<?xml version='1.0' encoding='UTF-8'?><?xml-stylesheet href="http://www.blogger.com/styles/atom.css" type="text/css"?><feed xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom' xmlns:openSearch='http://a9.com/-/spec/opensearchrss/1.0/' xmlns:blogger='http://schemas.google.com/blogger/2008' xmlns:georss='http://www.georss.org/georss' xmlns:gd="http://schemas.google.com/g/2005" xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-850503789392823310</id><updated>2024-11-08T07:00:44.799-08:00</updated><category term="Phonetics and Phonology"/><title type='text'>linguistics</title><subtitle type='html'></subtitle><link rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#feed' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/feeds/posts/default'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default?redirect=false'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/'/><link rel='hub' href='http://pubsubhubbub.appspot.com/'/><link rel='next' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default?start-index=26&amp;max-results=25&amp;redirect=false'/><author><name>Anonymous</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06411433075711868975</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><generator version='7.00' uri='http://www.blogger.com'>Blogger</generator><openSearch:totalResults>76</openSearch:totalResults><openSearch:startIndex>1</openSearch:startIndex><openSearch:itemsPerPage>25</openSearch:itemsPerPage><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-850503789392823310.post-7147946122993000607</id><published>2015-11-27T07:24:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2015-11-27T07:24:49.771-08:00</updated><title type='text'>Download Popular Science Ebook Collection </title><content type='html'>&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;header style=&quot;background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 0px; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 10px 20px 0px; text-align: right; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;h1 style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; color: #134888; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.71em; font-stretch: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px 0px 0.4em; outline: 0px; padding: 3px 0px 0px; text-align: left; text-shadow: rgb(185, 213, 245) 0px 0px 3px; vertical-align: baseline; word-spacing: -3px;&quot;&gt;
Download Popular Science Ebook Collection&amp;nbsp;&lt;/h1&gt;
&lt;ul style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; list-style: none; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;li class=&quot;hit&quot; style=&quot;background: url(http://p30download.com/template/icons/set1/graph.gif) 100% 0% no-repeat; border: 0px; color: #8b8b8b; float: right; font-size: 0.9em; list-style: none; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 20px 0px 10px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline; width: 85px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 10.8px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Views:&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 10.8px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;1,288&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li class=&quot;cat&quot; style=&quot;background: url(http://p30download.com/template/icons/set1/open-folder.gif) 100% 0% no-repeat; border: 0px; color: #8b8b8b; float: right; font-size: 0.9em; list-style: none; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 20px 0px 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline; width: 430px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 10.8px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Category:&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;Books&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 10.8px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;»&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;Science&lt;img alt=&quot;Download Popular Science Ebook Collection - collection of Mshhvrlmy&quot; src=&quot;http://img.p30download.com/ebook/image/2015/11/1448517897_popular-science.jpg&quot; itemprop=&quot;primaryImageOfPage&quot; style=&quot;background: transparent; border: none; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot; /&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
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&lt;div class=&quot;post-content&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 0px; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 10px 20px 0px; text-align: right; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div itemprop=&quot;text&quot; style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin-bottom: 1em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;b style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Science&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;structure for production and organization of knowledge about the natural world in the form of explanations and predictions Zmayshshdny.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Meaning older and closer still used today by Aristotle and reliable scientific knowledge as a series of awareness knows that logically and rationally be explained.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;In the present set of the most popular&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;b style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;book of&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;science&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;will be collected.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;aside style=&quot;background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 0px; margin: 0px 0px 20px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: right; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;english-info&quot; style=&quot;background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f3f8fb; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(186, 215, 233); border-bottom-style: solid; border-radius: 7px; border-width: 0px 0px 2px; color: #1d425a; direction: ltr; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 0.95em; line-height: 1.4; margin: 10px 20px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;excerpt&quot; style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 15px 15px 5px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 5px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
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&lt;strong style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ebook List Book:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Consciousness and Its Implications.pdf (647.88 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Course Guidebook - Great Scientific Ideas That Changed the World.pdf (one fifty-nine MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Goldman, Science in the Twentieth Century Guidebook 1-3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Goldman, Science Wars.pdf (2.73 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Jeffrey L. Kasser, Philosophy of Science.pdf (1.63 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Searle, Philosophy of Mind.pdf (8.86 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;100 Decisive Battles from Ancient Times to the Present.chm (5.63 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;101 Shortcuts in Math anyone can Do.pdf ( 15.88 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;A Beginner&#39;s Guide To The World Economy.pdf (15.85 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div class=&quot;expandable&quot; style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 7px 15px 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;A Brief History of Particle Physics.pdf (1015.42 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;A History of Light and Colour Measurement, Science in the Shadows - Johnston.pdf (1.64 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;A Random Walk in Science.pdf (2:03 p.m. MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;A Short History of Nearly Everything. pdf (1.76 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Abel&#39;s Proof - Pesic.pdf (9.89 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;About Life, Concepts in Modern Biology - Agutter (two thousand and seven) .pdf (13.84 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Advanced Mathematical Thinking - Tall.djvu (2.64 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Albert Einstein collection (incomplete)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Einstein - the 1,949th - Why Socialism.pdf (82.4 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Einstein_Time_Person_Of_The_Century.jpg (39.44 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;info.txt (562 bytes)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Amacom.the.genomics.age.how.dna.technology.is.transforming.the.way.we. Live.and.who.we.are.pdf (2.43 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;An Encyclopedia of Great Sieges from Ancient Times to the Present.chm (6.77 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;An Introduction To Cybernetics.pdf (2:02 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Capra, Fritjof - The Tao of Physics.pdf (ten fifty-six a.m. MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Decoherence, the Measurement Problem, and Interpretations of Quantum Mechanics 0312059.pdf (792.94 KB )&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Delightful Decimals and Perfect Percents, Games and Activities That Make Math Easy and Fun - Long.pdf (2.96 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Dictionar de Geografie Fizica.pdf (40.73 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Dictionary of geophysics, Astrophysics, and astronomy (CRC, two thousand and one) (524S) .pdf (five forty-two MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Einstein - The Meaning of Relativity 6th ed (Routledge, 1956) Ww.pdf (1.99 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Einstein&#39;s Miraculous Year.pdf (two fourteen MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Einstein, from 1,905 to 2005. pdf (6.66 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Einstein, Physics and Reality.pdf (6.84 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Empires of Belief - Why We Need More Scepticism and Doubt in the 21th Century.pdf (3/16 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Encyclopedia of Barbarian Europe.chm (3.27 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Ernest Nagel and James R. Newman - Godel&#39;s Proof&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Ernest Nagel and James R. Newman - Godel&#39;s Proof.pdf (7:31 p.m. MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Godel&#39;s Proof - CIP Data.jpg (431.91 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Godel&#39;s Proof - Table of Contents.jpg (461.51 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Essentials of Meteorology.pdf (21.69 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Evans J., A. Quantum mechanics at the Thorndike crossroads .. new perspectives from history, philosophy and Physics.pdf (2.91 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Everyday.math.demystified.0071431195.pdf (7:32 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Facts and Mysteries in elementary particle Physics.pdf (11.37 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Feynman Lectures on Physics&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Feynman&#39;s Path Integral in Quantum Theory.pdf (218.41 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Fibonacci Numbers - Vorob&#39;ev.djvu (516.59 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Figments of Reality - The Evolution of the Curious Mind.pdf (2:56 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Forging Democracy The History Of The Left In Europe 1850-2000 - Geof Eley.pdf (three fifty-six MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Fractal Geometry Mathematical Foundations and Applications 2nd Edition.pdf (three forty-five MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;From Certainty Uncertainty The Story Of Science And Ideas In The 20th to Century - David Peat.pdf (3.78 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;from Scientific American aug.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;One thousand nine hundred and ninety-three - Mastering Chaos.pdf (13.68 MB)&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Hofstadter, Dennett - The Mind&#39;s I.pdf (4.83 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;How.to.solve.school.physics.problems.pdf (55.78 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Introduction to Probability - Solutions Manual.pdf (615.39 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Introduction to Probability.pdf (2.09 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Jsdugdale - Entropy and its physical Meaning.pdf (4:17 p.m. MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Dawkins - Skeptic - How Evolution Increases Information In The Genome.pdf (123.44 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Dawkins, Richard - God&#39;s Utility Function.pdf (86.92 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Dolly and the cloth-Heads.pdf (2/12 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Extra&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The claim that Creationism is a science Rests above all on the Plausibility of the biblical Flood.txt (22/08 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The Over Wars Evolution - New York Review of Books - By Richard C. Lewontin.txt (38.04 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;How do you wear your Genes.pdf (10.78 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Wonderful Life by Stephen J.pdf (12.75 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Dawkins Books&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Dawkins Und es ein Fluss Entsprang in Eden.pdf (791.16 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Richard Dawkins - the 2004th - Extended Phenotype.pdf (105.91 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Richard Dawkins - A Devil&#39;s Chaplain (2003) .pdf (7.48 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Richard Dawkins - Gena Egoista.doc (2.22 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Richard Dawkins - The Ancestor&#39;s Tale.pdf (29.48 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Richard Dawkins - The Blind Watchmaker.pdf (7.69 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Richard Dawkins - The God Delusion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;info.txt (one forty-nine KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;.- Richard.dawkins. The.god.delusion. (2 006) .fixed.pdf (1.89 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Richard Dawkins - The Selfish Gene.pdf (712.26 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Richard Dawkins - Unweaving The Rainbow&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;info.txt (847 bytes)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Richard Dawkins - Unweaving The Rainbow.pdf (671.73 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Richard Dawkins, The Extended Phenotype.djvu (2.55 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Other Articles&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Dawkins, Richard - Debating Religion.doc (162 bytes )&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Dawkins, Richard - The Improbability Of God.pdf (30.71 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Dawkins.richard - Debating Religion.pdf (62.99 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Richard Dawkins - Articles.pdf (7.09 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Richard Dawkins - Good &amp;amp; Bad Reasons for Believing.doc.pdf (67.71 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Richard Dawkins - The Tanner Lectures on Human Values.pdf (3.55 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Richard Dawkins - Viruses of the Mind.pdf (129.58 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Richard Dawkins, How dare you call me a Fundamentalist.pdf (472.87 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Richard Dawkins - his research and Books.mht (166.48 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;.- Richard.dawkins. The.god.delusion. (the 2,006th) .fixed.pdf (1.89 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Routledge History Of Philosophy&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Schrodinger equation (Kluwer, 1991) .djvu ( 3.77 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Schrodinger&#39;s Rabbits The Many Worlds of Quantum.pdf (13.72 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Scott Flansburg - Mega Math - Workbook.pdf (995.5 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Secrets of the Old One - Einstein, 1905.pdf (2.73 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Seeking Ultimates An Intuitive Guide to Physics.pdf (two forty-five MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Splitting the Second, The Story of Atomic Time - Jones.pdf (1.33 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Squires, The Mystery Of The Quantum World (Second Edition) .pdf (8.3 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Statistics for Dummies - D. Rumsey. chm (3.4 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Statistics in Plain English, Second Edition.pdf (12:56 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Stephen Hawking, A Life in Science - White &amp;amp; Gribbin.pdf (938.44 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Stephen Wolfram - A New Kind Of Science.pdf (83.13 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Teach .yourself.trigonometry.ebook-Een.pdf (5.06 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Teaching About Evolution and the Nature of Science.pdf (4:16 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The A to Z of Mathematics, A Basic Guide - Sidebotham.pdf (one forty-one MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The Art of the infinite - The Pleasures of Math.pdf (eight six MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The Big Bang Never Happened - serious alternative Science.pdf (12.95 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The Blackwell Companion To Criminology.pdf (38.31 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Political Thought.chm (01.13 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The Blackwell Guide to the Philosophy of Computing and Information- (ALL, but no chp 10, 21, 22) .pdf (2.96 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The Book of Numbers - Conway &amp;amp; Guy.djvu (2.52 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The complete book of intelligence tests. pdf (26/01 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The Complete Idiot&#39;s Guide to Astronomy, Second Edition.pdf (9.04 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The Cosmic Clocks, From Astrology to a Modern Science - Gauquelin.djvu (2.97 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The Dancing Wu Li Masters.pdf (27/02 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The Deadbeat Universe - Wahlin.djvu (989.31 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The Dream Drugstore.pdf (4/25 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The Elegant Universe.pdf (9:22 p.m. MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The Encyclopedia of World History, 6th Ed - Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001.chm (13.86 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The Fabric of the Cosmos - Space, Time, and the Texture of Reality (Brian Greene) .pdf (25.47 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The First Computers History and Architectures - Raul Rojas.pdf (12.62 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The First Three Minutes, A Modern View of the Origin of the Universe - Weinberg.pdf (1.76 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The Fourth State of Matter An Introduction to Plasma Science 2nd Ed.pdf (17.02 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The History Of Ancient Egypt&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;History Of Ancient Egypt The, Part I.pdf (15.3 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The History Of Ancient Egypt, Part Ii.pdf (12.68 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The History Of Ancient Egypt, Part Iii.pdf (12.12 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The History Of Ancient Egypt, Part Iv.pdf (12.83 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The Holographic Universe.pdf (2.86 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The Little Book of Bigger Primes - Ribenboim.pdf (19/01 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The Meaning Of It All - Feynman.pdf (156.75 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The Mind at Night - The New Science of How and Why We Dream.pdf (13.44 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;The New Book of Prime Number Records - Ribenboim.djvu (4.4 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Wiley Mathematical Journeys.pdf ( one forty-four MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Witten, E. - Duality, Spacetime and Quantum Mechanics.pdf (1012.51 KB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;Wolfram Research - Encyclopedia Of Mathematics (P3236) .djvu (65.94 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 11.4px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 11.4px; line-height: 1.4;&quot;&gt;JM Jauch - Foundations Of Quantum Mechanics.djvu (5.04 MB)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;expander&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(224, 237, 245); border-radius: 0px 0px 7px 7px; border: 0px; cursor: pointer; font-size: 0.9em; margin: 3px 0px 0px; opacity: 0; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 10px 3px; text-shadow: rgb(255, 255, 255) 0px 1px 1px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 10.26px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;More info (open / close)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div class=&quot;extra-info&quot; style=&quot;background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f3f1e4; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(219, 214, 174); border-bottom-style: solid; border-radius: 7px; border-width: 0px 0px 2px; margin: 10px 20px; outline: 0px; padding: 1px 15px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;h3 style=&quot;background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-image-outset: initial; border-image-repeat: initial; border-image-slice: initial; border-image-source: initial; border-image-width: initial; border: 0px; color: #bab485; font-family: &#39;b koodak&#39;, bkoodak, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.6em; line-height: 18px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; outline: 0px; padding: 0.4em 3px 0px; text-align: left; text-shadow: rgb(255, 255, 255) 0px 1px 1px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 19.2px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;h3 style=&quot;background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-image-outset: initial; border-image-repeat: initial; border-image-slice: initial; border-image-source: initial; border-image-width: initial; border: 0px; color: #bab485; font-family: &#39;b koodak&#39;, bkoodak, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.6em; line-height: 18px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; outline: 0px; padding: 0.4em 3px 0px; text-align: left; text-shadow: rgb(255, 255, 255) 0px 1px 1px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 19.2px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Specifications&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;report-old-version&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(198, 192, 153); border-bottom-color: rgb(150, 143, 106); border-bottom-width: 1px; border-radius: 3px; border-style: none none solid; color: #5b5733; cursor: pointer; display: block; font-size: 0.9em; left: 10px; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 2px 10px 3px; position: absolute; text-align: left; top: 10px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 10.8px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;A new release&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-image-outset: initial; border-image-repeat: initial; border-image-slice: initial; border-image-source: initial; border-image-width: initial; border: 0px; margin-bottom: 1em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
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&lt;strong style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 1em; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Book format:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 1em; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;PDF&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;strong style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Language:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;English&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;strong style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;File size:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;2590.7 MB&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;strong style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Date:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;09:14 - 94/9/5&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;strong style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Source:&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://p30download.ir/&quot; style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; color: #6e6831; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot; title=&quot;دانلود&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PC Download&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;strong style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Rating:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-image-outset: initial; border-image-repeat: initial; border-image-slice: initial; border-image-source: initial; border-image-width: initial; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-image-outset: initial; border-image-repeat: initial; border-image-slice: initial; border-image-source: initial; border-image-width: initial; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-color: initial; border-image-outset: initial; border-image-repeat: initial; border-image-slice: initial; border-image-source: initial; border-image-width: initial; border-style: initial; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-color: initial; border-image-outset: initial; border-image-repeat: initial; border-image-slice: initial; border-image-source: initial; border-image-width: initial; border-style: initial; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-image-outset: initial; border-image-repeat: initial; border-image-slice: initial; border-image-source: initial; border-image-width: initial; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-color: initial; border-image-outset: initial; border-image-repeat: initial; border-image-slice: initial; border-image-source: initial; border-image-width: initial; border-style: initial; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-color: initial; border-image-outset: initial; border-image-repeat: initial; border-image-slice: initial; border-image-source: initial; border-image-width: initial; border-style: initial; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-image-outset: initial; border-image-repeat: initial; border-image-slice: initial; border-image-source: initial; border-image-width: initial; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-color: initial; border-image-outset: initial; border-image-repeat: initial; border-image-slice: initial; border-image-source: initial; border-image-width: initial; border-style: initial; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-color: initial; border-image-outset: initial; border-image-repeat: initial; border-image-slice: initial; border-image-source: initial; border-image-width: initial; border-style: initial; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-color: initial; border-image-outset: initial; border-image-repeat: initial; border-image-slice: initial; border-image-source: initial; border-image-width: initial; border-style: initial; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-color: initial; border-image-outset: initial; border-image-repeat: initial; border-image-slice: initial; border-image-source: initial; border-image-width: initial; border-style: initial; color: #6e6831; font-family: &amp;quot;tahoma&amp;quot; , &amp;quot;geneva&amp;quot; , sans-serif; font-size: 1em; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;download-links&quot; style=&quot;background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #e6ffb2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(184, 235, 89); border-bottom-style: solid; border-radius: 7px; border-width: 0px 0px 2px; color: #5ca000; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 1em; line-height: 18px; margin: 10px 20px; outline: 0px; padding: 10px 15px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline; width: 540px;&quot;&gt;
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&lt;span class=&quot;instruction-expander&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(142, 198, 26); border-bottom-color: rgb(107, 162, 23); border-bottom-style: solid; border-radius: 3px; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; color: white; cursor: pointer; display: block; font-size: 0.9em; left: 10px; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 2px 10px 3px; position: absolute; text-align: left; top: 10px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 10.8px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Download Guide&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;report-link&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(255, 107, 15); border-bottom-color: rgb(216, 39, 39); border-bottom-width: 1px; border-radius: 3px; border-style: none none solid; color: white; cursor: pointer; display: block; font-size: 0.9em; left: 105px; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 2px 10px 3px; position: absolute; text-align: left; top: 10px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 10.8px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Report Broken&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;img alt=&quot;Information&quot; class=&quot;image-text-top&quot; src=&quot;http://p30download.com/template/icons/set3/exclaim.gif&quot; style=&quot;background: transparent; border: none; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: text-top;&quot; title=&quot;Information&quot; /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 1em;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;strong style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Size&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;2590.7 mb&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 1em;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; font-size: 1em;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; font-size: 1em; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;&quot; style=&quot;background: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;a class=&quot;jvdla0&quot; href=&quot;http://ultrafiles.co/412038&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; style=&quot;background: url(https://www.java.com/ga/images/jv0dl_a.png) 0% 100% no-repeat rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 0px; color: white; display: block; font-family: &#39;Helvetica Neue&#39;, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px auto; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px 0px 41px; position: relative; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; width: 224px;&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;border: 0px; display: block; font-family: inherit; font-size: 1.2em; font-style: inherit; font-weight: bold; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 1.15em; position: relative; top: 3px; vertical-align: baseline; z-index: 1;&quot;&gt;Download Popular Science Ebook Collection&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;/aside&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/feeds/7147946122993000607/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2015/11/download-popular-science-ebook.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/7147946122993000607'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/7147946122993000607'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2015/11/download-popular-science-ebook.html' title='Download Popular Science Ebook Collection '/><author><name>jcreator</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/17926347588908332596</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-850503789392823310.post-8424544782863483279</id><published>2015-06-09T17:56:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2015-06-09T17:56:49.923-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Data Pattern #1 – Minimal Pairs</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;Based on
definition: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;Phomemes&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-style: italic;&quot;&gt; are contrastive.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 2.4pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;When you have two or more
sounds, found in identical&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;environments, (transcribed identically except for
one sound) that&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;mean different things.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 2.16pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Example: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;b&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;i&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; vertical-align: super;&quot;&gt;j&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;] ‘bee’ &amp;nbsp; [&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;p&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: super;&quot;&gt;h&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;i&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; vertical-align: super;&quot;&gt;j&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;] ‘pea’/‘pee’&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;The sounds &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[b]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;
and &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[p&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: super;&quot;&gt;h&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt; contrast in minimal pairs
and thus belong&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;to separate phonemes.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;s&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;u&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; vertical-align: super;&quot;&gt;w&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;] ‘sue’&amp;nbsp;
&amp;nbsp; [&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;z&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;u&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; vertical-align: super;&quot;&gt;w&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;]&amp;nbsp; ‘zoo’&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;The sounds &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[s]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;
and &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[z]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt; contrast in minimal pairs and thus belong to&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;separate phonemes.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9900cc; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Data Pattern #2 –
&lt;br /&gt;
Complementary Distribution, cont.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9900cc; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; language: fr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: .67in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -.67in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;Some
General &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;Enviornments&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; language: fr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: .67in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -.67in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;amp; Notations:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.67in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.67in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9900cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;1.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9900cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;Word boundaries&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 1.06in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.56in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ccccff; font-family: Wingdings; mso-color-index: 4; mso-special-format: bullet;&quot;&gt;¡&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;word
initial&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; #_____ &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 1.06in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.56in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ccccff; font-family: Wingdings; mso-color-index: 4; mso-special-format: bullet;&quot;&gt;¡&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;word
final&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; ______#&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 1.06in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.56in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.67in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.67in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9900cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;2. Before certain sounds;
before sound classes&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 1.06in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.56in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ccccff; font-family: Wingdings; mso-color-index: 4; mso-special-format: bullet;&quot;&gt;¡&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;___&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;i&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;, ____s, ____ N, ___ palatals, ___C, ___V&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 1.06in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.56in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.67in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.67in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9900cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;3. After certain sounds;
after sound classes&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 1.06in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.56in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ccccff; font-family: Wingdings; mso-color-index: 4; mso-special-format: bullet;&quot;&gt;¡&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;i&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt; ___, s ____, N ____, palatals
___, C___, V___&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 1.06in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.56in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.67in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.67in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9900cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;4. Between certain
sounds; sound classes&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 1.06in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.56in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ccccff; font-family: Wingdings; mso-color-index: 4; mso-special-format: bullet;&quot;&gt;¡&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;i____i&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;s____s&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;, N___N, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;pal.___pal&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;., C__C, V__V&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 1.06in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.56in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 1.06in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.56in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 1.06in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.56in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9900cc; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Data Pattern #2 –&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 1.06in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.56in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9900cc; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Complementary Distribution, cont.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 1.06in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.56in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9900cc; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 1.06in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.56in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9900cc; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 1.06in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.56in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9900cc; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 1.06in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.56in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9900cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;Example: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;Spanish&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9900cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;d&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;e&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;WP MultinationalA Roman&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;o&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;]&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; ‘finger’&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9900cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;d&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;on&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9900cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;d&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;e&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;]&amp;nbsp; ‘where’&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;na&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;WP MultinationalA Roman&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;a&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;]&amp;nbsp; ‘nothing’&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;pi&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;WP MultinationalA Roman&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;e&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;] &amp;nbsp; ‘3p
sing. asks’&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;pwe&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;WP MultinationalA Roman&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;e&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;]&amp;nbsp; ‘3p
sing. can’&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;[pa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #cc0000; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;r&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;e&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9900cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;d&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;]
&amp;nbsp; ‘wall’&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 3.84pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #cc0000; font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;[r]= flap (symbol won’t show)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 3.84pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #cc0000; font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Also, [d] = dental&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 3.84pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #cc0000; font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Note that
phones are phonetically similar&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.81in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.31in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ccccff; font-family: Wingdings; mso-color-index: 4; mso-special-format: bullet;&quot;&gt;¡&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;Both
dental (dental vs. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;interdental&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.81in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.31in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ccccff; font-family: Wingdings; mso-color-index: 4; mso-special-format: bullet;&quot;&gt;¡&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;Both
voiced&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.81in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.31in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.81in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.31in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.81in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.31in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.81in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.31in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.5in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9900cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;[d] occurs in:&amp;nbsp; elsewhere&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.5in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9900cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; #___e&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.5in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9900cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; #___o&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.5in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9900cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9900cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;n___e&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9900cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.5in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9900cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; e___#&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.5in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;WP MultinationalA Roman&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;] &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;e___o&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; V___V&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.5in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;a___a&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.5in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;i___e&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.5in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;e__e&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.5in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.5in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;The phones [d] and &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;WP MultinationalA Roman&#39;;&quot;&gt;x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;]&amp;nbsp; are found in&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.5in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;complementary distribution and
thus belong to&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.5in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;the same phoneme. [d] and &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;WP MultinationalA Roman&#39;;&quot;&gt;x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;] are
allophones of&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-size: large; line-height: 80%; text-indent: -0.5in;&quot;&gt;the same phoneme /d/.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.5in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.5in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;/d/&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.5in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;WP MultinationalA Roman&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;]&amp;nbsp; V_V&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.5in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;[d]
elsewhere&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.5in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.5in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.5in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.5in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.5in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #009900; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Data Pattern #3 –&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.5in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #009900; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Analogous Environments&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.5in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #009900; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.5in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #009900; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;Based on
definition: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;Phomemes&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-style: italic;&quot;&gt; are contrastive.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 3.36pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;This pattern is when you find two
sounds in&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;nearly the same environments, but do not have&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;data for a minimal
pair.&amp;nbsp; The appearance of these&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;two sounds
does not seem to be conditioned by&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;any specific phonetic environments, because&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;they both occur in analogous environments.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 2.88pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.5in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;









