All About Cancer

Vulvar Cancer

2009-08-13T20:08:00.000-07:00

Vulvar cancer is a rare type of cancer that affects vulva of women. Not to be confused with the vagina, the vulva encompasses the labia majora and labia minora, folds of skin that protect the vaginal and urethral openings.

There are several types of vulvar cancer, but squamous cell vulvar carninoma is most common. It accounts for more than 90% of diagnosed cases. Melanoma of the vulva is the second most common and represents about 5% of women with vulvar cancer. Other types include Paget's Disease of the vulva, vulvar adenocarcinoma, and basal cell carcinoma, but these are much less common.

Causes and Risk Factors of Vulvar Cancer

Although researchers have yet to pinpoint the exact causes of vulvar cancer, they have identified known risk factors for the disease. Vulvar cancer risk factors include:

being infected with the human papillomavirus (HPV)
being infected with HIV
having lichen sclerosis, a skin condition that affects the vulva
smoking
family history of melanoma
being 70 or over (vulvar cancer, however, can be diagnosed in younger women)

Symptoms of Vulvar Cancer

In the early stages, vulvar cancer rarely has any symptoms. As the disease progresses, vulvar cancer symptoms include:

lump or bump on the vulva
vulvar itching, burning, or sensitivity
pain during urination
change in the texture of the vulva
mole on the vulva or change on existing mole
bleeding not related to your menstrual cycle

These vulvar cancer symptoms are not exclusive to vulvar cancer and can be related to another, less serious condition. Reporting symptoms early to your doctor may aid in early detection.

Diagnosis of Vulvar Cancer

The first step in diagnosing vulvar cancer is for your doctor to be be aware of any symptoms you may be experiencing. Symptoms may be what prompt women to see their doctor, but signs of vulvar cancer can be detected through routine pelvic exams, even if a woman is not experiencing any noticeable symptoms.

Women can also monitor by their vulvar health by regularly doing vulvar self exams at home. Doing these exams regularly helps a woman to understand her anatomy, learn what is normal for her vulva, and over time, possible abnormal changes that could indicate an abnormality.

A biopsy is be needed to confirm the presence or absence of cancer. During a vulvar biopsy, the doctor removes a small sample of vulvar tissue to be sent to a pathology lab for screening. If a biopsy reveals cancer, the disease is then staged. Staging refers to how far the cancer has spread to nearby tissues or organs. Other tests used in diagnosing vulvar cancer may include:

cystoscopy
proctoscopy
x-ray examination of the lungs
intravenous urography (as needed)

Treatment of Vulvar Cancer

Vulvar cancer treatment plans heavily depend on the stage of cancer and general health. Three methods are used to treat vulvar cancer: surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy.

Surgery. Surgery is the most common type of vulvar cancer treatment. One type of surgery, local excision, involves removal of cancerous tissue along with a margin of healthy tissue surrounding it. Lymph nodes may removed as well.

Another surgical procedure, a vulvectomy, is another option for some women. A vulvectomy is the removal of all or part of the vulva and is reserved for more advanced cases of vulvar cancer. For women who have undergone aggressive vulvectomy surgeries, vaginal reconstruction surgery may be available using plastic surgery techniques and skin grafts. Chemotherapy. Chemotherapy may be an option for some women with vulvar cancer. It is often prescribed along with radiation therapy to either increase the effectiveness of radiation therapy or to help shrink a large tumor prior to surgery. It may also be given as adjuvant therapy to prevent recurrence.

Radiation Therapy. Radiation therapy is also an option for treating vulvar cancer. This type of treatment uses certain types high energy beams of radiation to shrink tumors or eliminate cancer cells. Radiation therapy works by damaging a cancer cell's DNA, making it unable to multiply. Although radiation therapy can damage nearby healthy cells, cancer cells are highly sensitive to radiation and typically die when treated. Healthy cells that are damaged during radiation are resilient and are often able to fully recover.

Vulvar Cancer Prevention

While there are no guaranteed prevention methods for vulvar cancer, there are several things we can do to reduce our risk of developing the disease. Ways to reduce our risk include:

Reducing Your HPV Risk. Limiting your exposure to the human papillomavirus (HPV) may also decrease the risk of vulvar cancer. HPV is a common sexually transmitted virus that in some cases, when left undetected or untreated, may progress into cervical cancer. It's role in the development of many other cancers, including vulvar cancer, is being investigated.

Avoid Smoking. Since we know that tobacco use is linked to some types of gynecologic cancer, avoiding smoking is a good risk reduction strategy. Quitting smoking may reduce your risk of not only gynecologic cancers like vulvar cancer, but many other types of diseases and conditions as well.

Getting Regular Pelvic Exams. Having a regular pelvic exam is extremely important, even if you are not experiencing any symptoms. A pelvic exams allows your doctor to look for abnormalities that may require further evaluation.

If you are experiencing symptoms, report them to your doctor right away. Do not wait until your next pelvic exam to do so. A pre-cancerous vulvar condition called vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN) may be able to be detected and treated prior to progressing to vulvar cancer, but only if screened by a doctor.

Vaginal Cancer

2009-08-13T20:06:00.000-07:00

Vaginal cancer is a rare type of cancer that forms in the vaginal tissue in women. Not to be confused with the vulva, the vagina is the narrow, elastic canal that extends from the cervix to the outside of the body. It is about 2 to 4 inches long. It is also referred to as the birth canal.

Causes and Risk Factors of Vaginal Cancer

Although researchers cannot pinpoint exactly what causes vaginal cancer, they have identified several known risk factors for the disease. A risk factor is something that increases the likelihood that you may develop a disease, but is not a guarantee you will get it. Risk factors for vaginal cancer include:

HPV infection
DES exposure (synthetic estrogen given to women before 1971 during pregnancy to prevent miscarriage, but ultimately causing health risks to the expectant mother and daughters/son they carried)
diagnosed with cervical cancer
use of a vaginal pessary
smoking
HIV/AIDS infection

Vaginal Cancer Symptoms

In the early stages, vaginal cancer does not usually causes any noticeable symptoms. As the disease progresses, symptoms begin to appear. Symptoms of vaginal cancer include abnormal vaginal bleeding or discharge, pelvic pain, a lump, bump, or lesion in the vagina, and pain during sexual intercourse.

These symptoms are not exclusive to vaginal cancer; in fact, they are symptoms of other, less serious conditions.

Diagnosing Vaginal Cancer

If vaginal cancer is suspected, further evaluation is necessary to confirm the absence or presence of cancer. Findings from a pelvic exam and/or Pap smear are usually the first evaluations to raise red flags.

A colposcopy may then be done to allow the doctor to view the cervix and vaginal walls more closely. A colposcopy utilizes a microscope-like instrument called a colposcope to look for abnormalities. During the colposcopy, a vaginal biopsy may be done on any suspicious areas. A biopsy involves removing a sample of tissue to be studied under a microscope. A vaginal biopsy is done very quickly and usually does not require an anesthetic.

If the biopsy confirms cancer, the stage of the disease will be determined. Staging refers to a categorization of how far the cancer has spread to nearby tissues. If advanced cancer is suspected, further medical testing may be necessary to determine the stage of the cancer.

Treatment of Vaginal Cancer

Your treatment plan depends on the type of vaginal cancer, stage, and general health. The primary treatment methods for vaginal cancer are surgery and radiation therapy.

Vaginal cancer surgery varies among diagnosed women. The type of surgery chosen weighs heavily on the size and stage of the tumor. Smaller, early stage vaginal cancer may only require laser or wide local excision surgery to remove cancerous tissue, while more more advanced cases may require more aggressive surgical therapy, like a radical vaginectomy (surgical removal of part or all of the vagina). This may be in addition to a radical hysterectomy and lyphadenectomy (removal of nearby lymph nodes).

Radiation therapy is also an option for treating vaginal cancer. This type of treatment uses certain types high energy beams of radiation to shrink tumors or eliminate cancer cells. Radiation therapy works by damaging a cancer cell's DNA, making it unable to multiply. Although radiation therapy can damage nearby healthy cells, cancer cells are highly sensitive to radiation and typically die when treated. Healthy cells that are damaged during radiation are resilient and are often able to fully recover.

Two primary types of radiation therapy are external beam radiation therapy and internal beam radiation, also called brachytherapy. In vaginal cancer, external beam radiation is much more common than internal beam radiation.

Chemotherapy is a treatment option for some women with vaginal cancer, but it is much less commonly used than surgery and radiation. It is given to women who suffer from advanced stage vaginal cancer and is often in conjunction with radiation therapy.

Prevention of Vaginal Cancer

Because we don't know the exact causes of vaginal cancer, the best defense we have against the disease is to avoid the risk factors. Keep in mind that some women with vaginal cancer do not have any risk factors for the disease, so it cannot be prevented in all cases.

To reduce your risk of developing vaginal cancer, you should avoid becoming infected with HPV. Limiting the amount of sexual partners you have and insuring your partner wears a condom during intercourse are excellent ways to limit your exposure to the virus. Another way to prevent HPV is to get vaccinated with Gardasil, the FDA approved HPV vaccine. The vaccine protects against two strains of HPV associated with cervical cancer, but may also provide protection against HPV related vaginal cancer. The vaccine is currently available to girls as young as 9 through women up to age 27.

Another way to reduce your risk of vaginal cancer is to avoid smoking.If you don't smoke, don't start and if you do smoke, remember that it is never too late to quit. Avoiding tobacco products not only will help you to prevent vaginal cancer, it will help you prevent many other types of diseases and conditions as well.

Finally, getting a regular Pap smear is vital to your gynecologic health. While the Pap smear is best known for detecting abnormal cervical changes, it may be able to detect changes in vaginal cells that could progress into vaginal cancer if left undetected. Unfortunately, this is not true for all types of vaginal cancer.

_{Sources:

American Cancer Society. Detailed Guide: Vaginal Cancer. 12 July 2006. Accessed 15 July 2008.} _{National Cancer Institute. Vaginal Cancer (PDQ®): Treatment; 23 May 2008. Accessed 15 July 2008.}

Uterine Cancer

2009-08-13T20:04:00.000-07:00

Uterine cancer is a type of cancer that affects the uterus in the female reproductive system. Cancer most commonly develops in the endometrium of the uterus, resulting in endometrial cancer, the most prevalent type of uterine cancer. Much less commonly, cancer develops in the muscles and other tissues that support the uterus. When this occurs, it is called a uterine sarcoma. Less than 5% of uterine cancers are sarcomas.

Causes and Risk Factors for Uterine Cancer

Unfortunately, we cannot pinpoint what causes uterine cancer, but we are aware of risk factors that may increase the likelihood of it developing. Uterine cancer most often occurs in women who are post-menopausal, regardless of what type of uterine cancer. Younger women can develop the disease, but much less often than women who have gone through menopause.

In cases of uterine sarcomas, we know that prior pelvic radiation therapy treatment may increase the risk in some women. It is also evident that uterine sarcomas occur more frequently in African-American women than Caucasians, though the reason is unclear.

Fortunately, we know more about endometrial cancer than we do about uterine sarcomas. Researchers have identified several known risk factors, including:

never being pregnant
beginning menstruation before age 12 and continuing through age 50 or more
being diabetic
obesity
use of estrogen replacement therapy (ERT)
personal or family history of breast or ovarian cancer
use of Tamoxifen, a breast cancer treatment drug

One thing to keep in mind with uterine cancer risk factors is that some women who are at increased risk never will have uterine cancer, while some women who do not present any risk do develop uterine cancer.

Symptoms of Uterine Cancer

The most common symptom of uterine cancer is vaginal bleeding that occurs after menopause. In women who have yet to go through menopause, vaginal bleeding not related to menstruation is experienced. Vaginal bleeding is considered abnormal when:

periods are heavy and prolonged
heavy spotting occurs between periods
more than one period in a cycle month
bleeding occurs before and/or after sex
bleeding occurs in women who are post-menopausal

Symptoms of uterine sarcoma include vaginal bleeding after menopause, spotting between periods, and a watery, vaginal discharge that may be blood tinged. In the early stages of uterine sarcoma, there may not be any noticeable symptoms.

With endometrial cancer, the most common and first experienced symptom in abnormal vaginal bleeding. Other symptoms include a watery vaginal discharge, pain during sexual intercourse, and pelvic pain.

Diagnosing Uterine Cancer

If uterine cancer is suspected, a thorough pelvic exam will first be done by a gynecologist. This is an excellent time to discuss personal and family medical history, symptoms, and to ask questions. If you haven't had a recent Pap smear and are due for one, the gynecologist may do one at this along with the pelvic exam. Pap smears very rarely ever detect uterine cancer, but one may be done to rule out other cervical conditions.

To confirm the presence or absence of cancer, an endometrial biopsy is necessary. An endometrial biopsy can be done in the gynecologist's office and takes only a few moments to complete. Most women report feeling moderate pain and cramping that lasts only through the biopsy and some mild cramping following the biopsy.

Another method of obtaining endometrial tissue samples is through a dilation and curettage (D&C). During a D&C, the uterus is scraped with a instrument called a curette. You are given an anesthetic so you will not feel anything during the procedure, but you can expect mild cramping afterwards.

If biopsy samples reveal uterine sarcoma or endometrial cancer, then the cancer is staged. Staging refers to how far the cancer has spread to nearby tissue or organs.

Treating Uterine Cancer

Treatment options heavily depend on the type and stage of uterine cancer, but surgery is the most common type of treatment for all types. It is also when some cases of uterine cancer is staged. Surgery to treat uterine cancer includes:

hysterectomy - surgical removal of the uterus
hysterectomy with bi-lateral salpingo oopherectomy - surgical removal of the uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries
lymph node dissection - removal of pelvic lymph nodes during hysterectomy that are later screened for cancer

Radiation therapy is also an option for treating uterine cancer. This type of treatment uses certain types high energy beams of radiation to shrink tumors or eliminate cancer cells. Radiation therapy works by damaging a cancer cell's DNA, making it unable to multiply. Although radiation therapy can damage nearby healthy cells, cancer cells are highly sensitive to radiation and typically die when treated. Healthy cells that are damaged during radiation are resilient and are often able to fully recover.

