Electrical Revolution

Ireland's Giant CO2 Battery: A Lithium-Free Way to Store Renewable Power

2026-07-14T14:07:05.661+05:30

Introduction

Google and Energy Dome are building a 23 MW/200 MWh carbon dioxide battery in County Offaly, Ireland — no lithium, no cobalt, no rare earths. Here's how it works and why it matters.

Most people think of batteries as boxes full of lithium and cobalt. Ireland is about to prove that idea wrong.

In County Offaly, on the site of an old peat-fired power station, Google and the Italian energy storage company Energy Dome are building something unusual: a battery that stores electricity using nothing more exotic than carbon dioxide. No lithium. No cobalt. No rare earth minerals. Just CO₂, some big domes, and basic physics.

Here's everything you need to know about the project, how the technology actually works, and why it could matter far beyond Ireland.

What Is the Ireland CO2 Battery Project?

Energy Dome and Google have signed their first direct commercial agreement to build a 23 MW / 200 MWh long-duration energy storage facility in the Irish Midlands. The site already has planning approval, land rights, and a 10-year grid capacity contract with EirGrid, Ireland's national grid operator. Construction is aimed at getting the plant running by 2028, and there are plans to add a second 200 MWh unit at the same location later on.

What makes the project notable is the location: it's being built on a decommissioned fossil fuel power plant. Instead of demolishing old energy infrastructure, the companies are repurposing it — turning a site that once burned peat into one that stores clean power.

How Does a CO2 Battery Actually Work?

The idea behind Energy Dome's technology is surprisingly simple once you break it down:

Charging:

When there's extra electricity on the grid — say, from wind or solar power that isn't being used — the system uses that electricity to compress carbon dioxide gas into a liquid state and store it in tanks.

Storing:

The compressed CO2 sits in storage, and the "spent," low-pressure gas is held separately inside the giant dome structure you see in photos of these facilities.

Discharging:

When the grid needs power, the liquid CO2 is allowed to expand and heat up, which drives it through a turbine. That turbine spins a generator and sends electricity back to the grid — while the gas returns to the dome, ready to be compressed again.

The whole system is a closed loop. The same CO2 is compressed and expanded again and again, which means the technology doesn't consume or emit the gas — it just uses it as a working medium, similar to how refrigerants work in an air conditioner.

Why Skip Lithium Altogether?

Lithium-ion batteries are great for short bursts of power, but they run into real limits for long-duration storage:

Supply chain pressure: Lithium, cobalt, and rare earth minerals are concentrated in a handful of countries, and mining them is slow, expensive, and environmentally messy.

Degradation over time: Lithium batteries lose capacity with every charge cycle.

Cost at scale: Storing large amounts of energy for many hours (not just minutes) gets very expensive with lithium.

CO2 batteries sidestep all three problems. The core material is a gas that's already abundant, the system doesn't degrade the way chemical batteries do, and the tanks and domes can be built at large scale using conventional industrial materials and manufacturing methods.

Why This Matters for the Grid

Ireland has set an ambitious target of generating 80% of its electricity from renewable sources. But wind and solar are inconsistent — they produce a lot of power sometimes and very little at other times. Long-duration storage like this CO2 battery lets the grid bank surplus renewable power and release it later, during high-demand periods, instead of wasting it or falling back on fossil-fuel backup plants.

This is also useful for large electricity consumers — including data centers, which are growing fast in Ireland — because it offers a more reliable way to smooth out power supply without straining the grid.

It's worth noting this isn't Energy Dome and Google's only project of this kind. A similar 19 MW/200 MWh CO2 battery, also built at a former fossil fuel site, was announced for Arizona, USA, just a month before the Ireland deal — suggesting this is becoming a repeatable model rather than a one-off experiment.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. Is a CO2 battery the same as a regular battery?

Not exactly. A CO2 battery doesn't use chemical reactions inside cells the way lithium-ion batteries do. Instead, it stores energy mechanically and thermally — by compressing and expanding carbon dioxide gas — making it closer to a mechanical energy storage system than a traditional battery.

2. Is it safe? Does it release CO2 into the atmosphere?

The system operates as a sealed, closed loop. The same carbon dioxide is reused repeatedly for compression and expansion, so it isn't vented into the air during normal operation.

3. How long can it store energy compared to lithium batteries?

CO2 batteries are designed for long-duration storage — typically many hours of continuous discharge — whereas most lithium-ion grid batteries are optimized for shorter bursts of one to four hours.

4. When will the Ireland project start operating?

The County Offaly facility is expected to begin operations in 2028.

5. Who is building it?

Energy Dome, an Italian long-duration energy storage company, will develop, own, and operate the plant, with Google as the commercial partner backing the project.

6. Could this technology replace lithium batteries entirely?

Not entirely — the two technologies serve different purposes. Lithium-ion batteries remain better suited for short, fast bursts of power (like smoothing out sudden spikes), while CO2 batteries are aimed at storing large amounts of energy for many hours, which is where lithium struggles most on cost and scale.

Conclusion

Ireland's CO2 battery project is a good reminder that "battery innovation" doesn't always mean a smaller, denser lithium cell. Sometimes it means rethinking the whole approach — using abundant materials, repurposing old infrastructure, and designing for a different job (long-duration storage) instead of trying to force one technology to do everything. If this project performs as planned by 2028, it could become a blueprint for how countries handle renewable energy storage without depending so heavily on scarce minerals.

Bifacial Solar Cells: Structure & Working

2026-07-11T09:29:57.768+05:30

Description

Learn about bifacial solar cells, their structure, PERC vs TOPCon architecture, bifacial gain, efficiency, and applications.

Introduction

Bifacial solar cells generate electricity from both their front surface (direct and diffuse sunlight) and their back surface (reflected albedo light from the ground and surroundings). Modern bifacial solar technology based on PERC (Passivated emitter and rear cell) and TOPCon (Tunnel oxide passivated contact) architectures, accounting for over 80% of new global PV installations as of 2024.

Structure

The standard bifacial PERC cell is built on a p type boron doped crystalline silicon wafer. The PERC innovation adds a dielectric passivation layer to the rear surface. The complete structure of PERC bifacial solar cell is explained here.

Structure of PERC Bifacial Solar Cell

1. Tempered glass with anti-reflection coating (front)

This glass protects the solar cell from environmental damage while allowing sunlight to enter. The anti-reflection coating minimizes light reflection, increasing the amount of light reaching the cell.

2. Silver busbars and finger contacts (front)

Silver fingers collect the electrical current generated by the cell and transport it to the busbars. The busbars carry the collected current to the external circuit with minimal electrical loss.

3. Silicon nitride (SiNx) anti-reflection layer

The silicon nitride coating reduces optical reflection and improves light absorption. It also provides surface passivation by reducing carrier recombination at the front surface.

4. n+ Emitter (Phosphorus Diffused)

The emitter is formed by diffusing phosphorus into the front surface of the silicon wafer. It creates the p–n junction where sunlight generates electron-hole pairs.

5. p-Type crystalline silicon Bulk

This layer acts as the main absorber of solar energy and generates most of the charge carriers. It provides the base material through which electrons and holes move toward their respective contacts.

6. Al₂O₃ / SiNx rear passivation stack

The rear passivation stack suppresses carrier recombination by passivating surface defects. It also reflects unabsorbed light back into the silicon, improving overall efficiency.

7. Local Aluminum BSF contacts

Aluminum is deposited only at localized openings in the passivation layer to form the back surface field (BSF). This structure improves carrier collection while maintaining excellent rear surface passivation.

8. Open rear contact grid

The rear metal grid provides electrical conduction while leaving much of the rear surface open for light entry. This open structure allows the cell to generate electricity from reflected sunlight reaching the rear side.

PERC Versus TOPCon Architecture

Standard PERC uses an Al2O3/SiNx dielectric passivation layer with local laser drilled contact openings. TOPCon (Tunnel Oxide Passivated Contact) upgrades this with an ultra-thin (~1.5 nm) silicon oxide tunnel layer plus a heavily doped polysilicon layer, providing full area rear passivation — achieving cell efficiencies of 24–25% versus ~23% for standard PERC. TOPCon is now replacing PERC as the new baseline technology across major manufacturers.

Bifacial Gain

The additional energy contributed by the rear surface is termed as the bifacial gain (BG), which depends on the bifacial factor of the cell (typically 70–90%) and the ground albedo coefficient (the fraction of sunlight reflected by the ground surface). The annual bifacial gain typically ranges from 5% (dark soil) to 30% (white gravel, snow, or white rooftop membrane).

