Awin Language

Call for Reviewers

noreply@blogger.com (awin wijaya) — Sat, 09 Feb 2019 06:59:00 +0000

We invite those who want to be reviewers in our journal, Journey (Journal of English Language and Pedagogy). Journey is a journal developed by English Department of IKIP Budi Utomo Malang Indonesia focusing on receiving the creative and intellectual products of lecturers, researchers, and practitioners on the field of English Language Teaching, Linguistics, and Literature. It is expected that this journal will be able to facilitate everyone concerning on publishing their research on the development of Those fields. This journal is published every February and September. You can join with us by registering in the following link: Journey Journal

Phonological Processes

noreply@blogger.com (awin wijaya) — Sat, 30 Dec 2017 12:27:00 +0000

Phonological processes simply defines as The "defectiveness" of language sounds patterns due to the influence of some factors. Although the phonological systems of different languages are governed by different rules, the variation which occurs does, for the most part, fall within certain parameters. Similar phonological processes turn up, in language after language.

a. Assimilation
This term refers to the process of sound change where one sound is influenced or modified by other sounds. Based on its direction, it is classified into regressive and progressive. The first happens when the following sound in a word influences the preceding sound, while the second, when the preceding sound influences the following sound since the preceding sound is too dominant. (see the examples).
There are some assimilation processes occur caused by different influence, those are:

- Labialisation
This assimilation process happens when sound is pronounced with some degree of secondary lip rounding. Take a close attention to this group of words:

Pool

Two

Shoe

Luke

Those words are said with some degree of secondary lip rounding. Anticipating the next segment, which is a rounded vowel, the speaker starts rounding the lips before the articulation of the consonant is completed, this process is called labialisation. It can be indicated in a phonetic transcription by using the raised w after a consonant [Cw].

- Palatalization
If labialisation refers to assimilation process dealing with the position of lips, palatalization deals with tongue position. It occurs when velar consonants or alveolar consonants are made partly in the palatal region due to some slight anticipatory fronting of the part of the tongue that makes contact with the roof of the mouth. Consider these phrases below:

- Voice Assimilation
It refers to the process of voiceless consonant changing into voiced consonant, many cases occur in suffixes. Given the fact that speech is a continuum, the process of putting the vocal cords close together to produce voicing or keeping them wide apart to produce voicelessness is not always perfectly synchronized with other articulatory gestures. This may mean voicing spilling over into an adjacent segment. This frequently happens where a voiceless consonant occurs between two (voiced) vowels (Katamba, 1996: 88-89).

Note:

(i) [-z] occurring with the words in column A

(ii) [-s] occurring with the words in column B

(iii) [-iz] occurring with the words in column C

- Nasalization
It is a process whereby an oral segment acquires nasality from a neighboring segment.

Taken from Kikuyu (Kenya), some vowels are nasalized when they occur in the neighborhood of nasal consonants. Raised dash above vowel is the indication of nasalized vowel.

b. Dissimilation
This term refers to phonological processes which ensure that differences between sounds are enhanced so that sounds become more auditorily distinct make speech perception easier.
al, the base form of one of adjective marker suffix has two variations in manifestation (allomorph) al and ar. al usually occurs when its root contains r consonant in it, for instance: electric => electrical, region=> regional. on the other hand, ar usually occurs when its root contains l consonant in it, just like: single => singular, circle => circular.

Besides, dissimilation process also occurs in these below words:
government => govement
Particular => paticular
Surprise => Supprise
etc.

d. Lenition

e. Syncope

f. Appocope

Wonderful Indonesia

noreply@blogger.com (awin wijaya) — Tue, 01 Aug 2017 05:08:00 +0000

Kinds of Code Switching

noreply@blogger.com (awin wijaya) — Sun, 11 Jun 2017 07:01:00 +0000

Crystal (1987) suggests that code switching occurs when individual who is bilingualism alternates between two languages during his/her speech with another bilingual person.

There are kinds of code switching as suggested by some sociolinguists:

Blom and Gumperz (1972):

Situational Code Switching

It occurs when the language change according to the situational in which the conversations find themselves; It can be found in the use of speech level in languages which have speeches levels. Each of the levels has its social function and is used in certain interlocutors. For instance, a young speaker will use the upper (very formal) level of the language to and older listener in kind of situation; and he will use the lower (intimate) level to communicate of the person with same age.

Metaphorical Code Switching

It has an affective dimension to it: the choice of code carries symbolic meaning, that is, the language fits the message. This is illustrated in a quote attributed to Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, which indicates attitudes about certain languages being holy, the language of love or male solidarity, or crude or bestial: ‘I speak Spanish to God, Italian to women, French to men, and German to my horse.’

Hoffman (1991):

Tag switching (Emblematic)

With tag switching, it is the insertion of a tag phrase from one language into an utterance from another language which constitutes a switch, and given the tags are monolingual utterance without syntactic rules, for example: An adult Spanish-American English speaker: “„. . . Oh! Ay! It was embarrassing! It was very nice, though, but I was embarrassed"

Inter-sentential switching (between sentences)

It occurs outside the sentence or the clause level, and often takes place according to turns taken by speakers in a conversation, example an adult Spanish-English bilingual says: “Tenia zapatos blancos, un poco, they were off-white, you know”

Intra-sentential switching

It concerns language alternation that occurs within a sentence or a clause boundary. Sometimes it includes mixing within word boundaries. The switch that occurs within a sentence. It is often occurred when someone uses one language and suddenly switches into another language in a sentence, for example: a French-English bilingual says: “Va chercer Marc (go and fetch March) and bribe him avec un chocolat chaud (with a hot chocolate) with cream on top”

Negative Politeness Strategies (Brown and Levinson)

noreply@blogger.com (awin wijaya) — Thu, 18 Aug 2016 14:29:00 +0000

Another kind of politeness strategies is negative politeness. This strategy used when S wants to show that he cares and respect H’s Negative Face. If S did or will do an FTA, he will minimize the threat by using apology, deference, hedges and other strategies. Negative Politeness strategies consist in assurances that the speaker recognizes and respects the addressee’s negative-Face wants and will not (or will only minimally) interfere with the addressee Freedom of Action.