Chemotherapy may be prescribed to treat uterine cancer in some women. Chemotherapy drugs work by eliminating rapidly multiplying cancer cells. However, there are other healthy cells in the body that multiply just as quickly, such as hair follicle cells. Unfortunately, many chemotherapy drugs may not be able to discern the two, attacking healthy cells and causing side effects, such as hair loss.

Preventing Uterine Cancer

Because we don't know exactly what causes uterine cancer, prevention can be difficult. We can avoid the the known the risk factors, but many times there are risk factors we cannot avoid like age, race, and family history.

It is difficult to prevent uterine sarcomas because the risk factors are unavoidable. We know that prior radiation therapy may increase the risk, but it should not be avoided for the sake of uterine cancer prevention.

Since we know more about what increases the risk of endometrial cancer, risk reduction methods are more plentiful. Long-term use of oral contraceptives and maintaining a healthy weight are both methods is reducing your risk of developing endometrial cancer. Because endometrial cancer is fueled by estrogen, using a hormone replacement therapy during menopause that contains progestin along with estrogen may decrease a woman's risk. This type of hormone therapy does have side effects and is not for everyone.

Even with endometrial cancer, you cannot avoid risk factors like previous tamoxifen use to treat breast cancer. A physician or patient would never reject the use of tamoxifen based on the slight risk of developing endometrial cancer in the future. The risk simply does not outweigh the benefits.

Sources: American Cancer Society. What is Uterine Sarcoma? A Detailed Guide. !9 June 2006. Accessed August 10, 2008.
http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content

Thyroid cancer

2009-08-13T20:01:00.000-07:00

Definition

Thyroid cancer is a cancerous growth of the thyroid gland.

Alternative Names

Tumor - thyroid; Cancer - thyroid

Causes

Thyroid cancer can occur in all age groups.

People who have had radiation therapy to the neck are at higher risk. Radiation therapy was commonly used in the 1950s to treat enlarged thymus glands, adenoids and tonsils, and skin disorders. People who received radiation therapy as children are at increased risk for getting thyroid cancer.

Other risk factors are a family history of thyroid cancer and chronic goiter.

There are several types of thyroid cancer:

Anaplastic carcinoma (also called giant and spindle cell cancer) is the most dangerous form of thyroid cancer. It is rare, and does not respond to radioiodine therapy. Anaplastic carcinoma spreads quickly and invades nearby structures such as the windpipe (trachea), causing breathing difficulties.
Follicular carcinoma accounts for about 30% of all cases and is more likely to come back and spread.
Medullary carcinoma is a cancer of non-thyroid cells that are normally present in the thyroid gland. This form of the thyroid cancer tends to occur in families. It requires different treatment than other types of thyroid cancer.
Papillary carcinoma is the most common type, and usually affects women of childbearing age. It spreads slowly and is the least dangerous type of thyroid cancer.

Symptoms

Cough
Difficulty swallowing
Enlargement of the thyroid gland
Hoarseness or changing voice
Neck swelling
Thyroid lump (nodule)

Note: Symptoms may vary depending on the type of thyroid cancer

Exams and Tests

A physical examination can reveal a thyroid mass or nodule (usually in the lower part of the front of the neck), or enlarged lymph nodes in the neck.

Tests for thyroid cancer:

Elevated serum calcitonin (for medullary cancer) or serum thyroglobulin (for papillary or follicular cancer)
Laryngoscopy showing paralyzed vocal cords
Thyroid biopsy showing anaplastic, follicular, medullary, or papillary cancer cells
Thyroid scan showing a nodule that does not light up on the scan (cold nodule)
Ultrasound of the thyroid showing a nodule

This disease may also affect the results of the following tests:

Treatment

Treatment varies depending on the type of tumor.

Surgery is usually the treatment of choice, and the entire thyroid gland is usually removed. If the physician suspects that the cancer has spread to lymph nodes in the neck, these will also be removed during surgery.

Radiation therapy delivered by taking radioactive iodine is often used, with or without surgery. Radiation therapy with an external beam of radiation can also be used.

After treatment, you need to take thyroid hormone to replace what your glands used to make. The dose is usually a little higher than what your body needs, which helps keep the cancer from coming back.

If the cancer does not respond to surgery or radiation and has spread to other parts of the body, chemotherapy may be used, but this is only effective for a third of patients.

Support Groups

You can ease the stress of illness by joining a support group made up of people who share common experiences and problems. See cancer - support group.

Outlook (Prognosis)

Anaplastic carcinoma has the worst outcome of all the types of thyroid cancer. It is usually fatal despite treatment.

Follicular carcinomas are often fast growing and may invade other tissues, but the outlook is still good -- most patients are cured.

The outcome with medullary carcinoma varies. Women under age 40 have a better chance of a good outcome.

Papillary carcinomas are usually slower growing. Most people are cured and have a normal life expectancy.

Many patients who have surgery or radiation for thyroid cancer must take thyroid hormone pills for the rest of their lives.

Possible Complications

Injury to the voice box or nerve, and hoarseness after surgery
Low calcium levels from accidental removal of the parathyroid glands during surgery
Spread of the cancer to the lungs, bones, or other parts of the body

When to Contact a Medical Professional

Call your health care provider if you notice a lump in your neck.

Also call if your symptoms get worse during treatment.

Prevention

There is no known prevention. Awareness of risk (such as previous radiation therapy to the neck) can allow earlier diagnosis and treatment.

References

Ladenson P, Kim M. Thyroid. In: Goldman L, Ausiello D, eds. Cecil Medicine. 23rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa : Saunders Elsevier; 2007: chap 244.

National Comprehensive Cancer Network. Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology 2008: Thyroid Carcinoma. Version 1.2008.

Testicular Cancer

2009-08-13T19:57:00.000-07:00

Testicular cancer is a type of cancer that develops in the testicle(s) of men. It is considered to be uncommon, with about 8,000 men diagnosed each year. Testicular cancer is highly treatable and curable.

Causes and Risk Factors of Testicular Cancer

Although researchers cannot pinpoint exactly what causes testicular cancer, they have identified several known risk factors for the disease. A risk factor is something that increases the likelihood that you may develop a disease, but is not a guarantee you will get it. Risk factors for testicular cancer include:

having had an undescended testicle, although if this is corrected early in life, the risk is reduced
having had abnormal development of the testicles
having a personal or family history of testicular cancer
being diagnosed with Klinefelter's syndrome
being infected with HIV
being Caucasian

Testicular Cancer Symptoms

Common symptoms of testicular cancer include:

painless lump in the testicle or both testicles; less commonly, the lump will cause pain
heaviness, or feeling of swelling in the scrotum
discomfort or pain in the scrotum
ache in lower back, pelvis or groin area
collection of fluid in the scrotum

Other conditions that have similar symptoms include a hydrocele, spermatocele, varicocele, and inguinal hernia.

Diagnosis of Testicular Cancer

There is currently not a standard testicular cancer screening test, so the onset of symptoms or findings from a testicular self exam are what normally begins the diagnostic process. If testicular cancer is suspected, further tests are necessary to make a diagnosis.

A physical exam is the first step in diagnosing testicular cancer. Your doctor will check your scrotum and feel the testicles for lumps, swelling, or tenderness. He may also check your abdomen for lymph node swelling.

Abnormal findings may lead to an ultrasound, which will give the doctor an internal view of testicular lumps. An ultrasound may be able to differentiate between a cancerous and benign condition. Blood tests may also be ordered to check for specific enzyme and protein levels in the blood. The presence and elevation of these proteins and enzymes can indicate a testicular tumor.

Diagnostic surgery to remove and biopsy the abnormal tissue is necessary to make a definitive diagnosis. In this procedure the tumor and the testicle are removed. The abnormal tissue is sent to the pathology lab, where it is examined under a microscope to screened for cancer.

If cancer is found, the stage of the disease is then determined. Staging refers to how far the cancer has spread to nearby tissue or possibly organs. If advanced testicular cancer is suspected, further evaluation, like imaging tests, may be necessary to determine the stage. Treatment options for testicular cancer vary based on the type and stage of the disease.

Treatment of Testicular Cancer

The primary methods of treating testicular cancer are surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy. The type of testicular cancer, stage, and general health are factors that decide what treatment will be most effective.

Surgery. Removal of the testicle is a method of treatment for all stages of testicular cancer. For some men, surrounding lymph nodes may also be removed.

Radiation Therapy. Radiation therapy is also an option for treating testicular cancer. This type of treatment uses certain types high energy beams of radiation to shrink tumors or eliminate cancer cells. Radiation therapy works by damaging a cancer cell's DNA, making it unable to multiply. Although radiation therapy can damage nearby healthy cells, cancer cells are highly sensitive to radiation and typically die when treated. Healthy cells that are damaged during radiation are resilient and are often able to fully recover.

In cases of testicular cancer, external beam radiation therapy is often given after surgery to ensure all cancer cells and tissues that could not have been seen or removed is eliminated.

Chemotherapy. Chemotherapy is often used to treat testicular cancer that has spread beyond the testicle. Cancer is a result of cells that continue to multiply unnecessarily. Chemotherapy drugs work by eliminating these rapidly multiplying renegade cells. Other healthy cells multiply just as quickly, like hair follicle cells. Unfortunately, many chemotherapy drugs may not be able to discern the two, attacking healthy cells and causing side effects like hair loss.

Prevention of Testicular Cancer

Unfortunately, testicular cancer is a type of cancer that can't easily be prevented. There are simply no proven prevention methods.

With most cancers, the best method of prevention is to avoid the risk factors. There is no way to avoid the risk factors for testicular cancer because most are out of the person's control, like age, race, and conditions occurring at birth.

_Sources: _{"Do I Have Testicular Cancer?". Early Detection and Prevention. American Cancer Society. 02 Dec 2008. Accessed 19 June 2008.
http://www.cancer.org/docroot/PED/content/PED_2_3X_Do_I_Have_Testicular_Cancer.asp}

Gastric cancer

2009-08-13T19:56:00.000-07:00

Definition

Gastric cancer is cancer that starts in the stomach.

Alternative Names

Cancer - stomach; Stomach cancer; Gastric carcinoma; Adenocarcinoma of the stomach

Causes

Several different types of cancer can occur in the stomach. The most common type is called adenocarcinoma, which starts from one of the common cell types found in the lining of the stomach. There are several types of adenocarcinoma. Because other types of gastric cancer occur much less frequently, this article focuses on adenocarcinoma of the stomach.

Adenocarcinoma of the stomach is a common cancer of the digestive tract worldwide, although it is relatively uncommon in the United States. It occurs most frequently in men over 40 years old. This form of gastric cancer is extremely common in Japan, Chile, and Iceland. The rate of most types of gastric adenocarcinoma in the United States has declined over the years. Experts think the decrease may be related to reduced intake of salted, cured, and smoked foods.

Diagnosis is often delayed bcause symptoms may not occur in the early stages of the disease, or because patients self-treat symptoms that may be common to other, less serious gastrointestinal disorders (bloating, gas, heartburn, and a sense of fullness).

Risk factors for gastric cancer are a family history of gastric cancer, Helicobacter pylori infection, blood type A, smoking, a history of pernicious anemia, a history of chronic atrophic gastritis, a condition of decreased gastric acid, and a prior history of an adenomatous gastric polyp.

Symptoms

Abdominal pain
Breath odor
Difficulty swallowing, particularly difficulty that increases over time
Excessive belching
Excessive gas (flatus)
General decline in health
Loss of appetite
Nausea and vomiting
Premature abdominal fullness after meals
Unintentional weight loss
Vague abdominal fullness
Vomiting blood
Weakness or fatigue

Exams and Tests

The following tests can help diagnose gastric cancer:

Complete blood count (CBC) to check for anemia
Esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) with biopsy
Stool test to check for blood in the stools
Upper GI series

Treatment

Surgical removal of the stomach (gastrectomy) is the only curative treatment. Radiation therapy and chemotherapy may be beneficial. A recent study showed that for many patients, chemotherapy and radiation therapy given after surgery improve the chance of a cure.

For patients in whom surgery is not an option, chemotherapy or radiation can improve symptoms but may not cure the cancer. For some patients, a surgical bypass procedure may provide relief of symptoms.

Support Groups

The stress of illness may often be eased by joining a support group with members who share common experiences and problems. See cancer - support group and gastrointestinal disorders - support group.

Outlook (Prognosis)

The outlook varies widely. Tumors in the lower stomach are more often cured than those in the higher area -- gastric cardia or gastroesophageal junction. The depth to which the tumor invades the stomach wall and whether lymph nodes are involved influence the chances of cure.

In circumstances in which the tumor has spread outside of the stomach, cure is not possible and treatment is directed toward improvement of symptoms.

Possible Complications

Fluid build up in the belly area (ascites)
Spread of cancer to other organs or tissues
Weight loss

When to Contact a Medical Professional

Call your health care provider if symptoms of gastric cancer develop.

Prevention

Mass screening programs have been successful in detecting disease in the early stages in Japan, where the risk of gastric cancer is very high. The value of screening in the United States and other countries with lower rates of gastric cancer is not clear.

The following may help reduce your risk of gastric cancer:

Don't smoke.
Eat a healthy, balanced diet rich in fruits and vegetables.

References

Gunderson LL, Donohue JH, Alberts SR. Cancer of the Stomach. In: Abeloff MD, Armitage JO, Niederhuber JE, Kastan MB, McKena WG, eds. Clinical Oncology. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Elsevier Churchill Livingstone; 2004:chap 79.

Skin Cancer

2009-08-13T19:51:00.000-07:00

What is Cancer?

Normal cells in your body divide in an orderly and balanced fashion. Cancer occurs when certain cells begin to grow out of control. Cancer cells can also spread to other parts of the body through the blood, nerves or lymph system, in a process called metastasis.

What is Skin Cancer?