Salient feature of the bifacial solar cells

The following are the salient feature of the bifacial solar cells

The efficiency of single bifacial solar cell is in the range of 22 to 25%
The TOPCon bifacial solar cell module power output range from 400 to 660 W
The bifacial gain of 5% to 30% due to additional energy from rear (back) side of the solar cell.
The temperature coefficient is -0.35%/°C (PERC), -0.30%/°C (TOPCon) solar cell.
The bifacial solar cell has achieved 80% market share as per 2024 data.
The ideal installation of bifacial solar panel is on the ground mounted and elevated racking where reflected albedo surface.

FAQs

What is a bifacial solar cell?

It generates electricity from both front and rear surfaces.

What is bifacial gain?

Extra energy generated from reflected light reaching the rear side.

What is the difference between PERC and TOPCon?

TOPCon offers better passivation and higher efficiency than PERC.

Where should bifacial panels be installed?

On elevated or ground-mounted systems with reflective surfaces.

What is the efficiency of bifacial solar cells?

Typically 22–25% for commercial cells.

Tandem Solar Cells: Working Principle, Structure, Efficiency & Advantages

2026-07-11T09:14:58.303+05:30

Description

Learn about tandem solar cells, their working principle, structure, efficiency, advantages, challenges, and future.

Introduction

The theoretical limits of single solar cell are 30%. The William Shockley and Hans Joachim Queisser made discovery about 50 years ago, called it Shockley – Quisser limit. They theoretically calculated that solar panels with one single layer suffer efficiency limitations as they are unable to absorb full solar light. In the tandem cell, two solar cells stack one on top of the other in which top cells are transparent, convert high energy photons into electricity. The bottom cell absorbs lower energy photons. The solar spectrum splits into two layers dramatically reduces thermalization losses. This will enable theoretically efficiency far better than single layer cells.

Operating Principle

In a tandem cell, the incident sunlight passes through the top sub cell first. High energy photons (blue and green wavelengths) are absorbed by the wide band gap perovskite layer, converting them at higher voltage similarly lower energy photons (red and near-infrared) transmitted through the top cell are captured by the silicon bottom cell. This spectrum splitting dramatically reduces thermalization losses in single junction cells.

Structure

The tandem devices are commonly fabricated in either two terminals or four terminals’ configurations. The sub cells are electrically connected in series and same current flows through all layers in the two terminals tandems. This design offers simple module integration and reduced wiring complexity but current matching between top and bottom cells.

The perovskite silicon tandem solar cells have strong efficiency potential. The perovskite layer absorbs high energy protons, while the silicon cell converts the lower energy photons. The structure of Perovskite tandem solar cell and function of each layer is explained here.

Structure of Perovskite Tandem solar cell

The function of each layer is given here.

Layer	Function
Glass substrate	Provide mechanical support and protects solar cell from environment
Anti reflection coating (ARC)	Minimizes light reflection and increases the amount of sunlight entering the cell
Transparent conductive oxide (TCO)	Conducts electrical current, when sunlight pass through it
Electron transport layer (ETL)	Extracts and transports electrons from the perovskite absorber to the electrode while blocking holes.
Perovskite absorber (Top Cell)	Absorbs high energy (short-wavelength) sunlight and generates electron-hole pairs
Hole transport layer (HTL)	Extracts and transports holes from the perovskite layer while blocking electrons
Recombination / Interconnection Layer	Electrically connects the top and bottom cells and enables carrier recombination between them
N type silicon layer	Selectively collects electrons and reduces recombination losses in the silicon cell.
Silicon absorber (Bottom Cell)	Absorbs lower energy (long wavelength) light that passes through the perovskite layer
P type Silicon Layer	Collects holes generated in the silicon absorber and transports them to the electrode
Rear TCO (if present)	Provides a conductive path and improves current collection.

Recombination Junction

The junction is the most critical component unique to tandem cells. It must allow electrons flow from the bottom sub cell to recombine with holes from the top sub cell (completing the internal circuit) with minimal optical absorption and electrical resistance. Transparent conductive oxides (ITO, AZO) or ultrathin metallic layers are commonly used.

Current Matching

In a two terminal series connected tandem, the sub-cell generating the lower photocurrent than total output — a condition known as current matching. The perovskite layer thickness and band gap must be precisely tuned so that both sub cells produce equal photocurrents under the AM1.5G (Air mass 1.5 Global) solar spectrum.

AM1.5G* - Air mass is the path length in which light takes through atmosphere normalized to the shortest possible path length to surface when sun is directly overhead. The 1.5 means sun light travelled through path length 1.5 times longer than direct overhead sunlight at sea level (AM 1.0G)

Salient Feature of the Perovskite Tandem Solar Cells

The following are the salient feature of the Perovskite Tandem Solar Cells.

• The laboratory efficiency as per LONGI (Green energy Technology Company) achieves 33.9% efficiency in 2024.

• The theoretical efficiency of two junction solar cell roughly 45% to 47% under concentrated sunlight.

• It can capture both high energy and low energy solar photons

• The standard monocrystalline silicon solar panel efficiency around 22 – 24% in commercial models. Its efficiency needs to reach around 33 – 36% to produce 50% more efficiency per unit area. An individual solar cell cannot achieve this due to Shockley – Queisser limit caps them at around 29.4%. The tandem solar cells drastically increase power output.

• The perovkites degraded when exposed to heat, moisture, UV light during fabrication processes.

• In a monolithic two terminal tandems, the entire device output is limited by lowest performing sub cell.

• The mismatch of wavelength lead to unused photons resulting significant leakage current.

FAQs

What are tandem solar cells?

Tandem solar cells combine two photovoltaic materials to improve efficiency.

How efficient are tandem solar cells?

Laboratory efficiencies exceed 33%, with theoretical efficiencies of about 45–47% under concentrated sunlight.

Why is perovskite used?

It efficiently absorbs high-energy photons while silicon absorbs lower-energy photons.

What are the challenges?

Stability, moisture, UV degradation, and current matching.

Are tandem solar cells the future?

They are among the most promising next-generation solar technologies.

Perovskite Solar Cells: Structure, Working Principle, Advantages, Efficiency & Future (2026)

2026-07-08T16:28:06.339+05:30

Introduction

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) are among the most promising next-generation photovoltaic technologies. They use a metal-halide perovskite absorber with an ABX3 crystal structure. Since 2009, their certified efficiency has rapidly increased from 3.8% to over 26%, making them one of the fastest-developing solar technologies.

Structure of Perovskite Solar Cell

1. Glass Substrate

Mechanical support and light entry.

2. Transparent Conductive Oxide (ITO/FTO)

Transparent front electrode

3. Electron Transport Layer (TiO2/SnO2)

Extracts electrons

4. Perovskite Absorber Layer

Absorbs sunlight and generates charge carriers.

5. Hole Transport Layer

Extracts holes while blocking electrons

6. Metal Back Contact (Au/Ag)

Collects holes and completes the circuit.

Salient Features

· Laboratory efficiency exceeds 26%

· Band gap: 1.2–2.3 eV

· High absorption coefficient enables very thin films

· Low-temperature fabrication can reduce manufacturing costs

· Suitable for tandem solar cells

Advantages

· High efficiency

· Low manufacturing cost potential

· Lightweight and thin-film

· Excellent low-light performance

Disadvantages

· Long-term stability challenges

· Moisture and heat sensitivity

· Lead toxicity concerns

Applications

Building-integrated photovoltaics, portable electronics, tandem silicon-perovskite modules, and space applications

Conclusion

Perovskite solar cells have emerged as a leading photovoltaic technology due to their exceptional efficiency and low-cost manufacturing potential. Continued research is expected to improve durability and accelerate commercialization.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. What are Perovskite Solar Cells?

Perovskite solar cells are next-generation photovoltaic devices that use metal-halide perovskite materials as the light-absorbing layer.

2. How do Perovskite Solar Cells work?

They absorb sunlight in the perovskite layer, generate electrons and holes, and transport them through ETL and HTL to produce electricity.

3. What is the efficiency of Perovskite Solar Cells?

Laboratory-certified efficiencies have exceeded 26%.

4. What are the main layers?

Glass substrate, TCO, ETL, perovskite absorber, HTL, and metal back contact.

5. What are the advantages?

High efficiency, lightweight design, low-cost manufacturing potential, and tandem compatibility.