&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #009900; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;Data Pattern #3 – &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #009900; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;Analagous&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #009900; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt; Environments, cont.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #009900; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ccccff; font-family: Wingdings; mso-color-index: 4; mso-special-format: bullet;&quot;&gt;l&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #009900; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;Example:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #009900; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #009900; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggBI_F65sll91ffJiXzofpJO0LZQNgg20b-KOcAFpvOzqkSefIsQUlxh50I-nii4ei89ra7kMmcxLih4y9YfJXSWXTQ6ld8vq9ZDUmegkclEjYff7POu-vIv1kfN9zR6tlZAkMO48zenZw/s1600/Image2.jpg&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;90&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggBI_F65sll91ffJiXzofpJO0LZQNgg20b-KOcAFpvOzqkSefIsQUlxh50I-nii4ei89ra7kMmcxLih4y9YfJXSWXTQ6ld8vq9ZDUmegkclEjYff7POu-vIv1kfN9zR6tlZAkMO48zenZw/s320/Image2.jpg&quot; width=&quot;320&quot; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;Environment
of [s]&amp;nbsp; Environment of&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiqZ3xS56hxkdtypnBFY-voxg25yx6Pqpo7OfSNJ6yxDR753QOxXBzQJTvUJJD2ViJFVL3Y8cyz0nB4_HwPU2wS0TfpBSToR9Duruv7-KIz7IMHgSeCbYODK4k4z-BZL-6WgboWtDEdYWUv/s1600/Image3.jpg&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 12.8000001907349px; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center; text-indent: -29.7600002288818px;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiqZ3xS56hxkdtypnBFY-voxg25yx6Pqpo7OfSNJ6yxDR753QOxXBzQJTvUJJD2ViJFVL3Y8cyz0nB4_HwPU2wS0TfpBSToR9Duruv7-KIz7IMHgSeCbYODK4k4z-BZL-6WgboWtDEdYWUv/s1600/Image3.jpg&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #009900; font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; font-weight: bold; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;#___a&amp;nbsp; #____a&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #009900; font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; font-weight: bold; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;i___a&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #009900; font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; font-weight: bold; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #009900; font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; font-weight: bold; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;i_____a&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #009900; font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; font-weight: bold; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;i_____a&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #009900; font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; font-weight: bold; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt; text-shadow: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;These phones are found in analogous&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #009900; font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; font-weight: bold; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt; text-shadow: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;environments and thus
belong&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #009900; font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; font-weight: bold; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt; text-shadow: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;to different phonemes. These sounds are&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #009900; font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; font-weight: bold; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt; text-shadow: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;allophones of different&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #009900; font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; font-weight: bold; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt; text-shadow: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;phonemes.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #009900; font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; font-weight: bold; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt; text-shadow: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #009900; font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; font-weight: bold; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt; text-shadow: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #009900; font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; font-weight: bold; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt; text-shadow: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #009900; font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; font-weight: bold; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt; text-shadow: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Data Pattern #4 – &lt;br /&gt;
Free Variation&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;Based on
definition: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;Phomemes&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-style: italic;&quot;&gt; are realized by allophones&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 2.88pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;



&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;This pattern is when you find two
sounds in the same environments, and there does not seem to be a change in
meaning. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;In other
words, it appears that the phones can interchange with one another with no
effect in meaning.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; This is usually a result of phonetic
distinction that you perceive that is not contrastive in this language.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Data Pattern #4 – &lt;br /&gt;
Free Variation, cont.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;Example:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt; English&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjD2EePxwBNx4oWwuAvdaC3WfytIYB7ZaBfLquvB3S6XopNncOwhrpSuucTWk34EvrEB3YTNf3kKZ7LHS6wLYLim7Fwm_Af9z0lPbmRNFoKwPwBMi13TTMqBoM8Ew2YHhqxlNA9CTuUEd7I/s1600/Image4.png&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;85&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjD2EePxwBNx4oWwuAvdaC3WfytIYB7ZaBfLquvB3S6XopNncOwhrpSuucTWk34EvrEB3YTNf3kKZ7LHS6wLYLim7Fwm_Af9z0lPbmRNFoKwPwBMi13TTMqBoM8Ew2YHhqxlNA9CTuUEd7I/s320/Image4.png&quot; width=&quot;320&quot; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Both
of these phones are found in identical&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;environments, and yet, unlike the
analogous&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;environments examples, alternation of these&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;phones does NOT create
differences in meaning.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;



&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; font-weight: bold; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt; text-shadow: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Thus, both the [p] and the [p] (unreleased)&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; font-weight: bold; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt; text-shadow: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;are allophones
of, and thus belong to, the&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; font-weight: bold; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt; text-shadow: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;same phoneme.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; font-weight: bold; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt; text-shadow: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; font-weight: bold; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt; text-shadow: auto;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9933ff; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;To summarize…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9933ff; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9933ff; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.58in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.58in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;To show you have
allophones of the &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;same&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt; phoneme:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.58in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.58in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.58in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.58in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: Wingdings; mso-special-format: &amp;quot;numbullet3\,1&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;1.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;Complementary
Distribution&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.98in; margin-top: 3.84pt; text-indent: -0.48in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: Wingdings; mso-special-format: bullet;&quot;&gt;¡&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;phones occur in &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;unique, separate,&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.98in; margin-top: 3.84pt; text-indent: -0.48in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;individual
environments&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.98in; margin-top: 3.84pt; text-indent: -0.48in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: Wingdings; mso-special-format: bullet;&quot;&gt;¡&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;environment of sounds conditions&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.98in; margin-top: 3.84pt; text-indent: -0.48in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;allophone&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.98in; margin-top: 3.84pt; text-indent: -0.48in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.58in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.58in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: Wingdings; mso-special-format: &amp;quot;numbullet3\,1&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;2.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;Free Variation&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.98in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.48in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: Wingdings; mso-special-format: bullet;&quot;&gt;¡&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;Phones &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;occur in the exact same&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.98in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.48in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;environments or near-identical&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.98in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.48in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;environments&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt; but &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;don’t change&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.98in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.48in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;meaning&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.98in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.48in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: Wingdings; mso-special-format: bullet;&quot;&gt;¡&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;Seem to be &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;used interchangeably&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;, or&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.98in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.48in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-size: large; font-weight: bold; line-height: 80%; text-indent: -0.48in;&quot;&gt;substitute for one another&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-size: large; line-height: 80%; text-indent: -0.48in;&quot;&gt;,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.98in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.48in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;are realized as allophones.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 10.8pt; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;



















&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.58in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.58in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;Phonemes&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.58in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.58in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.58in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.58in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.58in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.58in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;To show you have
allophones of &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;different&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;phonemes:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.58in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.58in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.58in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.58in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: Wingdings; mso-special-format: &amp;quot;numbullet3\,1&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;1.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;Minimal Pairs&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt; –&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.98in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.48in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: Wingdings; mso-special-format: bullet;&quot;&gt;¡&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;sounds &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;occur in exactly the same&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.98in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.48in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;environments&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;
– in an IDENTICAL set&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.98in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.48in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.98in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.48in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;- &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;AND changes meaning of words&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.98in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.48in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--[if ppt]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: Wingdings; mso-special-format: bullet;&quot;&gt;¡&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.98in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.48in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.58in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.58in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: Wingdings; mso-special-format: &amp;quot;numbullet3\,1&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;2.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;Analogous Environments&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.58in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.58in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.98in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.48in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: Wingdings; mso-special-format: bullet;&quot;&gt;¡&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;Phones &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;occur in overlapping&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.98in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.48in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;environments&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt; and in near-identical&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.98in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.48in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;environments, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;but word meanings are&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;O1&quot; style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.98in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.48in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;different&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.58in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.58in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--[if ppt]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: Wingdings; mso-special-format: &amp;quot;numbullet3\,1&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;●&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.58in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.58in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #3333cc; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.58in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.58in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;



















&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.58in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.58in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Phonemes
are contrastive.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; font-size: 28.0pt; font-weight: bold; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: &amp;quot;Calisto MT&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/feeds/8424544782863483279/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2015/06/data-pattern-1-minimal-pairs.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/8424544782863483279'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/8424544782863483279'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2015/06/data-pattern-1-minimal-pairs.html' title='Data Pattern #1 – Minimal Pairs'/><author><name>jcreator</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/17926347588908332596</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggBI_F65sll91ffJiXzofpJO0LZQNgg20b-KOcAFpvOzqkSefIsQUlxh50I-nii4ei89ra7kMmcxLih4y9YfJXSWXTQ6ld8vq9ZDUmegkclEjYff7POu-vIv1kfN9zR6tlZAkMO48zenZw/s72-c/Image2.jpg" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-850503789392823310.post-5510625003694068308</id><published>2015-06-09T17:47:00.001-07:00</published><updated>2015-06-09T17:47:07.509-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Hardman’s Definition of the Phoneme</title><content type='html'>&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9933ff; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Negative Definition&amp;nbsp;/Contrastive Definition&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9933ff; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 10.56pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Phonemes act to keep words
separate.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 10.56pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Phonemes make words contrast.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 10.56pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;A Phoneme is what it is because
it is not something else.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 10.56pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 10.56pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #990033; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Positive Definition/ Realization Definition&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 10.56pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #990033; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 9.6pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Phonemes are built up of a range
of phones that trigger our perception.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 9.6pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;This definition accounts for
physical realization of phonemes.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 10.56pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;



&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 9.6pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Speech organs builds sounds which
trigger phonemes.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 9.6pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 9.6pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 9.6pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #cc6600; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Structural Definition&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 9.6pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #cc6600; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Phonemes build the
structure of language and are part of the whole&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;phonological structure of a
language.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Humans have propensity for
symmetry in language.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 9.6pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;







&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;There is a linguistic
tendency to make use of some phonetic&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;possibilities to make contrasts and to
use them consistently.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Analyzing Data to Determine
Phonemes&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 10.56pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;There are four general patterns
you will find in your data that help you to determine phonemic status.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 10.56pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;With extensive data sets, there
is a fifth pattern that also appears.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 10.56pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; language: fr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: .38in; margin-top: 11.52pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;These patterns are built
around the definitions of the phoneme itself.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; language: fr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: .38in; margin-top: 11.52pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; language: fr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: .38in; margin-top: 11.52pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-size: 48pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/feeds/5510625003694068308/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2015/06/hardmans-definition-of-phoneme.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/5510625003694068308'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/5510625003694068308'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2015/06/hardmans-definition-of-phoneme.html' title='Hardman’s Definition of the Phoneme'/><author><name>jcreator</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/17926347588908332596</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-850503789392823310.post-6574998390213160843</id><published>2015-06-09T17:44:00.001-07:00</published><updated>2015-06-09T17:44:18.398-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Analyzing Data to Determine Phonemes</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;You analyze &lt;/span&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;phonetic
data&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt; to determine &lt;/span&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;phonemic
status.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;Phonemic status&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt; means how native speakers &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;perceive&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt; these&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;sounds, and thus, how these sounds are
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;organized&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt; in this language.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ccccff; font-family: Wingdings; mso-color-index: 4; mso-special-format: bullet;&quot;&gt;l&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;Do native speakers “hear”
a difference and use them&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;contrastively? &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;(allophones of different phonemes – these sounds&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;belong to different
phonemes)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ccccff; font-family: Wingdings; mso-color-index: 4; mso-special-format: bullet;&quot;&gt;l&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;Do native speakers not
“hear” a difference and thus do not use&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;them contrastively? &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;(allophones of the same phoneme – these&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;sounds
belong to the same phoneme)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;So
remember, 2 languages might make use of the same&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;sounds [e] and [&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;i&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;], but organize and perceive
those sounds&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;differently.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 4.32pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 3.36pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;Language&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt; A: /e/&amp;nbsp; /&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;i&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;/&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #6767ff; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;language &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #6767ff; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;B:&amp;nbsp; /&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #6767ff; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;i&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #6767ff; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;/&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[e]&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;i&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #6767ff; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[e]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #6767ff; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #6767ff; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;i&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #6767ff; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #6767ff; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #6767ff; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;A: 2 sounds belong to
different phonemes, native speakers&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;perceive them as different and they can be
used to build&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;differences in words, [e] and [&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;i&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;] belong to different&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;phonemes, /e/ and /&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;i&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;/, respectively&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff6600; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #6767ff; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;B: 2
sounds belong to the same phoneme, native speakers&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #6767ff; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;do NOT perceive them as
different, they may not be used to&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #6767ff; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;build differences in words, [e] and [&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #6767ff; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;i&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #6767ff; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;] belong to the same&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #6767ff; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;phoneme, /&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #6767ff; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;i&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #6767ff; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;/&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #6767ff; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #6767ff; font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; language: fr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: .38in; margin-top: 10.56pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;That is your goal in
phonemic analysis – &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; language: fr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: .38in; margin-top: 10.56pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;to determine the
perception &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; language: fr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: .38in; margin-top: 10.56pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;and organization of sound &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 5.76pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;





&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; language: fr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: .38in; margin-top: 10.56pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;by a native speaker.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; language: fr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: .38in; margin-top: 10.56pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; language: fr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: .38in; margin-top: 10.56pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/feeds/6574998390213160843/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2015/06/analyzing-data-to-determine-phonemes.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/6574998390213160843'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/6574998390213160843'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2015/06/analyzing-data-to-determine-phonemes.html' title='Analyzing Data to Determine Phonemes'/><author><name>jcreator</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/17926347588908332596</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-850503789392823310.post-4746357391159615888</id><published>2015-06-09T17:41:00.004-07:00</published><updated>2015-06-09T17:41:53.749-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Phonemics</title><content type='html'>&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9933ff; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Phonemics, or Why Phonetic is so hard…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Century;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;You do not hear physical sound directly.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Century;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Century;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;If you did, phonetics would be easy.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Century;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Century;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Instead, you perceive all speech sounds
through the sound system of your native language(s) and the languages you have
studied.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Century;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; language: fr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 43.2pt; mso-line-break-override: restrictions; punctuation-wrap: simple; text-align: center; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;What does &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; language: fr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 43.2pt; mso-line-break-override: restrictions; punctuation-wrap: simple; text-align: center; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;that mean?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;You
perceive speech sounds through &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;structure&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; language: fr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 43.2pt; mso-line-break-override: restrictions; punctuation-wrap: simple; text-align: center; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;



&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;When
you deal with sound outside of the structure you are used to, it can become
confusing and difficult to even perceive a sound.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;When
you hear human speech sounds, these sounds automatically “trigger” perceptual
units in your brain/mind.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;



&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;These
units are abstractions and are used to organize and structure the “sounds” of
your native language.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 8.64pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;The &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #6767ff; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;phoneme&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt; is
the basic unit of organization of sounds in language.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 8.64pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;



&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 8.64pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;The &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #6767ff; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;phoneme&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt; is
an abstract, structural and perceptual unit of speech.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 8.64pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 8.64pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;To
put another way, when&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;someone utters a physical&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;speech sound to you, that&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;speech sound triggers a&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;phoneme in your mind – you&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;do not “hear” the phonetic&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;distinctions directly.&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 8.64pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;



&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Instead,
the sound triggers a perceptual unit and you&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;perceive the sound as that unit.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;When
native speakers (without formal linguistics&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;training) say they “hear no
difference” between two&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;sounds, it is probably because in their language&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;those
two sounds trigger the same perceptual unit.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Those
two sounds belong to the same phoneme.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;You
will generally not “hear” a difference between two sounds that belong to the
same phoneme.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;



&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;You
will generally “hear” a difference between two sounds who belong to different
phonemes.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 8.64pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Phonemes
are used to build words and contrast “sound unit” from “sound unit.”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 8.64pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 8.64pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9933ff; font-family: Century; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Classic English Phoneme Example&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 8.64pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9933ff; font-family: Century; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIngeEtUxFNG3cCD6NoIBsAqcyQ_DAQFDZe3kazar-D6gGgfyLVxyK8Urt30myWD99Etstwfu42UHpGkBHs70lll5856G0TjB2jxVj0w-LzxyX7ZDU4-WmSw4tO4Zpe4Z3z-rJZhMW8Rqs/s1600/Image1.png&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;470&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIngeEtUxFNG3cCD6NoIBsAqcyQ_DAQFDZe3kazar-D6gGgfyLVxyK8Urt30myWD99Etstwfu42UHpGkBHs70lll5856G0TjB2jxVj0w-LzxyX7ZDU4-WmSw4tO4Zpe4Z3z-rJZhMW8Rqs/s640/Image1.png&quot; width=&quot;640&quot; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 8.64pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9933ff; font-family: Century; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #9933ff; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #33cc33; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Key Vocabulary in Phonemics&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #33cc33; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ccccff; font-family: Wingdings;&quot;&gt;l&lt;/span&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Phoneme&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;
– abstract structural and perceptual unit /&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
/ &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ccccff; font-family: Wingdings; mso-color-index: 4; mso-special-format: bullet;&quot;&gt;l&lt;/span&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Phone&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt; –
phonetic speech sound, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #009900; font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;unanalyzed&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt; according to&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;phonemic status &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; [ ]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ccccff; font-family: Wingdings; mso-color-index: 4; mso-special-format: bullet;&quot;&gt;l&lt;/span&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Allophone&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;
– after &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #009900; font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;analyzing data&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;,
the phonetic speech&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;sound that belongs to, and thus triggers, a phoneme&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;[&amp;nbsp;
]&amp;nbsp; under /&amp;nbsp; /&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Writing phonemes and the
allophones that realize them:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;/ / phoneme (choose one allophone
as symbol)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; [
] Allophone 1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; [&amp;nbsp; ] Allophone 2&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; etc.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; line-height: 90%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 7.68pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;