Skin cancer is a cancer of the cells in the outermost layer of skin, called the epidermis. The epidermis itself has three layers: an upper and middle layer made up of squamous cells, and a bottom layer made up of melanocytes and basal cells. Different types of skin cancer affect each of these types of cells, including the following most common forms:

Basal Cell Carcinoma
Basal cell carcinoma (BCC) is the most common form of skin cancer, accounting for 75% to 80% of cases. Upwards of one million people are diagnosed with basal cell carcinoma each year in the United States. It was once found mostly in middle-aged or older people but now it is also being seen at younger ages. Basal cell carcinoma usually begins on areas exposed to the sun such as the head and neck. It is a slow-growing cancer that rarely spreads to other parts of the body, but people with a history of BCC are at higher risk for getting a second BCC. If basal cell carcinoma is not treated, it can damage the surrounding tissue, including bone. Treatments are very effective, however, if the tumor is detected while it is small and thin.

Squamous Cell Carcinoma
Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) accounts for 16% to 20% of skin cancer cases and occurs twice as often in men than in women. Approximately 200,000 to 300,000 people are diagnosed with squamous cell carcinoma each year in the United States, and about 2,500 die from the disease. It usually appears on the face, ear, neck, lips, and backs of the hands. SCC can also begin within scars or skin ulcers on other places on the body. As with basal cell carcinoma, the available treatments are very effective if the tumor is detected while it is small and thin.

Melanoma
Melanoma affects cells called melanocytes, which produce the skin's color. Melanoma can appear in an area no different from surrounding skin, or it can develop from or near a mole. It is found most frequently on the backs of both men and women or on the legs of women, but melanoma can occur anywhere on the body, including the head and neck, soles of the feet, fingernails, and other areas not exposed to the sun. Melanoma is much more dangerous than the other types of skin cancer: 62,000 people will be diagnosed with melanoma in the United States in 2008 and over 8,400 will die from the disease. Unfortunately, it is increasing at a faster rate than for any other cancer, with the exception of lung cancer in women. In the United States, the incidence of malignant melanoma from 1973 to 2002 increased by 270%. Melanoma is treatable in its early stages, but survival drops precipitously when it metastasizes to distant lymph nodes or organs.

What Causes Skin Cancer?

Besides lung cancer, skin cancer is one of the most preventable types of cancer. This is due to the fact that the major risk factor is ultraviolet (UV) radiation. The sun is, of course, the main source of UV radiation, but it can also come from tanning booths. The amount of UV exposure depends on the strength of the light, how long the skin was exposed, and whether the skin was covered with clothing or sunscreen. Many studies also show that being sunburned at a young age increases the likelihood of skin cancer even decades later.

The other major risk factor is fair skin. Skin cancer is much more common in Caucasians than in African-Americans, for example. This is because the pigment, called melanin, offers some protection from UV radiation and people with dark skin have more melanin. People with fair skin that freckles or burns easily are at especially high risk. However, remember that people of all races and skin colors can get skin cancer.

Other causes of skin cancer include:

long-term exposure to chemicals such as arsenic, tar and oil
radiation from other cancer treatments
previous history of skin cancer
family history of skin cancer
scars from burns or previous skin infections
certain treatments for psoriasis involving UV light
certain rare skin diseases, such as xeroderma pigmentosum and basal cell nevus syndrome
weakened immune system
infection by certain types of human papilloma virus
smoking
certain types of moles
other risk factors

Each year, over one million people are diagnosed with cancer of the skin, making it the most common type of cancer in the United States. Unfortunately, it is also one of the few types of cancer that has become more common in recent years. The good news is that skin cancer is one of the most preventable and treatable of all cancers.

symptoms can include many different shapes, sizes and colors of skin lesions, or no visible lesions at all. Some lesions may not even be cancerous or may be related to another medical condition. It is also important to remember that skin cancer -- including basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and melanoma -- can appear anywhere on the body, even on areas that are not exposed to the sun, and can occur in people of any race or skin color. Diagnosing skin cancer is not as straightforward as you might think!

However, in general, you should look for these signs during your regular skin self-exam:

A new, possibly large, irregularly shaped, dark brownish spot with darker or black areas.
A simple mole that changes in color (particularly turning darker), size (growing), or texture (becoming firmer), and/or flakes or bleeds.
A suspicious change in an existing mole or spot.
A lesion with an irregular border and red, white, blue, gray, or bluish-black areas or spots.
Shiny, firm, dome-shaped bumps anywhere on the body.
Dark lesions under the fingernails or toenails, on the palms, soles, tips of fingers and toes, or on mucous membranes (skin that lines the mouth, nose, vagina, and anus).
A sore that doesn't heal within two weeks.

Pictures of basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and melanoma are available that may help you decide if what you are seeing is a harmless mole (or "nevus"), a pre-cancerous skin lesion, or something more serious that needs to be further analyzed by a professional.

Early Detection of Melanoma

The earlier melanoma is detected, the better the chance for successful treatment. Monthly self-examinations may help find it early. Often, the first sign of melanoma is a change in the size, shape, or color of an existing mole. It also may appear as a new or abnormal-looking mole. The "ABCDE" rule can be used to help remember what to watch for:

Asymmetry: The shape of half of the mole does not match the other.

Border: The edges are ragged, notched, or blurred.

Color: The color is often uneven. Shades of black, brown, and tan may be present. Areas of white, gray, red, or blue may also be seen.

Diameter: The diameter is usually larger than six millimeters (the size of a pencil eraser) or has grown in size.

Evolving: The mole has been changing in size, shape, color, appearance, or growing in an area of previously normal skin. Also, when melanoma develops in an existing mole, the texture of the mole may change and become hard, lumpy, or scaly. Although the skin may feel different and may itch, ooze, or bleed, melanoma usually does not cause pain.

Sometimes, the letter "F" is added, for "funny looking." This is meant to highlight that you should look for moles that do not resemble other moles on your body, or moles that are increasing in size or changing color.

If you see this happening to one of your moles, contact your doctor promptly. Often, a diagnosis can only accurately be made after a lesion is removed and examined (biopsied).

_Sources:

_{"Melanoma – Treatment Guidelines for Patients." National Comprehensive Cancer Network and the American Cancer Society. 21 July 2008.}

_{"What You Need to Know about Skin Cancer." National Cancer Institute. July 2002. 21 July 2008.}

_{"All About Skin Cancer – Melanoma." American Cancer Society. July 2008. 22 July 2008.}

Renal Cell Carcinoma

2009-08-13T19:49:00.000-07:00

Renal cell carcinoma is the most common type of kidney cancer, accounting for up to 90% of cases of the disease. In renal cell carcinoma, malignant cells are believed to arise from the tubules of the kidney.

The primary function of the kidney is to filter waste from our blood. About 50 gallons of blood enter our kidneys every day. They also process approximately two quarts of extra water. The wastes that are filtered, and the extra water, turn into urine. The urine then travels down tubes, called ureters and is stored in the bladder until excretion (urination).

Causes and Risk Factors of Renal Cell Carcinoma

We have yet to identify causes of renal cell carcinoma, but researchers have identified several known risk factors for the disease. A risk factor is something that increases the likelihood that we may develop kidney cancer. Renal cell carcinoma risk factors include:

being male

being over 50

being on dialysis

Von Hippel-Lindau disease

smoking

family or personal history of kidney cancer or bladder cancer

long-term abuse of over-the-counter analgesics

Symptoms of Renal Cell Carcinoma

Unfortunately, renal cell carcinoma symptoms usually do not appear until the disease has progressed. In fact, it is usually detected "accidentally" when another symptom or condition is being investigated.

Symptoms of renal cell carcinoma include:

blood in the urine, either seen after urination or microscopically
abdominal mass
pain felt on the side or or lower back
unintentional weight loss
fatigue

Diagnosis Renal Cell Carcinoma

A palpable mass or the finding of a mass on an x-ray done for another reason are usually what leads a physician to suspect kidney cancer. The first step in diagnosing renal cell carcinoma is through various imaging tests and blood test. Ultrasound, CT scan, MRI, and intravenous pyelogram (IVP) are all imaging methods that may be used to help diagnose kidney cancer.

Ultimately, it is a kidney biopsy that will confirm the presence or absence of cancer and what type it is. A kidney biopsy can be done through a fine needle aspiration biopsy technique.

If cancer is found, more tests may need to be done to determine if the kidney cancer has spread to nearby tissues and organs. This is called staging.

Treatment of Renal Cell Carcinoma

Surgery to remove all of part of the kidney is standard treatment for renal cell carcinoma. People with early stage RCC are the best candidates for for surgery, but those who have a later stages of the disease may not be healthy enough to withstand surgery.

Radiation therapy may be used to treat kidney cancer, but is often ineffective. Some tumors just don't respond well like other types of cancer. Radiation therapy is most often used palliatively, to relieve discomfort caused by the effects of the cancer spreading.

Chemotherapy is is not commonly used in treating renal cell carcinoma. It is often used along with immunotherapy or when immunotherapy is not effective.

Immunotherapy, also called biologic therapy, is a treatment option for many types of kidney caner. Immunotherapy drugs stimulate the immune system to help fight cancer. Common immunotherapy drugs used to treat kidney cancer include interferon or interleukin-2.

Several targeted therapy drugs have been approved for use in some people with kidney cancer. These kind of drugs block and prevent the growth and spreading of malignant cells. They do this by attacking the cells directly or preventing the growth of blood vessels that provide tumors nourishment to grow. Approved targeted therapy drugs include:

Prevention of Kidney Cancer

While there are no proven kidney cancer prevention methods, there are steps we can take to reduce our risk of kidney cancer.

Quit Smoking or Don't Start. Smoking is a strong risk factor for renal cell carcinoma. As soon as you quit (it's never too late!), your body reaps the benefits of being tobacco free. Quitting smoking is the best defense against lung cancer. Need help kicking the habit?

Know What You are Being Exposed to in the Workplace. If you are exposed to fumes, dust and chemicals in the workplace, you have a right to know what you are being exposed to. Gasoline, diesel exhaust, arsenic, beryllium, vinyl chloride, nickel chromates, coal products, mustard gas and chloromethyl ethers are all carcinogens and can be found in some work environments. Talk to your employer about limiting your exposure.

Eat a Well-Balanced Diet. Eating a well-balanced diet is advantageous for many reasons. A diet rich in fruits and vegetables, but low in animal fats and salt helps prevent obesity, a risk factor for renal cell carcinoma.

_Sources:

_{American Cancer Society. "What is Kidney Cancer". Detailed Guide: Kidney cancer. 06 Nov 2007. Accessed July 28, 2008.}

_{American Cancer Society. "How is Kidney Cancer Treated?". Detailed Guide: Kidney Cancer. 06 Nov 2007. Accessed July 28, 2008.}

Rectal Cancer

2009-08-13T19:47:00.000-07:00

Rectal cancer is a type of cancer that develops in the rectum, the last six inches of our large intestine. Like other organs in our body, the rectum is vulnerable to many diseases and conditions, such as cancer.

Causes and Risk Factors of Rectal Cancer

We can't exactly pinpoint what causes rectal cancer, but we know what may increase our risk of developing it. Risk factors for rectal cancer include:

being older than 50
family or personal history of colon cancer (a person does not need a family history of colon cancer to have rectal cancer; it is most commonly diagnosed in those without a family history.)
personal history of polyps(small growths in the colon)
smoking

Rectal Cancer Symptoms

In the early stages, rectal cancer usually doesn't have symptoms. As the disease progresses, which can take years, symptoms include:

blood in stools
persistent constipation, diarrhea or other bowel changes
thinner stools
unexplained weight loss
abdominal pain, tenderness, cramping or discomfort
fatigue

These rectal cancer symptoms are not unique and can also be symptoms of many other conditions.

Rectal Cancer Screening

Several colon cancer screening methods are highly effective at detecting rectal cancer as well. Colon and rectal cancer screening tests include:

Colonoscopy. A colonoscopy allows the doctor to get an in-depth view of the colon with a colonoscope, a fiber optic tube that is attached to a microscopic camera that transmits live video to a monitor. The colonoscope is gently inserted in to the anus and slowly to the colon, giving the doctor a full view of the rectum and large intestine.

Sigmoidoscopy. Much like a colonoscopy, a sigmoidoscopy is done with a flexible lighted tube with an attached camera, but it is limited to only the lower part of the colon.

Barium Enema. During a barium enema, a doctor inserts liquid barium in to the rectum. X-rays are taken of you laying in several positions. The barium allows the colon to be viewed better on x-rays.

Fecal Occult Blood Test. A fecal occult blood test (FOBT) finds blood in your stool that you may not see with the naked eye or confirms that it is actually blood in the stool that you may have seen. You are given a special kit to collect stool samples.

For adults who are at the average risk of colon and rectal cancer, it is recommended to begin screening at age 50. Adults who are classified at a higher risk may begin screening earlier at the recommendation of their doctor. Remember that even if you are not experiencing symptoms of rectal cancer, you should always follow your doctor's screening recommendations.

Diagnosing Rectal Cancer

If a screening test reveals suspicious results, then a colon biopsy is done. A biopsy can be done during a colonoscopy or surgically. During a biopsy, small amounts of rectal tissue are removed and then sent to a pathology lab to screen for evidence of cancer. If cancer is present, then the stage of rectal cancer is then determined through surgery to remove the cancer. Surrounding lymph nodes are tested and may also be removed during the surgery.

Treatment of Rectal Cancer

In the early stages of rectal cancer, surgery may be the only treatment needed. There are several surgical methods used to to remove cancerous rectal tissue. The type of surgery chosen depends on general health, stage of rectal cancer and location of the tumor. For those who are not good candidates for surgery, radiation therapy may be an option but will not be as effective.

Chemotherapy is also a common treatment method for rectal cancer. The organs in our body are made up of cells that divide and multiply as the body needs them. When these cells continue to multiply unnecessarily, the result is a mass or growth, also called a "tumor." Chemotherapy drugs work by eliminating these rapidly multiplying renegade cells.

Chemotherapy for rectal cancer may be prescribed before or after surgery and may also be given in conjunction with radiation therapy.

Radiation therapy is another treatment method used to treat rectal cancer. This type of therapy uses certain types of high-energy radiation beams to shrink tumors or eliminate cancer cells. Radiation therapy works by damaging a cancer cell's DNA, making it unable to multiply.

In cases of rectal cancer, radiation therapy may be given prior to surgery to help shrink large tumors. It may also be given in conjunction with chemotherapy.