6. What are the disadvantages?

Moisture sensitivity, long-term stability issues, and lead-related concerns

7. Where are Perovskite Solar Cells used?

Building-integrated PV, tandem modules, portable electronics, and research applications

8. Can they replace silicon solar cells?

They are expected to complement silicon, especially in tandem solar cells.

9. Why are they important?

They promise higher efficiencies with potentially lower production costs.

10. What is the future scope?

Improved durability and commercial-scale production are expected to drive adoption.

FAME II Scheme Explained – Objectives, Incentives & Benefits

2026-07-08T15:56:09.529+05:30

FAME II Scheme: Complete Guide to India’s Electric Vehicle Policy

The FAME II Scheme (Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Electric Vehicles in India) is one of India’s most significant initiatives to promote electric mobility and reduce dependence on fossil fuels. The scheme encourages the adoption of electric vehicles through financial incentives, charging infrastructure development, and support for domestic manufacturing.

The Government of India launched this scheme to accelerate the transition towards clean transportation while reducing air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.

What is the FAME II Scheme?

The FAME II Scheme is the second phase of the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Electric Vehicles (FAME India) programme. It was approved by the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) on 28 February 2019.

The scheme focuses on:

· Promoting electric vehicles

· Supporting EV manufacturing

· Developing charging infrastructure

· Reducing fuel imports

· Encouraging sustainable transportation

Duration of FAME II Scheme

· Launch Year: 2019

· Duration: 5 Years

· Total Budget Allocation: ₹10,000 Crore

· Nodal Agencies: Ministry of Heavy Industries (MHI) and Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE)

Objectives of the FAME II Scheme

The major objectives include:

· Encourage faster adoption of electric vehicles.

· Strengthen India’s EV manufacturing ecosystem.

· Reduce dependence on imported crude oil.

· Lower greenhouse gas emissions.

· Improve urban air quality.

· Develop nationwide EV charging infrastructure.

· Generate employment in the clean energy sector.

Strategic Goals of FAME II

The government has set ambitious goals under the scheme:

· Achieve 30% electric vehicle penetration by 2030.

· Increase investment in EV manufacturing and research.

· Electrify public transport, including buses and three-wheelers.

· Promote indigenous manufacturing through localization.

· Position India as a global EV manufacturing hub.

Vehicle Deployment Targets

The FAME II Scheme supports large-scale deployment of electric vehicles across multiple categories.

Vehicle Category	Target
Electric Buses	7,090
Electric Three-Wheelers	5,00,000
Electric Four-Wheelers	35,000
Electric Two-Wheelers	10,00,000
Total Vehicles	Approximately 15.4 lakh

Charging Infrastructure Targets

To support EV adoption, the scheme includes extensive charging infrastructure development.

Key targets include:

· Around 2,700 public charging stations

· Charging station every 3 km in major cities

· Charging station every 25 km on highways

· Fast-charging corridors on major expressways

· Smart grid-connected charging stations

Financial Allocation under FAME II

The ₹10,000 crore budget is distributed as follows:

Category	Allocation
Demand Incentives	₹8,596 Crore
Charging Infrastructure	₹1,000 Crore
Administration & Capacity Building	Remaining Budget

FAME II Incentive Structure

Eligible electric vehicle buyers receive upfront subsidies based on battery capacity.

Electric Two-Wheelers (e-2W)

· ₹15,000 per kWh

· Maximum subsidy: ₹40,000

· Minimum 40% localization required

Electric Three-Wheelers (e-3W)

· ₹10,000 per kWh

· Maximum subsidy: ₹50,000

· Commercial vehicles only

Electric Four-Wheelers (e-4W)

· ₹10,000 per kWh

· Maximum subsidy: ₹1.5 lakh

· Commercial and fleet vehicles only

Electric Buses

· Up to ₹50 lakh subsidy per bus

· Applicable for government procurement

Localization Requirements

The scheme encourages domestic manufacturing.

Major localization requirements include:

· Motors

· Motor Controllers

· On-board Chargers

· Battery Packs

· Locally manufactured EV components

Vehicles failing to meet localization norms are not eligible for incentives.

Additional Benefits of FAME II Scheme

The policy also offers several additional benefits:

· GST on EVs reduced from 12% to 5%

· GST on EV chargers reduced to 5%

· Income tax deduction up to ₹1.5 lakh under Section 80EEB

· Road tax exemption in many states

· Priority procurement of EVs by government departments

· Financial support for charging infrastructure

Expected Impact of FAME II

The scheme is expected to create significant environmental and economic benefits.

Fuel Savings

Approximately 9.5 billion litres of fuel savings.

Reduction in Carbon Emissions

Around 2.5 crore tonnes of CO2 emissions expected to be reduced.

Employment Generation

Approximately 10 lakh direct and indirect jobs.

Foreign Exchange Savings

Reduction in crude oil imports leading to substantial foreign exchange savings.

Industry Growth

Private investment of over ₹50,000 crore expected in India’s EV ecosystem.

Advantages of the FAME II Scheme

· Faster EV adoption

· Cleaner environment

· Lower fuel imports

· Reduced pollution

· Increased employment

· Improved charging infrastructure

· Growth of domestic EV manufacturing

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

What is the full form of FAME II?

FAME stands for Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Electric Vehicles in India.

Who launched the FAME II Scheme?

The Government of India launched the FAME II Scheme under the Ministry of Heavy Industries.

What is the budget of the FAME II Scheme?

The total financial outlay is ₹10,000 crore.

Who can receive FAME II incentives?

Eligible buyers of approved electric two-wheelers, three-wheelers, four-wheelers, and electric buses that satisfy localization requirements.

What is the main objective of the FAME II Scheme?

The primary objective is to accelerate electric vehicle adoption while promoting clean transportation and domestic EV manufacturing.

Conclusion

The FAME II Scheme represents a major milestone in India’s transition toward sustainable transportation. Through financial incentives, charging infrastructure, localization requirements, and manufacturing support, the scheme aims to accelerate EV adoption across the country. As India moves toward its clean energy goals, FAME II continues to play a vital role in reducing emissions, creating employment, and building a strong electric mobility ecosystem.

Estimation of Energy Storage Requirement by 2032

2025-08-09T12:14:00.000+05:30

Energy storage requirement for Solar PV connected to grid

In this post, energy storage requirement in India by 2032 is given here. The ESS requirement for medium voltage / low voltage grid support based on estimation penetration of solar PV connected to MV and LV grid.

Energy storage estimation for MV/LV grid

Estimation	2019	2022	2027	2032
Thermal	209	NA	NA	NA
Hydro	43	NA	NA	NA
Nuclear	6	NA	NA	NA
Solar	26	107	244	349
Ground mounted solar	24	68	148	206
Rooftop PV	1.5	40	98	144
Connected to EHV	14	34	66	94
Connected to MV	11	35	84	112
Connected to LV	2	40	98	144
Wind	35	NA	NA	NA
Small hydro	4.5	NA	NA	NA
Biomass & Biopower	10	NA	NA	NA
Peak load (Bus)	192	333	479	658
Annual energy requirements	1192	1905	2710	3710
Battery for LV grid	241	5908	14617	21484
Battery for MV grid	1054	3482	8393	11191
Total storage (MWh)	1295	9390	23010	32675
Approximate (GWh)	1 GWh	10 GWh	24 GWh	33 GWh

Peak load and annual energy requirements are taken form CEA estimates. In congruence with RE target of 175 GW by 2022, the calculation were done on the basis of 100 GW solar, out of which 40 GW is RTPV, 20 GW is medium size installation and 40 GW is from large solar parks. For the year 2027 and 2032, the ratio of RTPV were taken in accordance with the 2022 targets consisting of 40% RTPV of total solar installed capacity.

Consolidated Energy Storage Road map India by 2032

During calculation of energy storage, electric vehicles have assumed high priority in the country. In India, large cities have emerged as the most polluted cities in India and significant share coming out from automobiles. The government of India has launched a national mission in March 2019 – TRANSFORMATIVE MOBILITY AND ENERGY STORAGE MISSION, with the rapid innovation in the EVs competitive in the near term in EV 2 wheelers, 3 wheelers, Cars, Buses and Good carriers. The expected requirements of batteries for EVs is much higher that for grid support. The study made by power grid corporation of India (POWERGRID) in 2013 for green corridor report suggested 500 MWh of ESS requirement for integration of 31 MW GW of RE.