&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Generally, when there is more
than one allophone, each will occur in its own environment – if that&amp;nbsp; is the case, list environment, too&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Calisto MT&#39;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 6.72pt; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #ff0066; font-family: &#39;Bookman Old Style&#39;; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: large;&quot;&gt;Analyzing Data to Determine
Phonemes&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/feeds/4746357391159615888/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2015/06/phonemics.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/4746357391159615888'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/4746357391159615888'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2015/06/phonemics.html' title='Phonemics'/><author><name>jcreator</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/17926347588908332596</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIngeEtUxFNG3cCD6NoIBsAqcyQ_DAQFDZe3kazar-D6gGgfyLVxyK8Urt30myWD99Etstwfu42UHpGkBHs70lll5856G0TjB2jxVj0w-LzxyX7ZDU4-WmSw4tO4Zpe4Z3z-rJZhMW8Rqs/s72-c/Image1.png" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-850503789392823310.post-5598722169623331251</id><published>2013-05-24T19:54:00.001-07:00</published><updated>2013-05-24T19:54:41.485-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Values</title><content type='html'>&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; trbidi=&quot;on&quot;&gt;
&lt;table&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;view-essay&quot; style=&quot;border: solid 1px #ff6666;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;&quot;&gt;
  The importance of values can not be overstated, they shape our 
intrinsic motivation (Kollmuss, &amp;amp;ump; Agyeman, 2002, p.251).  The 
significance of looking at values allows us to see the inter-workings 
behind peoples actions. Too often society sees the natural environment 
as something available for our use, a set of resources to be 
consumed(Cohen, 2006, p.13).  Our system of values causes great 
environmental destruction, only a change in the priority of our values 
will allow us to counter this trend.
&lt;br /&gt;
 Our western values and American values in particular are very inward 
looking as a country and individually.  People are naturally concerned 
with what is immediately in front of them.  They put their family above 
their community, their community above the country.  They only deal with
 problems once they are backed into a corner.  Elke Weber&#39;s research of a
 “finite pool of worry” points to our shortsightedness in the 
long-term(Gertner, 2009, p.2). When issues like clean air or clean water
 are directly threatened we are able to act if we perceive the threat to
 be dangerous enough.  We quickly move on to what we feel are other more
 pressing matters, like the economy.  We can see the western society 
model being adopted by other countries or has a goal to aspire to(Cohen,
 2006, p.132).  The rise of developing countries to first world states 
coupled with finite resources means that our quality of life as we know 
it is unsustainable.  Western society has a history of bending the 
environment to suit our will.  
&lt;br /&gt;
 The value of convenience and consumption can be best viewed in a city 
like Los Angeles.  For all practical purposes the city of Los Angeles 
should not exist; there is not a supply of fresh water large enough to 
support it.  The city is spread out forcing its residents to be entirely
 dependent on cars for transportation.  It is entirely dependent on 
technology to survive.  The effects of cheap oil and (relatively) cheap 
water allowed it to balloon to the sprawling metropolis it is today.  
This level of sprawl is unsustainable with out a shift in the order of 
our values.  
&lt;br /&gt;
 The value of convenience is linked to the value of mobility.  Our 
society is built around the car and the ease in which it allows us to 
travel to where ever we want.  The cost of that mobility, movement of 
people, and the mobility of goods (not using local agriculture, and 
production of products).  Infrastructure around the car, roads, car 
manufacturing, parking lots.
&lt;br /&gt;
 The prosperity we value is based on our economic need for consumer 
spending.  The rise of modern consumerism after the industrial 
revolution not coincidentally followed a rise in environmental damage on
 a global scale.  Consumerism acts as a self-perpetuating entity, 
without care for the larger world.  
&lt;br /&gt;
 Most people like to go about their day without thinking about the need 
for clean water or clean air.  They just want it to be there, to exist 
without them having to work for it.  They blind themselves to the 
realities of their lifestyle and the effect it has to the world.  Much 
like how people don&#39;t want to see how sausage is made, they don&#39;t want 
to see where their trash goes.  It gets picked up at the same time every
 week and then it&#39;s gone.  They turn on the tap and clean water comes 
out.  The waste water goes down the drain and that too vanishes.  Behind
 all this is a system in place to allow these things to happen almost 
seamlessly.  But the truth is it is all an artificial construct, these 
things don&#39;t disappear, it acts as a facade put up to blind us to what 
really happens with our air, water, etc.  
&lt;br /&gt;
 The NIMBY (Not in my backyard) effect can be seen to come about of a 
result of an increase of environmental awareness (Cohen, 2006, p.133).  
People perceive the effects of the dangers associated with waste to 
energy incineration plants, or opposition to landfill being created near
 a community are greater then they actually are; applying political 
pressure to block construction.  It is also true with the construction 
of nuclear power plants and other activities the public feels threatened
 by.  These actions maybe be perceived by those committing them as 
pro-environment but they can produces greater total environmental impact
 on other communities(Cohen, 2006, p.19).  It could be stated that in 
this sense we are a victim of our own success in terms of environmental 
education.  More education is needed to provide for a more holistic view
 of the environmental impact to the larger world. 
&lt;br /&gt;
 Part of NIMBY is a result of the value of individualism.  People 
showing a lack of empathy for collective good.  This can be best viewed 
with the “tragedy of the commons,” when people hold their own self 
interest above that of the collective interest of the group.  In other 
contexts the “tragedy of the commons” leads to an over use or depletion 
of a given resource to the detriment of all.  With careful managing of 
that resource its benefits can be sustained.  This management is 
essential to prevent people from acting in their own self interest.  
&lt;br /&gt;
 Self interested ties into the free use of private property.  Steven 
Cohen&#39;s case study of the Love Canal looks at the storage of toxic waste
 on private property.  It is an issue of don&#39;t tell me what to do, I can
 do what I want on my property.  The concept of private property, 
privacy, and individual freedom are deeply embedded in American culture 
(Cohen, 2006, p.83).  Environmental damage on private property is rarely
 contained fully and often spreads to other areas.  In many ways our 
environmental policy is reactionary, cleaning up rivers that are 
polluted, removal of toxic waste.  Without focusing on investment in 
maintaining existing resources we expose ourselves to additional cost in
 their future repair.  The proper disposal of toxic waste at Love Canal 
is a fraction of what the costs were to the health and property of those
 affected.
&lt;br /&gt;
 The issue at its heart is public values vs private values (Schmidt, 
2011).  We must bridge the gap between our values.  Too often we promote
 a short term gain at a long term loss.  We must shift are values from 
private to public, from self interest to altruism.  A shift is necessary
 for people to understand their power when they unite behind an issue.  
They may feel powerless has one person but many people coming together 
has a group have a greater impact.
&lt;br /&gt;
 Cultural values shifts in priority is slowly taking place.  This is 
best viewed in language, swamps are now more likely to be called 
wetlands, jungles now rainforests (Kempton, 1996, p.6).  A large part of
 this can be traced to education, and awareness(Kollmuss, 2002, p.240). 
 Changes such as this happen slowly and other changes will continue to 
take place.  The difficulty in creating meaningful and impactful change 
and repriortizing of values is the problem of time and awareness.  Until
 more people are affected or aware of problems they see no reason to 
change their behavior.
&lt;br /&gt;
 The value of our health, and more importantly the health of our 
children will help be a guiding principle for our environmental values. 
 The idea of protection of our children is a strong emotional idea that 
goes even deeper than values (Cohen, 2006, p.85); it is the main focus 
of humanity.  The goal of survival is a deep seated primitive one that 
is at the core of our operations for everything.    
&lt;br /&gt;
 The value of sustainability can allow us to devise a better society.  
“development with sensitivity to environmental impacts” (Cohen, p14).  
Long term and short term planning should be thought of through the prism
 of sustainability.  With proper management of the ecosystem will allow 
both ourselves and the environment to benefit; too often with the value 
of prosperity it is looked at a zero-sum game.  In an economic sense 
would a business be designed to be dependent on a resource that will run
 out.  It makes much more sense to conserve our resources in a more 
responsible way by relying on renewal resources.  
&lt;br /&gt;
 Using market system based incentives to promote environmental 
protection.  Economic prosperity is linked to environmental quality 
(Cohen, 2006, p.24).  The idea of cap and trade applies a market based 
method of controlling and limited pollution.  It incorporates the value 
of the free market combined with  pollution controls.  A change in the 
priority of our values will allow us to fight environmental damage.  
Putting our health and our children&#39;s health above the false trade-off 
of economic well being.
&lt;br /&gt;

&lt;br /&gt;
 
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
  &lt;div style=&quot;float: right; margin: 10px; padding: 3px 20px 3px 5px;&quot;&gt;
    
    &lt;span style=&quot;height: 290px; width: 250px;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

    
  &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/feeds/5598722169623331251/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/05/values.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/5598722169623331251'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/5598722169623331251'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/05/values.html' title='Values'/><author><name>Anonymous</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06411433075711868975</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-850503789392823310.post-6367795140917097006</id><published>2013-05-24T19:53:00.004-07:00</published><updated>2013-05-24T19:53:49.533-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Civic Values definitions</title><content type='html'>&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; trbidi=&quot;on&quot;&gt;
&lt;h1 class=&quot;noBorder pagenavhead&quot;&gt;
Civic Values definitions&lt;/h1&gt;
&lt;table cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;searchlist&quot; id=&quot;setresults&quot;&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;th class=&quot;numc&quot;&gt;#&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;th&gt;Definition&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;th&gt;Sets&lt;/th&gt;
   &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr class=&quot;&quot;&gt;
     &lt;td class=&quot;numc&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td&gt;high efficacy, support, high interest/discussion; high trust/tolerance/acceptance&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td style=&quot;white-space: nowrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;tinytext&quot;&gt;
            1 set     &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr class=&quot;alt&quot;&gt;
     &lt;td class=&quot;numc&quot;&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td&gt;different qualities of display citizenship&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td style=&quot;white-space: nowrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;tinytext&quot;&gt;
            1 set     &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr class=&quot;&quot;&gt;
     &lt;td class=&quot;numc&quot;&gt;3&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td&gt;common view of how people should behave&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td style=&quot;white-space: nowrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;tinytext&quot;&gt;
            1 set     &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr class=&quot;alt&quot;&gt;
     &lt;td class=&quot;numc&quot;&gt;4&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td&gt;those important principles that serve as the foundation for our
 democratic form of government. these values include justice, honesty, 
self-discipline, due process, equality, majority rule with respect for 
minority rights, and respect for self, others, and property.&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td style=&quot;white-space: nowrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;tinytext&quot;&gt;
            1 set     &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr class=&quot;&quot;&gt;
     &lt;td class=&quot;numc&quot;&gt;5&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td&gt;important ideas and roles that people in a democracy must upkeep.&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td style=&quot;white-space: nowrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;tinytext&quot;&gt;
            1 set     &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr class=&quot;alt&quot;&gt;
     &lt;td class=&quot;numc&quot;&gt;6&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td&gt;those important principles that serve as the foundation for the
 democratic form of government such as justice, rule of law, majority 
rule.&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td style=&quot;white-space: nowrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;tinytext&quot;&gt;
            1 set     &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr class=&quot;&quot;&gt;
     &lt;td class=&quot;numc&quot;&gt;7&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td&gt;founding fathers admired civic virtue, they looked to the roman
 models like cincinnatus, who gave up his peaceful life on a farm when 
called to lead rome
basic values to be a citizen: honesty, compassion, patriotism, respect, 
responsibility, and courage&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td style=&quot;white-space: nowrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;tinytext&quot;&gt;
            1 set     &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr class=&quot;alt&quot;&gt;
     &lt;td class=&quot;numc&quot;&gt;8&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td&gt;freedom, responsibility (?), equality, democracy, justice&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td style=&quot;white-space: nowrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;tinytext&quot;&gt;
            1 set     &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr class=&quot;&quot;&gt;
     &lt;td class=&quot;numc&quot;&gt;9&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td&gt;these important principles that serve as the foundation for the
 democratic form of government such as justice, rule of law, majority 
rule&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td style=&quot;white-space: nowrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;tinytext&quot;&gt;
            1 set     &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr class=&quot;alt&quot;&gt;
     &lt;td class=&quot;numc&quot;&gt;10&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td&gt;???&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td style=&quot;white-space: nowrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;tinytext&quot;&gt;
            1 set     &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr class=&quot;&quot;&gt;
     &lt;td class=&quot;numc&quot;&gt;11&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td&gt;are those important principles that serve as the foundation for
 our democratic form of government. these values include justice; 
honesty; self-discipline; due process of law; equality; majority rule 
with respect for minority rights; and respect of self, others, and 
property.&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td style=&quot;white-space: nowrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;tinytext&quot;&gt;
            1 set     &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr class=&quot;alt&quot;&gt;
     &lt;td class=&quot;numc&quot;&gt;12&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td&gt;principles and beliefs that people in a society hold in common for common purposes. (i.e. equality, human dignity, voting)&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td style=&quot;white-space: nowrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;tinytext&quot;&gt;
            1 set     &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr class=&quot;&quot;&gt;
     &lt;td class=&quot;numc&quot;&gt;13&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td&gt;principles and beliefs that people in a society hold in common for common purposes&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td style=&quot;white-space: nowrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;tinytext&quot;&gt;
            1 set     &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr class=&quot;alt&quot;&gt;
     &lt;td class=&quot;numc&quot;&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td&gt;the different qualiltes/traits that premote good citizenship.&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td style=&quot;white-space: nowrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;tinytext&quot;&gt;
            1 set     &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr class=&quot;&quot;&gt;
     &lt;td class=&quot;numc&quot;&gt;15&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td&gt;important principles that serve as the foundation of our 
democratic form of government. these values include justice, honesty, 
self-discipline, due process of law, equality, majority rule with 
respect for minority rights, and respect of self, others, and property&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td style=&quot;white-space: nowrap;&quot;&gt;&lt;strong class=&quot;tinytext&quot;&gt;
            1 set     &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr class=&quot;alt&quot;&gt;
     &lt;td class=&quot;numc&quot;&gt;16&lt;/td&gt;
     &lt;td&gt;principles and beliefs that people in a society hold in common for common purposes.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/feeds/6367795140917097006/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/05/civic-values-definitions.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/6367795140917097006'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/6367795140917097006'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/05/civic-values-definitions.html' title='Civic Values definitions'/><author><name>Anonymous</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06411433075711868975</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-850503789392823310.post-6904572275711275679</id><published>2013-05-24T19:52:00.003-07:00</published><updated>2013-05-24T19:52:37.449-07:00</updated><title type='text'>AN IDEAL SOCIETY</title><content type='html'>&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; trbidi=&quot;on&quot;&gt;
AN IDEAL SOCIETY&lt;br /&gt;
 The world is a complicated place and today&#39;s standards of society make 
it even more difficult to live and act in one&#39;s own way. &amp;nbsp; I sometimes 
wonder what life would be like if we could start all over and build a 
brand new society - a society that guarantees social justice for all 
groups and full rights to every individual. &amp;nbsp; Would there be a way to 
make everything and everyone equal? &amp;nbsp; From the beginning society has 
been judgmental in one way or another, rather it is through racism, 
sexism, or classicism. &amp;nbsp; There has always been a group of people who 
declared themselves righteous above all others and if one was not a part
 of this group he or she was discriminated against simply for not being 
the same as the dominating group. &amp;nbsp; While it is impossible in reality to
 start from scratch and build a new and improved society, in an ideal 
world several changes could be implemented to enhance life for every 
individual.&lt;br /&gt;
 Racism remains an important issue in society today as it was centuries 
ago when organized societies were first created. &amp;nbsp; Groups and 
individuals affected by racism tend to suffer greater consequences 
because of discrimination against them. &amp;nbsp; The best and highest 
education, employment, and other benefits for United States citizens are
 not always available for minorities. &amp;nbsp; While civilization today has 
improved greatly and racism has dwindled in the minds of many, the 
concept tends to creep into play as the root of certain situations when a
 minority feels discriminated against. &amp;nbsp; In my ideal society, ethnicity,
 religion, and cultural background would be viewed with the same amount 
of importance as eye or hair color for if people are brought up thinking
 of each individual of every skin color, religious background, and other
 beliefs, as equal, racism would not present a problem. &amp;nbsp; Also, to keep 
racism out of the equation, leaders of society are needed to implement 
the concept that all people are equal and demonstrate that differences 
are not nefarious.&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/feeds/6904572275711275679/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/05/an-ideal-society.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/6904572275711275679'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/6904572275711275679'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/05/an-ideal-society.html' title='AN IDEAL SOCIETY'/><author><name>Anonymous</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06411433075711868975</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-850503789392823310.post-3529576172532639853</id><published>2013-05-24T19:52:00.001-07:00</published><updated>2013-05-24T19:52:04.068-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Resume of the last lesson!-Why is the american flag considered to be a living thing?</title><content type='html'>&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; trbidi=&quot;on&quot;&gt;
&lt;h2&gt;
Resume of the last lesson!-Why is the american flag considered to be a living&amp;nbsp;thing?&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;entry&quot;&gt;
    At first we check our homework over the rules of the american 
flag. After that we get a paper of the rules of the american flag what 
we read the first part “general Display” together. A lot of rules were 
described in this text over the way to display the flag, so we have to 
mark the most important ones. Than we talk together over the rules and 
how the rules were follow by most of the people. This was the end of our
 lesson.&lt;br /&gt;

However, a flag patch may be affixed to the uniform of military 
personal, firemen, policemen, and other members of patriotic 
organizations. The flag represents a living country and is itself 
considered a living thing.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/feeds/3529576172532639853/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/05/resume-of-last-lesson-why-is-american.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/3529576172532639853'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/3529576172532639853'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/05/resume-of-last-lesson-why-is-american.html' title='Resume of the last lesson!-Why is the american flag considered to be a living thing?'/><author><name>Anonymous</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06411433075711868975</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-850503789392823310.post-2579172727848009680</id><published>2013-05-24T19:51:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2013-05-24T19:51:41.313-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Ten rules for the flag</title><content type='html'>&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; trbidi=&quot;on&quot;&gt;
&lt;h2&gt;
Ten rules for the&amp;nbsp;flag&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;entry&quot;&gt;
    Ten rules for the flag&lt;br /&gt;

&lt;ol&gt;
&lt;li&gt;It has do be in a good condision&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;It has to be the official flag&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Don’t burn on the flag&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;There will be no disrespected to the flag&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;It has to be kept clean&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;It will be hung up correctly&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;The flag should not be used to anything else then to represent a land&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;It must have the right color&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;It must have the right size&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;The flag should be folded by the right way&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/feeds/2579172727848009680/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/05/ten-rules-for-flag.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/2579172727848009680'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/2579172727848009680'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/05/ten-rules-for-flag.html' title='Ten rules for the flag'/><author><name>Anonymous</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06411433075711868975</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-850503789392823310.post-7662744542608922237</id><published>2013-05-24T19:50:00.002-07:00</published><updated>2013-05-24T19:50:18.769-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Aggregation</title><content type='html'>&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; trbidi=&quot;on&quot;&gt;
&lt;h2&gt;
Aggregation&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;entry&quot;&gt;
    At the beginning of the lesson we talk about the things that we 
mean somebody have to do to get a citizen of the United States. Here are
 examples: The person should have an job in the United State, the person
 should have a place to live in the United States, the person should not
 have a criminal background, the person should speak english and the 
person has to live in the United States for a couple of time. After this
 we do an in class project about the citizen test with four questions 
for example: is the test to hard or to essay and find the 100 questions 
of the test. At the end of the lesson the projects were collected.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/feeds/7662744542608922237/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/05/aggregation.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/7662744542608922237'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/7662744542608922237'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/05/aggregation.html' title='Aggregation'/><author><name>Anonymous</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06411433075711868975</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-850503789392823310.post-8002932462187118803</id><published>2013-05-24T19:49:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2013-05-24T19:49:40.044-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Why is there a debate of who discovered America?</title><content type='html'>&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; trbidi=&quot;on&quot;&gt;
&lt;h2&gt;
Why is there a debate of who discovered&amp;nbsp;America?&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;entry&quot;&gt;
    There are two different kinds of discovery, because one is the 
discovery of the native Americans and the other discovery is through 
Christopher Columbus. The native Americans were the first people who 
came to America, they discovered the land on the search of food. They 
came from Asia over a “land bridge” to America. When they noticed that 
the diversity of food is much bigger in the south than in the north they
 expand more and more into the south. On this way they colonize the 
whole country. The second discovery was with Christopher Columbus he 
discovered America from the european site. He was the first european man
 who discover America and announced America in Europe. This is what most
 of the people call as “The discovery of America”&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/feeds/8002932462187118803/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/05/why-is-there-debate-of-who-discovered.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/8002932462187118803'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/8002932462187118803'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/05/why-is-there-debate-of-who-discovered.html' title='Why is there a debate of who discovered America?'/><author><name>Anonymous</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06411433075711868975</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-850503789392823310.post-2263231928791610847</id><published>2013-01-13T07:19:00.004-08:00</published><updated>2013-01-13T07:19:51.629-08:00</updated><title type='text'> لترجمة المبني للمجهول</title><content type='html'>&lt;div dir=&quot;rtl&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; trbidi=&quot;on&quot;&gt;
الان وبعد أن أخذنا فكره لا بأس بها عن علم الترجمه سنبدأ التدريب العملي&lt;br /&gt;
يرجى من المهتمين ترجمة القطعه التاليه وارسالها لي على الخاص&lt;br /&gt;
وبعد أن تحاولو سأخبركم بالترجمه الصحيحه اذن الله&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
إن الترجمة هي عملية تفسير معاني نص مكتوب (اللغة المصدر) بما يعدلها من 
اللغة المترجم إليها (اللغة الهدف). فهي نقل لحضارة وثقافة وعلم وفكر 
وأسلوب ولغة. والترجمة بشكل بحت ليست مجرد نقل كل كلمة بما يقابلها في 
اللغة الأخرى ولكن نقل لقواعد اللغة التي توصل المعلومة ونقل للمعلومة 
ذاتها ونقل لفكر الكاتب وثقافته وأسلوبه أيضا.واعتمادأعلى ذلك لابدمن وجود 
عناصر أساسية يجب اتباعها للقيام بعملية ترجمة صحيحة...&lt;br /&gt;
وتعتبر الترجمة فنا مستقلا بذاته حيث انه يعتمد على الابداع والحس اللغوي 
والقدرة على تقريب الثقافات و هو يمكن جميع البشرية من التواصل والاستفادة 
من خبرات بعضهم البعض.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
نأتي الان لترجمة المبني للمجهول&lt;br /&gt;
من المعروف أن في علم الترجمه لايساوي المبني للمجهول ال&lt;br /&gt;
Passive voice&lt;br /&gt;
على عكس المتعارف عليه&lt;br /&gt;
لنرى المثال حتى نفهم أكثر&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The new factory was opened yesterday.&lt;br /&gt;
لا تساوي &lt;br /&gt;
فتح المصنع الجديد بالامس&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
نحن لانجد ذلك بلغتنا العربيه القصحى&lt;br /&gt;
بل نجد التالي&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
تم افتتاح مصنع جديد أمس&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
اذن هناك صيغه للتعامل مع ال&lt;br /&gt;
Passive voice&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
ولمزيد من التوضيح يجب ان نعلم انه يستخدم حين لايكون هناك أهميه للفاعل &lt;br /&gt;
صيغه أخرى&lt;br /&gt;
The building has exploded&lt;br /&gt;
لا تترجم الى &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
تم انفجار المبنى &lt;br /&gt;
وانما تستحدم صيغة انفعل فتترجم كالتالي&lt;br /&gt;
انفجر المبنى&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;وللحديث بقيه...&lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/feeds/2263231928791610847/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/01/blog-post_6750.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/2263231928791610847'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/2263231928791610847'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/01/blog-post_6750.html' title=' لترجمة المبني للمجهول'/><author><name>Anonymous</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06411433075711868975</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-850503789392823310.post-3042804198215425024</id><published>2013-01-13T07:19:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2013-01-13T07:19:00.374-08:00</updated><title type='text'>الفصل الثاني : القوالب</title><content type='html'>&lt;div dir=&quot;rtl&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; trbidi=&quot;on&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&quot;title icon&quot;&gt;
     