Colon Cancer Prevention

Regular colon cancer screening is key to preventing rectal cancer. Screening can identify precancerous growths before they potentially progress into cancer. Keep in mind that it takes years for rectal cancer to develop, so routine screening can detect these changes before they turn cancerous. Remember, for average risk people, colon cancer screening should begin at age 50.

Avoiding risk factors for rectal cancer can also reduce your risk of developing the disease. Eating a balanced diet, not smoking and maintaining a healthy weight are all ways to reduce your risk of not only rectal cancer, but many other conditions as well.

_Sources:

_{Detailed Guide: Colon and Rectum Cancer: What Are the Risk Factors for Colorectal Cancer? American Cancer Society. 7 Mar. 2006. 04 July 2008.}

_{Overview: Colon and Rectum Cancer: What Causes Colorectal Cancer? American Cancer Society. 15 Mar. 2006. 04 July 2008.}

Prostate Cancer

2009-08-13T19:40:00.000-07:00

What Is the Prostate?

The prostate is a small, walnut-sized gland that exists only in men. It is situated just below the bladder and just in front of the rectum in the lower pelvis.

The bladder acts as a storage area for urine. When the bladder is emptied, the urine travels through a thin tube called the urethra to the penis and then out. The very beginning of the urethra as it leaves the bladder passes directly through the prostate. This fact accounts for why so many men with either prostate cancer or BPH (benign prostatic hyperplasia) develop trouble urinating. As the prostate enlarges, the urethra is pinched off, leaving a smaller tube to carry urine from the bladder to outside the body.

The prostate’s primary function is to produce much of the fluid that makes up semen. Semen acts to protect sperm as it makes its way out of the body.

The prostate is present from before birth and grows in response to male hormones such as testosterone. Blocking the production or effects of these hormones is one of the primary treatment options for prostate cancer.

What Is Cancer?

Cancer is most simply explained as cells in a certain part of the body that have started to grow in an out-of-control and unregulated fashion.

The human body is made up of billions of tiny units called cells. These are the smallest structures in the body that can be considered to be living. They can only be seen under high-powered microscopes. Cells normally go through a life cycle of growth, division, and death. When this occurs in an orderly fashion, cells are created and die in roughly equal numbers. They also normally stay confined to the area of the body in which they were meant to be.

Unfortunately, certain cells sometimes begin to multiply much faster than they die. When this happens, these abnormal cells squeeze out nearby normal cells. These abnormal cancerous cells can also spread outside of their original site in the body and spread to other areas. When cancer from one body site has spread to other areas of the body, the cancer can be said to have “metastasized". This is always an unfortunate occurrence as cancer that has spread is much harder to treat in general.

A cancer is named after its original site in the body. For example, prostate cancer, even if it were to spread to the bones or to the colon would still be called prostate cancer and not bone or colon cancer. This would more appropriately be called “prostate cancer with metastasis to the bone.”

All types of cancer are different. For example, prostate cancer is very different from lung cancer. The two are caused by different factors, diagnosed in different ways, and treated differently. Regardless of the type of cancer, the underlying problem is the unregulated and abnormal growth of the cells in that part of the body.

What Is Prostate Cancer?

Since cancer is the uncontrolled and abnormal growth of cells in a certain area of the body, prostate cancer is simply the uncontrolled and abnormal growth of cells in the prostate.

Some men have BPH (benign prostatic hyperplasia). This is often confused with prostate cancer. With BPH, prostate cells multiply faster than they should. This causes the prostate to enlarge and the patient to develop difficulty urinating. With prostate cancer, the cells not only multiply faster, but also behave abnormally by spreading outside of the prostate if not caught in time. BPH is not cancer, but can show some of the same symptoms.

The prostate is made up of many different types of cells. The gland cells (those cells that actually work to produce the fluid that is released into the semen) however, are nearly always the cells that become cancerous. The technical medical term for cancer that arises from gland cells is adenocarcinoma. Thus, the technical term for prostate cancer is prostate (or prostatic) adenocarcinoma.

Early detection, prompt diagnosis, and effective treatment are the mainstays of good prostate cancer care.

Additionally, this video provides an excellent illustration and explanation of the prostate's location and function.

What Are the Most Common Symptoms of Prostate Cancer?

Because of its location in the body, prostate cancer is often accompanied by a number of unique symptoms. The prostate is located just below the bladder in the lower pelvis. As urine empties out of the bladder it travels through a thin tube called the urethra. At the very beginning of the urethra, just as it exits the bladder, it passes directly through the prostate. As the prostate enlarges due to cancer or another problem, the urethra is pinched tighter and tighter within the prostate. As the tube narrows, urine has a much harder time making its way through the urethra and out of the body.

This results in four primary urinary symptoms:

Frequency - urinating much more often than normal.
Urgency - having a sensation that you need to urinate immediately.
Nocturia - getting up to urinate multiple times during the night.
Hesitancy - difficulty starting the urine stream.

All of these symptoms are a direct result of the urethra being pinched closed by the enlarged prostate.

Prostate cancer is not the only disease that can cause the prostate to swell, however. In fact, BPH (benign prostatic hyperplasia) is a much more common cause of an enlarged prostate and, thus, of urinary symptoms. BPH is not cancer, but is still an important condition that should be treated by a physician.

What Are Other Less Common Symptoms of Prostate Cancer?

The urinary symptoms discussed above are undoubtedly the most common symptoms experienced by men with prostate cancer. However, they are not the only ones. Other less common symptoms include:

Blood in the urine.
Blood in the semen.
New-onset erectile dysfunction (impotence).
Bone pain (especially in the lower back, hips, or ribs).
Loss of bladder control.

These symptoms are less specific to problems with the prostate (meaning that problems with other organs such as the bladder can also cause them). However, they are important symptoms of which to be aware.

When Should I Go to See My Doctor?

The answer to this question is simple. Visit your physician and explain your situation whenever you first begin to experience any of these symptoms. This is especially true for any men that are over the age of 40 because the vast majority of prostate cancers are diagnosed after that age. It is also especially important for African-American men and those with a family history of prostate cancer to see their physicians as these two groups have much higher rates of prostate cancer.

The symptoms listed above are almost always abnormal and all need to be evaluated by a physician. This is especially true if these symptoms appear suddenly. Very simple examinations and laboratory tests can be put to use by your doctor to determine whether or not your symptoms are due to prostate cancer, another serious disease, or a less dangerous condition.

Are Most Men Diagnosed With Prostate Cancer After They Have Symptoms?

Many people are surprised to learn that the majority of men diagnosed with prostate cancer today have no symptoms when it is first detected. Because of the PSA (prostate specific antigen) test, most men have their prostate cancer detected before they have any significant symptoms. The PSA test is a simple blood test that detects a specific protein produced by the prostate. As the prostate enlarges, more of this protein is produced and more is detected by the PSA test.

Despite this fact, it is still vitally important that you see your physician if you begin experiencing any of the symptoms discussed above. Thousands of men are still diagnosed every year after they develop symptoms.

An interesting and helpful website that can be used to evaluate your own symptoms is Symptom Checker.

After your prostate cancer has been diagnosed, staged, and graded, your physician will evaluate the unique characteristics of your cancer as well as your general health in order to suggest a prostate cancer treatment plan.

Four standard treatment options are widely available today. One or more of these may be selected by you and your physician once the pros and cons of each are carefully weighed. Additionally, a number of less common treatment options are available.

Surgery

The primary goals of surgery are to remove the cancerous tissue from the body, to remove other structures that may contain cancer (such as lymph nodes), and to minimize damage to any normal, cancer-free tissues and organs that are nearby.

Radical Prostatectomy – The prostate, some surrounding tissue, and the seminal vesicles are all completely removed. This is, by far, the most commonly chosen type of surgery for prostate cancer.

This surgery can be completed by entering the body from two different sites:
- Retropubic Radical Prostatectomy – The initial incision (cut) by the surgeon is made in the lower abdomen between the navel and just above the penis. From this site, lymph nodes near the prostate can also be removed and examined for evidence of cancer.
- Perineal Radical Prostatectomy – The initial incision (cut) by the surgeon is made in the skin between the anus and scrotum. From this site, lymph nodes cannot be removed, so a second incision is sometimes needed in the lower abdomen to remove them.
Radiation Therapy

Radiation therapy consists of the use of high energy x-rays to kill cancer cells. Radiation works by damaging the DNA that is needed by cells to grow and divide.

Radiation is focused in such a way as to damage and kill as much of the cancer as possible, while minimizing the amount of healthy nearby tissue that is affected.

Radiation can be delivered to the area of cancer in two primary ways.
- External beam radiation – A source of radiation outside of the body is used.
- Brachytherapy – A source of radiation is implanted or inserted into the body.
Hormonal Therapy

Male sex hormones, such as testosterone, are produced naturally within the body. Prostate cancer can grow in response to these hormones, so therapy to block the production or effects of these hormones is sometimes used.

A number of different medications have been developed to accomplish this. Hormonal therapy is sometimes used alone, but it is more often used in combination with other treatments such as radiation.

Some examples of hormone therapy medications are:
- Anti-androgens (flutamide, nilutamide)
- LH-RH agonists (leuprolide, goserelin
- Adrenal gland blockers (ketoconazole, aminoglutethimide)
- Estrogens
Watchful Waiting

In certain men, a strategy of withholding active treatment may be used. While treatment is withheld, the patient is monitored closely for signs of change in their disease or the development of new symptoms. If it is determined at any time that the cancer is progressing, active treatment may then be started.

This kind of “wait and see” approach is chosen most often in men who are older and who have other significant medical problems.

Less Common Treatment Options

Besides the four primary types of prostate cancer treatments, a number of additional, less-common options exist. Each of these options has its own set of benefits and drawbacks to consider.

Cryotherapy
This technique utilizes special equipment to freeze the prostate in order to kill cancer cells.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is not commonly used to treat prostate cancer, but may be an option in certain men whose disease has spread outside of the prostate.
Robot-Assisted Surgery
Robotic instruments have been developed to assist surgeons in removing the prostate. This advance has been met with a great deal of excitement and discussion, but has its own shortcomings as well. Probably the most significant shortcoming that exists today with this option involves the steep learning curve that surgeons face when beginning to use one of these machines during surgery.

_Sources:

_{Adolfsson J, Steineck G, Whitmore WF Jr Recent results of management of palpable clinically localized prostate cancer. Cancer 72 (2): 310-22, 1993.}

_{Duncan W, Warde P, Catton CN, et al. Carcinoma of the prostate: results of radical radiotherapy (1970-1985) Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 26 (2): 203-10, 1993.}

_{Potosky AL, Legler J, Albertsen PC, et al. Health outcomes after prostatectomy or radiotherapy for prostate cancer: results from the Prostate Cancer Outcomes Study. J Natl Cancer Inst 92 (19): 1582-92, 2000.}

_{Whitmore WF. Expectant management of clinically localized prostatic cancer. Semin Oncol 21 (5): 560-8, 1994.}

Pancreatic Cancer

2009-08-13T19:36:00.001-07:00

Pancreatic cancer is a type of cancer that affects the pancreas, an organ that lies behind the stomach and in front of the spine. The pancreas is responsible for producing hormones like insulin and glucagon, which help control our blood sugar levels. It also produces enzymes that help breakdown protein and carbohydrates during digestion.

Like other organs in the body, the pancreas is vulnerable to cancer. There are several types of pancreatic cancer, however the most common is adenocarcinoma. This type of cancer affects cells that produce digestive enzymes. Much less common types of pancreatic cancer include islet cell carcinoma, pancreatic blastoma, and pseudopapillary neoplasms.

Pancreatic Cancer Causes and Risk Factors

Although we cannot pinpoint what causes pancreatic cancer, researchers have identified several risk factors. A risk factor is something that increases the likelihood that you will develop pancreatic cancer, but is not a guarantee. Risk factors of pancreatic cancer include:

Smoking. Smokers are 2 to 3 times more likely to develop pancreatic cancer than non-smokers.
Race. African-American are diagnosed more frequently than other races with pancreatic cancer. The diverse ratio of diagnoses among ethnic groups in not yet clear.
Increasing age. The risk of developing pancreatic cancer greatly increases after age 50.
Having Diabetes. Pancreatic cancer is diagnosed more often in people with diabetes.
Chronic Pancreatitis. Chronic inflammation of the pancreas may slightly increase your risk of pancreatic cancer.
Family History. Pancreatic cancer runs in some families. About 10% of cases are thought to be related to inherited genetic mutations.

Symptoms of Pancreatic Cancer

Many times there is a delay in diagnosing pancreatic cancer because the symptoms are also associated with many other illnesses. The symptoms of pancreatic cancer are not exclusive to the disease. Symptoms rarely occur in the early stages and are gradual.

At least 50% of people with pancreatic cancer experience jaundice, a yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes. Other pancreatic cancer symptoms include:

Weight loss
Glucose intolerance
Fatigue
Abdominal discomfort or pain
sudden onset of diabetes
brown or orange colored urine

When the pancreas produce too much insulin, other symptoms such as chills, diarrhea, general feeling of weakness, and muscle spasms may also be experienced.

Diagnosing Pancreatic Cancer

Pancreatic cancer can be difficult to detect because symptoms are vague and related to other conditions. It is rarely detected in the early stages when it is the most treatable. If your doctor suspects you may have pancreatic cancer, one of the first steps may be imaging tests like an ultrasound or MRI may be done to get a better view of the pancreas. Your doctor may recommend you have an endoscopy combined with special techniques like an ultrasound to further evaluate the pancreas.

Ultimately it is a biopsy that confirms the presence or absence of cancer. A biopsy is the sampling of tissue from the pancreas to be examined under a microscope by a pathologist. There are several ways to biopsy the pancreas, but a procedure call fine needle aspiration (FNA) is the most common. During a fine needle biopsy, a radiologist inserts a long, thin needle into the skin and to the pancreas. A small sample of tissue is removed and the needle is removed. During the biopsy, the radiologist may use an ultrasound or CT scan to help him through the procedure. A local anesthetic is given prior to the biopsy. Other biopsy methods that may be done during laparoscopic surgery or during an endoscopy.