Applications	Energy Storage (GWh)
Applications	2019-22	2022-27	2027-32	Total by 2032
Grid support: MV/LV	10	24	33	67
Grid support: EHV	7	38	97	142
Telecon towers	25	51	78	154
Data centers, UPS and inverters	80	160	234	474
Miscellaneous application (Railways, Rural electrification and HVAC Application)	16	45	90	151
DG usage minimization	-	4	11	14
Total stationary (GWh)	138	322	543	1002
E Vehicles: E2W	4	51	441	496
E Vehicles: E2W	26	43	67	136
E Vehicles: E2W	8	102	615	725
Electric bus	2	11	44	57
Total electric vehicles (GWh)	40	207	1167	1414
Total energy storage demand (GWh)	178	529	1710	2416

Comparison Of Energy Storage Technologies

2025-02-09T11:20:00.005+05:30

Energy Storage Technical Parameters

Here, the comparison of energy storage technologies based on performance parameters are given here. The comparison of energy storage is given by considering following technical parameters.

Round trip energy efficiency
Discharge hours
C rate
Operating cost
Cycle life
Maturity of technology

Energy Storage Techniques by Parameter

Energy storage systems	Lead acid	Li-Ion	Nas*	Flow batteries	Flywheel	CAES*	PHS*
Round Trip Energy Efficiency (DC-DC)	70-85%	85-95%	70-80%	60-75%	60-80%	50-65%	70-80%
Discharge hours	2-6 hours	0.25-4 hours	6-8 hours	4-12 hours	0.25-4 hours	4-10 hours	6-20 hours
C Rate	C/6 to C/2	C/6 to 4C	C/8 to C/6	C/12 to C/4	C/4 to 4C	NA	NA
Cost range per energy available in each full discharge ($/ kWh)	100-300	250-800	400-600	400-1000	1000-4000	>150¹⁰	50-150¹⁶
Development & Construction Period	6 month – 1 years	6 month – 1 years	6 month – 1.5 years	6 month – 1.5 years	1-2 years	3-10 years	5-15 years
Operating Cost	High	Low	Moderate	Moderate	Low	High	Low
Estimated Space Required	large	Small	Moderate	Moderate	Small	Moderate	Large
Cycle life: # of discharges of stored energy	500-2000	2000-10,000+	3000-5000	5000-8000+	10,000	10,000+	10,000+
Maturity of Technology	Mature	Commercial	Commercial	Early to moderate	Early to moderate	Moderate	Mature

CAES – Compressed air energy storage

PHS – Pumped hydro storage

NAS – Sodium Sulphur batteries

The C rate is important parameter in the different energy storage system particularly in the electrochemical batteries. The C rate is an inverse measure of the rate over which a system can provide maximum rated power. The range of discharge duration is directly linked to the C rate. It is expressed in terms of 1C, 2C, C/2. C rate of 2C means that all it supplies all its stored energy in ½ hours whereas C/2 means it supply all its stored energy in 2 hours. Therefore, we can say that higher C rate can discharge at a higher maximum power than compare with lower C rate. Higher C rate has higher power to energy ratio. High power application requires high C rate and short discharge duration.

Sodium based batteries, flow batteries, CAED and PHS are suitable for high energy and long duration applications. C rate is not used for CAES and PHS as the duration of energy storage is not limited by technology as in case of electrochemical batteries.

Cost

Levelized cost method is used to compare costs across different energy sources or technologies.

Space requirement and maturity of technology

Lithium-ion batteries find applications where space and weight is critical consideration. In terms of maturity, lead acid batteries have been around for over 100 years and very mature in terms of technology performance and manufacturing. The Lithium-ion batteries reached commercial maturity with multiple companies setting up GWh scale manufacturing plants.

Capital cost

Figure shows that the capital cost per cycle of some storage system decreases.

Energy storage project in India

2025-02-06T16:25:00.005+05:30

Energy Storage Project

In this post, energy storage project in India is given. According to department of energy (DOE), USA, till mid-2018, almost 177 GW energy storage systems are installed at grid level and 95% of it is pumped hydro storage plants. Grid scale energy storage installation in India mostly form of pumped hydro storage plant, at capacity of 4.8 GW.

Large scale battery storage projects in India started in 2017 with power grid installed its first pilot projects for frequency regulation. The project has been designed for multiple grid service applications but in the initial operation period and they have been used for frequency regulation services. The large-scale energy storage projects are given in the table which are likely to be commissioned by 2019 and 2020.

Project Name	Capacity	State
Power grid corporation of India	3 x 500 kW, 250 kWh BESS	Puducherry
NLC	2 x 10MW Solar PV + 8MWh/16MW BESS	Port Blair, Andaman & Nicobar Islands
NTPC	2MWh BESS	Port Blair, Andaman & Nicobar Islands
NTPC	17MW Solar PV + 6.8MWh/6.8MW BESS	South Andaman, Andaman & Nicobar Islands
NTPC	8MW Solar PV 3.2MWh/3.2MW BESS	South Andaman, Andaman & Nicobar Islands
Tata power Delhi distribution limited (TPDDL)	10MWh BESS	Sub-station, Delhi
Solar energy corporation of India (SECI)	10 MW/20 MWh BESS for 160 MW Wind + Solar Hybrid	Andhra Pradesh
SECI	2 MW Solar PV Project + 1 MWh BESS	Kaza, Himachal Pradesh
SECI	2 x 1.5 MW Solar PV +2 x 2.5 MWh BESS	Leh District, J&K
Andhra Pradesh state electric utility	5 MW Solar PV Project + 4MWh BESS	Makkuva, Andhra Pradesh

Energy storage project in Andaman and Nicobar

The proposed energy storage projects in India 2018-19 are come up in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands to reduce diesel dependency. The SECI is evaluating energy storage project along with large scale solar and wind projects with a proposed 160 MW hybrid project in Andhra Pradesh.

Requirement of energy storage

As the installed capacity of renewable energy increases, the conventional generation will be reduced to provide base load. The renewable energy being intermittent adds its own challenge to the grid. Energy storage is being increasingly seen as flexible resource that can address this concern. The energy storage has large applications in the ancillary services, generation smoothening, load following, peak power saving, energy back up and energy time shifting etc.

As per Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) staff paper, transmission companies can be the owners of energy storage systems without being involved in trading of the stored energy. The national electricity plan highlights the role of energy storge in maintaining grid security with increasing penetration of renewable energy in addition to addressing the intermittency of RE to a large extent. Large scale batteries can be installed along with the solar and wind farms to provide suitable output to the grid.

Estimation of Energy Storage Requirement by 2032

2025-02-06T15:46:00.000+05:30

Energy storage requirement for Solar PV connected to grid

Energy storage estimation for MV/LV grid

Estimation	2019	2022	2027	2032
Thermal	209	NA	NA	NA
Hydro	43	NA	NA	NA
Nuclear	6	NA	NA	NA
Solar	26	107	244	349
Ground mounted solar	24	68	148	206
Rooftop PV	1.5	40	98	144
Connected to EHV	14	34	66	94
Connected to MV	11	35	84	112
Connected to LV	2	40	98	144
Wind	35	NA	NA	NA
Small hydro	4.5	NA	NA	NA
Biomass & Biopower	10	NA	NA	NA
Peak load (Bus)	192	333	479	658
Annual energy requirements	1192	1905	2710	3710
Battery for LV grid	241	5908	14617	21484
Battery for MV grid	1054	3482	8393	11191
Total storage (MWh)	1295	9390	23010	32675
Approximate (GWh)	1 GWh	10 GWh	24 GWh	33 GWh

Consolidated Energy Storage Roadmap India by 2032

During calculation of energy storage, electric vehicles have assumed high priority in the country. In India, large cities have emerged as the most polluted cities in India and significant share coming out from automobiles. The government of India has launched a national mission in March 2019 – TRANSFORMATIVE MOBILITY AND ENERGY STORAGE MISSION, with the rapid innovation in the EVs competitive in the near term in EV 2 wheelers, 3 wheelers, Cars, Buses and Good carriers. The expected requirements of batteries for EVs is much higher that for grid support. The study made by power grid corporation of India (POWERGRID) in 2013 for green corridor report suggested 500 MWh of ESS requirement for integration of 31 MW GW of RE.