    &lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;content&quot;&gt;
     &lt;div id=&quot;post_message_1118222&quot;&gt;
      &lt;blockquote class=&quot;postcontent restore &quot;&gt;
       &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: PT Bold Heading;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Times New Roman;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;الفصل الثاني : القوالب&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;هذه تعبيرات متكررة تأتى في النص , ومن اهم هذه القوالب : أسماء الهيئات والمنظمات والشركات والوظائف مثل: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;وزارة التربية والتعليم , المدير العام , السكرتير العام للأمم المتحدة , مؤتمر القمة الخ .............&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;  وزارة الداخلية The Home Office (Britain) &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt; (Egypt)                     Ministry of the interior &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;مجلس الأمن    The Security Council           &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;وزارة الخارجيةBritain)   Foreign Minister (  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;Secretary  of State  (USA)                           &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: PT Bold Heading;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Times New Roman;&quot;&gt;الفصل الثالث : التعبيرات الإصطلاحية&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial Black;&quot;&gt;Idioms&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;وهذه
 التعبيرات هامة جدا وهى سلاح المترجم لإضفاء الطابع للغة على النص فلا 
يشعر القاريء أن هذا نص مترجم , وعادة يرصع المترجم النص بهذه التعابير في 
المرحلة تحسينه وتجويده . فيما يلى نماذج منها : الرجم بالغيب , هش العود ,
 قوى الشكيمة , أبلى بلاءً حسنا , يبذل النفس والنفيس , لا يألو جهدا , 
قصارى جهده , في حومة الوغى , في ساحة القتال , يبخسه حقه , قلبا وقالبا , 
يمنى بالفشل , &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;يحالفه النجاح (الحظ) , يشد أزر , لا هوادة فيه  , لا مناص منه , على قدم وساق , أشد وطأة , الخ.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;ومن أمثلة هذة التعابير الاصطلاحية :- &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;in the cart ( basket ) في موقف حرج                               &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;rain cats and dogs   يمطر بغزارة                                   &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;crystal clear                         واضح جداً ( واضح كالشمس )&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;cool as cucumber هادئ تماماً                                        &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;on the horns of a dilemma     محتار ( في حيص بيص )        &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;on edge      عصبي ، متوتر                                             &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;وبعض هذه التعبيرات الإصطلاحية يمكن فهمها من مفرداتها مثل :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt; the last cry 
بمعنى &quot; أخر صيحة (أخر موضة ) ويمكنه في هذه الحالة ترجمته كما هو إذا وثق 
المترجم أن القاري يفهم المعنى المقصود ,أو يترجمه إلى المعنى الاصطلاحي ؛ 
وبعضها لا يمكن فهم معناها أطلاقا من معاني مفرداته مثل : to blow the gaff
  وتعنى حرفيا &quot; ينفخ خطاف إخراج السمك من الماء&quot; وهذا ليس له أي صله 
بمعناه الذي يجب أن يستعمله المترجم وهو &quot; يفشى السر&quot; ,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt; أو  kick the bucket  وتعنى حرفيا &quot; يرفس الدلو &quot;  مع أن معناه الاصطلاحي هو &quot; مات أو توفي&quot; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt; وتوجد قواميس لمثل هذه التعابير الاصطلاحية في اللغة الإنجليزية مثل : &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt; A Concise Dictionary of English idioms &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: PT Bold Heading;&quot;&gt;المختصرات&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: PT Bold Heading;&quot;&gt;الفصل الرابع : &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt; يهتم الأمريكيون والإنجليز باستعمال المختصرات إلى درجة أن كثيرا منهم يستعملونها ككلمة بدون شغل &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt; أنفسهم بمعناها الأصلي . ويوجد أربعة أنواع من المختصرات  :    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;u&gt; أ- المختصرات المكونة من الحروف   &lt;/u&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;u&gt;Abbreviations &lt;/u&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;u&gt;  :  &lt;/u&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;هذه المختصرات عبارة عن الأحرف الأول من تعبير ما اسم مركب , وتنطق حرفا حرفا فمثلا :   &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt; الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية United States of America   =   USA       وتنطق  يو -  إس  -   إيه   &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;وهذه المختصرات يجب معرفة الشائع منها عن ظهر قلب , و الاستعانة بالقواميس والمراجع في معرفة  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;
 غير الشائع منها , ولكن لا يجوز بأي حال من الأحوال تخمين معنى المختصر. 
ولا يوجد من هذا النوع من المختصرات في اللغة العربية إلا أقل القليل و 
الذي ظهر نتيجة الترجمة مثل ( د) كاختصار لمهندس أو&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;محاسب أو ميلادية , و ( ق. م ) كاختصار لـ قبل الميلاد , الخ         ... &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt; قبل الظهر  =  صباحا&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;=  ante meridiem                               a. m&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt; بعد الظهر  =  مساء&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt; =  post meridiem   &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;p. m&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;قبل الميلاد ( ق. م .)BC   =  Before Christ                                   &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;من سنه  ميلاد المسيح   ( ميلادية )AD    =  Anno Domini                  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;المملكة المتحدة             UK    =  The United kingdom                    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;u&gt;ب-&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;u&gt; التسميات الأوائلية  &lt;/u&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;u&gt;Acronyms &lt;/u&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;u&gt;  :  &lt;/u&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;هذه التسميات 
مثل المختصرات لكن ينطق فيها الحروف الأولى كاسم جديد . وقد شاع منها 
الكثير في اللغة  العربية بالنطق الأجنبي مثل اليونسكوUNESCO  وهى اختصار 
لـ&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;United      Nations      Educational   Scientific     and     Cultural     Organisation&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt; أي منظمة الأمم المتحدة للتربية والعلم و الثقافة .&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt; و يوجد  الكثير من هذه التسميات الأوائلية من أكثرها جريا على الألسنة هذه ألأيام :   &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt; GATT = General  Agreement on Tariffs and Trade &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt; الجات = الاتفاقية العامة للتعريفة الجمركية والتجارة  .&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;OPEC = Organisation  of Petroleum Exporting  Countries &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;الأوبك = منظمة البلدان المصدرة للبترول .&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;UNICEF = United Nations International Children’ Emergency Fund  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;اليونيسيف = صندوق الأمم المتحدة للطفولة  .&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;AIDS = Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt; الإيدز =  مرض نقص المناعة المكتسب   .&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;NATO = North Atlantic Treaty Organization  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;ناتو = منظمة حلف شمال الأطلنطي (   بدأت بعض الصحف في استعماله هذه الأيام  )  .&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;WHO = World Health Organization &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;منظمة الصحة العالمية   (  لم يشع استخدام الإسم الأوائلي  ) .&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;u&gt;ج- &lt;/u&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;u&gt;الأسماء المقصرة  &lt;/u&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;u&gt;Shortenings  &lt;/u&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;u&gt;  :  &lt;/u&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;هذه أسماء طويلة تم اختصار أو أخرها مثل ad كاختصار لكلمة ,advertisement وقد دخلت هذه الأسماء &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt; المقصورة في القواميس وأصبحت تذكر جنبا إلى جنب مع الأسماء الأصلية . ومن أمثلة هذه الأسماء     &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt; الشائعة  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;exam &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;examination&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;veg&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;vegetarian&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;gym &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;gymnasium&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;vet&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;veterinarian &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;lab &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;laboratory &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;lib&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;liberation&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;op &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;operation &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;tech &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt; technology&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: PT Bold Heading;&quot;&gt;الفصل الخامس : الحكم والأمثال والأقوال  المأثورة&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt; يعانى المترجم في ترجمة هذه الأقوال فبعضها يمكن ترجمة بنفس المعنى لأن معناه واضح وجلي , فمثلا :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;Necessity is the mother of invention             الحاجة أم الاختراع         &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt; آفة الرأي الهوى , الحب أعمى                                                              &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;Affection blinds reason &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;لا يفل الحديد الإ الحديد                                                                         Diamond cut diamond &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-small;&quot;&gt;مل سهلا إلى حد ما &quot; أو كان العمل - نوعا&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;
      &lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/feeds/3042804198215425024/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/01/blog-post_9859.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/3042804198215425024'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/3042804198215425024'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/01/blog-post_9859.html' title='الفصل الثاني : القوالب'/><author><name>Anonymous</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06411433075711868975</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-850503789392823310.post-2346981978451610765</id><published>2013-01-13T07:18:00.002-08:00</published><updated>2013-01-13T07:18:29.681-08:00</updated><title type='text'>الدرس الثاني ترجمة الأسماء</title><content type='html'>&lt;div dir=&quot;rtl&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; trbidi=&quot;on&quot;&gt;
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&lt;div class=&quot;content&quot;&gt;
     &lt;div id=&quot;post_message_1114036&quot;&gt;
      &lt;blockquote class=&quot;postcontent restore &quot;&gt;
       &lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;السلام عليكم ورحمة الله وبركاته&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;الدرس الثاني&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;ترجمة الأسماء&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;ليست ترجمة الأسماء سهلة كما قد تتصورها البعض كما أنها ليست صعبة على من يعرف أصول الترجمة فالأسماء تنقسم إلى :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;            Common nouns 1- أسماء عامة&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt; وهى ما يطلق على اى فرد من نوع معين من الناس أو حيوانات أو الأشياء مثل&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt; قط Cat  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;tree&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt; شجرة   &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;chair كرسي  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;                     Proper nouns  2- أسماء الأعلام&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;: وهى التي تطلق على فرد بعينه وتبدأ في اللغة الإنجليزية بحرف كبير  مثل&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Cairoالقاهرة &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;  Nile النيل  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;  Ali على&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;: Collective  nouns&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;- أسماء كلية أو أسماء الجمع  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;وهى تستخدم لتسمية مجموعة متجانسة من البشر أو الأشياء  مثل :  جمع أو حشد crowd  جيش army&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Abstract nouns  أسماء مجردة -4&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;وهى أسماء مالا يدرك بالجلوس أو الأجهزة ولكنها تدرك بالملكات العقلية والقبلية مثل :الجمال   beauty&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;   الشرف honour  الصحة health  الاشتراكية Socialism   الخ  .....&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;5- الأسماء المشتقة من الأفعال Gerunds      مثل : اللعب playing&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;**************************************************&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial Black;&quot;&gt;Common nouns&lt;/span&gt; 1-  ترجمة الأسماء العامة &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;ليس من الضروري ان يترجم اسم من كلمة واحدة باسم من كلمة واحدة أيضا فكلمة shot  قد نترجمها&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;بـ &quot; طلقة نارية &quot; وكلمة  “ stool” نترجمه كرسي عديم الظهر والذراعين  ..........    الخ ....&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;وهناك صعوبة أخرى قد نصادفها عندما نجد عددا من الأشياء لها ترجمة واحدة في اللغة الأخرى مثل :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt; فكلها تعرف بـ&quot;مكتبة &quot; في اللغة العربية ولكن يجب عند book – shop وstationary و  library &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;  الترجمة التفريق بين هذه الانواع .فـ &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt; library&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt; هي المكتبة العامة التي تعتبر الكتب أو يمكن قراءة الكتب &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt; فيها ولذلك يمكن ترجمتها
 بـ &quot; مكتبة عامة &quot; إما stationary فيمكن ترجمتها إلى &quot; مكتبة بيع الأدوات 
الكتابية &quot; إما  book-shop فهي &quot; كمتبة بيع الكتب &quot; أو &quot; دكان كتب &quot;  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial Black;&quot;&gt;:&lt;/span&gt; proper nouns 2-  ترجمة الأسماء الأعلام  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;معظم
 أسماء العلم لا توجد صعوبة في ترجمتها , فكل ما نعمله هو أن نحول حروفها 
العربية إلى انجلزية أو ا العكس وفي حالة ترجمتها إلة اللغة الإنجليزية 
نبدلها بحرف كبير  Capital مهما كان مكان الاسم في &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt; الجملة فمثلا : &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;عادل =  ,Adel زينب =Zeinab   , شبرا = Shubra &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;وكذلك الكلمات التالية :    جورج = George , هيلين = Helen  ,باريس = Paris &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;وهناك أسماء علم قد تغري المترجم على ترجمتها لوجود معنى لها , وعلى المترجم عدم الوقوع في هذا &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt; الخطأ إلا لو وجد في السياق ما يحتاج هذا المعنى المترجم , وفي هذه الحالة يوضح المترجم المعنى فمثلا: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;على النجار Ail  Al-nagger وليس Ail the Carpenter  (إلا لو كانت كلمة النجار ليست اسمه &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;ولكنها مهنته وفي هذه الحالة تترجم طبعا مثل joseph the carpenter  يوسف النجار خطيب السيدة مريم )&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt; الحداد = Al Haddad  وليس The Smith   /  بركات = Barakat  وليس Blessings &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Bush = بوش وليس شجيرة / Freeman  = فريمان   وليس الرجل الحر &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;ولكن
 هناك أسماء شخصيات تاريخية ودينية وأماكن ومدن ورثنا ترجمتها عن السابقين 
لنا وصارت معرفة  على السنة الجميع ولذلك يجب على المترجم أن يكون ملما 
بغالبية هذه الأسماء التي&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt; ذكرنا بعضها في الجدول التالي : &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;الاسم الانجليزى &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;الاسم العربي &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;الاسم الانجليزى &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;الاسم العربي &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Peter &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;بطرس &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Adam&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;ادم &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;John &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;يوحنا &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Eve &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;حواء &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Mark&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;مرقص &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Cain &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;قابيل &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Matthew &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;متى &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Abel &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;هابيل &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Luke &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;لوقا &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Noah &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;نوح &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Saul &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;شاؤول&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Job &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;أيوب &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;David &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;داود &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Lot &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;لوط &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Solomon &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;سليمان &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Abraham &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;إبراهيم &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Zacharias &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;ذكريا &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Isaac &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;إسحاق &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Jonah &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;يونس ، يونان &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Aaron &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;هارون &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Mary&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;مريم &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Jacob &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;يعقوب &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Christ &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;المسيح &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Joseph&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;يوسف &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Jesus &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;عيسى (  يسوع )&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Moses &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;موسى &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt; شخصيات تاريخية وأسطورية مثل :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;الاسم الانجليزى &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;الاسم العربي &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;الاسم الانجليزى &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;الاسم العربي &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Socrates  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;سقراط&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Cheops &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;خوفو &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Plato &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;افلاطون &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Avicenna&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;ابن سيناء &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Aristotle  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;ارسطو &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Caesar &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;قيصر &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;ومن عجائب الترجمة أنك تجد بعض البلاد تختلف ترجمة أسمائها كثيراً مثل :  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;الاسم الانجليزى&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;الاسم العربي&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;الاسم الانجليزى&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;الاسم العربي&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Austria&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;النمسا &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Hurghada&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;الغردقة &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Switzerland&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;سويسرا&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Rosetta &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;رشيد&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Hungary&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;المجر &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Damietta&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;دمياط &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Greece&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;اليونان &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Casa Blanca&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;الدار البيضاء &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Sicily&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;صقلية &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Morocco&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;المغرب &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Cyprus&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;قبرص &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Tripoly&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;طرابلس &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Pacific ocean&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;المحيط الهادي &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Tigris&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;دجلة &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Mont Negro&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;الجبل الأسود &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Euphrates&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;الفرات&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Granada&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;غرناطة&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Damascus&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;دمشق&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Cordova&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;قرطبة &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Jerusalem&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;القدس (أورشليم&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: PT Bold Heading;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;3- &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: PT Bold Heading;&quot;&gt;ترجمة الأسماء الكلية&lt;/span&gt; &lt;/u&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial Black;&quot;&gt;Collective nouns &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;كثيرا ما يطلق اسم معين على مجموعة متجانسة من الناس أو الحيوانات أو الأشياء فنقول مثلا :   &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt; قطيع (من الماشية)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt; a herd (of cattle )فيما يلى بعض اشهر هذه الأسماء الكلية :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;الاسم العربي &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;الاسم الانجليزى&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;الاسم العربي &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;الاسم الانجليزى&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;فريق &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Team &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;طاقم (طائرة , سفينة ) &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Crew&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;قطيع (من الأغنام)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Flock &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;حشد, جمع (من الناس)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Crowd &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;سرب  (اسماك)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;School , shoal &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;جماعة (الموظفين)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Staff &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: PT Bold Heading;&quot;&gt;4- &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: PT Bold Heading;&quot;&gt;ترجمة الأسماء المجردة &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial Black;&quot;&gt;Abstract nouns&lt;/span&gt; &lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;تختلف الخليفة الثقافية والحضارة للعرب عنها بالنسبة للأوربيين . فالعرب ولغتهم العربية شكل الإسلام &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;
 والبيئة البدوية والصحراوية أهم أسسها ,إما الاوربين ومنهم الإنجليز فاهم 
أسس حضارتهم وثقافتهم هو تراث الاغريق والرومان والمسيحية وبيئتهم الخضراء 
ومن هنا نشا اختلاف دلالات الأسماء – وخاصة &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt; المجردات – بين العربية والإنجليزية .فيقول العربي :&quot;أثلج صدري كذا وكذا&quot; إما الإنجليزية فيقول : &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;&quot; It  warmed  my heart to …….&quot;    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;أما أسماء المذاهب السياسة والدينية والفنية فقد أمكن ترجمة بعضها إلى العربية مثل &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;الاشتراكيةsocalism   , والشيوعية  Communism  والرأسمالية Capitalism  والواقعية Realism&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt; النازية &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Nazism   الديموقراطية Democracy   ولو أن البعض اقتراح ترجمتها بالديوانية   الخ ....&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;وقد تصادف المترجم ألفاظا لا تودي نترجمها الحرفية إلى معرفة المعنى المقصود فمثلا :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Murder