Treatment of Pancreatic Cancer

There are three types of treatment methods for pancreatic cancer: surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy. Treatment heavily depends on the stage of pancreatic cancer, type, and general health.

Surgery can be done to treat cases of pancreatic cancer that is considered curable or can be done to alleviate the symptoms caused by the tumor(s). A surgical procedure called a Whipple is most commonly performed in people whose cancer may be curable. During a Whipple, a large portion of the pancreas, part of the stomach, small intestine, gallbladder and bile duct are removed. Less common surgical methods include a total or distal pancreatectomy, the removal of the entire pancreas.

Prior to surgery, chemotherapy and radiation therapy mave be given prior to surgery to shrink increase the success of surgery by shrinking tumors and elimiation cancer cells. These treatments aren't for every patient and dpends on stage of cancer and general health factors.

Radiation therapy is also an option for treating some people with pancreatic cancer. This type of treatment uses certain types of high-energy beams of radiation to shrink tumors or eliminate cancer cells. Radiation therapy works by damaging a cancer cell's DNA, making it unable to multiply. Although radiation therapy can damage nearby healthy cells, cancer cells are highly sensitive to radiation and typically die when treated. Healthy cells that are damaged during radiation are resilient and are often able to fully recover.

Chemotherapy may be prescribed to treat pancreatic cancer. Chemotherapy drugs work by eliminating rapidly multiplying cancer cells, however, there are other healthy cells in the body that multiply just as quickly, such as hair follicle cells. Unfortunately, many chemotherapy drugs may not be able to discern the two, attacking healthy cells and causing side effects, such as hair loss. .

Pancreatic Cancer Prevention

There are simply no proven means of preventing pancreatic cancer. By avoiding what risk factors we can for bladder cancer, we may be able to reduce our chances of developing it.

Quit Smoking or Don't Start. Smoking is a significant risk factor for pancreatic cancer. As soon as you quit (it's never too late!), your body reaps the benefits of being tobacco free. Need help kicking the habit? Visit the About.com Smoking Cessation site.

Sources:

American Cancer Society. "What is Pancreatic Cancer". Detailed Guide: Pancreatic cancer. 06 Nov 2007. Accessed July 28, 2008.

American Cancer Society. "How is Pancreatic Cancer Treated?". Detailed Guide: Pancreatic Cancer. 06 Nov 2007. Accessed July 28, 2008.

Pancreatic Cancer

2009-08-13T19:36:00.000-07:00

Pancreatic Cancer Causes and Risk Factors

Smoking. Smokers are 2 to 3 times more likely to develop pancreatic cancer than non-smokers.
Race. African-American are diagnosed more frequently than other races with pancreatic cancer. The diverse ratio of diagnoses among ethnic groups in not yet clear.
Increasing age. The risk of developing pancreatic cancer greatly increases after age 50.
Having Diabetes. Pancreatic cancer is diagnosed more often in people with diabetes.
Chronic Pancreatitis. Chronic inflammation of the pancreas may slightly increase your risk of pancreatic cancer.
Family History. Pancreatic cancer runs in some families. About 10% of cases are thought to be related to inherited genetic mutations.

Symptoms of Pancreatic Cancer

Weight loss
Glucose intolerance
Fatigue
Abdominal discomfort or pain
sudden onset of diabetes
brown or orange colored urine

When the pancreas produce too much insulin, other symptoms such as chills, diarrhea, general feeling of weakness, and muscle spasms may also be experienced.

Diagnosing Pancreatic Cancer

Treatment of Pancreatic Cancer

Pancreatic Cancer Prevention

American Cancer Society. "What is Pancreatic Cancer". Detailed Guide: Pancreatic cancer. 06 Nov 2007. Accessed July 28, 2008.

American Cancer Society. "How is Pancreatic Cancer Treated?". Detailed Guide: Pancreatic Cancer. 06 Nov 2007. Accessed July 28, 2008.

Ovarian Cancer

2009-08-13T19:33:00.000-07:00

Ovarian cancer is a disease that affects ovarian tissue in the female reproductive system. The ovaries are responsible for producing eggs (ova) and are also a production site for the hormones estrogen and progesterone.

Causes and Risk Factors of Ovarian Cancer

Unfortunately, we cannot pinpoint exactly what causes ovarian cancer, but researchers have identified several known risk factors for it. We know that ovarian cancer most often is diagnosed in women who:

are post-menopausal.
are Caucasian.
have a family history of colon cancer, breast, or ovarian cancer.
were previously diagnosed with breast cancer.
suffer from obesity.
used Clomid (a fertility drug) for longer than one year
use(d) estrogen replacement therapy
who have not given birth.
have a a known inherited mutation of BRCA 1 or 2 gene conformed through genetic testing

Ovarian Cancer Symptoms

Ovarian cancer is often referred as the "silent killer" because there are no early warning signs, or symptoms aren't noticeable until the advanced stages, when it is less treatable. Early ovarian cancer symptoms are often vague and are commonly chalked up to be related to other, less serious conditions. Early ovarian cancer symptoms may include:

changes in bowel habits like constipation or diarrhea
pelvic pain or pressure
frequent urge to urinate

Symptoms of ovarian cancer that usually do not appear until the disease has progressed include:

abdominal bloating
pain during sexual intercourse
persistent fatigue
abdominal weight gain
sudden unexplained weight gain or weight loss

Persistent symptoms that continue for several weeks need to be reported to your doctor. You should not wait to see if symptoms get better or go away on their own. Seeing your doctor early may lead to an earlier diagnosis.

Diagnosis of Ovarian Cancer

If your doctor discovers an ovarian mass during an exam or suspects an abnormality related to the ovary, a pelvic exam, ultrasound, and CA-125 test (a blood test that screens for a protein that is often elevated in the bloodstreams of women with ovarian cancer) are the first steps in making a diagnosis.

An ultrasound can reveal characteristics about masses that may help doctors determine if they are benign cysts or potentially cancerous. During the ultrasound, characteristics about the mass are noted, like appearance, fluid content, solidity, whether it has spread, and if the other ovary also contains a mass. Based on these characteristics, the radiologist assigns a score of the ultrasound that contributes to the risk of malignancy index (RMI).

The RMI is a scoring systems that determines the risk of a mass being cancerous. The ultrasound score is combined with a score that evaluates menopause status and the results of the CA-125 tumor marker test. The sum of these numbers reveal how high of a risk that the mass is cancerous. Keep in mind that the RMI only determines the risk of it being cancer, it is not a diagnosis. It may not be used for all types of cancer in helping to make a diagnosis.

A biopsy is necessary to confirm the presence of cancer and involves removing small tissue samples to be evaluated later under a microscope. An ovarian biopsy can be done surgically through a procedure called a laparotomy. During a laparotomy, the surgeon makes an incision into the abdomen and looks for signs of cancer in the abdominal cavity. This includes taking a biopsy or possibly removing an ovary for further evaluation by a pathologist. If cancer is obvious, the surgeon may try to remove as much of it as possible. This is called debulking, and is a common method of treating ovarian cancer.

A less invasive surgery, laparoscopic surgery, may also be an option for some women instead of a laparotomy. Laparoscopic surgery involves the surgeon making a small incision into the abdomen. A laparoscope (a fiber optic rod equipped with a light and camera) is inserted through the incision and transmits live video feed to a monitor.

If cancer is confirmed from the biopsy, the stage and grade of ovarian cancer is then determined. For women with suspected advanced stages of ovarian cancer, then additional tests, like imaging tests are required to stage the disease.

Treatment of Ovarian Cancer

Treatment options weigh heavily on the stage and grade of ovarian cancer. There are three treatment methods for ovarian cancer: surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy. Surgery combined with chemotherapy is the most common treatment course. Radiation therapy may be used in some cases, but it is rare.

Surgery. Debulking, also called cytoreduction surgery, is the primary type of ovarian cancer treatment. The goal of the surgery is to remove as much of the tumor as possible, which in turn, will help increase the effectiveness of chemotherapy.

Chemotherapy. Chemotherapy to treat ovarian cancer helps eliminate cancer cells that remain after surgery. The drugs are delivered either intravenously or directly into the abdominal cavity (intraperitoneal). Chemotherapy may be given before or after surgery. It can also be given alone in palliative care cases. How often and how long a person receives chemotherapy is based on their stage of ovarian cancer and other health factors. Radiation Therapy. Radiation therapy is rarely used to treat ovarian cancer. It may be used to reduce symptoms caused by the cancer.

Like most type of cancer, there are no guaranteed methods of prevention. Several factors reduce our risk:

Oral Contraceptive Use: Several studies show that several years of using birth control pills may decrease a woman's risk of ovarian cancer.
Childbirth: Giving birth to at least one child may cut the risk of ovarian cancer by 80%. It is not recommended to have children just for the sake of risk reduction though.
Tubal Ligation or Hysterectomy: Tubal ligation or a hysterectomy may reduce your risk of ovarian cancer, but these surgeries are never done solely for the purpose of ovarian cancer prevention. They are simply an added benefit of treating another condition.

Some women who are considered to be at higher risk of ovarian cancer choose more drastic methods of prevention. A prophylactic oophorectomy (surgical removal of the ovaries) to prevent ovarian cancer is one method of prevention that may be available to women who are high risk. This option is normally an option for women who have a mutated BRCA 1 or 2 gene, confirmed through genetic testing.

While surgical prevention may drastically cut a woman's risk, a similar type of cancer called primary peritoneal cancer (cancer of the lining of the abdominal cavity), may develop. This type of cancer is rare, but in women with a known mutated BRCA gene, the risk is heightened.

_Sources:

_{American Cancer Society. Detailed Guide: Ovarian Cancer. 06 Feb 2008. Accessed 22 July 2008.}

_{National Cancer Institute. Ovarian Cancer. 23 April 2007. Accessed 22 July 2008.}

Oral Cancer

2009-08-13T19:29:00.001-07:00

Oral cancer is a type of head and neck cancer that affects the mouth. It can form in the lining of the cheeks, gums, roof of the mouth, tongue, and lips.

Oral Cancer Risk Factors

The primary risk factor for developing oral cancer is tobacco use. Smoking cigarettes, cigars, and pipes all increase your risk of oral cancer. Smokeless tobacco, often called "dip" or "chew," also heighten the risk. Alcohol consumption is another habit that is strongly associated with the development of oral cancer.

Research strongly suggests that infection with the human papillomavirus (HPV) increases your risk of oral cancer, as well. HPV is a virus that is transmitted through sexual contact, like sexual skin-to-skin contact, vaginal/anal intercourse, and oral sex.

Oral Cancer Symptoms

During a dental exam, your dentist will screen for symptoms of oral cancer. However, symptoms may arise throughout the year that many need further examination by your dentist or doctor. Symptoms of oral cancer include:

a sore or blister in your mouth or on your lip that does not heal after two weeks
lesion on the tongue or tonsil
white and red patches in the mouth or lips that does not heal
bleeding from the mouth that is unrelated to an injury
change in the way teeth fit together, including how dentures fit or loose teeth because of jaw swelling or pain
persistent earaches
difficulty swallowing, chewing, speaking, or moving the tongue

Diagnosis of Oral Cancer

If your healthcare professional finds symptoms to be suspicious of oral cancer, then further evaluation is required to confirm the absence or presence of cancer. This can be done by doing a biopsy of the abnormal area(s) of the mouth. A biopsy removes small amounts of tissue that is sent to a pathology lab for examination under a microscope.

If cancer is found, the stage of the disease is then determined. Staging refers to how far the oral cancer has spread. Further tests like dental x-rays, endoscopy, and other imaging tests may be used to determine how far the cancer has spread.

Treatment of Oral Cancer

Treatment for oral cancer heavily depends on the stage of the disease. More than one type of treament may be used in treating oral cancer. Methods of treatment include:

Surgery. Surgery to remove cancerous tissue is common method of oral cancer treatment. For some people, surgery is the only type of treatment needed; for others, chemotherapy and radiation may also be needed. In some cases, lymph nodes in the neck may be also removed.

Radiation Therapy. Radiation therapy uses certain types of high energy beams of radiation to shrink tumors or eliminate cancer cells. Radiation therapy works by damaging a cancer cell's DNA, making it unable to multiply. Although radiation therapy can damage nearby healthy cells, cancer cells are highly sensitive to radiation and typically die when treated. Healthy cells that are damaged during radiation are resilient and are often able to fully recover.

Two primary types of radiation therapy are external beam radiation therapy and internal beam radiation, also called brachytherapy. External beam radiation is much more common than internal beam radiation in treating oral cancer.

Chemotherapy. Chemotherapy may be prescribed to reduce the size of a tumor before radiation therapy or surgery or may also be given in conjunction with radiation treatment.

Prevention of Oral Cancer

Avoiding the known risk factors of oral cancer is the best way to prevent the disease. Most cases of of oral cancer are related to tobacco and alcohol use, so avoiding both habits are key to preventing it. Sun exposure can be related to cancer of the lips, so staying out of the sun and wearing a lip balm that contains sunscreen is also important.

Visiting your dentist regularly may aid in the early detection of oral cancer. Your dentist is trained to look and feel for signs of the disease. Oral cancer screening involves visual examination of the mouth and dental x-rays. Newer screening tools like VELscope allow doctor to thoroughly look for signs of oral cancer that may not be visible to the naked eye. These newer screening tools are highly recommended for those who are at a higher risk of developing oral cancer, like those who smoke or consume alcohol.

_Sources:

_{"Oral Cancer". Oral Health Topics. American Dental Association. 14 March 2005. Accessed 18 July 2008. http://www.ada.org/public/topics/cancer_oral.asp#facts}

_{"What You Need to Know About Oral Cancer". Cancer Topics. National Cancer Society: What You Need to Know About Oral Cancer. 09 Sptember 2004. Accessed 18 July 2008.
http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/oral/page9}

Oral Cancer

2009-08-13T19:29:00.000-07:00

Oral cancer is a type of head and neck cancer that affects the mouth. It can form in the lining of the cheeks, gums, roof of the mouth, tongue, and lips.