Applications	Energy Storage (GWh)
Applications	2019-22	2022-27	2027-32	Total by 2032
Grid support: MV/LV	10	24	33	67
Grid support: EHV	7	38	97	142
Telecon towers	25	51	78	154
Data centers, UPS and inverters	80	160	234	474
Miscellaneous application (Railways, Rural electrification and HVAC Application)	16	45	90	151
DG usage minimization	-	4	11	14
Total stationary (GWh)	138	322	543	1002
E Vehicles: E2W	4	51	441	496
E Vehicles: E2W	26	43	67	136
E Vehicles: E2W	8	102	615	725
Electric bus	2	11	44	57
Total electric vehicles (GWh)	40	207	1167	1414
Total energy storage demand (GWh)	178	529	1710	2416

PPT : Solar energy potential in India

2025-01-05T21:44:00.000+05:30

Solar energy potential in India

In this post, solar energy potential and cumulative installation is given here. The government of India launched various scheme to promote solar energy. Here some of the key points are included in this power point.

Cumulative Solar energy Installation in India

Solar energy potential in India, solar off grid, national institute of solar energy, solar scheme in India, off grid solar applications, solar pumps, solar study lamps, PM KUSUM yojana solar LED street lights.

Download solar energy potential in India PPT

Solar energy potential & Scheme

Predict DC Supply For Ahmadabad Metro !

2024-10-31T09:33:00.002+05:30

DC supply for Ahmedabad Metro

In this blog, we will discuss, electrical supply system for Ahmadabad metro train. Ahmedabad metro phase 2 receives electrical power at 132 kV from grid substation of the power supply to receiving substations. The 132 kV power supply at receiving end substation is stepped down to 32 kV using oil cooled power transformer. The 33 kV cable passes through tunnels to auxiliary or traction substation, which are 750 V DC traction supply and 415 V AC for auxiliary services.

The 750 V DC system uses a third rail system to power the train. The third rail is in 15 m length, joined together by special splice joints. The DG sets and UPS battery are arranged at each stations.

180 kVA DC Sets

2 * 20 kVA UPS Battery System

Layout of Ahmedabad Metro Substation

Group Companies / Subsidiaries of NTPC

2024-08-19T08:55:00.003+05:30

List of group companies / subsidiaries of NTPC

The list of subsidiaries of NTPC, associated companies as well as jointly controlled entities whose financial statement were audited by comptroller and auditor general of India. You are eligible for following group companies share if you have already share holder of NTPC.

Subsidiaries of NTPC

NTPC Vidyut Vyapar Nigam Limited

Bhartiya Rail Bijlee Company Limited

Patratu Vidyut Utpadan Nigam Limited

THDC Limited

North Eastern Electric Power Corporation Limited

NTPC EDMC Waste Solutions Private Limited

NTPC Green Energy Limited

Associated company and joint venture with NTPC

Aravali Power Company Private Limited

Meja Urja Nigam Private Limited

NTPC -SAIL Power Company Limited

Jhabua Power Limited

NTPC Tamil Nadu Energy Company Limited

The list of subsidiaries of NTPC, associated companies as well as jointly controlled entities whose financial statement were not audited by comptroller and auditor general of India

Subsidiaries & Jointly Controlled Companies of NTPC ( Not Audited )

NTPC Electric Supply Company Limited

NTPC Mining Limited

Ratnagiri Gas & Power Private Limited

Associated company and joint venture with NTPC ( Not Audited )

NTPC -BHEL Power Projects Private Limited

Transformers & Electricals Kerala Limited

National High Power Test Laboratory Private Limited

Energy Efficiency Services Limited

Hindustan Urvarak & Rasayan Limited

Anushakti Vidhyut Nigam Limited

CIL NTPC Urja Private Limited

Reference: www.ntpc.co.in

Greenhouse standards

2024-08-18T23:29:00.002+05:30

Greenhouse standard definitions

To understand clear definition of hydrogen and its derivative, the national green hydrogen mission to enable production of 5 MMT per annum by 2030, the green hydrogen standard redefined green hydrogen as Hydrogen production from renewable energy which includes

The green hydrogen gas is produced through electrolysis, from water treatment, electrolysis gas purification, drying and compression of hydrogen shall not be greater than 2 kg CO2 per kg of hydrogen produced.

Production from biomass conversion given that green house gas emission in the entire production process shall not be greater than 2 kg CO2 per kg of hydrogen produced.

Reference: https://ntpc.co.in/

Classification of energy storage system

2024-08-08T08:45:00.003+05:30

Energy storage system

The transmission line companies can be the owners of the energy storage systems. The national electricity plan highlights the role of energy storage in maintain grid security with maintaining grid security with penetration of renewable energy to large extent. The Indian energy storage market is largely driven by the lead acid batteries for back up applications. The classifications of energy storage device is given here.

Classification of Energy storage devices

Mechanical Energy Storage

Pumped hydrogen energy storage
Compressed air energy storage
Flywheel energy storage

Electrochemical Energy Storage

Lead acid batteries, advanced lead acid (lead carbon, bipolar lead acid)
Lithium batteries (LCO, LMO, LFP, NMC, LTO, NCA)
Flow batteries (ZnBr, Vn Redox)
Sodium batteries (Nas, NaNiCL₂)
Zinc batteries (Zn Air, ZnMno₂)

Thermal Energy Storage

Sensible molten salt, chilled water
Latent ice storage, phase change materials
Thermochemical storage

Electrical Energy Storage

Super capacitors
Super conducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)

Chemical (Hydrogen) Electro-chemical Energy Storage

Power to power (Fuel Cells etc.)
Power to gas

How to apply for internship in NISE?

2024-08-04T09:19:00.002+05:30

Internship/Research/Dissertation in NISE

The national institute of solar energy is an autonomous institute under the ministry of new and renewable energy (MNRE). The NISE is dedicated to research and development, solar component testing and certification, capacity building and development of solar products and applications

Internship / research / dissertation program in NISE

The NISE offers Internship / research / dissertation program to provide opportunities for students and graduates for training and experience in the solar energy field.

Who can apply in NISE?

Ongoing graduate completing their sixth semester / 3^rd year and post graduate students completing second semester / first year

Minimum residency period for graduate students is two weeks

Minimum residency period for post graduate students is six weeks

Completed graduation and post-graduation

When apply in NISE?

Throughout the year

Application process for Internship / research / dissertation program in NISE

Students must apply by sending filled form to internship@nise.res.in

The application form is attached with annexure 1

Documents

One page statement of purpose, highlighting connection to solar energy and applicant goal for internship

CV: Educational background, skills and relevant experience, mark sheets, degree certificates, proof of academic qualifications

Annexure 2: Request letter from the institute, on the institute letterhead

Ensure the subject line includes – Internship Application – [ your name ]

Annexure 1 and Annexure 2 with complete details

Accommodation for NISE internship

On sharing basis, preference given to female students based on availability. However, students are responsible for managing boarding, loading and transportation for the entire duration of the program.

NISE Declare Training Calendar for Solar Energy

2024-08-04T08:40:00.001+05:30

NISE Solar Energy Training

The national institute of solar energy (NISE) provides on campus training of solar energy for different modules from august 2024 to onwards. The 3 day training program of solar energy modules is not free of cost.

The NISE provides training programmes for national and international participants on solar energy and renewable energy for different target groups at Gurugram Campus.

3 day training programme on solar energy

Manufacturing of solar cells and modules

Hydrogen energy: Production, Storage and Utilization

Solar microgrid technology

Renewable energy technology and applications

Performance evaluation of solar PV systems

Solar PV Lab quality management

How to apply in NISE?

The application process is online. You can assess training calendar and training fees by NISE website.

https://training.nise.res.in/Trainings

Fees for NISE training

The training fees varies from Rs. 11000/ to Rs. 16000. The training fees different for individual courses.

Training centre for NISE

National institute of solar energy

19^th milestone

Faridabad road

Institutional area, Gwal Pahari

Gurugram, Harayana 122003

Contact Person for NISE Training

Assistant: Training division

skill@nise.res.in

PH: 0124 – 2853035

Technical Support: Project Manager, Mr Dushyant Kumar

itcell@nise.res.in

PH: 0124 – 2853075

Without Exam, Scientist Job at NIBE

2024-08-04T08:08:00.001+05:30

Job of Scientist at NIBE

The NIBE – national institute of bio energy, invites applications for Scientist Job at NIBE. The eligible candidates at Sardar Swaran Singh national institute of bio energy (SSS-NIBE), on direct recruitment / deputation basis. The SSS-NIBE, Kapurthala is an autonomous institute of the MNRE, Government of India.

No. of Post in NIBE

Scientist F

No of post: 3

Level 13 (A) 7^th CPC

Category : Unreserved

Job Description

Experimental / computational background

To provide scientific / technical support to ongoing and upcoming research programs at NIBE

To teach postgraduate students

Establish new research program

Mentoring of reporting staff and students

How to apply for SCIENTIST in NIBE?