 of the first degree   لا نترجم إلى &quot;قتل من الدرجة الأولى &quot; لأننا لن 
يفهم معناها القانوني الدقيق ولكننا نترجمها إلى ما يقابلها في اللغة 
العربية وهو&quot; قتل مع  سبق الإصرار والترصد &quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;
 لا نترجم المفرد أو الجمع دائما إلي مفرد أو الجمع في النقل – وخاصة عند 
ترجمة الأسماء المركبة – ولكننا نستعمل ما يناسب اللغة المترجم إليها 
,فمثلا : &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;dog catcher   =  صياد كلاب , cat lover  = محب القطط  ,  الخ ...&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt; وكذلك يستعمل الإنجليز لتسمية بعض ألأشياء المصنوعة من جزئيين متماثلين مثل :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;scissors   = مقص  ,  trousers = بنطلون أو سروال  ,  glasses  = نظارة      الخ ...........&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;وهناك بعض الكلمات الأخرى نجدها جمع في ألإنجليزية ونترجمها إلى مفرد مثل : &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;billiards   = بلياردو  ,  الخ   ................   &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: PT Bold Heading;&quot;&gt;5- أسماء الأفعال &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial Black;&quot;&gt;Gerunds&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;      مثل :     اللعب playing      / السباحة  Swimming &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;مقتبس من اعمال الاستاّذ محمد فتحي (مركز الزهور للاعمال الكتابيه)&lt;/span&gt;
      &lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/feeds/2346981978451610765/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/01/blog-post_5660.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/2346981978451610765'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/2346981978451610765'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/01/blog-post_5660.html' title='الدرس الثاني ترجمة الأسماء'/><author><name>Anonymous</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06411433075711868975</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-850503789392823310.post-4497287680367021900</id><published>2013-01-13T07:17:00.003-08:00</published><updated>2013-01-13T07:17:55.250-08:00</updated><title type='text'>  دروس في ترجمة اللغه الانجليزيه للعربيه والعكس الدرس الأول</title><content type='html'>&lt;div dir=&quot;rtl&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; trbidi=&quot;on&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&quot;title icon&quot;&gt;
&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;دروس في ترجمة اللغه الانجليزيه للعربيه والعكس&amp;nbsp;&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;content&quot;&gt;
     &lt;div id=&quot;post_message_1113300&quot;&gt;
      &lt;blockquote class=&quot;postcontent restore &quot;&gt;
       السلام عليكم ورحمة الله وبركاته&lt;br /&gt;
ان شاء الله سأخصص هذا الموضوع لاعطاء بعض الدروس في الترجمه من العربيه 
للانجليزيه والعكس صحيح حيث ان الترجمه علم مستقل بذاته وله قواعد وليس 
عشوائي&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
وهذا حصريا لمنتدى عرب هاردوير&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
لعلي أنفع بعلمي الاخوان والأخوات وهذا ابتغاء لمرضاة الله وليكون ذلك في ميزان حسناتي&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
اذا راقت لكم الفكره أخبروني جزاكم الله خيرا&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
السلام عليكم ورحمة الله وبركاته&lt;br /&gt;
الدرس الأول&lt;br /&gt;
بداية لازم نعرف ان الترجمه هي علم مبني على قواعد وقوانين وليس شئ عشوائي&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;b&gt;وأول قاعده لازم نتعلمها هي ترجمة المعنى الكلي والبعد عن الترجمه الحرفيه بعدا تاما&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
يعني نشوف المعنى ايه ونترجمه بلغتنا على سبيل المثال ممكن نلاقي مثل زي&lt;br /&gt;
الطيور على أشكالها تقع&lt;br /&gt;
ده فيه مثل مقابل ليه في الانجليزيه وهو&lt;br /&gt;
Birds of Feather Flock Together&lt;br /&gt;
حتلاحظو ان اختيار الكلمات مقارب جدا&lt;br /&gt;
طيب لو قولنا جمله زي&lt;br /&gt;
He kicked the bucket&lt;br /&gt;
ده لفظ عامي بمعنى الشخص مات&lt;br /&gt;
لو ترجمنا حرفي حنقول&lt;br /&gt;
هو ركل الجردل&lt;br /&gt;
وطبعا ده كلام فارغ وخطأ لأن ده مبيديش في لغتنا معنى ان الراجل مات&lt;br /&gt;
اذن لو قولنا ترجمه عاميه ممكن نقول الراجل ودع او نقول مات وخلاص&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
يبقى لازم ناخد بالنا من المعنى الكلي لأن الترجمه هي نقل للأفكار ومعاني مش مجرد نقل للكلمات&lt;br /&gt;
في ناس بتاخد المعنى من القاموس لكل كلمه وتحطه وخلاص لكن كده الناتج حيكون كلام غير مترابط&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;b&gt;طيب النقطه اللي بعد كده : في مفاهيم مش موجوده في لغتنا العربيه وفي 
مفاهيم مش موجوده في اللغه الانجليزيه طيب نعمل ايه غالبا بنحط الكلمه زي 
ماهي مثال ودول بنسميهم cultural concepts&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
فتيات الجيشا :نوع من الفتيات اليابنيات اللي بيعملو بمهنه معينه&lt;br /&gt;
لما نيجي نترجم مش حندخل في تفاصيل وكل اللي حنقوله Gisha Girls. &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/feeds/4497287680367021900/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/01/blog-post_6569.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/4497287680367021900'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/4497287680367021900'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/01/blog-post_6569.html' title='  دروس في ترجمة اللغه الانجليزيه للعربيه والعكس الدرس الأول'/><author><name>Anonymous</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06411433075711868975</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-850503789392823310.post-9141348585120012304</id><published>2013-01-13T07:14:00.001-08:00</published><updated>2013-01-13T07:14:21.873-08:00</updated><title type='text'>سلسلة دروس مـــفيدة في أساسيات الترجمة </title><content type='html'>&lt;div dir=&quot;rtl&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; trbidi=&quot;on&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: simplified arabic; font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: darkred;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
السلام عليكم &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
سلسلة دروس مـــفيدة في أساسيات الترجمة &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
شفت هاذا الموضوع وحبيت انقله لكم من باب الفايده &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
ان شاء الله تستفيدون منها &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;&lt;u&gt;
الدرس الاول&lt;/u&gt;&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
مقدمة عن الترجمه&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
قبل أن تبدأ تترجم، اعلم اخي ان المترجم لن يجد الثناء لترجمته لعدم 
وعياالناس بما يصنعه ذلك المترجم من بحث في المعاجم والقواميس وجهد وتعب 
لإيجاد المعنى المناسب، فليس لك إلا أن تطلب الأجر من الله عز وجل فقط،ولا 
تتنتظر ثناءاً من أحد إطلاقاً.&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
ما هي صفات المترجم ؟انظر إلى نفسك واسألها ألأسئلة التالية:&lt;br /&gt;
هل أنا ملم بجميع قواعد اللغتين التي أنقل منها وإليها؟هل أنا مطلع على 
الاخبار والثقافة وأنا من القراء النهميين؟هل أنا عالم بثقافة الشعوب 
الأخرى التي سأترجم إليها؟ثلاثة أسألة إن كانت اجوبتك عليها بنعم ، فسوف 
تكون مترجماً مبدعاً.&lt;br /&gt;
الأمر الثاني:&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
ماذا يجب أن تعرفه عن النص؟&lt;br /&gt;
أولاً:&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
عليك عندما ترغب في ترجمة نص ما سواءاً كان عربيا أم انجليزيا أن تفكر وتحلل &lt;br /&gt;
ما هو نوع النص الذي تريد ترجمته ؟؟&lt;br /&gt;
(أهو نص ديني\سياسي\اجتماعي\اقتصادي\أدبي إلى أخره) &lt;br /&gt;
لأن معرفة نوع النص يؤدي إلى التزام المترجم ببعض القيود، &lt;br /&gt;
فمثلاً : &lt;br /&gt;
لو كان النص الذي تنوي ترجمته نصديني، فسوف يتوقع من المترجم أن يتقيد ببعض الكلمات الدينية المناسبةللموقف وهكذا.&lt;br /&gt;
ثانيا:&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
أقرأ النص كاملاً وانظر ماذا يريد المؤلف ارساله من معنى؟ لكي تقوم أنت كمترجم بتقمص شخصية وتنقل أحاسيسه ومشاعره وهو يكتب مقالته&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
فمثلاً:&lt;br /&gt;
لو وجدت هذا النص باللغة الإنجليزية وتريد ترجمته باللغة العربية:&lt;br /&gt;
John is constantly throwing his books on my bed&lt;br /&gt;
قد يترجم المترجم هذه الجملة : يرمي جون كتبه بتكرار على سريري-------- هنا أخطأ المترجم خطأ فادحاً ---------&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
لأنه لم ينقل مشاعر الكاتب الأصلي للنص، حيثأن الكاتب ذكرconstantlyفي جملته مع مضارع مستمر، والتي تعني أنه فيحالة غضب كبيرة جداً.&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
--------- فتكون الترجمة الصحيحة:------------- &lt;br /&gt;
لما يرمي جون كتبه دائما على سريري.هنا نقل المترجم أحاسيس الكاتب الأصلي ، حتى يتبين للقاريء العربي أن المتحدث الإنجليزي غاضب،&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
فظروف كـalways, forever, constantlyإن أتت مع مضارع مستمر فهي تدل على أن الكاتب غضباً.&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
الأمر الثالث:&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
ليس على المترجم أن يحصره النص على ما يريد، عليه أن ينقلالمعنى فقط لا أقل
 ولا أكثر، إن أردت أن تترجم ، فترجم المعنى ولن يستطيع أحد ان ينتقدك. فلو
 رأيتم كيف ترجمت &quot;لما يرمي جون كتبه دائما على سريري&quot; وكيف أني وضعت لها 
كلمة استفهام مع أن الجملة الأصل لا تحوي على علامةاستفهام، ولكن فقط لأقوم
 بنقل المعنى على وجه الصحيح متقمصا مشاعر الكاتب.&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
الأمر الرابع:&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
إن قمت بترجمة النص، فعليك أن تقرأ ترجمتك واسأل نفسك الأسئلة التالية:&lt;br /&gt;
هل المعنى واضح وصريح؟هل مشاعر الكاتب الأصلي واضحه وبينه؟هل القاريء 
العربي يرى النص وكأنه غير مترجم؟ (احذر أخي إن رأى القاريءالعربي نصك 
المترجم وأحس أنه مترجم ليس عربياً الأًصل، فمزق ورقتك. وقمبإعادتها بنسق 
لا يستطيع القاريء العربي أن يميز هل هو نص عربي أم أجنبي،وستكون ناجحاً)&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
الأمر الخامس:&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
هل لديك قاموس في عدة مجالات: مثل قاموس للمصطلحات الأقتصادية، وللسياسية 
واللأدبية وللعامية ولغيرها. وهذا قد لا يلزم على المترجم حيث ستوفر له 
الشبكة العنكبوتيه المرادف المناسب بلا تعب.&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;&lt;u&gt;
الدرس الثاني&lt;/u&gt;&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
يعرف نيومارك الترجمة بأنها &quot;محاولة إحلال رسالة مكتوبة بلغة لا تفهم إلى رسالة تفهم بلغة أخرى&quot;&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
لكي تبدأ ترجمتك عليك أن تعي أنه سيكون بين يديك نصين : &lt;br /&gt;
النص الأول: وهو النص الأصل source text&lt;br /&gt;
النص الثاني: وهو النص المترجم Target text&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
في البداية :&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
عليك أخي المترجم أن تنظر إلى النص الذي بين يديك ثم قمُ بقراءته للمرة 
الأولى وذلك لكي تعي الفكرة العامة للنص، هل هي مؤيدة لفكرةما أم معارضة 
وهكذا....&lt;br /&gt;
الأمر الثاني : &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
عليك أيضاً أن تقرأ النص من جديد قراءة اسلوب واحساس، ما هو موقف الكاتب واحاسيسه حين كان يكتب هذا النص.&lt;br /&gt;
الأمر الثالث : &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
هي قراءة المصطلحات الموضوعة والنظر إلى مرادفاتها باللغةالإخرى لتكون &quot;نص مترجم&quot; فمثلاً جملة مكتوبة باللغة الإنجليزية&lt;br /&gt;
I thought he would investigate the matter himself&lt;br /&gt;
فإن في هذه الجملة سيعلم المترجم إنه فقط في حاجة لمعرفة المصطلحات التيقد تغيب عن ذهنه، &lt;br /&gt;
مثل investigate : ومثل the matter وقد يتجاهل thought و himself لفهمه لها
 فسيجد أن ترجمته البارعه هيأعتقدت بأنه سيتحقق من الأمر بنفسه.&lt;br /&gt;
رابع الأمر:&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
اعلم أخي أن الترجمة من أصعب المهام، فلو وجدت جملة مثلاً أونص طويل يحتوي 
على كلمات كثيرة قد لا تجد مرادفاتها ستقف عندها بلا سلاح،ولكن لو كان لديك
 قاموس ثنائي اللغة لكان سهل عليك المهمة ولكن ليس ذلك التسهيل فدعني أوضح 
لك هذا الأمر في هذا المثال:&lt;br /&gt;
لو صادفت في اللغة الإنجليزية النص التالي:&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
The teacher asked the student to draw a (right) angle, but insisted that
 the student draw it withhis (right) hand while the student was 
left-handed. Of course he didn&#39;t draw it (right) and the teacher gave 
him low marks. (Right away) the student went to the headmaster and 
complained that it was his (right) to draw with whichever hand he like. 
The headmaster who was an upright man agreed that he was (right) and 
that the teacher didn&#39;t treat him (right) and ordered the teacher to 
(right) the student&#39;s marks.&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
إنظر في هذا النص، كم تكررت كلمةright، إنها تكررت ثمان مرات تقريباً , 
وعلى فكرة كل كلمة لها معنى بعيد عن الآخر، فيحصر المترجم لكي يترجمها على 
حسب سياق الجملة فمعانيrightفي القاموس ستكون مثلاً: قائمة، يمين، بشكل 
جيد، على الفور، حق، بمعاملة عادلة، يصحح، على حق. وهكذا وسيكون ترجمةالنص 
السابق ذكره كما يلي:&lt;br /&gt;
سأل المعلم الطالب أن يرسم زاوية (قائمة)، ولكنه اصر على الطالب أن 
يرسمهابيده (اليمنى) على الرغم من أن الطالب أعسر. وبالطبع، لم يستطيع 
الطالبرسمها (بشكل جيد) فأعطاه المعلم درجة منخفضة. (وعلى الفور) ذهب 
الطالب إلىالمدير ليشتكي بأن (من حقه) أن يرسم بأي يد شاء. فوافق المدير 
الذي كانعادلاً على أن الطالب (على حق) وأن المعلم لم يعامله (بمعاملة 
عادلة) فأمرالمعلم أن (يصحح) درجات الطالب. &lt;br /&gt;
هل علمت الآن أخي كيف أن الترجمة تعتمد على السياق لا على المعاني المتراكمة بلا هدف.&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
خامس الأمر:&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
أحيانا لن تجد في أي قاموس أسماء مشاهير وعلماء لذا عليك أنتعي بأسمائهم في
 كلا اللغتين و(القليل من المعاجم توضح ذلك) مثال على ذلك :&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
Cain الذي يعني قابيل&lt;br /&gt;
David الذي يعني داوود&lt;br /&gt;
Eve التي تعني حواء&lt;br /&gt;
Joseph الذي يعني يوسف عليهم السلام.&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
وليس فقط أسماء الأنبياء، بل اسماء علماءوملوك&lt;br /&gt;
Averroes يعني ابن رشد&lt;br /&gt;
Avicenna يعني ابن سينا&lt;br /&gt;
Alhazen عني ابن الهيثم و&lt;br /&gt;
Caesar قيصر و&lt;br /&gt;
Nebuchadnezzar الذي هو نبوخذ نصر&lt;br /&gt;
واسماء الدول&lt;br /&gt;
Abbasides: العباسيون&lt;br /&gt;
Ommidads الفاطميون&lt;br /&gt;
Ottomans العثمانيون&lt;br /&gt;
واسماء الفلاسفة&lt;br /&gt;
: &lt;br /&gt;
Aristotle ارسطو&lt;br /&gt;
Socrates سقراط&lt;br /&gt;
Pythagoras فيثاغورث&lt;br /&gt;
اسماء دول لا تعلم لما تشير إليه مثل:&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
Casa Blanca الدار البيضاء&lt;br /&gt;
Tigris نهر الفرات&lt;br /&gt;
و Jericho التي تعني أريحا&lt;br /&gt;
Hebron التي تعني الخليل&lt;br /&gt;
و Acre بمعنى عكا&lt;br /&gt;
والكثير الذي لا يسعني أن أذكرها هنا سادس الأمر:&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
أحيانا تجد صعوبة في ترجمة الأقوال باللغة الإنجليزية، فيأتي قول باللغة الإنجليزية يقول&lt;br /&gt;
Diamond cut diamond والذي يعني &lt;br /&gt;
&quot; الألماس يقطع الألماس&quot;&lt;br /&gt;
فلو تركتها هكذالما فهم القاريء العربي ما تقصد ولكن الأفضل أن تأتي بالمثل
 المرادف في اللغة العربية والذي يحمل معاني المثل الإنجليزي فيكون المناسب
 هو&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
&quot;لا يفل الحديد إلا الحديد&quot; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
سابع الأمر:&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
يا أخي المتعلم، لا يتعب المترجم إلا المصطلحات idioms حيث هي كلمات كثيرة ولها معنى وحيد فلو ذكر في اللترجمة هذه الجملة&lt;br /&gt;
It is raining cats and dogs &lt;br /&gt;
فسيقوم المترجم السيء بترجمتها &quot;تمطر السماء قططاً وكلاباً&quot; ولكن المعنى 
أكبر من هذا يا مترجمفالمعنى المراد من وراء هذا أن السماء تمطر بغزارة 
فتكون الترجمة المناسبة هي&lt;br /&gt;
&quot;تمطر السماء بغزارة&quot;&lt;br /&gt;
مثال أخر:&lt;br /&gt;
قد يجد المترجم He is cool as cucumber ويقوم بترجمتها&lt;br /&gt;
&quot;إنه هاديء كالخيار&quot; وهنا أخطأ خطأ فادحاً إذ ان المعنى أنه هاديء تماماً 
فتكونالترجمةإنه هاديء تماماًولا تنسوا أن المقصود هنا المعنى وليس مرادفات
 الكلمات، فلا تتسائلوا لماذا لم يذكر cucumber الخيار&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;&lt;u&gt;
الدر س الثالث&lt;/u&gt;&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
لا يزال هناك مشكلة تلازم كثير من المترجمين وهي مشكلةCollocation &lt;br /&gt;
بمعنى &quot;متلازمات لفظية&quot;&lt;br /&gt;
فبدل من أن تترجمMuteb draw his sword \&lt;br /&gt;
فيقوم المترجم المبتديء بترجمة حرفيهسحب متعب سيفهولو قال ما يلي لكان 
أفضلاستل متعب سيفههناك كلمات كثيرة وخذ منهاHard labourقد تترجم إلى أعمال
 شاقة (والأفضل: اعمال مضنية)&lt;br /&gt;
Smashing Victoryإنتصار ساحقFast sleep سبات عميقPass a lawيسن 
قانوناًSeize the opportunityينتهز الفرصةA sigh of reliefتنفس الصعداءThe 
hour of decision ساعة الحسموهكذا، فعلى المترجم المبتديء أن يعقل ذلك ، 
فلا يترجم ما يلي&lt;br /&gt;
He is with us heart and soul&lt;br /&gt;
بـهو معنا قلباً وروحاًفعليه أن يقولهو معنا قلباً وقالباًلأن هذا يتماشى مع اللغة العربية أفضل من السابق&lt;br /&gt;
أو بدل من ترجمة ما يليHe hit his child by surprise&lt;br /&gt;
فسيترجمها المترجم المبتديء كما يليضرب أخأه فجأةولكان أفضل لو أنه قال:&lt;br /&gt;
ضرب أخاه على حين غرة.&lt;br /&gt;
واختم المشكلة الأولى بهذه الطرفة التي قد يقع فيها المترجم لو طلبنا من المترجم ان يترجم ما يلي محمد حي يرزق&lt;br /&gt;
سيقوم المترجم المبتديء بتهور بالترجمة التاليةMuhammad is alive and receives blessings&lt;br /&gt;
ولم يراعي فيها ثقافة الشخص الآخر في اللغة الإنجليزية، ولم يفهم النص 
أصلاً، هل الكاتب هنا يقصد أن محمد في مرة من المرات لم يكن يرزق فيها، 
أيمنع الله عنه الرزق، لا وربي. ولكن الكاتب هنا يقصد أن يؤكد أنه 
حي،فثقافة الشخص الآخر قد يجد غرابة في معنى هذه الجملة ولو أنه قال له&lt;br /&gt;
Muhammad is&lt;br /&gt;
alive and kicking&lt;br /&gt;
لفهم انه يريد تأكيد أن محمد حيانظر للمتلازمات التاليةسيل عارم، جمع غفير،
 صديق حميم، فشل ذريع، آذان صاغية، جبال شاهقة، ردمفحم، جيش عرمرم، حرب 
ضروس، عدو لدود ، أحمر قان، اصفر فاقع، أبيض ناصع،أخضر يانعأتمنى أنك فهمت 
مقصديهدفي من المشكلة الأولى ان يفهم المترجم وينتقي بعض الألفاظ المناسبة 
لكل لغة&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
اتمنى ان تعم الفائدة ..&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/feeds/9141348585120012304/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/01/blog-post_13.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/9141348585120012304'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/9141348585120012304'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/01/blog-post_13.html' title='سلسلة دروس مـــفيدة في أساسيات الترجمة '/><author><name>Anonymous</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06411433075711868975</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-850503789392823310.post-3806785349067377948</id><published>2013-01-13T07:12:00.002-08:00</published><updated>2013-01-13T07:12:50.299-08:00</updated><title type='text'>   الدرس الثانى : الصوتيات, ما هى؟</title><content type='html'>&lt;div dir=&quot;rtl&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; trbidi=&quot;on&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&quot;title icon&quot;&gt;
&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;الدرس الثانى : الصوتيات, ما هى؟
    &lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;content&quot;&gt;
     &lt;div id=&quot;post_message_1636322&quot;&gt;
      &lt;blockquote class=&quot;postcontent restore &quot;&gt;
       &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Century Gothic;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;b&gt;بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Impact;&quot;&gt;&quot;Think out of the box&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Century Gothic;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;اليوم شباب سنتكمل ما بدأناه من فترة , الصوت , لكن سنأخذ وقفة , لنتعرف على علم جديد يدعى علم الفونيتكس , &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Phonetics &lt;/span&gt;, ما هى اختصاصات هذا العلم؟&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
علم الفونيتكس او الصوتيات , هو علم قائم على دراسة الصوت من كافة النواحى ,
 سواء ناحية تشريحية , كيفية إخراج الصوت وكيفية تعرف المخ والجهاز الصوتى 
عليه , وعلى الجانب الفزيائى , كيفية خروج موجات الصوت , وكيفية تأثيرها فى
 جزيئات الهواء , وكما نرى فهو بحر كبير , لذلك هنا عدة فروع منه , لنبدأ 
ولنأخذ للدقة ما يفيدنا فى النطق عامة.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;b&gt;علم الفونولوجيا او Phonology&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
ياتى هذا العلم على دراسة الصوت المجرد , مثل صوت الباء مثل , بـــ , او /&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;b&lt;/span&gt;/ , الفكرة هنا فى دراسة الصوت كتوصيف &quot;كما تم ذكره فى أول درس&quot; , وكل صوت قد يكون له اكتر من شكل ما فى النطق , يتغير حسب مكانه , &lt;br /&gt;
فمثلا , الطبيعي فى نطق الاصوات ان يكون هناك طاقة او تحرك ما فى الأحبال الصوتية , أى يكون الصوت &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Voiced &lt;/span&gt;, أى هناك &lt;u&gt;حركة فى الأحبال الصوتية&lt;/u&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- مجرد خروج الصوت فى الهواء , البــ , هذا اسمه &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Phone &lt;/span&gt;أو صوت مجرد! لا شئ جديد هنا! ولا كتابة ولا شئ!&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- كتابة الصوت نفسه على الورق , البـــ ال &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Voiced &lt;/span&gt;مثل الباء فى كلمة بابا , يكون اسمه فونيم , &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Phoneme &lt;/span&gt;, تمام كل شئ حتى الان؟؟؟&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
نرى انه هناك باء أقوى قليلا فى نطق , وهى تستهلك طاقة فى النطق لأنه انت مجبر على ايقاف احبالك الصوتية , فى كلمة مثل &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Pin &lt;/span&gt;, نشعر هنا انه هناك هاء خفيفة جدا بعد الباء فى اخر نطقها  , هى أقرب ل PhIN , صح ام ماذا؟&lt;br /&gt;
وهى صوتيا تُكتب , /p/ , هذا تنوع من الصوت الاصلى , b , ويسمى باسم ألو-فون , او &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Allophone &lt;/span&gt;, تمام؟&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
لنراجع ما سبق إذن , الفون &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Phone &lt;/span&gt;الأصلى هو ال البــ مجردة فى الهواء , الصوت الاصلى وهو وجب فيه ان يكون توصيفه &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Voiced &lt;/span&gt;, هو ال b , فهذا هو الفونيم الاصلى , واحدى تنوعاته هى ال p وهى هنا ألو-فون او &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Allophone&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
من المثير هنا انه نجد كل الاصوات نوعا ما تنقسم لهذه القسمة , صوت &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Voiced &lt;/span&gt;والاخر &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Voiceless &lt;/span&gt;, نجدها فى أول جدول اى أول موضوع , الاصوات مقسمة بهذا الشكل ولها أكثر من إسم ترجمتهم للعربية هى انهم على شكل فرق ثنائية او &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Counter Parts &lt;/span&gt;او &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Cognates &lt;/span&gt;, الأمر سلس جدا &lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;inlineimg&quot; src=&quot;http://arabhardware.net/forum/images/smilies/smile.gif&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; title=&quot;Smilie&quot; /&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
عادة تتركب الاصوات سويا لتركيب كلمات؟ خطا! بل هى تركب مقاطع , والمقاطع او ال &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Syllables &lt;/span&gt;تتحد سويا لتركيب كلمة ما بعينها.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
سلف و ذكرنا إنه الاصوات &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Voices &lt;/span&gt;تنقسم لسواكن &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Consonants &lt;/span&gt;و حركات &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Vowels &lt;/span&gt;, لنتفق على اختصارات لهم , &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;C &lt;/span&gt;و &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;V &lt;/span&gt;, تمام؟&lt;br /&gt;
اول قاعدة هى إنه ما فى مقطع الا وبه &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;V &lt;/span&gt;, لا بك من متحرك ما فى كل مقطع , هو للدقة &lt;b&gt;نواة المقطع&lt;/b&gt; , فمثلا لو نطقناء مقطع مكون من صوتين , لنقل , بابا , هذه كلمة , مكونة من مقطعين , با + با.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
عند كتابة ما سلف صوتيا &quot;سنرى رموز الحركات لاحقا&quot; سنلاحظ انه ba,ba: , دعوكم من كل تلك الرموز الان &lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;inlineimg&quot; src=&quot;http://arabhardware.net/forum/images/smilies/biggrin.gif&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; title=&quot;Big Grin&quot; /&gt; , لنكتبها مقطعيا الان&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
ba = CV , والمقطع الثانى &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;CVV &lt;/span&gt;على اساس انه متحرك طويل , لكن نرى انها مقاطع كلها تحتوى على متحرك مهما كلف الامر.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
سؤال , كيف اعرف انه مقطع ما من أصل اللغة؟ هل مقطع مثل &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;CCCV &lt;/span&gt;متاح فى العربية؟ كيف؟&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
هنا يبرز دور علم أخر تحت الفونولوجيا باسم أكثر تعقيدا&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
الفونو-تاكتكس , او &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Phonotactics &lt;/span&gt;, هو علم يختص بتراكب الاصوات المحددة فى كل لغة , بمعنى انه كل لغة لها تتابع اصوات ما لا غنى عنه ولا يتغير,لنرى مثال رهيب واضح!!!&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
من الانجليزية , لنرى كلمة مثل &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Strange &lt;/span&gt;او غريب , هناك أول صوت &lt;b&gt;S &lt;/b&gt;, هو صوت احتكاكى , يليه صوت وقفى! &lt;b&gt;T &lt;/b&gt;, يليهم صوت &lt;b&gt;رخوى &lt;/b&gt;او &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Liquid &lt;/span&gt;&quot;سبب هذه التسمية انه صوت ما بين الساكن والمتحرك&quot; , ان حدث هذا التتابع من نوعية الاصوات , &lt;u&gt;أليا يخرج الفم صوت متحرك!&lt;/u&gt; فنرى مثل &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;stra &lt;/span&gt;,
 هل رأيتم؟ جرب ان تنطق انت بنفسك هذا التتابع او المقطع وبدلا من المتحرك ,
 انطق ساكن! لن تستطيع! سينهار النظام الكلامى وستخرج اصوات مبعثرة&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
التفسير العلمى لهذا المثال انه مخك كبنى بشر يهيأ لك ان تكبت طاقة رهيبة ,
 لأنه مقطع كبير , ففى أول صوت , ينطلق جزء من الطاقة , والصوت الثانى , 
الوقفى , كما سلف وقلنا يتطلب طاقة رهيبة لكبت الطاقة وراء مركز القفل , 
والرخوى أقرب للمتحرك من الساكن , كل هذه الطاقة لا مهرب لها الا متحرك 
يمتصها اثناء اطلاقه , وبناءعلى هذا امثلة أخرى كثيرة لأصوات تٌكتب ولا 
تنطق , لأنها ربما أصولها قديمة , لكن هذه قواعد كل لغة.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
هناك العديد من العلوم فى النطق لكن هذا ما يهمنا منها الان &lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;inlineimg&quot; src=&quot;http://arabhardware.net/forum/images/smilies/smile.gif&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; title=&quot;Smilie&quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
لكن الصوتيات لم تتوقف عند هذا الحد! &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
فهناك مستوى أعلى , المستويات اللغوية او &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Linguistics &lt;/span&gt;, &lt;u&gt;لينج ويستكس&lt;/u&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
هناك علم الموفولوجيا , &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Morphology &lt;/span&gt;وهو علم التراكيب للكلمة نفسها  ولكن من ناحية نحوية صرفية قليلا, فمفهوم المورفولجيا يعتمد على أقل وظيفة لغوية لمقطع ما او لصوت ما&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
