwave absorption properties. The result showed that, phase identification by refinement results of XRD pattern confirmed single phase was obtained for Mn-Ti substituted SrO.6Fe₂O₃ with x = y and multiphase formed for x ¹ y. The microstructure analyses by SEM showed that the varied particle sizes of 2 ~ 5 mm. Evaluation on the magnetic characteristic indicated that coercivity decreased as the number of Mn²⁺ and Ti⁴⁺ ions increased but significant decrease in saturation magnetization obtained for Mn and Ti substitution with x ¹ y. Present investigation demonstrates that microwave absorber, reflection and transmission as well as reflection loss in the frequency range 7–16 GHz were derived. Absorption performance of Mn and Ti substituted strontium hexaferrite are also reported.

Designing Superhard Materials

2012-03-11T17:54:00.002+07:00

Designing Superhard Materials which predicted by Richard B. Kaner was possible to be developed . Ultrahard materials are used in many applications, from cutting and polishing tools to wear-resistant coatings. Diamond remain the hardest known material, despite years of synthetic and theoretical efforts to improve upon it. However, even diamond has limitations. It is not effective for cutting ferrous metals, including steel, because of a chemical reaction that produce iron carbide. Cubic boron nitride-the second hardest material, with a structure analogous to that of diamond-can be used to cut ferrous metals. However, it does not occur naturally and must be synthesized under conditions of extreme pressure and temperature, making it quite expensive. New super hard materials are thus not only of great scientific interest, but also could be very useful.

To design new super hard materials, we must understand what makes diamond special, In diamond, tetrahedrally bonded sp3 carbon atoms form a three-dimensional, covalent network of high symmetry. Other carbon based materials have shorter and stronger carbon bonds, but not in three dimensions. Example, the trigonal sp2 bonds in graphite form sheets with shorter and stronger carbon-carbon bonds. But only weak van der Walls interaction hold the sheets together, allowing layers of graphite to cleave readily. A three-dimensional network composed of short, strong bonds is thus critical for hardness.

In thinking about new ultra hard materials, It is useful to consider the types of structural change that a material can undergo under load. These changes can be divided into elastic (reversible) and plastic (irreversible) deformation.

A material is considered stiff if it is difficult to compress elastically. A material is considered hard if it resist plastic deformation.

The effort to design super hard material can be divided into two main approaches, first, light element, including boron, carbon, nitrogen, and/or oxygen, are combined to form short covalent bonds. Second, elements with very high densities of valence electrons are included to ensure that the materials resist being squeezed together.

Toward super hard materials. By combining metals with a high density of valence electron, such as osmium, iridium, or rhenium, with small, covalent bond-forming atoms such as boron, ultra-incompressible, hard material may be created. Mixed metals, as orthorhombic structure predicted for (Os,ir)B2, can act as barriers to the movement of dislocations.

7.	Recent developments in cathode materials for lithium ion batteries • Journal of Power Sources, Volume 195, Issue 4, February 2010, Pages 939-954 Fergus, J.W.
8.	The surface science of titanium dioxide Surface Science Reports, Volume 48, Issue 5-8, January 2003, Pages 53-229 Diebold, U.

9.	Graphene-based polymer nanocomposites Polymer, Volume 52, Issue 1, January 2011, Pages 5-25 Potts, J.R.; Dreyer, D.R.; Bielawski, C.W.; Ruoff, R.S.
10.	Fabrication and processing of polymer solar cells: A review of printing and coating techniques Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, Volume 93, Issue 4, April 2009, Pages 394-412 Krebs, F.C.

11.	Chitosan-A versatile semi-synthetic polymer in biomedical applications Progress in Polymer Science, Volume 36, Issue 8, August 2011, Pages 981-1014 Dash, M.; Chiellini, F.; Ottenbrite, R.M.; Chiellini, E.
12.	Polymer nanoparticles: Preparation techniques and size-control parameters Progress in Polymer Science, Volume 36, Issue 7, July 2011, Pages 887-913 Rao, J.P.; Geckeler, K.E.

13.	Lithium batteries: Status, prospects and future Journal of Power Sources, Volume 195, Issue 9, May 2010, Pages 2419-2430 Scrosati, B.; Garche, J.
14.	Graphene and graphite nanoribbons: Morphology, properties, synthesis, defects and applications Nano Today, Volume 5, Issue 4, August 2010, Pages 351-372 Terrones, M.; Botello-Mendez, A.R.; Campos-Delgado, J.; Lopez-Urias, F.; Vega-Cantu, Y.I.; Rodriguez-Macias, F.J.; Elias, A.L.; Munoz-Sandoval, E.; Cano-Marquez, A.G.; Charlier, J.C.; Terrones, H.