Interested candidates for deputation are apply through proper channel. The applications on plain paper enclosed with attested copies of all documents may be sent in the name of

The direction general

Sardar Swaran Singh National Institute of Bio-Energy (SSS-NIBE),

Jalandhar-Kapurthala Road,

Wadala Kalan,

Kapurthala (Punjab) 144 603

For more details: https://mnre.gov.in/notice/advertisement-for-scientist-f-vacancies-at-sss-nibe/

Last date to apply

The eligible candidates can apply from 24.7.2024 to 14.8.2024

Cost of Solar Panel Installation and Payback Period

2024-08-03T06:57:00.000+05:30

In this post, estimate size of solar panel for your residential home, cost of solar panel installation and payback period is given.

Cost of Solar panel Installation

AIM

Estimate the size of solar panel for your residential home, cost of solar panel installation and payback period.

Objective

After completing this experiment, student will be able to

Calculate residential load and unit consumption of residential load

Estimate size of solar panel, incentive, cost of solar panel installation and payback period for amount to be invested.

Estimate amount of CO2 emission reduction by using suitable solar panel calculator

Expected Program Outcomes (POs)

· PO1: Basic and Discipline specific knowledge

· PO2: Problem Analysis

· PO6: Project Management

· PO7: Lifelong learning

Expected Course Outcomes (COs)

1. CO4: Understand government policies for renewable energy sources

Practical Outcome (PRO)

2. Estimate load calculation for residential consumer, solar panel installation cost, incentives calculation, payback period and reduction of CO2 emission for given data.

Theory

You can estimate the size of solar panel / number of solar panels by estimating number of units consumption per month or by energy bill by utility company.

As per PM Surya Ghar Solar Roof Top Portal

Benchmark CFA (Central Finance Assistance)

Mode	Capacity	CFA for General States/UTs
Through National Portal for Rooftop Solar	1 – 2 kW	Rs. 30000/kW
	Above 2 – 3 kW	Rs. 18000/kW
	Above 3 kW	CFA is capped

CFA for given kW Capacity of solar panel

Sr. No	kW Capacity of solar panel	Benchmark cost of solar panel	CFA (Central Finance Assistance or Subsidy) From Government	Consumer have to pay
1	1	Rs. 50,000	Rs. 30,000	Rs. 20,000
2	2	Rs. 1,00,000	Rs. 60,000	Rs. 40,000
3	3	Rs. 1,45,000	Rs. 78,000	Rs. 67,000
4	4	Rs. 1,85,000	Rs. 78,000	Rs. 1,07,000
5	5	Rs. 2,25,000	Rs. 78,000	Rs. 1,47,000
6	6	Rs. 2,40,000	Rs. 78,000	Rs. 1,62,000
7	7	Rs. 2,80,000	Rs. 78,000	Rs. 2,02,000
8	8	Rs. 3,20,000	Rs. 78,000	Rs. 2,42,000
9	9	Rs. 3,60,000	Rs. 78,000	Rs. 2,82,000
10	10	Rs. 4,00,000	Rs. 78,000	Rs. 3,20,000

Let us try to understand size of solar panel requirement by unit consumption per month. There are several energy calculators available in the website. Here we use torrent power energy calculator OR you can calculate watt hour by using clip on meter and multimeter.

Calculation of monthly watt – hour

Sr. No	Appliance Name	Watt(w)	No. of Appliances	Daily Use (Hours / Day)	Total Daily Watt – hour (Wh)
1	Ceiling Fan	50	4	10	2000
2	Air conditioner 1.5 Tons	1500	1	5	7500
3	Computer	200	1	3	600
4	Electric iron	550	1	0.2	110
5	Lamp	18	5	4	360
6	Refrigerator	300	1	24	1200
					11770

Daily watt – hour = 11770

Monthly unit consumption: 11770 × 30 = 353100 Wh = 353 kWh

Let us assume that unit price of energy consumption is Rs. 8 / unit which includes fuel charges, regulatory charges, govt duty and meter rent. The per unit energy prices depends upon number of unit consumption, Higher the rate for higher consumption of electricity and vice versa

Total Energy Charges = 353 × 8 = Rs. 2824

You must enter following data in the PMSURYAGHAR Portal.

(Link for portal: https://pmsuryaghar.gov.in/rooftop_calculator)

1. Your state:

2. category of customer: Residential

3. Average monthly bill:

Option to enter following data

4. Your rooftop area in square meter or square feet

5. You want to invest in solar panel

6. Solar plant capacity (kW)

7. Sanction Load

Solar Panel Calculator

Now, we calculate the cost of the solar panel installation and payback period as per PMSURYAGHAR Portal.

1	Size of solar panel	5 kW
2	Cost of plant Subsidy Consumer have to pay	Rs. 2,25,000 Rs. 78,000 Rs 1,47,000
3	Annual unit generation	7884
	Life time unit generation (25 years)	197100
4	Financial saving Daily Yearly For 25 years	Rs. 64.8 Rs. 23652 Rs. 5,91,300
5	Carbon dioxide emissions mitigated	141 tonnes

Solar Panel Payback period

Cost of solar plant: Rs 147000

Cost of solar plant	Annual Saving	No. of year for initial cost of plant
Rs. 1,47,000	Rs. 23652	6 Years and 3 Month (As per portal calculation, it is 5.89 years, considering interest on yearly saving amount of Rs. 23653)

Payback period: 6 years and 3 months

It is considered that Rs. 147000 is not kept in bank fixed deposit. If it is kept in bank account, interest is also calculated. This calculation is only reference point of view to understand size of solar panel for your residential home, cost of solar panel installation and payback period.

Interpretation of Results

The installation of solar panel is one time investment for your daily life energy consumption bill. In the above case study, you will get your investment money back in the 6 years and 3 months for 5 kW solar panel installation. The initial financial burden of solar panel installation will contribute yourself towards CO2 emission reduction.

Conclusion

The installation of solar panel at the residential premises not only provide to you financial freedom from electricity bill after payback period but contributes nation to achieve net zero CO2 emission by 2050.

Practical related Questions

1. State the limit for CFA (Subsidy) to residential consumer for installation of 4 kW.

2. What is meaning of payback period?

Assessment Rubrics

Sr. No	Criteria	Maximum Marks	Obtained Marks
1	Understanding of theory/concept	5
2	Explanation of conclusion	5
3	Discipline and regularity	5
4	Quality of term work	5
5	Timely completion of term work	5

Signature of Staff

Greening of Island - A&N and Lakshadweep

2024-03-31T17:23:00.002+05:30

Greening of Islands

The government of India, Ministry of power (MoP) and Ministry of new and renewable energy (MNRE) has initiated program – Greening of islands.

Objective of Greening of Islands Program

The main objective of greening of islands program is to convert power source of Andaman and Nicobar Island and Lakshadweep islands into 100% renewable sources.
The National institute of wind energy has carried out Meso scale based data analysis and identified few locations of Andaman and Nicobar island for wind power projects.
The NIWE has installed sound detection and ranging (SODAR) device at Guptapara, A & N island to know wind energy potential in this region.

Minimum Clearance between Transmission line Conductor and Earth

Right of Way in the Transmission Line

Construction of Cable

Function of Earth Conductor in the Transmission Line

Methods of Improving String Efficiency

Solar Panel tilt angle and Methods to calculate it

2024-03-14T05:47:00.002+05:30

Solar Panel Tilt angle

The solar panel tilt angle is defined as the slope angle at which solar panels are mounted to the face of the sun. The tilt angle of solar panel depends upon latitude of installation of site, time of year when energy generation is most critical, desired level of energy output.

When the tilt angle of solar panel is set equal to latitude of the site, the solar panel generates maximum the annual energy output.
The recommended tilt angle of solar module structure to minimize wind pressure is < 15 degree for flat surface.
However, minimum tilt of 10 degree should be maintained for natural cleaning of solar panel.

The PV array should face towards true south (in the northern hemisphere) as ideal orientation, however, for structural uniformity and to accommodate more solar array in limited RCC flat roof space, orientation could be aligned with roof orientation.
The solar PV modules/panels should be installed at the same tilt angle as that of orientation of the roof for inclined roof. Solar PV module should be installed south facing in the northern hemisphere and north facing in the southern hemisphere.
As India is in the northern hemisphere, the solar panel modules will be always installed south facing.
The direction of north south can be determined by using magnetic compass.