مثال , ال &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;er &lt;/span&gt;, فى أخر كل كلمة , تعنى اسم فاعل فى الانجليزية , ففعل مثل بلاي , &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Play &lt;/span&gt;, اسم الفاعل منها &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Player &lt;/span&gt;او اللاعب! فهنا نرى مقطع ما , له وظيفة لغوية , ومن هنا اسمه مورفيم , &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Morpheme &lt;/span&gt;, مثل فونيم &lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;inlineimg&quot; src=&quot;http://arabhardware.net/forum/images/smilies/smile.gif&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; title=&quot;Smilie&quot; /&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
مثال أخر للدقة , اضافة صوت ال s فى نهاية الاسم يدل على الجمل , ففتاة &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Girl &lt;/span&gt;جمعها &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Girls &lt;/span&gt;, لكن ماذا عن كلمة مثل كلمة حزب او &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Party&lt;/span&gt;? , نرى الجمع انه &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Part&lt;u&gt;ies&lt;/u&gt; &lt;/span&gt;, نرى انه ال &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;s &lt;/span&gt;لسبب ما لغوى , اخذت شكل ال &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;ies &lt;/span&gt;, هنا نرى تنوع من المورفيم؟ ماذا سيكون اسمه؟ اها! أينعم! &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Allomorph &lt;/span&gt;, لا خلاف على انه حتى شكل ال s مجرد كوظيفة فى الرأس او الوعى هو مجرد &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Morph &lt;/span&gt;او مورف مجرد.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
الى هنا تتكون الكلمات من &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Morphemes &lt;/span&gt;متجاورة , ولبنية الكلمات سويا لتكوين جملة ما صحيح , هناك علم &lt;u&gt;السينتاكس &lt;/u&gt;او &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Syntax &lt;/span&gt;, وهو أقرف للنحو خاصة كل لغة! فكل وحدة كلام هنا وهى الكلمة لها وظيفة ما ولها ترتيب ما&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
أبسط مثال , فى العربية هناك كلمة مثل , أحمد , هذا إسم , وهناك يجري , هذا فعل  , من الممكن ان تسمح قواعد اللغة بترتيب مثل&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;b&gt;يجرى احمد , او , احمد يجري&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
هناك لغات أخرى لا تسمح بهذا مثل &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Ahmed Runs &lt;/span&gt;, هذه صحيحة , العكس هرطقة &lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;inlineimg&quot; src=&quot;http://arabhardware.net/forum/images/smilies/biggrin.gif&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; title=&quot;Big Grin&quot; /&gt; , وهناك أيضا مشاكل لغوية لا يحلها الا علم السينتاكس.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
وهناك علوم اعلى مثل علم الدلالات وهو صعب قليلا باسم &lt;u&gt;السيمناتكس &lt;/u&gt;, او &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Semantics&lt;/span&gt; , وهناك علوم أعلى منه مثل &lt;u&gt;البراجماتيكس &lt;/u&gt;, &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Pragmatics &lt;/span&gt;, وهى علم ما فوق الدلالات نوعا ما , الدلالة هنا مثال عليها حينما نقول بالانجليزية , &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;I feel blue&lt;/span&gt; , &lt;u&gt;انى أشعر انى أزرق!&lt;/u&gt; لا تدل على شئ! لكنها فى الحقيقة تشير الى انه قائلها يشعر بالكئابة.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
هذا مستوى عالى جدا من اللغة يتطلب حتى المواجهة وجها لوجه او سمع صوت 
متكلم لمعرفة ما نوع طبقات صوته وخلافه من تركيبات قد تكون شاذة على 
الطبيعية.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
وهناك علوم انا نفسى لم أدرسها للأسف , مثل علوم ال &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Discourse Analysis &lt;/span&gt;او تحليل النطاق , هنا تصبح الامور اكثر تعقيدا حيث هنا مبنية على معرفة مثلا أسلوب شخص ما من معانيه او دراسة لل &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Semantics &lt;/span&gt;خاصته.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
مثال مهم جدا على مسبق , الشعراء فى الخارج يتم عمل تحليل نطاق لهم , دراسة
 بيوت الشعر خاصتهم , مع الوقت , يكون لكل شاعر ما &quot;بصمة&quot; على طريقة كتابته
 , وتحليل لها ومعرفة , لن نقول أسلوبه , لكن صبغته الشعرية &lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;inlineimg&quot; src=&quot;http://arabhardware.net/forum/images/smilies/smile.gif&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; title=&quot;Smilie&quot; /&gt;
 , هذا الامر فى الخارج لحماية الحقوق الفكرية للشعراء , فمثلا شاعر يقول 
هذا بيت شعر لى واخر يقول هذا لى  , هنا يتم اللجوء لمثل هذا التحليل , 
ومهما كان الشعر متقارب , ما فى مخلوق بشرى يقول شعر مثل الاخر ونفسى الشئ 
فى الكلام وهذا له أبعاد سياسية.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: darkorchid;&quot;&gt;قصة طريفة انه انا ومجموعتى فى الدراسة حاولنا 
صنع برنامج حاسوب , بان يكون مدخلاته مثلا معلقات شعر عمرو بن كلثوم , مثلا
 , ويقوم البرنامج بالتحليل اللغوى لهذه الابيات , ويفهم مخارجها ومداركها 
&quot;الامر مستحيل , لأنه الالة لا تشعر مثل الانسان لكن لها حل ما بخوارزميات 
ذكاء اصطناعى شديدة التعقيد , مثل الحاسبو يعرف انه أ = ب , وب = جـ , ان 
يدرك بمفرده انه أ = جـ , هذه صعبة , لكم ان تتخيلوا تعقيد اللغة&quot; ومثل هذا
 البرنامج ان وجد , سيكون سهل ان يتم البت فى أمور العديد من أمهات بحور 
الشعر القديمة ومعرفة من ينتمى لمن, عرضنا افكرة على رئيس القسم , وافق! 
ورئيس قسم اللغة العربية وافق على مضض , وكانت المشكلة فى التمويل للمشروع 
لأننا بحاجة لبعض البحث العلمى فقط لا غير! والى هنا ماتت الفكرة تماما 
لعدم توافر العديد من الدعائم&quot;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
هذا نذر من يسر لتطبيقات ان امكن لعلوم الصوتيات ان تحققها. ولنا محاضرة 
كاملة فى فروع علم الصوتيات وستجدونه علم مهضوم حقه فعلا فى خضم العديد من 
العلوم الاخرى.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;b&gt;إلى هنا ساكتفى باول جزء من الحلقة الثانية , يوم الاثنين صباحا بعون الله لنا عودة هنا , تابعونا &lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;inlineimg&quot; src=&quot;http://arabhardware.net/forum/images/smilies/smile.gif&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; title=&quot;Smilie&quot; /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/feeds/3806785349067377948/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/01/blog-post.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/3806785349067377948'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/3806785349067377948'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/01/blog-post.html' title='   الدرس الثانى : الصوتيات, ما هى؟'/><author><name>Anonymous</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06411433075711868975</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-850503789392823310.post-336378800097467222</id><published>2013-01-13T07:11:00.002-08:00</published><updated>2013-01-13T07:11:36.876-08:00</updated><title type='text'>ما هو الصوت؟ Sound? </title><content type='html'>&lt;div dir=&quot;rtl&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; trbidi=&quot;on&quot;&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Century Gothic;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Impact;&quot;&gt;&quot;To Talk Well , You Have to learn How Talk Well&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Century Gothic;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;درسنا الأول اليوم سيكون عن الصوت , ما هو الصوت؟ &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Sound&lt;/span&gt;?&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
ربما لو بحثت فى مواقع الانترنت ستجد انه الصوت له تعريف تشريحي , تعريف 
فزيائى , تعريف فلسفى , العديد من التعريفات , لكن الصوت هو كل ما ستجده 
فعلا , الصوت يعتبر من أقدم وسائل الاتصال ما بين بنى بشر , ولكن ما أهمية 
الصوت؟ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
كل الأصوات ان لم يكن 95% منها بغرض التواصل , &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Communication&lt;/span&gt;, لكن ما هو التواصل؟&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
هو ان يتفاعل الناس ما بين بعضهم البعض , وهو مبدأئيا مبنى بنسبة 70% على الإيحاءات من الوجه او ما يُسمى &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Facial Expressions &lt;/span&gt;,
 فلو قابلت شخص ومجرد إبتسمت فى وجهه إبتسامة هادئة , سنفترض انه كل الظروف
 طبيعية , فسيرد بنفس الإبتسامة , هذا اكبر دليل على انه حدث تواصل لكنه من
 النوع السلبى الى حد ما لانك لم تنقل رسالة كاملة هنا , وهنا اتضحت أهمية 
الصوت.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
ولكى نتكلم على الصوت , لم لا نتكلم على الألة اللتى تخرجه لنا؟ الجهاز 
الكلامى فى الإنسان , &quot;الجزء القادم هام جدا! ليس هدفه الحشو , لكنه سيكون 
سهل وبسيط ومهم جدا بل قاتل &lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;inlineimg&quot; src=&quot;http://arabhardware.net/forum/images/smilies/biggrin.gif&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; title=&quot;Big Grin&quot; /&gt; &quot;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
الجهاز الكلامى فى الانسان هو موتور الدفع خاصة الكلام , هو المحرك , هو كل
 شئ , وقود هذه الألة هو الشهيق والزفير , تيار الهواء الداخل للانسان من 
التجويف الفمى &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Oral&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Cavity &lt;/span&gt;, ومن التجويف الأنفى , &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Nasal Cavity&lt;/span&gt;
 , يذهب الهواء من الخارج للداخل , يملاء الرئتين , ومن ثم يخرج مرة أخرى 
بعدما يكبسه الحجاب الحاجز أسفل الرئتين وأعلى الجهاز الهضمى الى الخارج , 
هذا هو وقودنا , الهواء الخارج.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Century Gothic;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; src=&quot;http://www.unil.ch/webdav/site/ling/shared/IntroPhonEnglish/reson.GIF&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Century Gothic;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;من الصورة السابقى نرى الاتى , انه يوجد فى رقم 4  التجويف الانفى , وفى رقم 2 التحويف الفمى , هما مصدر دخول الهواء وهم مصدر خروجه.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
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لكن كام سبق وذكرنا , لا بد من الاتكال أكثر على الهواء الخارج , من 
التجويف البلعومى , رقم 1 , ويذهب تيار الهواء بعدها الى رقم 4 او 2 على 
حسب طبيعة الصوت.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
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إذن عرفنا الأن ما هو مصدر الصوت , نوعا ما&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
لكن , لم زودنا الله سبحانه وتعالى بفم مرن جدا لو نلاحظ؟! فك أعلى وفك 
أسفل ولسان مرن جدا , وشفتين , كل هذه الأعضاء هامة جدا لتنويع انتاج 
الاصوات! ومن هنا يبدأ فعلا الكلام الحقيقي لدرس اليوم&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
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ولكن مهلا , ما هى كم الاحتمالات المتاحة؟ لنقل تيار الهواء الخارج قابله لسان الانسان بارتفاع طفيف مع طئ الشفتين قليلا؟&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
الاحتمالات لا نهائية شباب , لكن الحمد لله , إتفق العلماء على انه هناك فى
 كل لغة أصوات متشابهة , نظرا لأنه بنى بشر لهم نفس الجهاز الكلامى &lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;inlineimg&quot; src=&quot;http://arabhardware.net/forum/images/smilies/biggrin.gif&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; title=&quot;Big Grin&quot; /&gt;
 , ولكن كل لغة ربما لديها أصوات مميزة لا توجد فى غيرها , قمثلا اللغة 
العربية بها صوت &quot;لن نقول حرف من الان لأنه الحرف قد يحتوى على أكثر من صوت
 فى أن واحد&quot; بها صوت الضاد , ضـــــ , وبها صوت العين , عــــــ , وبها 
الهمزة , ومثلا لغات مثل لغات قبائل الزولو فى أفريقيا لديها اصوات مثل صوت
 الكليك خاصة الماوس! إذن , بعد العديد من الأبحاث والعديد من المناوشات , 
توصل العلماء الى جدول , بها كل الاصوات الطبيعية لبنى بشر! هذا الجدول 
مبنى بشكل محكم جدا , واسمه العلمى &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;IPA &lt;/span&gt;أو &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;International Phonetics&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Alphabet &lt;/span&gt;أو الجدول الدولى للأبجدية الصوتية.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Century Gothic;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; src=&quot;http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Ipa-chart-all-1000px.png&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Century Gothic;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;الصوت يا سادة &lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;inlineimg&quot; src=&quot;http://arabhardware.net/forum/images/smilies/biggrin.gif&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; title=&quot;Big Grin&quot; /&gt; , لا نريد هرج &lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;inlineimg&quot; src=&quot;http://arabhardware.net/forum/images/smilies/biggrin.gif&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; title=&quot;Big Grin&quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
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الجدول فى أوله قد يبدو &quot;معقد&quot; بل وتشعر انك تقرأ كلام من حضارة كوكب 
بارتونس من مجرة اندروميدا , لكن لو انتظرتم قليلا , لرأيتم الجدول قمة فى 
السهولة.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
لكى نفهم ما سبق , لنتكلم قليلا عن النطق , ماذا يحدث حينما يخرج الهواء؟ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
ربما اول شئ فعال فى النطق خين خروج الهواء انه يحتك بالأحبال الصوتية او ال &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Vocal Folds &lt;/span&gt;محدثا لها ذبذبة ما , تلك هى اول دفقة واهم دفقة طاقة للصوت , لنرى.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Century Gothic;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; src=&quot;http://www.cedars-sinai.edu/Patients/Programs-and-Services/Head-and-Neck-Cancer-Center/Treatment/Images/larynx_model_web-80443.jpg&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Century Gothic;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;الهواء يخرج من ال &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Trachea &lt;/span&gt;,
 القصبة الهوائية , مارا الى الحنجرة , ومنها الى الاحبال الصوتية محدثا 
اهتزاز لها , فى الحقيقة هى ليست أحبال بالمعنى الحرفى ولكنه تعريب هذه 
الكلمة&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Century Gothic;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; src=&quot;http://www.bbivar.com/vidimg/laryngeal_myasthenia.jpg&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Century Gothic;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;هذه هى الأحبال الصوتية , كما نرى , سبحان الله &lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;inlineimg&quot; src=&quot;http://arabhardware.net/forum/images/smilies/smile.gif&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; title=&quot;Smilie&quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
للحكم على الصوت , كيفية نطقه وكيفية توصيفه , هذا يعتمد على 3 أشياء!&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
1 - مكان الاحكام , او النطق , &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Place or Articulation&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
2 - طريقة الاحكام , او النطق , &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Manner of Articulation&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
3 - التصويت , &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Voicing&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
ملاحظة هامة جدا : التعريب احيانا لا يصل الصورة كاملة , لذلك لو فى أى شئ مش مفهوم , رجاء السؤال فيه لكى تصل الصورة كاملة.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
لنرى , ما كل ما سبق؟!&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
سنتكلم أولا على التصويت , &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Voicing &lt;/span&gt;, هناك أصوات حينما تنطق , تسبب الاحبال الصوتية ان تتحرك , هذه الاصوات بها خاصية ويطلق عليها &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Voiced &lt;/span&gt;او &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Ved &lt;/span&gt;,
 أى مصوتة , هذه الاصوات حينما يتم نطقها , تهتز الاحبال الصوتية , مثال , 
حاول نطق كلمة بها او صوت كـــ , مثل , كيك , الصوت الاول فقط , ستجد نفسك 
تقول , ك ك ك ك ك ك , ضع يديك على تفاحة أدم خاصتك وقل بم ستشعر , ستشعر 
بلا شئ ! ربما اهتزازات خفيفة جدا , هذا هو العكس مما سبق واسمه الغير مصوت
 او ال &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Voiceless &lt;/span&gt;, الصوت ال &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Voiced &lt;/span&gt;هو مثلا لنقل كلمة مثل جمل , انطق الجـــــ فقط , ج ج ج ج ج ج , ستجد انه الاهتزازات قوية جدا عن ال كــــ , صح؟!&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
هذه خاصية ال &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Voicing &lt;/span&gt;بكل بساطة&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
لنتكلم الان على ال &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Place of Articulation&lt;/span&gt; , لنمسك صوت مثل ال &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;b&lt;/span&gt;
 او الباء بـــ فى العربية , انطق الباء , مرة ثانية لو سمحت , هلا لاحظت 
اين يخرج الصوت للحياة؟! حينما تنطق الباء تجد شفتاك تنغلقان أليا , وعند 
نقطة ما , تنفرج الشفتين سويا , هل لاحظتم مكان الانفراج والانغلاق؟ المكان
 = &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Place &lt;/span&gt;, لذلك صوت مثل الباء نجد فى توصيفه انه &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Bilabial &lt;/span&gt;او شفهى , من الشفاه , ولكى نعرف كل اماكن الارتطام , لا بد من رؤية تشريح مبسط لهذا, &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Century Gothic;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhCu8KSDuv-2GMrCRGdC8hZYsA2JR1aHCLBGgE9RvErvs0YPns_26ye6wZ_QkJD6JMHtjb_QSNp70jRvpAXIOOybbiJajBQre3hjsq0i8SjWycst2qpHz-8uGf-Zx63POXw9lN-5r6BPqN_/s400/or4.gif&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Century Gothic;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;الأمر ليس معقد! لا تكونوا بسطاء القلوب &lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;inlineimg&quot; src=&quot;http://arabhardware.net/forum/images/smilies/biggrin.gif&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; title=&quot;Big Grin&quot; /&gt; , كما نرى هنا , &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Lips &lt;/span&gt;هم الشفتين , واذا رأينا الفم من اليسار لليمين نجد أكثر من مكان ارتطام , لو نلاحظ هى هى نفس الاماكن فى جدول ال &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;IPA &lt;/span&gt;من &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Bilabial &lt;/span&gt;إلى &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Glottal &lt;/span&gt;او حلقى , فى كل مكان يختلف الارتطام وبالتالى يختلف الصوت &lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;inlineimg&quot; src=&quot;http://arabhardware.net/forum/images/smilies/smile.gif&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; title=&quot;Smilie&quot; /&gt;
 , تبارك الله , لدينا ألة قمة فى الاحكام , جدير بالذكر انه هناك أصوات لا
 يحدث فيها اى ارتطام , جرب أن تنطق اى من حروف المد فى العربية , لن تجد 
اى ارتطام , لذلك هناك أصوات اسمها &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Consonants &lt;/span&gt;او
 السواكن , هى اصوات يحدث ارتطام ما لو ضئيل فى نطقها , وتوصيفها ما سبق , 
وهناك أصوات عند نطقها , لا يحدث اى ارتطام ولكن تشكيل فى حركة اللسان , 
وهى اسمها &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Vowels &lt;/span&gt;, أو حرف لينة , وجب ذكر هذه النطقة فى سياق الشرح لذلك نجد هناك جدول لل &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Consonants&lt;/span&gt; وجدول لل &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Vowels&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
تابعونا فى المشاركة القادمة &lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;inlineimg&quot; src=&quot;http://arabhardware.net/forum/images/smilies/smile.gif&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; title=&quot;Smilie&quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Century Gothic;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;لنتكلم الان على &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Manner of Articulation &lt;/span&gt;أو طريقة النطق , لنعود مرة أخرى إلى صوت الباء , هل لاحظت الاتى؟ لو قسمنا الصوت الى اجزاء , تجد انك:-&lt;br /&gt;
1 - تغلق شفتيك بكل قوة! ما فى أى منفس للهواء من بينهم.&lt;br /&gt;
2 - يتراكم الهواء بسرعة وراء الشفتين.&lt;br /&gt;
3 - حدوث ضغط هواء مناسب جدا , ومن ثم فتح الشفتين وتحرير هذا الضغط.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
ما حدث كان أشبه للانفجار, صح ام ماذا؟ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
لنر سوت اخر مثل ال ســـ , السين , لتقل ســـــــــــــ طويلة , ماذا يحدث؟&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
ستجد فمك اتخذ وضع مين , الاسنان مقتربة من بعضها , جدا! وطرف اللسان او &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Tip&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;of The Tongue &lt;/span&gt;مقتربة جدا من ال &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Alveolar Ridge &lt;/span&gt;,
 هذا المكان ترجمته &quot;السنخ!&quot; لكن لكى تعرفه , هو المكان ما بين أعلى 
الاسنان العلوية من الاعلى , ولو تحسست سقف حنكك بطرف لسانك , ستجد انه 
يوجد مشرشر جدا , المكان ما بين الاثنين هو ما نقصده , وستجد انه الســـ 
تنطلق معك , تشعر انها تحتك! أينعم! هو صوت احتكاكى! &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Fricative&lt;/span&gt;! ممتاز! &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
هل لاحظتم الفروق؟! ما بين الانفجارى والاحتكاكى؟ وهكذا لكل صوت طريقة نطق ما , لنر مثال أخر , صوت ال &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;m &lt;/span&gt;او الميم , أطرب أذنى بميم طويلة ممدودة لو سمحت&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
اها , هى نفس الباء لكنك تشعر بزغزغة فى انفك؟ هذا لأنه ضغط الهواء مكبوس فى التجويف الانفى &lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;inlineimg&quot; src=&quot;http://arabhardware.net/forum/images/smilies/biggrin.gif&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; title=&quot;Big Grin&quot; /&gt;
 , فتقول , مممممممممممممممممممممممممممممممممممممممممممممممممم  مم , 
الضغط خفيف جدا , لكنه موجود , هل تشعر به؟ وفى النهاية تفتح انت فمك لكى 
ينطلق الصوت للخارج , لكنه فى الحقيقة لكى تعادل الضغط فى التجويف الفمى.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
هذا شرح مبسط , لنرى مثال اخر اخير فى هذه النقطة.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
صوت اللام او فى الانجليزية , L , هو تحت مسمى Semi Approximate , الصوت 
هنا تشعر انه احتكاكى نوعا ما , لكنه ناعم! هو مكانه Alveolar , لكن هل 
تشعر باى شئ وانت تنطقه؟ نوعا ما لا , هو أقرب لل Vowels! أينعم , انت 
متابع دقيق سيدي الفاضل , لذلك اسمه Approximate او تقريبي.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
الأن نعود للجدول &lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;inlineimg&quot; src=&quot;http://arabhardware.net/forum/images/smilies/biggrin.gif&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; title=&quot;Big Grin&quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Century Gothic;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; src=&quot;http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Ipa-chart-all-1000px.png&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Century Gothic;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: medium;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;أول جدول فى الاعلى &lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;inlineimg&quot; src=&quot;http://arabhardware.net/forum/images/smilies/smile.gif&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; title=&quot;Smilie&quot; /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
أعتقد الان تم فك الشفرة خاصته! الاصوات على اليمين هى ال &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Voiceless &lt;/span&gt;وعلى اليسار هى ال &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Voiced &lt;/span&gt;, واماكن وطرق النطق موجودة , ما رأيكم يا سادة؟&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
الان , نظريا, حضراتكم قادرين على نطق اى صوت ساكن بال 3 توصيفات خاصته! &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Place of Articulation&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Manner of Articulation&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Voicing&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
ومن هذا المنطلق , &lt;u&gt;&lt;b&gt;واجب اليوم &lt;/b&gt;&lt;/u&gt;, تسجيل ملف صوتى باسم من يحب ,
 ويسمعنى صوته , ليرفع الملف على اى سيرفر , لكن ليكن واضح قدر الامكان , 
وسويا سنصحح اماكن النطق , بهذه الطريقة , لو اتقناها واكيد بعون الله 
سنتقنها , ما فى لغة على وجه كوكب الارض ستكون عائق امامنا &lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;inlineimg&quot; src=&quot;http://arabhardware.net/forum/images/smilies/smile.gif&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; title=&quot;Smilie&quot; /&gt; , فى انتظار تعليقات حضراتكم على أول درس , ما فى أحد ينسى الواجب لو سمحتم &lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;inlineimg&quot; src=&quot;http://arabhardware.net/forum/images/smilies/smile.gif&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; title=&quot;Smilie&quot; /&gt; , &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
للتسهيل! هناك من قرأ المقالة من الدباية وبها العديد من المصطلحات 
بالانجليزية , صح؟ حاول بعد ما تتدرب جيدا ان تقرأ هذه الكلمات مرة اخرى &lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;inlineimg&quot; src=&quot;http://arabhardware.net/forum/images/smilies/wink.gif&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; title=&quot;Wink&quot; /&gt; , فى انتظار النتيجة&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
المرة القادمة يوم الأحد القادم لو أراد الله:-&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;u&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;نطق ال Vowels وتوصيفها , ما هو علم ال Phonetics , كيف نركب الاصوات بشكل صحيح.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
فى رعاية الله وحفظه &lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;inlineimg&quot; src=&quot;http://arabhardware.net/forum/images/smilies/smile.gif&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; title=&quot;Smilie&quot; /&gt; , سلام عليكم&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Century Gothic;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: x-large;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ergntBoeAHM&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;هذا
 ملف فيديو على Youtube به النطق الصحيح لل Consonants فى اللغة الإنجليزية
 , من لا يعمل الفيديو عنده يقول لى وانا سأرفعه له على أى سيرفر يحبه , 
أرجو ان يسهل هذا المهمة قليلا &lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;inlineimg&quot; src=&quot;http://arabhardware.net/forum/images/smilies/smile.gif&quot; style=&quot;cursor: pointer; max-width: 700px;&quot; title=&quot;Smilie&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/feeds/336378800097467222/comments/default' title='Publier les commentaires'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/01/sound.html#comment-form' title='0 commentaires'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/336378800097467222'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/850503789392823310/posts/default/336378800097467222'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://linguistics4you.blogspot.com/2013/01/sound.html' title='ما هو الصوت؟ Sound? '/><author><name>Anonymous</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06411433075711868975</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhCu8KSDuv-2GMrCRGdC8hZYsA2JR1aHCLBGgE9RvErvs0YPns_26ye6wZ_QkJD6JMHtjb_QSNp70jRvpAXIOOybbiJajBQre3hjsq0i8SjWycst2qpHz-8uGf-Zx63POXw9lN-5r6BPqN_/s72-c/or4.gif" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-850503789392823310.post-5175866048851370902</id><published>2012-12-08T13:42:00.001-08:00</published><updated>2012-12-08T13:42:33.427-08:00</updated><title type='text'>LINGUISTICS</title><content type='html'>&lt;div dir=&quot;rtl&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; trbidi=&quot;on&quot;&gt;
&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; id=&quot;title_box&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
 