15.	Combinatorial performance characteristics of agitated nickel hypophosphite electroless plating baths Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Volume 211, Issue 9, September 2011, Pages 1488-1499 Bulasara, V.K.; Thakuria, H.; Uppaluri, R.; Purkait, M.K.
16.	Chitin and chitosan polymers: Chemistry, solubility and fiber formation Progress in Polymer Science, Volume 34, Issue 7, July 2009, Pages 641-678 Pillai, C.K.S.; Paul, W.; Sharma, C.P.

1.	Graphene based materials: Past, present and future Progress in Materials Science, Volume 56, Issue 8, October 2011, Pages 1178-1271 Singh, V.; Joung, D.; Zhai, L.; Das, S.; Khondaker, S.I.; Seal, S.
2.	TiO"2 photocatalysis and related surface phenomena Surface Science Reports, Volume 63, Issue 12, December 2008, Pages 515-582 Fujishima, A.; Zhang, X.; Tryk, D.A.

3.	Synthesis and surface engineering of iron oxide nanoparticles for biomedical applications Biomaterials, Volume 26, Issue 18, June 2005, Pages 3995-4021 Gupta, A.K.; Gupta, M.
4.	Synthesis of graphene-based nanosheets via chemical reduction of exfoliated graphite oxide Carbon, Volume 45, Issue 7, June 2007, Pages 1558-1565 Stankovich, S.; Dikin, D.A.; Piner, R.D.; Kohlhaas, K.A.; Kleinhammes, A.; Jia, Y.; Wu, Y.; Nguyen, S.T.; Ruoff, R.S.

5.	Carbon nanotube-polymer composites: Chemistry, processing, mechanical and electrical properties Progress in Polymer Science, Volume 35, Issue 3, March 2010, Pages 357-401 Spitalsky, Z.; Tasis, D.; Papagelis, K.; Galiotis, C.
6.	Recent advances in graphene based polymer composites Progress in Polymer Science, Volume 35, Issue 11, November 2010, Pages 1350-1375 Kuilla, T.; Bhadra, S.; Yao, D.; Kim, N.H.; Bose, S.; Lee, J.H.

17.	A review on polymer nanofibers by electrospinning and their applications in nanocomposites Composites Science and Technology, Volume 63, Issue 15, November 2003, Pages 2223-2253 Huang, Z.-M.; Zhang, Y.-Z.; Kotaki, M.; Ramakrishna, S.
18.	Transparent conductors as solar energy materials: A panoramic review Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, Volume 91, Issue 17, October 2007, Pages 1529-1598 Granqvist, C.G.

19.	Biodegradable polymers as biomaterials Progress in Polymer Science, Volume 32, Issue 8-9, August 2007, Pages 762-798 Nair, L.S.; Laurencin, C.T.
20.	Solar photovoltaic electricity: Current status and future prospects Solar Energy, Volume 85, Issue 8, August 2011, Pages 1580-1608 Razykov, T.M.; Ferekides, C.S.; Morel, D.; Stefanakos, E.; Ullal, H.S.; Upadhyaya, H.M.

21.	An overview of graphene in energy production and storage applications Journal of Power Sources, Volume 196, Issue 11, June 2011, Pages 4873-4885 Brownson, D.A.C.; Kampouris, D.K.; Banks, C.E.
22.	A review on highly ordered, vertically oriented TiO"2 nanotube arrays: Fabrication, material properties, and solar energy applications Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, Volume 90, Issue 14, September 2006, Pages 2011-2075 Mor, G.K.; Varghese, O.K.; Paulose, M.; Shankar, K.; Grimes, C.A.

23.	One-dimensional conducting polymer nanocomposites: Synthesis, properties and applications Progress in Polymer Science, Volume 36, Issue 5, May 2011, Pages 671-712 Lu, X.; Zhang, W.; Wang, C.; Wen, T.C.; Wei, Y.
24.	Carbonaceous nanomaterials for the enhancement of TiO"2 photocatalysis Carbon, Volume 49, Issue 3, March 2011, Pages 741-772 Leary, R.; Westwood, A.