Oral Cancer Risk Factors

Oral Cancer Symptoms

a sore or blister in your mouth or on your lip that does not heal after two weeks
lesion on the tongue or tonsil
white and red patches in the mouth or lips that does not heal
bleeding from the mouth that is unrelated to an injury
change in the way teeth fit together, including how dentures fit or loose teeth because of jaw swelling or pain
persistent earaches
difficulty swallowing, chewing, speaking, or moving the tongue

Diagnosis of Oral Cancer

Treatment of Oral Cancer

Treatment for oral cancer heavily depends on the stage of the disease. More than one type of treament may be used in treating oral cancer. Methods of treatment include:

Surgery. Surgery to remove cancerous tissue is common method of oral cancer treatment. For some people, surgery is the only type of treatment needed; for others, chemotherapy and radiation may also be needed. In some cases, lymph nodes in the neck may be also removed.

Radiation Therapy. Radiation therapy uses certain types of high energy beams of radiation to shrink tumors or eliminate cancer cells. Radiation therapy works by damaging a cancer cell's DNA, making it unable to multiply. Although radiation therapy can damage nearby healthy cells, cancer cells are highly sensitive to radiation and typically die when treated. Healthy cells that are damaged during radiation are resilient and are often able to fully recover.

Two primary types of radiation therapy are external beam radiation therapy and internal beam radiation, also called brachytherapy. External beam radiation is much more common than internal beam radiation in treating oral cancer.
Chemotherapy. Chemotherapy may be prescribed to reduce the size of a tumor before radiation therapy or surgery or may also be given in conjunction with radiation treatment.

Prevention of Oral Cancer

_{"Oral Cancer". Oral Health Topics. American Dental Association. 14 March 2005. Accessed 18 July 2008. http://www.ada.org/public/topics/cancer_oral.asp#facts}

Multiple myeloma

2009-08-13T19:27:00.000-07:00

Definition

Multiple myeloma is cancer of the plasma cells in bone marrow.

Alternative Names

Plasma cell dyscrasia; Plasma cell myeloma; Malignant plasmacytoma; Plasmacytoma of bone; Myeloma - multiple

Causes

Plasma cells help the body's immune system fight disease by producing substances called antibodies. In multiple myeloma, plasma cells grow out of control and form tumors in the bone marrow.

The excess growth of plasma cells interferes with the body's ability to make red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. This causes anemia, which makes a person more likely to get infections and have abnormal bleeding.

As the cancer cells grow in the bone marrow, they can cause pain and destruction of the bones. If the bones in the spine are affected, it can put pressure on the nerves, resulting in numbness or paralysis.

Multiple myeloma mainly affects older adults. A history of radiation therapy raises your risk for this type of cancer.

Symptoms

Bleeding problems
Bone or back pain
Increased susceptibility to infection
Symptoms of anemia (such as tiredness, shortness of breath, and fatigue)
Unexplained fractures

Exams and Tests

Blood tests can help diagnose this disease. They may include:

Blood chemistry (CHEM 20) may show increased levels of calcium, total protein, and abnormal kidney function
Complete blood count (CBC) reveals low numbers of red and white blood cells and platelets
Serum protein electropheresis (SPEP)
Urine protein electrophoresis (UPEP) or Bence-Jones protein analysis
Quantitative immunoglobulins (nephelometry)

Bone x-rays show fractures or hollowed out areas of bone. If your doctor suspects this type of cancer, a bone marrow biopsy will be performed.

Treatment

The goal of treatment is to relieve symptoms.

People who have mild disease or a questionable diagnosis are usually carefully monitored without treatment. Some people have a slow-developing form of multiple myeloma that takes years to cause symptoms.

Treatment begins when the disease becomes worse or causes symptoms.

Chemotherapy and radiation therapy may be performed to relieve bone pain or treat a bone tumor.

Bone marrow transplantation in younger patients has been shown to increase disease-free and overall survival, but it has significant risks.

Medications for multiple myeloma include decadron, melophalan, thalidomide, lenalidomide (Revlimid), and bortezomib (Velcade). Bisphosphonates are used to prevent fractures.

People with multiple myeloma should drink plenty of fluids to prevent dehydration and help maintain proper kidney function. They should also be cautious when having x-ray tests that use contrast dye.

Chemotherapy and transplants rarely lead to a permanent cure.

Support Groups

The stress of illness may be eased by joining a support group whose members share common experiences and problems. See: Cancer - support group

Outlook (Prognosis)

Survival of people with multiple myeloma depends on the patient's age and the stage of disease. Some cases are very aggressive, while others take years to get worse.

Possible Complications

Kidney failure is a frequent complication. Other complications may include:

Bone fractures
Increased chances for infection (especially pneumonia)
Paralysis from tumor or spinal cord compression

When to Contact a Medical Professional

Call your health care provider if you experience decreased urine output.

Call your provider if you have multiple myeloma and infection develops, or numbness, loss of movement, or loss of sensation develops.

References

National Comprehensive Cancer Network Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology: Multiple Myeloma. National Comprehensive Cancer Network; 2009. Version 2.2009.

Rajkumar S, Kyle R. Plasma cell disorders. In: Goldman L, Ausiello D, eds. Cecil Medicine. 23rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2007: chap 198.

Melanoma

2009-08-13T19:21:00.000-07:00

Melanoma is a potentially dangerous type of skin cancer. It is diagnosed less frequently than other types of skin cancer (nonmelanoma skin cancer), but has the ability to spread very quickly. Melanoma most often begins on the skin but can develop on the other parts of the body, such as under fingernails, toenails and the eyeball.

Causes and Risk Factors of Melanoma

While we don't know exactly what causes melanoma, we do know that there are risk factors that increase the likelihood that we may develop the disease. Risk factors for melanoma include:

unprotected exposure to UV radiation from natural sunlight or artificial sources, such as tanning beds/lamps
being white with fair skin and also having naturally red hair
family or personal history of melanoma
having many moles (more than 50)
being older, although it can occur in young people also
being male
having many freckles
a history of sunburns
developing freckles easily

Keep in mind that people of all races and complexions can develop melanoma; it is not limited to fair-skinned whites.

Symptoms of Melanoma

Change in an existing mole is usually the first experienced symptom in people with melanoma. A new suspicious skin mole is also something that should raise red flags.

Learning the difference between a normal mole and an abnormal mole can help with self-skin exams at home. The ABCDs of melanoma can help you to discern between what is normal and what may need further evaluation by a dermatologist. The ABCDE rule guidelines instruct you to look for these characteristics in moles:

Asymmetry: Normal moles or freckles are completely symmetrical. If you were to draw a line through a normal spot, you would have two symmetrical halves. In cases of skin cancer, spots will not look the same on both sides.
Border: A mole or spot with blurry and/or jagged edges.
Color: A mole that is more than one hue, color or shade is suspicious and needs to be evaluated by a doctor. Normal spots are usually one color. This can include lightening or darkening of the mole.
Diameter: If the mole is larger than a pencil eraser (about 1/4 inch or 6mm), it needs to be examined by a doctor. This includes areas that do not have any other abnormalities (color, border, asymmetry).

Keep in mind that a mole does not have to meet the complete ABCD criteria to be evaluated by a dermatologist. Anything that meets at least one rule should be examined by a health care professional, preferably by a dermatologist.

Evolution: Evolution refers to change, and in thw case of melanoma, change to existing moles. Looking for changes in the size, symetry, border, and color.

Diagnosis of Melanoma

Diagnosing skin cancer first begins with the discovery of a suspicious mole or change in the appearance of a mole on the skin. Abnormalities can be detected at home through self-skin exams or through a clinical skin exam done by a doctor. A clinical skin exam should be part of your physical, or if you are at a higher risk of melanoma, it should be done more often by a dermatologist.

If skin cancer is suspected, a biopsy must be done to confirm the presence or absence of cancer. A skin biopsy can be done in several ways, and most of them can be done in-office with a local anesthetic, depending on size and location.

If biopsy results show the presence of melanoma, more tests may be needed to determine how far the disease has spread. These tests can include chest x-rays, liver function tests and other tests as determined by your physician.

Treatment of Melanoma

There are currently four methods of treating melanoma: surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy and immunotherapy. Treatment depends on how far the cancer has spread, age and overall general health.

For those with early stages of melanoma, surgery to remove the area in question, along with a small margin of healthy surrounding tissue, may be all that is needed for treatment. This may also include having a sentinel node biopsy to ensure that the cancer has not spread.

If the cancer is more advanced and has spread, chemotherapy and immunotherapy may be necessary for treatment. Radiation therapy may be used in select cases.

Prevention of Melanoma

Skin cancer may be the most common type of cancer, but it is also the most preventable types as well. The first step in preventing skin cancer is to avoid UV ray exposure. We can do this by:

Wearing Sunscreen. You have heard it a million times, but sunscreen really is one of your best bets in preventing skin cancer, especially if you spend a lot of time outdoors. Experts recommend choosing a sunscreen that is at least SPF 15 or higher. Don't forget to reapplyevery two hours, after swimming, and if you become sweaty.

Avoiding Mid-Day Sun. Avoid going outdoors from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m. This is when the sun's rays are brightest, causing the most damage to skin. If you have to go outdoors, be sure to lather on sunscreen.

Wearing Protective Clothing. Wearing hats and clothing that cover the skin are excellent ways to reduce your risk of skin cancer. Eyes are also susceptible to sun damage, so be sure to wear sunglasses that have UV protection.

Staying Shady. Staying in the shade will not only keep you cooler, it will reduce your risk of UV exposure. Though you are in the shade, you will still need to wear sunscreen.

Avoiding Tanning Beds/Booths. Artificial UV exposure is not any safer than natural exposure. Some studies even suggest that tanning beds and booths increase your risk of melanoma, a dangerous form of skin cancer.

_Sources:

_{"Skin Cancer Symptoms". What You Need to Know About Skin Cancer. National Cancer Institute. 01 Aug 2005. Accessed 21 June 2008.}

_{"Skin Cancer Prevention". What You Need to Know About Skin Cancer. National Cancer Institute. 01 Aug 2005. Accessed 25 June 2008.}

Liver Cancer

2009-08-06T20:41:00.000-07:00

Liver cancer is a type of cancer in which malignant cells are found in the liver, the second largest organ in our body. The liver weighs about 2 to 6 pounds and is located in the right upper abdomen. The liver has many duties, such as detoxifying substances, secreting bile and metabolizing carbohydrates, fats and proteins.

Like other organs in our body, the liver is susceptible to diseases, including cancer. There are several types of cancer that can develop in the liver of adults, including:

hepatocellular carcinoma, also known as hepatoma (most common type of liver cancer)
cholangiocarcinomas

Liver cancer can also be classified as primary or secondary. Primary liver cancer is cancer that has originated in the liver. Secondary liver cancer is cancer that has spread to the liver from another location in the body.

Children can develop a rare type of liver cancer called "hepatoblastoma." Since hepatoblastoma is very rare and is a childhood cancer, this article will solely reference adult primary liver cancer.

Liver Cancer Causes and Risk Factors

The exact causes of liver cancer aren't known at this time. Researchers have identified several known risk factors for liver cancer, though. Cirrhosis, a condition marked by scarring of the liver, is a major risk factor for liver cancer. It has several causes, with excessive, long-term alcohol consumption being a primary cause. Smoking, alcohol abuse and being infected with hepatitis are all factors that increase the chance of developing liver cancer.

Other risk factors include hemochromatosis, primary schlerosing cholangitis (PSC) and primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC).

Symptoms of Liver Cancer

Liver cancer does not present any symptoms in the early stages. As the disease progresses, symptoms of liver cancer include:

jaundice (the yellowing of the skin and eyes)
unintentional weight loss
loss of appetite
pain and/or discomfort on the right side of the abdomen
pain or discomfort that occurs in the right shoulder blade

Diagnosis of Liver Cancer

Blood work (such as liver function tests), a hepatitis panel, and tumor markers are often the first steps in diagnosing liver cancer. One specific test, the alpha-fetoprotein tumor maker test (AFP), may be ordered for screening liver diseases. A tumor marker test measures the amount of substances in the body released by cells and organs. Many times, an increase in the level of these substances can indicate certain diseases. The AFP test can indicate liver cancer if there is a spike in certain levels.

Your doctor may also recommend that you have an ultrasound. During an ultrasound, a technician uses a small instrument that glides along your skin, showing your organs on a screen. It is completely painless and allows doctors to get a good look at the liver.

Other imaging tests that help diagnose liver cancer include: MRI and CT Scan.

Ultimately, it is a biopsy that determines whether cancer is present or not. During a liver biopsy, a fine needle in inserted in to the liver through a small incision made in the skin. The biopsy needle retrieves a small sample of liver tissue, and the needle is removed. You are given a local anesthetic for the procedure, and it is performed usually on an outpatient basis at a hospital.

A liver biopsy can be obtained during laparoscopic surgery as well. Transjugular biopsy is less common, but it is an option when there is a concern about blood clotting or excessive fluid in the abdomen.

Liver Cancer Treatment

How liver cancer is treated differs, depending on the stage of the disease. Some treatment plans may include standard treatments, such as chemotherapy, while some plans will include clinical trials of new drugs and treatment methods. Regardless of what type of treatment plan you and your doctor choose, you should know all the options that are available.

There are a couple of different options for treating liver cancer surgically. These options include:

Partial hepatectomy: A partial hepatectomy is the surgical removal of the cancerous part of the liver.

Liver transplant: In this procedure, the diseased liver is removed and is replaced with a part or entire healthy liver. A liver transplant is available for select patients, and liver donors can be strangers or family members who meet specific criteria.

Radiofrequency ablation: This is the use of a probe that has tiny electrodes that destroy cancer cells. The probe is inserted through an incision in the abdomen, under anesthesia.

Chemotherapy may be prescribed to treat liver cancer. Treatment drugs work by eliminating rapidly multiplying cancer cells; however, there are other healthy cells in the body that multiply just as quickly, such as hair follicle cells. Unfortunately, many chemotherapy drugs may not be able to discern the two, attacking healthy cells and causing side effects, such as hair loss.