    &lt;h1&gt;
LINGUISTICS &lt;/h1&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;img alt=&quot;linguistics&quot; height=&quot;153&quot; src=&quot;http://www.textetc.com/pics/arab1.jpg&quot; width=&quot;120&quot; /&gt;Overview 
    &lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
 A brief history of twentieth-century linguistics. An introduction to the 
      different ways that language can be studied, and the contributions of Saussure 
      and Jakobson in context. &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
      &lt;br /&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
Introduction &lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
 Linguistics is the study of language, sometimes called the science of 
      language. &lt;small&gt;{1}&lt;/small&gt; The subject has become a very technical, splitting 
      into separate fields: sound (phonetics and phonology), sentence structure 
      (syntax, structuralism, deep grammar), meaning (semantics), practical psychology 
      (psycholinguistics) and contexts of language choice (pragmatics). &lt;small&gt;{2}&lt;/small&gt; 
      But originally, as practised in the nineteenth century, linguistics was 
      philology: the history of words. &lt;small&gt;{3}&lt;/small&gt; Philologists tried to 
      understand how words had changed and by what principle. Why had the proto-European 
      consonants changed in the Germanic branch: Grimm&#39;s Law? Voiceless stops 
      went to voiceless fricatives, voiced stops to voiceless stops, and voiced 
      aspirates to voiced stops. What social phenomenon was responsible? None 
      could be found. Worse, such changes were not general. Lines of descent could 
      be constructed, but words did not evolve in any Darwinian sense of simple 
      to elaborate. One could group languages as isolating (words had a single, 
      unchanging root), agglutinizing (root adds affixes but remains clear) and 
      inflecting (word cannot be split into recurring units), but attempts to 
      show how one group developed into another broke down in hopeless disagreement. 
      &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=850503789392823310&quot; name=&quot;Saussure&quot;&gt; &lt;/a&gt; 
    &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;img align=&quot;absmiddle&quot; height=&quot;15&quot; src=&quot;http://www.textetc.com/pics/newdot.gif&quot; width=&quot;21&quot; /&gt;Ferdinand 
      de Saussure (1857-1913) &lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
 So linguistics might have ended: documenting random changes in random 
      directions. But that was hardly a science, only a taxonomy. When therefore 
      Ferdinand de Saussure tentatively suggested that language be seen as a game 
      of chess, where the history of past moves is irrelevant to the players, 
      a way though the impasse was quickly recognized. Saussure sketched some 
      possibilities. If the word &lt;em&gt; high-handed &lt;/em&gt; falls out of use, then 
      synonyms like &lt;em&gt; arrogant &lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt; presumptuous &lt;/em&gt; will extend 
      their uses. If we drop the final &lt;em&gt; f &lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt; v &lt;/em&gt; the results 
      in English are not momentous (we might still recognize &lt;em&gt; belie &lt;/em&gt; 
      as &lt;em&gt; belief &lt;/em&gt; from the context), but not if the final &lt;em&gt; s &lt;/em&gt; 
      is dropped (we should then have to find some new way of indicating plurals). 
    &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
 Saussure&#39;s suggestion was very notional: his ideas were put together by 
      students from lecture notes and published posthumously in 1915. But they 
      did prove immensely fruitful, even in such concepts as langue (the whole 
      language which no one speaker entirely masters) and parole (an individual&#39;s 
      use of language). Words are signs, and in linguistics we are studying the 
      science of signs: semiology. And signs took on a value depending on words 
      adjacent in use or meaning. English has &lt;em&gt;sheep&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;mutton&lt;/em&gt; 
      but French has only &lt;em&gt;mouton&lt;/em&gt; for both uses. Above all (extending 
      the picture of a chess game) we should understand that language was a totality 
      of linguistic possibilities, where the &quot;move&quot; of each word depended 
      on the possible moves of others. 
    &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
 Saussure had a theory of meaning. He envisaged language as a series of 
      contiguous subdivisions marked off on the indefinite planes of ideas and 
      sounds. A word (sign) was a fusion of concept (signified) and sound-image 
      (signifier) the two being somehow linked as meaning in the mind. Both signifieds 
      and signifiers independently played on their own chess board of possibilities 
      — i.e. they took up positions with regard to other pieces, indeed owed 
      their existence to them. Though championed by the Structuralists, this theory 
      of semantics was a disastrous one, raising the problems recognized by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.textetc.com/theory/theories-of-meaning.html&quot;&gt;linguistic 
      philosoph&lt;/a&gt;y. But that was not Saussure&#39;s fault. He was not a philosopher, 
      but a philologist, one whose simple idea, though much anticipated by Michel 
      Bréal and perhaps Franz Boas, largely recast linguistics in its present 
      form. &lt;small&gt;{3}&lt;/small&gt; 
    &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;img align=&quot;absmiddle&quot; height=&quot;15&quot; src=&quot;http://www.textetc.com/pics/newdot.gif&quot; width=&quot;21&quot; /&gt;The 
      Structuralists &lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
 Saussure&#39;s ideas spread first to Russia, being brought there and developed 
      by Ramon Jacobson (1896-1982). Strictly speaking, the product was not &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.textetc.com/theory/art-as-not-autonomous.html&quot;&gt;Structuralism, 
      &lt;/a&gt;which dates from Jakobson&#39;s acquaintance with Lévi-Strauss in 
      the 1960&#39;s, but &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.textetc.com/theory/formalists.html&quot;&gt;formalism&lt;/a&gt;: study of the devices 
      by which literary language makes itself distinctive. Poetry was the great 
      love of the Russian formalists (who knew personally the revolutionary poets) 
      and they looked intensively and dispassionately at the structures and devices 
      that literature employs, whether Pushkin or seemingly artless fairy stories. 
      But as Marxist ideology tightened its grip, the member of the Russian school, 
      never a very tightly knit group, either recanted or fled abroad. Jakobson 
      went to Czechoslovakia and then to the USA, but took with him the very speculative 
      nature of Russian formalism: brilliant theories, but poor documentation 
      and few laboratory studies. 
    &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
 Jakobson made little impact in Prague, which had its own traditions, but 
      in America was able to draw on and develop the ideas of structural anthropology: 
      that the behaviour of societies is governed by deep, scarcely visible rules 
      and understandings. As such, Jakobson&#39;s views merged with those of continental 
      philosophy and sociology — with &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.textetc.com/theory/marxist-views.html&quot;&gt;Althusser&lt;/a&gt;&#39;s 
      reinterpretation of Marx, that language was ideology, a hidden reality, 
      an alternative source of state power. Also with &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.textetc.com/theory/barthes.html&quot;&gt;Barthes&lt;/a&gt;&#39;s 
      attempt to explain the multiplicity of French society from a few underlying 
      suppositions. And with Foucault&#39;s genealogy. Meanwhile, Emile Benaviste 
      had rewritten Saussure (as most Structuralists and Post-structuralists were 
      to do) to conceive the signified as not inside individual minds but part 
      of any ever-present social reality. Gradually it is not the individual, 
      nor the society, but language itself that becomes the defining reality: 
      a view that leads on to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.textetc.com/modernist/postmodernism.html&quot;&gt;Postmodernism&lt;/a&gt;. 
    &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
 Jakobson had some novel ideas of his own. There was, he proposed, a relatively 
      simple, orderly and universal psychological system underlying the three 
      to eight thousand odd languages in the world. Despite the many ways phonemes 
      (basic units of sound) are produced by human mouths, all could be represented 
      in binary structures (open-closed, back-front, etc.) governed by 12 levels 
      of precedence. Binary structures are written into Lévi-Strauss&#39;s 
      views, and these notions fitted with information theory and sound spectrography. 
      But languages in fact use a good deal more than two of any&quot;mouth settings&quot;, 
      phonemes do not have an independent existence, and 12 levels will not serve. 
      Chomsky and Halle (1968) proposed 43 such rules, often complex, before abandoning 
      the approach. Jakobson also defined poetic language as the projection onto 
      the horizon syntagmatic axis (how words fit together in a sentence) of the 
      vertical paradigmatic (how word are associated and can replace each other), 
      another audacious theory that proved largely vacuous. &lt;small&gt;{4}&lt;/small&gt;. 
    &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;img align=&quot;absmiddle&quot; height=&quot;15&quot; src=&quot;http://www.textetc.com/pics/newdot.gif&quot; width=&quot;21&quot; /&gt;Descriptionists 
    &lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
 The besetting sin of Structuralism (as of current literary theory) is 
      its want of evidence: theories are dreamt up in the study rather than fashioned 
      to meet field observations or laboratory experiment. That criticism cannot 
      be laid at the door of Boas, Bloomfield and other American researchers who 
      in the first half of this century went out to closely observe languages 
      as native speakers use them. Indeed, so concerned were they to avoid the 
      strictures of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.textetc.com/theory/theories-of-meaning.html&quot;&gt;Logical Positivism&lt;/a&gt;, 
      that they adopted a behaviourist approach, excluding mind altogether. Language 
      was simply inputs and outputs: how the brain handled its data was not something 
      one could observe, and was therefore not science. Huge dossiers of information 
      were built up, particularly on native American languages, but little that 
      resolved itself into laws or general principles. &lt;small&gt;{5}&lt;/small&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=850503789392823310&quot; name=&quot;Sapir&quot;&gt; 
      &lt;/a&gt; 
    &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;img align=&quot;absmiddle&quot; height=&quot;15&quot; src=&quot;http://www.textetc.com/pics/newdot.gif&quot; width=&quot;21&quot; /&gt;Sapir-Whorf 
      Hypothesis &lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
 One exception was an hypothesis of Edward Sapir (1884-1934) and Benjamin 
      Lee Whorf (1897-1941). Man&#39;s language, they argued, moulds his perception 
      of reality. The Hopi Indians of Arizona plurialize clouds as though they 
      were animate objects, do not use spatial metaphors for time, and have no 
      past tense as such. Do they not view the world in these terms? And there 
      were more spectacular examples. The Bororó of northern Brazil believe 
      they are red parakeets — evidence, said anthropologists, that primitive 
      societies were not aware of logical contradictions. Modern Europeans have 
      words for the seven basic colours of the rainbow, whereas other societies 
      have from two to eleven. 
    &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
 The matter is still debated. &lt;small&gt;{6}&lt;/small&gt; The Hopi Indians do not 
      seem to be poor timekeepers, and the Romance languages have a feminine gender 
      for objects not seen as animate: la cerveza for beer, etc. Parakeets is 
      no doubt used &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.textetc.com/theory/metaphor.html&quot;&gt;metaphorically&lt;/a&gt; by the Bororó. 
      Even the evidence of colours, subject of a massive study by Berlin and Kay, 
      &lt;small&gt;{7}&lt;/small&gt; seems now not so clear-cut, since language may reflect 
      purpose more than perception. Lakoff, however, (see below) has indeed resurrected 
      Whorf&#39;s hypothesis through the concept of commensurability, adducing some 
      striking if limited experimental evidence. Understanding, our ability to 
      translate between diverse languages, is not the only factor. Equally important 
      are use, framing and organization {8}, and behaviour here can be governed 
      by different conceptual systems. Languages widely employ spatial conceptions, 
      for example, and these conceptions differ between cultures. &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;img align=&quot;absmiddle&quot; height=&quot;15&quot; src=&quot;http://www.textetc.com/pics/newdot.gif&quot; width=&quot;21&quot; /&gt;Functional 
      Linguistics: The Prague School &lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
 As early as 1911 in Czechoslovakia, and independently of Saussure and 
      Jakobson, Vilém Mathesius (1882- 1945) founded a non-historical approach 
      to linguistics. The Prague School looked at the structural components as 
      they contributed to the entire language. There was a need for a standard 
      language once Czechoslovakia had acquired independence, and Czech had the 
      curiosity of being very different in its colloquial and literary forms. 
      Prince Nikolai Trubetzkoy (1890-1938) investigated paradigmatic relations 
      between phonemes and classified functions on the purposes they served — 
      keeping words apart, signalling stress, etc. 
    &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
 Like the Russian Formalists, members of the Prague School were keenly 
      concerned with literature, but they were not hermetic in their approach 
      — i.e. did not see literature as a self-enclosed, stand-alone entity, 
      but something reflecting social and cultural usage. That was also a view 
      developed by the American anthropologist William Labor in investigating 
      the colloquial language of New York. He found that listeners to tape recordings 
      could very accurately place speakers by geography and social stratum. As 
      both reflected social movement in the recent past — i.e. history: this 
      was one rare exception to Saussure&#39;s assertion that language speakers do 
      not take past usage into consideration. &lt;small&gt;{9}&lt;/small&gt; 
    &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;img align=&quot;absmiddle&quot; height=&quot;15&quot; src=&quot;http://www.textetc.com/pics/newdot.gif&quot; width=&quot;21&quot; /&gt;The 
      London School &lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
 The London School of Harry Sweet (1845-1912) and David Jones (1881-1967) 
      stressed the practical side of phonetics, and trained its students to perceive, 
      transcribe and reproduce each minute sound distinction very precisely — 
      far more than the American behaviourists, for example, and of course the 
      Chomskians, who are extending models rather than testing them. And this 
      phonetic competence was much needed when J.R. Firth (1891-1960) and others 
      at the School of Oriental and African Studies helped to plan the national 
      languages and their writing systems for the new Commonwealth countries. 
      Overall, the School has been very far ranging — noting, for example 
      how stress and tone co-occur with whole syllables, and developing a terminology 
      to cope: a basis for poetic metre. Firthian analysis also finds a place 
      for aesthetic considerations and develops a system of mutually exclusive 
      options, somewhat like Saussure but more socially and purposively orientated. 
    &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
 Firth himself tried to base a theory of meaning on such choice-systems, 
      but the approach has not been generally accepted. Not only was it rather 
      simplistic, but confused the scientific invariance of linguistic rules with 
      the unregimented and creative way that human beings get their meaning across. 
      &lt;small&gt;{10}&lt;/small&gt; 
    &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;img align=&quot;absmiddle&quot; height=&quot;15&quot; src=&quot;http://www.textetc.com/pics/newdot.gif&quot; width=&quot;21&quot; /&gt;Noam 
      Chomsky and Generative Grammar &lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
 &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.textetc.com/theory/chomskian-linguistics.html&quot;&gt;Avram Noam Chomsky&lt;/a&gt; (1928- ) and 
      his followers have transformed linguistics. Indeed, despite many difficulties 
      and large claims later retracted, the school of deep or generative grammar 
      still holds centre stage. Chomsky came to prominence in a 1972 criticism 
      of the behavourist&#39;s B.F. Skinner&#39;s book &lt;em&gt;Verbal Behaviour&lt;/em&gt;. Linguistic 
      output was not simply related to input. Far from it, and a science which 
      ignored what the brain did to create its novel outputs was no science at 
      all. Chomsky was concerned to explain two striking features of language 
      — the speed with which children acquire a language, and its astonishing 
      fecundity, our ability to create a endless supply of grammatically correct 
      sentences without apparently knowing the rules. How was that possible? Only 
      by having a) an underlying syntax and b) rules to convert syntax to what 
      we speak. The syntax was universal and simple. A great diversity of sentences 
      can be constructed with six symbols. Take &lt;em&gt; a cats sits on the mat. &lt;/em&gt; 
      Older readers will remember their parsing exercises at school: indefinite 
      article, noun, verb, preposition, definite article, noun. Chomsky uses a 
      similar approach but his &quot;parsing&quot; applies to all languages. But 
      how we convert to &lt;em&gt; the mat was sat on by a cat&lt;/em&gt;? The answer, argued 
      Chomsky, were innate transformation rules by which a fundamental deep structure 
      is converted to the surface sentence. Matters are not usually so straightforward, 
      of course, and the rules can be very complex indeed, but Chomsky and his 
      coworkers have now provided them. 
    &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
 If many languages are now classified along Chomsky lines, why hasn&#39;t the 
      approach entirely swept the board, bringing all linguists into the fold 
      of orthodoxy? First there are procedural problems. The American behaviourists, 
      and more so the London school, had a very thorough training in gathering 
      field evidence. Speech was what native speakers actually spoke, not what 
      the anthropologist thought they might accept as correct usage. The Chomskians 
      use introspection (i.e. the linguists themselves decide whether a sentence 
      is good grammar), an approach which can allow &quot;facts&quot; to be fitted 
      to theory and which has somewhat restricted application to the European 
      languages that Chomskians regard themselves as familiar with. Then there 
      is the matter of laboratory testing. Surface sentences that are generated 
      by the more convoluted transformation rules should take speakers longer 
      to produce. The evidence is somewhat contradictory. 
    &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
 But more important than these are the theoretical issues. What are these 
      deep structures and transformation rules — i.e. are they something 
      &quot;hardwired&quot; into the brain or simply a propensity to perform in 
      ways we can view along Chomskian lines? Chomsky is undecided. And, if the 
      structures are real, is this the philosopher&#39;s goal: we can base semantics 
      on deep grammar? Some have done so, though Chomsky himself has now abandoned 
      these hopes. Chomsky is not a Structuralist, and there is more to understanding 
      than the ability to recast sentences — an appreciation of the world 
      outside, for example, which we perceive and judge on past experience. &lt;small&gt;{11}&lt;/small&gt; 
    &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;img align=&quot;absmiddle&quot; height=&quot;15&quot; src=&quot;http://www.textetc.com/pics/newdot.gif&quot; width=&quot;21&quot; /&gt;Relational 