Ideal Tilt Angle for Solar Panel

The ideal tilt angle for solar panel is determined by how far your panel from the equator.
The angular distance of your panel location from the equator is known as latitude.
The Latitude increases as we move away from the equator, towards the poles therefore the tilt angle increases as we move from equator to North Pole or South Pole.
Counties which are closer to equator have lower tilt angle.
The tilt angle on the equator is 0 degree and 90 degree on the poles. The latitude angle is ideal tilt angle for solar panel.

Methods of Calculating Tilt Angle

In order to get maximum power output from solar panel, best way to install solar panel facing south if your country lies in the northern hemisphere or north if it lies in the southern hemisphere.
The sun position in the sky changes as per geographic locations, the solar panel orientation and tilt angle need to be adjusted accordingly.
The sun position at comparatively lower in winter as compared with summer season.

Method 1

Solar panel tilt angle is equal to latitude of site

Method 2

The tilt angle is kept at 15 degree minus latitude of site for summer and warmer months whereas tilt angle is kept at 15 degree plus latitude of site for winter and cooler months.

Summer tilt angle calculation = Latitude – 15 degree

Winter tilt angle calculation = Latitude + 15 degree

Method 3

Find out latitude of your location

Summer tilt angle calculation = 0.69 × Latitude + 3.7

Winter tilt angle calculation = Latitude + 10

Yearly tilt angle calculation = (Summer angle + Winter angle) / 2

Case Study on Solar Panel Tilt angle

A solar panel technician wants to install solar panel in the Chandigarh city. Find out solar panel tilt angle. At which tilt angle, solar panel produces maximum ac output energy?

Solution

There is small variation in the latitude of various places in the Chandigarh city so it is recommended that take latitude of Chandigarh city.

Method 1

Find out location of Chandigarh city

Latitude: 30.73

Longitude: 76.77

Method 1

The solar panel should be installed at 30.37 tilt angle to produce maximum ac output energy therefore tilt angle is equal to latitude of the city.

Method 2

Tilt angle as per season

Summer tilt angle = Latitude of site + 15 degree

= 30.73 + 15

= 45.73

Winter tilt angle = Latitude of site – 15 degree

= 30.73 – 15

= 15.73

Yearly tilt angle calculation = (Summer angle + Winter angle) / 2

= (45.73 + 15.73) /2

= 30.73

Method 3

Calculate average yearly tilt angle calculation

Summer tilt angle calculation = 0.69 × (Latitude of Chandigarh) + 3.7

= 0.69 × 30.73 + 3.7

= 24.90

Winter tilt angle calculation = (Latitude of Chandigarh) + 10

= 30.73 + 10

= 40.73

Yearly tilt angle calculation = (Summer angle + Winter angle) / 2

= (24.90 + 40.73) /2

= 32.815

Method 1, method 2 and method 3 are used to find tilt angle of solar panel installed but method 1 gives optimum result.

FAQs on tilt angle

Which is ideal tilt angle for solar panel?

Latitude of site

What is ideal orientation of solar panel?

South direction for northern hemisphere countries and north direction for south hemisphere countries

Define: Latitude

The angular distance of your panel location from the equator is known as latitude.

Whether the tilt angle is kept 90 degree?

Yes, it should be kept at 90 degree for north pole countries and south pole countries. However, it is also kept 90 degree by placing solar panel vertical to the wall.

Whether the tilt angle is kept 0 degree?

The tilt angle is kept 90 degree for countries whose location at equator. However, there is possibility that dust accumulation on solar panel with 0 degree or horizontal surface solar panel.

What should be ideal tilt angle for location of solar panel near sea area?

It should be below 12 degree in order to protect them heavy wind pressure and cyclone near sea region.

You may also like to read these articles :

Standard kVA rating of Three Phase Transformer

Technical Specification of Three Phase Transformer

Function of Damper Winding

Compare Salient Pole and Cylindrical Pole Alternator

Energy Conservation in Compressor

2024-02-25T08:57:00.001+05:30

Energy conservation in compressor

Here the some of the useful tips / techniques for energy conservation in compressor is given. The compressor is used where the air pressure required is higher than the atmosphere pressure. The applications of compressor include automative, aerospace, chemical manufacturing, hospitals, pharmaceuticals, plastics, power generation, wood products etc.

Tips / Techniques for energy conservation in compressor

Compressor oil

Use a synthetic lubricant if the compressor manufacturer permits it.

Be sure lubricating oil temperature is not too high (oil degradation and lowered viscosity) and not too low (condensation contamination).

Change the oil filter regularly.

Compressor intercoolers

Periodically inspect compressor intercoolers for proper functioning.

Variable speed drive

Consider variable speed drive for variable load on positive displacement compressors. Consider engine-driven or steam-driven air compression to reduce electrical demand charges. Use a small air compressor when major production load is off.

Waste heat recovery

Use waste heat from a very large compressor to power an absorption chiller or preheat process or utility feeds.

Compressor efficiency

Establish a compressor efficiency-maintenance program. Start with an energy audit and follow-up, then make a compressor efficiency-maintenance program a part of your continuous energy management program.

Compressed air

Establish a compressed air efficiency maintenance program. Make energy audit and follow up, take compressed air efficiency as a part of energy management program.

Part load management

Install a control system to coordinate multiple air compressors. Study part load characteristics and cycling costs to determine the most-efficient mode for operating multiple air compressors.

Avoid over sizing -- match the connected load.

Load up modulation-controlled air compressors. (They use almost as much power at partial load as at full load.)

Compressor air pressure

Turn off the back-up air compressor until it is needed.

Reduce air compressor discharge pressure to the lowest acceptable setting.

Reduction of 1 kg/cm² air pressure (8 kg/cm²to 7 kg/cm²) would result in 9% input power savings. This will also reduce compressed air leakage rates by 10%.

Compressed air leakage

Minimize purges, leaks, excessive pressure drops, and condensation accumulation. (Compressed air leak from 1 mm hole size at 7 kg/cm² pressure would mean power

loss equivalent to 0.5 kW)

Check for leaking drain valves on compressed air filter/regulator sets. Certain rubber type valves may leak continuously after they age and crack.

Use of V belts

Replace standard v-belts with high-efficiency flat belts as the old v-belts wear out.

Alternatives for compressed air

Consider alternatives to compressed air such as blowers for cooling, hydraulic rather than air cylinders, electric rather than air actuators, and electronic rather than pneumatic controls.

Use the highest reasonable dryer dew point settings.

Turn off refrigerated and heated air dryers when the air compressors are off.

Use a control system to minimize heatless desiccant dryer purging.

Use drain controls instead of continuous air bleeds through the drains.

Air intake in compressor

Take air compressor intake air from the coolest (but not air conditioned) location. (Every 5⁰ C reduction in intake air temperature would result in 1% reduction in compressor power consumption)

Use an air-cooled after cooler to heat building makeup air in winter.

Monitor pressure drop

Monitor pressure drops across suction and discharge filters and clean or replace filters promptly upon alarm.

Heat exchange & air separators

Be sure that heat exchangers are not fouled (e.g. -- with oil).

Be sure that air/oil separators are not fouled.

Oil water separator

Use a properly sized compressed air storage receiver. Minimize disposal costs by using lubricant that is fully demulsible (ability of oil separate from water) and an effective oil-water separator.

Compressor nozzles

Use nozzles or venturi-type devices rather than blowing with open compressed air lines.

Reference: Energy conservation in Industries

State Wise Wind Energy Potential in India

Renewable Energy Scope In India

Incentive For Electrolyser Manufacturers in India

Wind Solar Hybrid Policy in India

Incentive For Green Hydrogen Production in India

Energy Conservation in Lighting System

2024-02-24T17:07:00.000+05:30

In this post, some of the tips for energy conservation in lighting system is given. One of the best energy-saving devices is the light switch. Turn off lights when not required.

Automatic devices

Many automatic devices can help in saving energy used in lighting. Consider employing infrared sensors, motion sensors, automatic timers, dimmers and solar cells wherever applicable, to switch on/off lighting circuits.

Reading lamp

As far as possible use task lighting, which focuses light where it's needed. A reading lamp, for example, lights only reading material rather than the whole room.

Clean tube light

Dirty tube lights and bulbs reflect less light and can absorb 50 percent of the light; dust your tube lights and lamps regularly.

Fluorescent tube lights and LEDs

Fluorescent tube lights and LEDs convert electricity to visible light up to 5 times more efficiently than ordinary bulbs and thus save about 70% of electricity for the same lighting levels. Ninety percent of the energy consumed by an ordinary bulb (incandescent lamp) is given off as heat rather than visible light. Replace your electricity-guzzling ordinary bulbs (incandescent lamps) with more efficient types LED bulbs.