Liver Cancer Prevention

Some cases of liver cancer can't be prevented. Factors, such as genetics and involuntary exposure to certain chemicals, are things we can't really control. There are, however, some simple lifestyle changes we can make to help reduce our risk factor for liver cancer. These simple tips will lead you in the path of reducing your risk factor: Watch Your Alcohol Intake.Drinking excessive amounts of alcohol and alcohol abuse leads to a disease that causes cirrhosis. Having cirrhosis is a risk factor for liver cancer. If you do drink, do so in moderation.

Get the Hepatitis B Vaccine for You and Your Children. The hepatitis B vaccine is recommended for all children in the United States and is required for school entry. If you are an adult, take a look over your medical records to ensure you were properly immunized as a child. If you don't have access to those records, talk with your physician about how the vaccine may benefit you as an adult. Ensure your children receive the vaccine at recommended ages. Hepatitis B infection is a major risk factor for liver cancer development.

Practice Safe Sex. By having unprotected sex, you can contract many diseases, including hepatitis C. Being infected with hepatitis B or C is one of the major risk factors for liver cancer.

Don't Share Needles. Shared tattoo and illegal drug needles are a source of infection of not only HIV, but also hepatitis C. If you get a tattoo, make sure the tattoo artist uses new needles. It is a nationwide law, but it never hurts to double-check. If you are an IV drug user, never share needles.

Quit Smoking. If you are smoker, now is never a better time to quit. Smoking not only has been linked to liver cancer, it has also been connected with many other types of cancers and diseases as well.

Leukemia

2009-08-06T20:35:00.000-07:00

Leukemia is a disease that affects blood-forming cells in the body. It is a cancerous condition characterized by an abundance of abnormal white blood cells in the body. Leukemia begins in the bone marrow and spreads to other parts of the body. Both children and adults can develop leukemia.

Types of Leukemia

Leukemia can be divided into four different types. It is first classified as acute or chronic.

In chronic leukemia, the leukemia cells come from mature, abnormal cells. The cells thrive for too long and accumulate. These type of cells slowly multiply.

Acute leukemias, on the other hand, develop from early cells, called "blasts," which are young cells that divide frequently. In acute leukemia cells, they don't stop dividing like their normal counterparts do.

Myelogenous vs Lymphocytic
After being classified as acute or chronic, it is then classified by the type of cells in which the leukemia started from. It can either be myelogenous or lymphocytic.

Myelogenous leukemia develops from myeloid cells. The disease can either be chronic or acute, referred to as chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) and acute myelogenous leukemia (AML). There are several types of myelogenous leukemia.

Lymphocytic Leukemia

Lymphocytic leukemia develops from cells called "lymphoblasts" or "lymphocytes" in the blood marrow. The disease can be acute or chronic, referred to as chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) and acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL). There are several types of lymphocytic leukemia.

Causes and Risk Factors of Leukemia

Researchers have identified several causes and risk factors for leukemia. It happens in:

people older than the age of 60, but it can occur in younger people
people who smoke
people who have undergone previous chemotherapy or radiation therapy
people infected with the human T-cell leukemia virus, a virus that infects T-cells that is spread by sharing syringes and used to inject drugs; through blood transfusions; through sexual contact; and from mother to child at birth or through breastfeeding
people with myelodysplasctic syndrome, a blood disorder
people with Down syndrome

Symptoms of Leukemia

Leukemia symptoms can occur all of a sudden or gradually. The symptoms are broad, but there are specific signs of leukemia to keep an eye out for:

fever
infection
excessive bruising
fatigue
physical exercise intolerance
abdominal pain, or generally feeling fullness
weight loss
abnormal bleeding
enlargement of the lymph nodes, spleen and/or liver
weakness

Diagnosing Leukemia

A doctor may suspect you have leukemia after completing a physical or if you report experiencing the symptoms of leukemia. There are instances where leukemia is suspected from results of blood tests performed for other reasons. There are several tests a doctor may use to diagnose leukemia, ranging from blood tests to spinal taps.

Physical Exam. During a physical exam, a doctor may look for lumps, other abnormalities or symptoms of leukemia. A thorough medical history will be taken and the patient can report a history of leukemia or any symptoms or risk factors.

Blood Tests. Blood tests, such as complete blood count (CBC) can detect leukemia. A CBC determines the number of red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. It also can count the number of red blood cells that make up the blood sample and the amount of hemoglobin in the blood. Other blood tests that may be used to diagnose leukemia include:

peripheral blood smear - determines the presence of blast cells and reveals the type and quantity of white blood cells
cytogenic analysis - is a blood test in which a sample of blood is examined to check for changes in the chromosomes of the lymphocytes
other various blood tests - other blood tests may be ordered to see how organs are functioning and if they are being affected by leukemia

Biopsy. A biopsy is a procedure in which a sample of cells are removed from the body to be examined for cancer. Bone marrow biopsy is used to diagnose leukemia. A large bore needle is inserted in to the hip or, rarely, the breast bone and a sample of the bone is removed and bone marrow is then aspirated. The material is then examined by a pathologist. A lymph node biopsy may also be performed depending on the type of leukemia suspected.

Lumbar Puncture/Spinal Tap. A lumbar puncture or spinal tap may be done to diagnose leukemia. Under an anesthetic, a small amount of spinal fluid is removed from the spaces between the vertebrae in the spine. The fluid is then examined by a pathologist.

Leukemia Treatment

Treatment for leukemia varies greatly depending on the type of leukemia and stage of the disease. Many times, leukemia is treated with one or more types of treatment.

Chemotherapy. Chemotherapy is the use of drugs that either kill cancer cells or prevent the cells from dividing. Chemotherapy can be given in a variety of ways, with IV infusion and pill being more common. The type of chemotherapy given depends on the stage and type of cancer.

Radiation Therapy. Radiation therapy is the use of certain types of energy to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. This energy can be waves or particles like protons, electrons, x-rays and gamma rays.

Biologic Therapy. Biologic therapy is treatment that uses the knowledge specific to the cancer to eliminate it. Substances made by the body or made in a laboratory are used to boost, direct or restore the body's natural defenses against cancer or to specifically shut down its division.

Surgery. Surgical removal of the spleen is also a treatment option for chronic leukemia. The spleen collects leukemia cells, and they accumulate, causing the spleen to enlarge. An enlarged spleen can cause many complications.

Hematopoietic Cells or Bone Marrow Transplant. A hematopoietic transplant is a procedure to replace normal marrow production that has been destroyed by treatment with high doses of anticancer drugs or radiation. Transplantation may be autologous (an individual's own stem cells saved before treatment), allogeneic (stem cells donated by someone else) or syngeneic (stem cells donated by an identical twin).

Leukemia Prevention

Unfortunately, there are no proven leukemia prevention methods. Even more sadly, most of the risk factors cannot be avoided like in other types of cancer. We simply cannot avoid aging or having conditions like Down's Syndrome. There are some risk factors we can avoid that may aid in leukemia risk reduction, like not smoking. If you smoke cigarettes, now is the time to quit. Smoking puts you at risk for many types of cancer, including acute myelogenous leukemia. 1 in every 4 cases of AML is linked to smoking.

Reducing your exposure to benzene may reduce your risk of developing leukemia. Benzene is a chemical by product of coal and petroleum, used mainly is gasoline. It is also contained in other things such as paints, solvents, plastics, pesticides and detergents. People who work in the manufacturing of these products may be putting themselves at risk for leukemia.

Cancer - throat or larynx

2009-08-06T20:33:00.000-07:00

Definition

Cancer of the throat is cancer of the vocal cords, voice box (larynx), or other areas of the throat.

Alternative Names

Vocal cord cancer; Throat cancer; Laryngeal cancer; Cancer of the glottis

Causes

People who smoke or otherwise use tobacco are at risk of developing throat cancer. Excessive alcohol use also increases risk. Smoking and drinking alcohol combined lead to an increased risk for the development of throat cancers.

Most cancers of the throat develop in adults older than 50. Men are 10 times more likely than women to develop throat cancers.

Symptoms

Abnormal (high-pitched) breathing sounds
Cough
Coughing up blood
Difficulty swallowing
Hoarseness that does not resolve in 1 to 2 weeks
Neck pain
Sore throat that does not resolve in 1 to 2 weeks, even with antibiotics
Swelling in the neck
Unintentional weight loss

Exams and Tests

An examination of the neck and throat may show cancer of the throat. The sputum (what is coughed up) may appear bloody. A lump may appear on the outside of the neck. A laryngoscopy, which is examination by use of a tube with a small lighted camera (laryngoscope), allows the physician to look into the mouth and down the throat to see the tumor.

A neck or cranial CT scan or cranial MRI may show throat cancer. These tests will also help determine if the cancer has spread to lymph nodes in the neck.

Biopsy and analysis of tissues that appear abnormal may confirm the presence of a cancerous tumor.

Treatment

Treatment is aimed at completely removing the cancer and preventing the spread of the cancer to other parts of the body.

When the tumor is small, either surgery or radiation therapy alone can be used to eliminate the tumor.

When the tumor is larger or has spread to lymph nodes in the neck, combination radiation and chemotherapy is often used to preserve the voice box and is successful in most cases.

Surgical removal of the tumor, including all or part of the vocal cords (laryngectomy) may be necessary in some cases. If a laryngectomy is required, a surgical prosthesis (artificial vocal cords) may be implanted, voice aids may be used, or speech therapy may be recommended to teach alternative methods of speaking.

Many patients also need swallowing therapy after treatment to help them adjust to the changes in the structure of the throat.

Support Groups

The stress of illness can often be eased by joining a support group of people who share common experiences and problems. See cancer - support group.

Outlook (Prognosis)

Throat cancers can be cured in 90% of patients if detected early. If the cancer has spread to surrounding tissues or lymph nodes in the neck, 50 - 60% of patients can be cured. If the cancer has spread (metastasized) to parts of the body outside the head and neck, the cancer is not curable and treatment is aimed at prolonging and improving quality of life.

After treatment, patients generally need therapy to help with speech and swallowing. A small percentage of patients (5%) will not be able to swallow and will need to be fed through a feeding tube.

Possible Complications

Airway obstruction
Difficulty swallowing
Disfigurement of the neck or face
Hardening of the skin of the neck
Loss of voice and speaking ability
Spread of the cancer to other body areas (metastasis)

When to Contact a Medical Professional

Call your health care provider if you have symptoms of throat cancer, especially hoarseness or change in voice with no obvious cause that lasts longer than 1 week. Also call your health care provider if you find a lump in your neck that does not go away in 2 - 3 weeks.

Prevention

Minimize or avoid smoking and excess alcohol use.

Kidney Cancer

2009-08-06T20:30:00.000-07:00

The kidneys are an essential part of our urinary system. We have two kidneys, and they are located on either side of the spine in our lower back. They are about the size of a fist and bean shaped.

The primary function of the kidney is to filter waste from our blood. About 50 gallons of blood enter our kidneys every day. They also process approximately two quarts of extra water and waste products. The waste and extra water is turned into urine. The urine then travels down tubes, called ureters, and is stored in the bladder until excretion (urination).

Like other organs in our bodies, the kidneys are vulnerable to infection and disease, including cancer. There are several types of cancer that can develop in the kidney, but renal cell carcinoma is by far the most prevalent. It is estimated that 9 of 10 cases of kidney cancer are renal cell carcinomas. Other types of kidney cancer, although much less commonly, include:

transitional cell carcinoma
Wilms' Tumor
renal sarcoma

Causes and Risk Factors of Kidney Cancer

We cannot pinpoint what exactly causes kidney cancer, but researchers have identified several risk factors for the disease. Causes and risk factors vary for each type of kidney cancer. Risk factors of kidney cancer may include:

smoking
workplace exposure to asbestos, benzene, cadmium,
obesity
having Von Hippel-Lindau disease or hereditary papillary RCC (genetic conditions that increase the risk of kidney cancer)
chronic kidney failure

Symptoms of Kidney Cancer

Unfortunately, kidney cancer symptoms usually do not appear until the disease has progressed. In fact, kidney cancer is usually detected "accidentally" when another symptom or condition is being investigated. Like with kidney cancer risk factors, symptoms vary based on the type of kidney cancer. There are some common symptoms, however. Symptoms of kidney cancer include:

blood in the urine, either seen after urination or microscopically
abdominal mass
pain felt on the side or or lower back

Diagnosing Kidney Cancer

A palpable mass or the finding of a mass on an x-ray done for another reason are usually what leads a physician to suspect kidney cancer. The first step in diagnosing kidney cancer is through various imaging tests. Ultrasound, CT scan, MRI, and intravenous pyelogram (IVP) are all methods that may be used to help diagnose kidney cancer.

Ultimately, it is a kidney biopsy that will confirm the presence or absence of cancer and what type it is. A kidney biopsy can be done through a fine needle aspiration biopsy technique.

If cancer is found, more tests may need to be done to determine if the kidney cancer has spread to nearby tissues and organs. This is called staging.

Treatment of Kidney Cancer

Just about everyone with kidney cancer will receive some type of surgery to treat their cancer. People with early-stage kidney cancer are the best candidates for surgery, but those who have a later stage of kidney cancer may not be healthy enough to withstand surgery.

Chemotherapy and radiation therapy may be used to treat kidney cancer, but are often ineffective. Some tumors just don't respond well like other types of cancer. Radiation therapy is most often used palliatively, to relieve discomfort caused by the effects of the cancer spreading.

Immunotherapy, also called biologic therapy, is a treatment option for many types of kidney caner. Immunotherapy drugs stimulate the immune system to help fight cancer. Common immunotherapy drugs used to treat kidney cancer include interferon or interleukin-2.

Several targeted therapy drugs have been approved for use in some people with kidney cancer. These kind of drugs block and prevent the growth and spreading of malignant cells. They do this by attacking the cells directly or preventing the growth of blood vessels that provide tumors nourishment to grow. Approved targeted therapy drugs include:

Sutent
Nexavar
Avastin
Torisel

Prevention of Kidney Cancer

While there are no proven kidney cancer prevention methods, there are steps we can take to reduce our risk of kidney cancer.

Quit Smoking or Don't Start. Smoking is a strong risk factor for renal cell carcinoma. As soon as you quit (it's never too late!), your body reaps the benefits of being tobacco free. Quitting smoking is the best defense against lung cancer. Need help kicking the habit? Visit the About.com Smoking Cessation site.