      Grammar &lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
 One interesting development from the London School was that of Sydney 
      Lamb and Peter Reich. Lamb charted language as networks of relationships. 
      By using a very simple set of &quot;nodes&quot; he was able to represent 
      phonology, syntax and semantics, and to explain linguistic patterning at 
      various levels. Reich used &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.textetc.com/theory/the-new-science.html&quot;&gt;computer modelling&lt;/a&gt; 
      to simulate this approach and explain the difficulties we experience with 
      multiply embedded sentences — &lt;em&gt;I spoke to the girl whose mother&#39;s 
      cat which I didn&#39;t know was run over when she wasn&#39;t looking&lt;/em&gt; sort of 
      thing. But neither approach coped properly with the prevailing Chomskian 
      structural picture, and wasn&#39;t pursued. &lt;small&gt;{12}&lt;/small&gt; 
    &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;img align=&quot;absmiddle&quot; height=&quot;15&quot; src=&quot;http://www.textetc.com/pics/newdot.gif&quot; width=&quot;21&quot; /&gt;The 
      Contemporary Scene &lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
 What&#39;s the scene today? A very lively but confused picture of new dimensions, 
      difficulties and antagonisms. One comparatively new approach is that of 
      &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.textetc.com/theory/brain-functioning.html&quot;&gt;brain physiology&lt;/a&gt;. Much, perhaps the 
      greater part, remains to be understood of precisely how the brain functions. 
      But it is clear that consciousness (being aware of the world, having mental 
      images, and feelings and intentions) proceeds by a complex system of neural 
      loops and feedbacks. Speech comes with the development of the mouth and 
      larynx, concomitantly with the growth of the cortex and its networks through 
      to the hippocampus, amygdala and brainstem. Sounds are linked by learning 
      with concepts and gestures to give meaning. Syntax emerges to connect conceptual 
      learning with lexical learning. Language allows us to elaborate, refine, 
      connect, create and remember. All this happens together. &lt;small&gt;{13}&lt;/small&gt; 
      Animals learn as they need to. Dogs, for example, reared in total isolation, 
      have no understanding of pain and will sniff repeatedly at a lighted match. 
      And for human beings the sense of self comes through the joint development 
      of social and linguistic behaviour, each operating on the other, so that 
      attempts to study speech in narrow disciplines — physiology, psychology, 
      linguistics, information theory, structuralism , etc. — are doomed 
      to failure. &lt;small&gt;{14}&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
What is to be done, given the mountain of complex and technical data each 
      discipline brings to the total picture? One promising start is the hypothesis 
      of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.textetc.com/theory/metaphor.html&quot;&gt;Lakoff and Johnson&lt;/a&gt;, sometime students of 
      Chomsky&#39;s but working more from their studies of metaphor. Human beings, 
      they suppose, create models of cognition that reflect concepts developed 
      in the interaction between brain, body and environment. These models, which 
      they call schemas, operate through bodily activities prior to speech development, 
      and are very various, if not amorphous. Very tentatively, they suggest that 
      the schema may operate so as to provide our five different conceptual approaches 
      — through images, metaphors, part for whole, propositional and symbolic. 
      Linguistic functions are propositional and symbolic. Grammatical constructions 
      are idealized schemas. And so on. The approach is technical and preliminary, 
      but overcomes some of the difficulties noted above. &lt;small&gt;{15}&lt;/small&gt; 
    &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
 Is this optimism widely shared? Not at present. Scientists and academics 
      have invested too much in chosen disciplines to lightly abandon their positions. 
      Nor perhaps should they. But what is emerging is the folly of believing 
      that any one approach provides all the answers. Or that any simplistic, 
      navel-gazing theory like Structuralism will serve. As with linguistic philosophy, 
      more problems emerge the deeper we look, which is perhaps not surprising 
      given the creative, ad-hoc way language develops and our use necessarily 
      of one small part of it to investigate the whole. 
    &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;img align=&quot;absmiddle&quot; height=&quot;15&quot; src=&quot;http://www.textetc.com/pics/newdot.gif&quot; width=&quot;21&quot; /&gt;References 
    &lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
1. William O&#39;Grady, Michael Dobrovolsky and Francis Katamba&#39;s &lt;em&gt;Contemporary 
      Linguistics: An Introduction&lt;/em&gt; (1987) and R.H. Robins&#39;s &lt;em&gt;A Short History 
      of Linguistics&lt;/em&gt; (1994). Also Geoffrey Sampson&#39;s &lt;em&gt; Schools of Linguistics: 
      Competition and Evolution &lt;/em&gt; (1980) — on which this account is broadly 
      modelled — and Michael Devitt and Kim Sterelny&#39;s &lt;em&gt; An Introduction 
      to the Philosophy of Language &lt;/em&gt; (1987). &lt;br /&gt;
      2. F.R. Palmer&#39;s &lt;em&gt; Semantics &lt;/em&gt; (1976, 1981), Simon Blackburn&#39;s &lt;em&gt; 
      Spreading the Word: Groundings in the Philosophy of Language &lt;/em&gt; (1984), 
      Steven Pinker&#39;s &lt;em&gt; The Language Instinct: The New Science of Language 
      and Mind &lt;/em&gt; (1994), Stephen Levinson&#39;s &lt;em&gt; Pragmatics &lt;/em&gt; (1983), 
      and Andrew Ellis and Geoffrey Beattie&#39;s &lt;em&gt; The Psychology of Language 
      and Communication &lt;/em&gt; (1986, 1992). &lt;br /&gt;
      3. See, in addition to the above, Raymond Tallis&#39;s &lt;em&gt; Not Saussure: A 
      Critique of Post-Saussurean Literary Theory &lt;/em&gt; (1988, 1995), Chapter 
      1 of J.G. Merquior&#39;s &lt;em&gt;From Prague to Paris&lt;/em&gt; (1986), and Hans Arslef&#39;s 
      &lt;em&gt; From Locke to Saussure &lt;/em&gt; (1982). A contrary view is argued by Paul 
      Thibault&#39;s &lt;em&gt;Rereading Saussure: The Dynamics of Signs in Social Life&lt;/em&gt; 
      (1997).&lt;br /&gt;
      4. David Lodge&#39;s &lt;em&gt;The Modes of Modern Writing&lt;/em&gt; (1977), Richard Harland&#39;s 
      &lt;em&gt; Superstructuralism: The Philosophy of Structuralism and Post-Structuralism 
      &lt;/em&gt; (1987) and Stephen Levinson&#39;s &lt;em&gt; Pragmatics &lt;/em&gt; (1983). Also Sampson 
      1980. &lt;br /&gt;
      5. Chapter 3 in Sampson 1980.&lt;br /&gt;
      6. Chapter 4 of Sampson 1980, and Dale Pesmen&#39;s &lt;em&gt; Reasonable and Unreasonable 
      World: Some Expectation of Coherence in Culture Implied in the Prohibition 
      of Mixed Metaphor &lt;/em&gt; in James Fernandez&#39;s &lt;em&gt; Beyond Metaphor: The Theory 
      of Tropes in Anthropology &lt;/em&gt; (1991). &lt;br /&gt;
      7: pp. 95-102 in Sampson.&lt;br /&gt;
      8. pp.304-337 in George Lakoff&#39;s &lt;i&gt;Women, Fire and Dangerous Things: What 
      Categories Reveal about the Mind&lt;/i&gt; (1987).&lt;br /&gt;
      9. Chapter 5 of Sampson 1980. &lt;br /&gt;
      10. Chapter 9 of Sampson 1980. &lt;br /&gt;
      11. Chapter 6 of Sampson 1980.&lt;br /&gt;
      12. Chapter 7 of Sampson 1980.&lt;br /&gt;
      13. Edelman 1992.&lt;br /&gt;
      14. pp 53- 54 in Ellis and Beattie 1988, 1992, and Gerald Edelman&#39;s &lt;em&gt; 
      Bright Air, Brilliant Fire: On the Matter of the Mind &lt;/em&gt; (1992).&lt;br /&gt;
      15. G. Lakoff and M. Johnson&#39;s &lt;em&gt; Metaphors We Live By &lt;/em&gt; (1980), G. 
      Lakoff&#39;s &lt;em&gt; Woman, Fire and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal About 
      the Mind &lt;/em&gt; (1987), and M. Johnson&#39;s &lt;em&gt; The Body in the Mind: The Bodily 
      Bias of Meaning, Imagination and Reason &lt;/em&gt; (1987). &amp;nbsp; &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;img align=&quot;absmiddle&quot; height=&quot;15&quot; src=&quot;http://www.textetc.com/pics/newdot.gif&quot; width=&quot;21&quot; /&gt;Internet 
      Resources&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
1. Linguistics. 2001. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bartleby.com/65/li/linguist.html&quot;&gt;http://www.bartleby.com/65/li/linguist.html&lt;/a&gt;. 
      Brief introduction in &lt;i&gt;The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition&lt;/i&gt;. &lt;br /&gt;
      2. On history and historicity in modern linguistics: Formalism versus functionalism 
      revisited. Robert de Beaugrande. 1997. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.beaugrande.bizland.com/History.htm&quot;&gt;http://www.beaugrande.bizland.com/History.htm&lt;/a&gt;. 
      General but still somewhat technical paper in &lt;i&gt;Functions of Language, 
      4/2, 1997, 169-213.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
      3. Boas, Franz. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.encyclopedia.com/html/B/Boas-F1ra.asp&quot;&gt;http://www.encyclopedia.com/html/B/Boas-F1ra.asp&lt;/a&gt;. 
      &lt;i&gt;Encyclopedia.com&lt;/i&gt; entry with brief listings. &lt;br /&gt;
      4. Franz Boas. 2003. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Boas&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Boas&lt;/a&gt;. 
      &lt;i&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/i&gt; entry with in-text links.&lt;br /&gt;
      5. Leonard Bloomfield, Language And Linguistics, Biographies. &lt;a href=&quot;http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/B/BloomfldL.html&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/&lt;br /&gt;
      B/BloomfldL.html&lt;/a&gt;. Brief &lt;i&gt;AllRefer Encyclopedia&lt;/i&gt; entry. &lt;br /&gt;
      6. Structuralism and Saussure. Mary Klages. 2001. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.colorado.edu/English/ENGL2012Klages/saussure.html&quot;&gt;http://www.colorado.edu/English/&lt;br /&gt;
      ENGL2012Klages/saussure.html&lt;/a&gt;. Simple introduction. &lt;br /&gt;
      7. Ferdinand de Saussure. Dec. 2003. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure&lt;/a&gt;. 
      &lt;i&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/i&gt; entry with in-text links.&lt;br /&gt;
      8. Saussure, Ferdinand de. 1997. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/hopkins_guide_to_literary_theory/ferdinand_de_saussure.html&quot;&gt;http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/&lt;br /&gt;
      hopkins_guide_to_literary_theory/ferdinand_de_saussure.html&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;i&gt;Johns 
      Hopkins Guide&lt;/i&gt; entry with links and bibliography.&lt;br /&gt;
      9. Third Course of Lectures on General Linguistics. Ferdinand de Saussure. 
      Oct.1910. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/fr/saussure.htm&quot;&gt;http://www.marxists.org/reference/&lt;br /&gt;
      subject/philosophy/works/fr/saussure.htm&lt;/a&gt;. Excerpt from Saussure&#39;s &lt;i&gt;Third 
      Course of Lectures on General Linguistics&lt;/i&gt; (1910-1911) Pergamon Press. 
      1993. &lt;br /&gt;
      10. Russian Formalism. Dec. 2003. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en2.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Formalism&quot;&gt;http://en2.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Formalism&lt;/a&gt;. 
      Brief Wikipedia entry, with many links. &lt;br /&gt;
      11. Russian Formalism. Karen A. McCauley. 1997. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/hopkins_guide_to_literary_theory/russian_formalism.html&quot;&gt;http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/&lt;br /&gt;
      hopkins_guide_to_literary_theory/russian_formalism.html&lt;/a&gt;. Detailed account 
      and bibliography.&lt;br /&gt;
      12. Russian Formalism. &lt;a href=&quot;http://martin.cnidc.net/russian.ppt&quot;&gt;http://martin.cnidc.net/russian.ppt&lt;/a&gt;. 
      An extended slide show summarising salient features and terminology.&lt;br /&gt;
      13. Prague School Structuralism. Lubomír Dolezel. 1997. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/hopkins_guide_to_literary_theory/prague_school_structuralism.html&quot;&gt;http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/&lt;br /&gt;
      hopkins_guide_to_literary_theory/prague_school_structuralism.html&lt;/a&gt;. History 
      of the school and its main ideas. &lt;br /&gt;
      14. The Prague Linguistic Circle. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bohemica.com/plk/plchome.htm&quot;&gt;http://www.bohemica.com/plk/plchome.htm&lt;/a&gt;. 
      Society homepage, with links. &lt;br /&gt;
      15. Jakobson, Roman. Michael Groden and Martin Kreiswirth. 1997. &lt;br /&gt;
      &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/hopkins_guide_to_literary_theory/roman_jakobson.html&quot;&gt;http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/&lt;br /&gt;
      hopkins_guide_to_literary_theory/roman_jakobson.html&lt;/a&gt;. Brief account, 
      with bibliography.&lt;br /&gt;
      16. Semiotics for Beginners. Daniel Chandler. Jun. 2002. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/S4B/sem-gloss.html&quot;&gt;http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/S4B/sem-gloss.html&lt;/a&gt;. 
      A glossary of key terms, including note on Prague School. &lt;br /&gt;
      17. Reminiscences by Pike on Early American Anthropological Linguistics. 
      Ken Pike. May 2001. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sil.org/silewp/2001/001/SILEWP2001-001.html&quot;&gt;http://www.sil.org/silewp/2001/001/&lt;br /&gt;
      SILEWP2001-001.html&lt;/a&gt;. Survey of key figures. &lt;br /&gt;
      18. Bloomfield&#39;s &quot;Meaningless&quot; Science of Sounds. Spring 1998. &lt;a href=&quot;http://kalin.jeffer.org/ba_thesis/korz2.html&quot;&gt;http://kalin.jeffer.org/ba_thesis/korz2.html&lt;/a&gt;. 
      Part of Univ. of Alberta PhD. thesis.&lt;br /&gt;
      19. Noam Chomsky. Jan. 2004. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noam_Chomsky&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noam_Chomsky&lt;/a&gt;. 
      Wikipedia entry: importance for linguistics, his criticism of Postmodernism, 
      and his political activities, includes references and listings. &lt;br /&gt;
      20. Universal Grammar in Prolog. Ray C. Dougherty. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nyu.edu/pages/linguistics/ling.html&quot;&gt;http://www.nyu.edu/pages/linguistics/ling.html&lt;/a&gt;. 
      Computer modelling of Chomsky&#39;s concepts: has helpful diagrams. &lt;br /&gt;
      21. Could Chomsky be Wrong? Timothy Mason. Feb. 2002. &lt;a href=&quot;http://perso.club-internet.fr/tmason/WebPages/LangTeach/CounterChomsky.htm&quot;&gt;http://perso.club-internet.fr/tmason/WebPages/LangTeach/CounterChomsky.htm&lt;/a&gt;. 
      Summaries of alternative views and good listings. &lt;br /&gt;
      22. The Anatomy of a Revolution in the Social Sciences: Chomsky in 1962. 
      E. F. Konrad Koerner. Winter. 1994. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tlg.uci.edu/%7Eopoudjis/Work/KK.html&quot;&gt;http://www.tlg.uci.edu/%7Eopoudjis/Work/KK.html&lt;/a&gt;. 
      The politics of linguistics.&lt;br /&gt;
      23. Published Papers &amp;amp; Articles on Linguistics, Including Machine Translation, 
      NLP, AI, TGG, etc. Alexander Gross. &lt;a href=&quot;http://language.home.sprynet.com/lingdex.htm#tggchom&quot;&gt;http://language.home.sprynet.com/lingdex.htm#tggchom.&lt;/a&gt; 
      Articles critical of simplifications in Chomsky, etc. &lt;br /&gt;
      24. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. Daniel Chandler. 1994. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/short/whorf.html&quot;&gt;http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/short/whorf.html&lt;/a&gt;. 
      Introduction in terms of mould and cloak theories. &lt;br /&gt;
      25. Regarding Benjamin Lee Whorf. Danny Alford. 1980. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.enformy.com/alford.htm#papers&quot;&gt;http://www.enformy.com/alford.htm#papers&lt;/a&gt;. 
      Argues for a reexamination.&lt;br /&gt;
      26. Schools of Linguistics by Geoffrey Sampson. Aug. 2001. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mlc-wels.edu/czer/Sampson_review.htm&quot;&gt;http://www.mlc-wels.edu/czer/Sampson_review.htm&lt;/a&gt;. 
      Review/summary of Sampson&#39;s 1980 book by Larry Czer. &lt;br /&gt;
      27. There is No Language Instinct. Geoffrey Sampson. 2000. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.grsampson.net/ATin.html&quot;&gt;http://www.grsampson.net/ATin.html&lt;/a&gt;. 
      Critique of Steven Pinker&#39;s arguments in &#39;The Language Instinct&#39;.&lt;br /&gt;
      28. We speak prosodies and we listen to them (J R Firth 1948). Nov. 2001. 
      &lt;a href=&quot;http://www-users.york.ac.uk/%7Erao1/Uppsala.script.pdf&quot;&gt;http://www-users.york.ac.uk/~rao1/Uppsala.script.pdf&lt;/a&gt;. 
      Firthian application presented as Uppsala conference paper.&lt;br /&gt;
      29. Sidney Lamb. Dec. 2002. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney_M._Lamb&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney_M._Lamb&lt;/a&gt;. 
      Brief &lt;i&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/i&gt; article. &lt;br /&gt;
      30. Language and the Brain: Neurocognitive Linguistics. Rice University. 
      Apr. 2002. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ruf.rice.edu/%7Elngbrain/main.htm&quot;&gt;http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~lngbrain/main.htm&lt;/a&gt;. 
      Includes an interview with Sidney Lamb. &lt;br /&gt;
      31. Sydney M. Lamb. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ruf.rice.edu/%7Elamb/sketch.htm&quot;&gt;http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~lamb/sketch.htm&lt;/a&gt;. 
      Biography, bibliography and a few links. &lt;br /&gt;
      32. &quot;Metaphors We Live By&quot; by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson. Janice E. 
      Patten. 2003. &lt;a href=&quot;http://theliterarylink.com/metaphors.html&quot;&gt;http://theliterarylink.com/metaphors.html&lt;/a&gt;. 
      Review/summary of first four chapters of the book.&lt;br /&gt;
      33. Metaphors of Terror. George Lakoff. Sep. 2001. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.press.uchicago.edu/News/911lakoff.html&quot;&gt;http://www.press.uchicago.edu/News/911lakoff.html&lt;/a&gt;. 
      President Bush and the framing of US response to September 11th attack. 
      &lt;br /&gt;
      34. Cognitive Linguistics and the Marxist approach to ideology. Peter E 
      Jones. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tulane.edu/%7Ehoward/LangIdeo/Jones/JonesAbs.html&quot;&gt;http://www.tulane.edu/~howard/LangIdeo/Jones/JonesAbs.html&lt;/a&gt;. 
      Cognitive linguistics and a Marxist critique of ideologies.&lt;br /&gt;
      35. Does Cognitive Linguistics live up to its name? Bert Peeters. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tulane.edu/%7Ehoward/LangIdeo/Peeters/Peeters.html&quot;&gt;http://www.tulane.edu/~howard/LangIdeo/&lt;br /&gt;
      Peeters/Peeters.html&lt;/a&gt;. Review of current work in cognitive linguistics. 
      &lt;br /&gt;
      36. Metaphor, Metonymy, and Experientialist Philosophy: Challenging Cognitive 
      Semantics. Verena Haser. &lt;br /&gt;
      &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.anglistik.uni-freiburg.de/institut/lskortmann/abstract_haser.htm&quot;&gt;http://www.anglistik.uni-freiburg.de/institut/&lt;br /&gt;
      lskortmann/abstract_haser.htm&lt;/a&gt;. Synopsis of thesis critically examining 
      Lakoff and Johnson&#39;s ideas. &lt;br /&gt;
      37. Center for the Cognitive Science of Metaphor Online. Tim Rohrer. May 
      2002. &lt;a href=&quot;http://zakros.ucsd.edu/%7Etrohrer/metaphor/metaphor.htm&quot;&gt;http://zakros.ucsd.edu/~trohrer/metaphor/metaphor.htm&lt;/a&gt;. 
      Detailed articles and links.&lt;br /&gt;
      38. George Lakoff: The Theory of Cognitive Models. Francis F. Steen. Apr. 
      1997. &lt;a href=&quot;http://cogweb.ucla.edu/CogSci/Lakoff.html&quot;&gt;http://cogweb.ucla.edu/CogSci/Lakoff.html&lt;/a&gt;. 
      Critical review of Lakoff&#39;s work.&lt;br /&gt;
      39. Semantics Web Resources. Kai von Fintel. &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.mit.edu/fintel/resources.html&quot;&gt;http://web.mit.edu/fintel/resources.html&lt;/a&gt;. 
      Technical nature of current research. &lt;br /&gt;
      40. Sounds of English. Sharon Widmayer and Holly Gray. Jul. 2002. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.soundsofenglish.org/&quot;&gt;http://www.soundsofenglish.org/.&lt;/a&gt; 
      Useful handouts, illustrations and links for linguistics in action. &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&amp;nbsp; &lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
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