Reference: WBSEDCL

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Energy Conservation in Refrigerator

2024-02-24T16:56:00.002+05:30

In this post, some of the tips for energy conservation in refrigerator is given.

Tips for Energy Conservation in Refrigerator

Place of refrigerator

Refrigerator is kept away from direct sunlight, radiators and other heating and cooking devices. It is placed where air circulation is possible. The seal of the door must be checked frequently, if there is some leakage or not.

BEE star refrigerator

Always purchase BEE star 3/4/5 rating refrigerator.

Refrigerator motor and compressor

All types of refrigerator motor and compressor generates heat therefore it is placed where continuous airflow surround it. The refrigerator cooling system required more energy if the heat cannot escape.

Air circulation in refrigerator

Frequent open and close door waste cooling inside refrigerator therefore avoid unnecessary open/closed door of refrigerator.

Food in refrigerator

Avoid to put hot and ward foods inside refrigerator. The condensation in the refrigerator will be reduced by putting hot food.

Refrigerator door seals

Check whether the refrigerator door seals are clean and tight, if it is loose replaced it.

Refrigerator condenser coils

Clean refrigerator condenser coils regularly, if dust deposits on it, motor uses more energy.

Defrost refrigerator

Accumulation of ice reduced the cooling system inside refrigerator in the manual defrost refrigerator. Always use defrost button to defrosting ice.

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Electricity Consumer Metering Rules 2020 | Replacement | Burn | Stolen | Billing cycles

2024-02-24T08:03:00.002+05:30

Electricity Consumer Metering Rules 2020

In this post, electricity consumer metering rules 2020 is explained here. The rules are regarding new connection as well as existing connection of meters is given. The rules are given for

New and Existing connection
Metering
Billing and payment
Method of payment of bills
Advance payment of bills
Disconnection and reconnection
Reliability of supply
Consumer as prosumer
Standards of performance
Compensation mechanism
Call center for customer services
Grievance redressal mechanism

Electricity Consumer metering rules

No connection shall be given without a meter and such meter shall be the smart pre-payment meter or pre-payment meter.

New meter connection

At the time of seeking a new connection the consumer shall have the option to - (a) purchase the meter, MCB or CB and associated equipment himself or require that the meter, MCB or CB and associated equipment be supplied by the distribution licensee, on payment of applicable charges.

Tested & Sealed meter

The distribution licensee shall ensure that tested and sealed meters of approved meter manufacturers are available to consumers for purchase and information of the places from where the consumers can purchase them is made available on its website.

Meter billing cycle

The meter shall be read at least once in every billing cycle in urban as well as rural areas by an authorized representative of the distribution licensee.

The meters shall be read remotely at least once in every month and in case of other pre-payment and smart meters, the meters shall be read by an authorized representative of the distribution licensee at least once in every three months.

Consumer energy consumption data rules

The data regarding energy consumption shall be made available to the consumer, through website or mobile App or SMS etc.

Consumers having smart pre-payment meters may also be given the data access for checking their consumption on real time basis.

For post payment meters, if the meter is inaccessible to the meter reader on two consecutive meter reading dates, the consumer shall have the option to send the picture of the meter indicating the meter reading and date of meter reading through registered mobile or through e-mail. In such a case, distribution licensee may not send any notice or provisional bill to the consumer

Meter burn, seal break, damage rules

If the consumer makes complains regarding meter readings not being commensurate with his consumption of electricity, stoppage of meter, damage to the seal, burning or damage of the meter etc., testing of meters shall be done by the distribution licensee within a period as may be specified by the Commission, not exceeding 30 days, of receipt of the complaint from the consumer.

Defective meter fee rules

No test fee shall be charged from the consumer at the time of reporting if the meter is found to be defective or burnt due to reasons attributable to the consumer, the consumer shall bear the cost of new meter and test fee shall be charged from the consumer through subsequent bills.

The distribution licensee shall give a copy of the meter test report to the consumer duly signed by both the distribution licensee or their authorized representatives and the consumer, and retain one such copy as acknowledgment.

If the meter is found to be inaccurate, the excess or deficit charges shall be adjusted in the subsequent bills as specified by the Commission.

Meter testing rules

If a consumer disputes the results of testing, the meter shall be tested at a third-party testing facility selected by the consumer from the list of third-party testing agencies approved by the Commission. If it is successfully established that the results of this test are contrary to the results of the test performed by the distribution licensee, then the cost of undertaking such test shall be borne by the distribution licensee. However, in case it is established that the results of this test are same as the results of the test performed by the distribution licensee in sub-rule (7), then the cost of undertaking such test shall be borne by the Consumer.

The list of third-party agencies approved by the Commission shall be available in their various offices as well as on the website of the distribution licensee.

Replacement of defective or burnt or stolen meters rules

Either on consumer’s complaint or upon inspection by the distribution licensee, if the meter is prima facie found to be defective or burnt or stolen not due to causes attributable to the consumer, the licensee shall restore supply through a new meter at its own cost within the timelines as specified by the Commission.

If, after investigation, it is found that the meter has become defective or burnt or stolen due to causes attributable to the consumer, the necessary charges shall be recovered from the consumer as specified by the Commission, within a time, to be specified by the Commission not exceeding 24 hours in urban areas and 72 hours in rural areas by the distribution licensee.

Non-availability of meter shall not be a reason for delay in restoration of supply.

Meter installation rules

If the meter is installed outside the consumer’s premises, distribution licensee shall be responsible for safe custody of the meter, and if the same is installed within the consumer’s premises, the consumer shall be responsible for the safe custody of meter.

Indian Electricity Consumer Rules 2020

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Green Energy Corridor in Ladakh

2024-02-23T07:31:00.003+05:30

Green energy corridor project in Ladakh

The CCEA Sanction of Green energy corridor in Ladakh phase II inter state transmission system for 13 GW renewable projects in Ladakh. Non-existence of any transmission system and adverse climatic conditions in Ladakh, state-of-the-art Voltage Source Converter (VSC) based High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) system and Extra High Voltage Alternating Current (EHVAC) systems will be deployed.

The Transmission system would pass through difficult mountainous terrain of high altitude and extreme climatic conditions viz. temperature going as low as minus 45°C, heavy snow (maximum standing snow of approx. 5-6 metres), etc. In order to counter the sub-zero temperature of the region, special kind of steel would have to be used in towers and its associated accessories. The transmission system would also be passing through avalanche prone zones and, thus, state-of-the art technology would be used to establish a first of its kind system in the world in such topography.

Objectives of green energy corridor in ladakh

The interstate transmission system project setting up of about 713 km [or 1268 circuit kilometers (ckm)] transmission lines and two nos. of 5 GW capacity of high voltage direct current (hvdc) terminals. One each at Pang (Ladakh) and Kaithal (Haryana). The project will facilitate evacuation of power from renewable energy (RE) power project comprising of 13 GW capacity along with 12 GWh Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) in Ladakh.

The broad scope of the project is as under.

AC/DC Line	Transmission line stations	km
HVDC Terminals	+350 kV, 5000MW VSC HVDC terminal each at Pang (Leh) and Kaithal (Haryana)
HVDC Line	+ 350 kV HVDC line between Pang and Kaithal	480 km
AC System	400 kV PS-1 (Pang) - Pang Double Circuit (D/C) line	7 km
	400 kV PS-2 (Pang) - Pang D/C line	27 km
	400 kV PS-3 (Pang) - Pang D/C line	41 km
	220 kV Pang - Leh (Phyang) D/C line (single circuit strung)	158 km

Implementing agency

The project will be implemented by Power Grid Corporation of India Limited (POWERGRID). The project will be implemented in a single phase and is scheduled to be completed by Financial Year 2029-30.

Central Financial Assistance

The total estimated project cost is Rs. 20,773.70 Crore The approved Central Financial Assistance (CFA) @ 40% of the project cost is Rs. 8,309.48 Crore. The CFA will be capped at Rs. 8,309.48 Crore or 40% of the DPR cost or 40% of project completion cost, whichever is lower

Optical ground wire

The OPGW is envisaged at peaks of the transmission line towers by providing direct optical fiber connectivity between pang and Kaithal. The OPGW in the transmission line is meet power transmission system requirement like control, protection and remote operation etc. The telecom facilities will be as per CERC sharing regulation 2020 through power teleservices limited.

Reference: Green energy corridor in Ladakh pdf

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