Know What You are Being Exposed to in the Workplace. If you are exposed to fumes, dust and chemicals in the workplace, you have a right to know what you are being exposed to. Gasoline, diesel exhaust, arsenic, beryllium, vinyl chloride, nickel chromates, coal products, mustard gas and chloromethyl ethers are all carcinogens and can be found in some work environments. Talk to your employer about limiting your exposure.

Eat a Well-Balanced Diet. Eating a well-balanced diet is advantageous for many reasons. A diet rich in fruits and vegetables, but low in animal fats and salt, is beneficial. Obesity is a risk factor many types of kidney cancer.

Head and Neck Cancer

2009-08-06T20:26:00.001-07:00

Head and neck cancer is cancer that originates in the head or neck region, not including thyroid or skin cancers. Several types of cancer are considered head and neck cancer:

oral cancer
salivary gland cancer
laryngeal cancer
hypopharyngeal tumors
nasopharyngeal cancer
tumors of the oropharynx
tumors of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses

Causes and Risk Factors for Head and Neck Cancer

Risk factors for head and neck cancer vary among the different types, but we know that tobacco use and alcohol consumption are the most significant risk. An estimated 85% of head and neck cancer diagnoses are related to alcohol and tobacco use.

Other risk factors for head and neck cancer include:

HPV infection
asbestos exposure
excessive, unprotected sun exposure
prior radiation therapy treatments to the head and neck
Espstein Barr virus infection
wood or nickel dust inhalation

Symptoms of Head and Neck Cancer

Symptoms of head and neck cancer vary, depending on the type of head and neck cancer. A broad spectrum of head and neck cancer symptoms may include:

chronic sinus infections that do not respond to treatment
difficulty or pain when swallowing
voice changes or hoarseness
general pain in the neck, throat, jaw, or chin that does not go away
ear pain, ringing in the ears, or trouble hearing
sore, blister, or other lesion in or on the mouth that does not heal

These are common symptoms of head and neck cancer, but more symptoms relate specifically to each type.

Diagnosing Head and Neck Cancer

How head and neck cancer is diagnosed depends on what type of cancer is suspected. Lab tests, imaging tests, biopsies, and endoscopies are all methods of diagnosing many types of cancer.

Once cancer is confirmed, the stage of the cancer is then determined and a treatment plan is developed.

Head and Neck Cancer Treatment

Treatment for head and neck cancer depends on the type of cancer, stage, and other general health factors. Common methods of treating head and neck cancer include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and surgery.

Head and Neck Cancer Prevention

Since we know that tobacco and alcohol use are strongly linked to head and neck cancer, avoiding both is one of our best prevention defenses. Each is a risk factor for head neck cancer, but use of both greatly increases the risk.
Limiting your exposure to the human papillomavirus (HPV) may also decrease the risk of head and neck cancer. Many studies suggest an association between some types of head and neck cancer with HPV infection. The virus is most commonly known for causing cervical cancer in women, but evidence is increasing that it may play a role in the development of other types of cancer.
Poor oral hygiene may also be related to head and neck cancer. Dentures that cause irritation due to improper fit and untreated dental caries may increase your risk of oral cancer.

_Sources:

_{"Oral Cancer". Oral Health Topics. American Dental Association. 14 March 2005. Accessed 18 July 2008. http://www.ada.org/public/topics/cancer_oral.asp#facts}

Head and Neck Cancer

2009-08-06T20:26:00.000-07:00

Head and neck cancer is cancer that originates in the head or neck region, not including thyroid or skin cancers. Several types of cancer are considered head and neck cancer:

oral cancer
salivary gland cancer
laryngeal cancer
hypopharyngeal tumors
nasopharyngeal cancer
tumors of the oropharynx
tumors of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses

Causes and Risk Factors for Head and Neck Cancer

Other risk factors for head and neck cancer include:

HPV infection
asbestos exposure
excessive, unprotected sun exposure
prior radiation therapy treatments to the head and neck
Espstein Barr virus infection
wood or nickel dust inhalation

Symptoms of Head and Neck Cancer

Symptoms of head and neck cancer vary, depending on the type of head and neck cancer. A broad spectrum of head and neck cancer symptoms may include:

chronic sinus infections that do not respond to treatment
difficulty or pain when swallowing
voice changes or hoarseness
general pain in the neck, throat, jaw, or chin that does not go away
ear pain, ringing in the ears, or trouble hearing
sore, blister, or other lesion in or on the mouth that does not heal

These are common symptoms of head and neck cancer, but more symptoms relate specifically to each type.

Diagnosing Head and Neck Cancer

How head and neck cancer is diagnosed depends on what type of cancer is suspected. Lab tests, imaging tests, biopsies, and endoscopies are all methods of diagnosing many types of cancer.

Once cancer is confirmed, the stage of the cancer is then determined and a treatment plan is developed.

Head and Neck Cancer Treatment

Head and Neck Cancer Prevention

_{"Oral Cancer". Oral Health Topics. American Dental Association. 14 March 2005. Accessed 18 July 2008. http://www.ada.org/public/topics/cancer_oral.asp#facts}

Gastrointestinal Cancer

2009-08-06T20:24:00.000-07:00

Gastrointestinal cancer is a term that encompasses a group of cancers that affect the gastrointestinal tract. Types of gastrointestinal cancer include:

esophageal cancer
stomach cancer
gallbladder cancer
gastrointestinal stromal tumors
liver cancer
pancreatic cancer
colon cancer
rectal cancer
anal cancer

Causes and Risk Factors for Gastrointestinal Cancer

We don't know the cause of many types of gastrointestinal cancer, but risk factors for gastrointestinal cancer vary among the different types. They include:

smoking
excessive alcohol consumption
increasing age
diet high in animal fat
diet containing high amounts of salted, cured, or poorly preserved foods
chronic pancreatitis
obesity

Please note that there are many other risk factors that are disease specific that are not listed.

Symptoms of Gastrointestinal Cancer

Symptoms of gastrointestinal cancer vary, depending on the type of cancer. Symptoms may include:

abdominal pain, tenderness, or discomfort
change in bowel habits, such as frequency or consistency or shape
rectal bleeding or blood in stool
bloating
loss of appetite
nausea/vomiting
unintentional weight loss
fatigue

These are common symptoms of gastrointestinal cancer, but there are more symptoms that relate specifically to each type.

Diagnosing GI Cancer

How gastrointestinal cancer is diagnosed depends on what type of cancer is suspected. Lab tests, imaging tests, biopsies, and endoscopy are all methods of diagnosing many types of cancer.

Once cancer is confirmed, the stage of the cancer is then determined and a treatment plan is developed.

Gastrointestinal Cancer Treatment

Treatment for gastrointestinal cancer depends on the type of cancer, stage, and other general health factors. Common methods of treating gastrointestinal cancer include surgery (most commonly used) chemotherapy and radiation therapy.

Prevention of Gastrointestinal Cancer

Each type of GI cancer has its own risk factors that we may be able to avoid, reducing the likelihood of developing cancer. Because some types of gastrointestinal have common risk factors, there are some general lifestyle changes we can make to reduce our risk.

Since we know that tobacco is linked to some types of gastrointestinal cancer, avoiding both is one of our best prevention defenses. The health benefits of not smoking are numerous and are not limited to preventing gastrointestinal cancer. By avoiding smoking, you drastically reduce your risk of many other types of cancer and other diseases.

Colon cancer screening is beneficial at detecting precancerous changes in the large intestine and rectum. For adults who are at average risk of colon and rectal cancer, it is recommended to begin screening at age 50. Adults who are classified at higher risk may begin screening earlier at the recommendation of their doctor. Remember that even if you are not experiencing symptoms of colon or rectal cancer, you should always follow your doctor's screening recommendations.

Lastly, eating a well-balanced diet is advantageous for many reasons. A diet rich in fruits and vegetables, low in animal fats, with a low sodium intake may reduce your risk of some types of gastrointestinal cancer. Plus, eating a well-balanced diet can reduce obesity, a risk factor for many types of cancer.

Eye Cancer

2009-08-06T20:18:00.000-07:00

Ocular melanoma is a rare type of cancer that affects various parts of the eye, specifically the choroid, ciliary body, and the iris. Choroidal melanoma is the most common type of eye malignancy. Image Gallery of the Eye

Many people are confused by the melanoma aspect of this type of eye cancer, as melanoma is most commonly associated with skin. Melanomas develop from melanocytes, cells that contain the dark pigment (melanin) that define our skin coloring. Melanocytes aren't exclusive to the skin -- they can be found in the hair, the eyes, and the lining of some organs. Ocular melanoma is also referred to as melanoma of the eye.

What Causes Ocular Melanoma

Like many other types of cancer, we aren't quite sure what causes ocular melanoma, but there is suspicion that it is related to the exposure ot the UV rays of the sun. This theory has yet to be proven, however.

Even though the cause of ocular melanoma has yet to be pinpointed, researchers have identified risk factors for the disease. Risk factors for ocular melanoma include:

being fair skinned or having a light hair color and eye color
having dysplastic nevus syndrome, a condition that causes abnormal moles
oculodermal melanocytosis, a rare condition that causes increased and abnormal pigmentation of the eye and skin around the eye

Symptoms of Ocular Melanoma

There are sometimes no noticeable symptoms of ocular melanoma, especially in the early stages. In these instances, it is usually diagnosed through a routine eye screening by an optician. Ocular melanoma symptoms include:

blurred vision in one eye
floaters (small "floating" spots in your vision field)
change in iris color or dark spot on iris
red and/or painful eye
bulging eye
loss of peripheral vision

Diagnosing Ocular Melanoma

Unlike other types of cancer, a biopsy is not usually needed for most cases of ocular melanoma. Initially, one of the first tests most people have is called an ophthalmoscopy, which uses a special scope to get an in-depth view of the eye. It is much like the tool your optician or physician uses to look at your eye. It is noninvasive and is painless.

An ultrasound may also be done to view the eye and surrounding structures. Numbing drops are given before the scan to prevent any discomfort. You may be asked to look in different directions to allow for different angles of viewing. Eye ultrasounds generally take about 15 minutes or less on average.

Other tests like an MRI or CT scan may be done if it is suspected that the cancer has spread beyond the eye. The liver is common site of metastasis for ocular cancer.

Treatment of Ocular Melanoma

Treatment of ocular melanoma is based on what part of the eye is affected and whether it has metastasized to other parts of the body. Surgery is a common method of treatment that involves removing part or all of the eye. Removal of the eye (enucleation) may be necessary in some cases of large tumors, when other treatment methods are not suitable. An artificial eye (prosthesis) can be created in most cases. Prosthetic eyes today are much more realistic than in the past. They are created by talented, trained individuals called ocularists. It generally takes anywhere from 4 to 6 appointments to be fitted for a prosthetic eye and for it to be placed. Quality and artistic talent are two important characteristics to consider when choosing an ocularist.

Radiation therapy is also a common method treatment of ocular melanoma. It may be the sole treatment or done after surgery. There are two types of radiation therapy: external and internal. Both use specific types of energy to disrupt the activity of cancer cells to eliminate them and prevent them from undergoing cell division.

External radiation delivers radiation from a specialized machine that targets the tumor site externally. This method of radiation is specific and limits the damage to surrounding tissue. Internal radiation (brachytherapy), often called plaque therapy, when referencing the treatment of ocular melanoma, uses a radioactive "seed" or "plaque" that is implanted near the tumor site to deliver therapy. Normally, it remains implanted for about 7 days and is then removed.

Radiation therapy is effective against ocular melanoma, but does not come without side effects. Red, dry eyes are a common side effect. Cataracts are sometimes a result of therapy, but surgery may be an option to remove it. Eyelash loss and shortening may also occur. Less commonly, radiation therapy can cause optic nerve damage, glaucoma, and abnormal blood vessels in the retina.

All About Cancer

Vulvar Cancer

Causes and Risk Factors of Vulvar Cancer

Symptoms of Vulvar Cancer

Diagnosis of Vulvar Cancer

Treatment of Vulvar Cancer

Vulvar Cancer Prevention

Vaginal Cancer

Causes and Risk Factors of Vaginal Cancer

Vaginal Cancer Symptoms

Diagnosing Vaginal Cancer

Treatment of Vaginal Cancer

Prevention of Vaginal Cancer

Uterine Cancer

Causes and Risk Factors for Uterine Cancer

Symptoms of Uterine Cancer

Diagnosing Uterine Cancer

Treating Uterine Cancer

Preventing Uterine Cancer

Thyroid cancer

Definition

Alternative Names

Causes

Symptoms

Exams and Tests

Treatment

Support Groups

Outlook (Prognosis)

Possible Complications

When to Contact a Medical Professional

Prevention

References

Testicular Cancer

Causes and Risk Factors of Testicular Cancer

Testicular Cancer Symptoms

Diagnosis of Testicular Cancer

Treatment of Testicular Cancer

Prevention of Testicular Cancer

Gastric cancer

Definition

Alternative Names

Causes

Symptoms

Exams and Tests

Treatment

Support Groups

Outlook (Prognosis)

Possible Complications

When to Contact a Medical Professional

Prevention

References

Skin Cancer

Renal Cell Carcinoma

Causes and Risk Factors of Renal Cell Carcinoma

Symptoms of Renal Cell Carcinoma

Diagnosis Renal Cell Carcinoma

Treatment of Renal Cell Carcinoma

Prevention of Kidney Cancer

Rectal Cancer

Causes and Risk Factors of Rectal Cancer

Rectal Cancer Symptoms

Rectal Cancer Screening

Diagnosing Rectal Cancer

Treatment of Rectal Cancer

Colon Cancer Prevention

Prostate Cancer

What Is the Prostate?

What Is Cancer?

What Is Prostate Cancer?

What Are the Most Common Symptoms of Prostate Cancer?

What Are Other Less Common Symptoms of Prostate Cancer?

When Should I Go to See My Doctor?

Are Most Men Diagnosed With Prostate Cancer After They Have Symptoms?

Surgery

Radiation Therapy

Hormonal Therapy

Watchful Waiting

Less Common Treatment Options

Pancreatic Cancer

Pancreatic Cancer Causes and Risk Factors