This strategy assumes that there might be some social distance or awkwardness between speaker and hearer and it is likely to be used whenever a speaker wants to put a social brake on his interaction (Brown and Levinson, 1987: 129).

Moreover, they (p. 129) introduce some strategies that included in negative politeness, they are:

1. Be direct
In the formal situation, sometimes the directness is needed to minimize the imposition by saying the point and avoiding the further imposition of prolixity and ambiguity as mentioned by Lakoff (in Goody, 1996). Fortunately, this strategy is rarely used in negative politeness because it is more relevant to be used in bald on-record strategy. For example, “Help me to pick up these boxes!”
In this strategy, S chooses to come rapidly to the point directly when she or he wants something. She does not care about maintaining face of the H but still respects and assure not to disturb the freedom of action of H.

2. Don’t assume about H’s wants
This type tries to avoid assuming that anything in FTA is desired or believed by H. it is stressed by hedging such assumptions in the form of word and phrase that modify the degree of predicate membership. For example, “A swing is sort of a toy’, or “You are quite right”.

3. Don’t coerce H
a. By avoiding coercing H’s response means that S gives H the option not to do a certain act.

b. By avoiding coercion of H means that S minimizes the threat by clarifying S view of the P, D and R values.

c. Communicate S want not to impinge on H Indicate that S is aware and he takes account in his decision to communicate the FTA is one of the ways to satisfy H’s negative face.

4. Redress others’ wants of H

This is the higher strategy of negative politeness that consists of offering partial compensation for the face threat in FTA. It shows that negative politeness attends to other wants can be derived (H’s desire for territorial integrity and self determination).

Concept of Face and FTA (Face Threatening Acts)

noreply@blogger.com (awin wijaya) — Thu, 18 Aug 2016 14:15:00 +0000

Face
Based on Brown and Levinson (1987: 61) “Face is derived from the notion of Goffman and English people which is related to the idea of being embarrassed or humiliated, or ‘loosing Face’.” Since Face is something that is emotionally invested, can be lost, maintained, or enhanced, a person has to pay attention to his interlocutor’s Face. In other words, the speaker and the hearer must cooperate in maintaining each other’s Face in interaction. The action of maintaining each other’s Face called ‘Face work’.
Moreover, Goffman in Renkema (1993: 13) introduces the concept of face as an image which is projected by a person in his social contacts with others. Face has the meaning as in the saying to loose fact. Based on the opinion of Goffman, every participant in the social process has the need to be appreciated by others and the need to be free and not to be disturbed. He calls the need to be appreciated as a ‘positive face’ and the need to be free or not to be disturbed is called as ‘negative face’.
While negative face is defined as the desire of every member that he has Freedom of Action as well as freedom of imposition (the desire to not to be disturbed). For example is a father who is in the middle of giving advice to his children expects that his children do not tend to interrupt his speech (freedom of imposition).

Face Threatening Acts (FTA)
Politeness strategies are developed for the main purpose of dealing with the FTA’s. We understand the notion of ‘face’ previously from the dramaturgical theories of Erving Goffman that individuals as social actors perform (present a public self) on the stage of everyday life. The acts that threaten either the negative or positive face of the hearer are called ‘Face Threatening Acts’ (FTA) (Brown and Levinson, 1987: 65). There are acts that threaten the H’s Negative Face such as order, request, suggestion, advice, reminding, threat, warning, offer, promise, compliment and expression of negative emotion. Here, the speaker does not intend to avoid impeding H’s Freedom of Action. For example, when you ask someone to lend you some money, you are considered threaten that person’s Negative Face. It happens since you have violated his want to be free from being imposed.
In contrast, there are acts that threaten the H’s Positive Face such as expression of dissatisfaction, criticisms, complaints, accusation, and insult, disagreement, out of control emotion, irreverence, and bringing bad news about H or boasting about S, raising divisive topics, and blatant non-cooperation in an activity. All these acts indicate that the speaker does not care about the addressee’s feeling or wants. For example, disagreeing with someone’s opinion also causes a threat to his Positive Face, as it means that you indicate that he is wrong about something.

LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE AND SHIFT OF FLORES PEOPLES AS A MINORITY ETHNIC IN MALANG

noreply@blogger.com (awin wijaya) — Wed, 02 Sep 2015 15:17:00 +0000

The paper focuses on the processes of language maintenance and shift among the Flores community, which become minority, in Malang. Malang as the city of education has become a city of multi-culture and thus multi-language. This situation affects greatly not only in the way of world seeing but also the use of language of the peoples living there. The multilingual interactions with non-Flores peoples in many social cultural occasions and situations trigger shift in the language choice and even change. However, in fact, still, they tend to hold tightly their sense of regional primordialism as their identity. Therefore, this paper is aimed at finding out the patterns of language shift and maintenance of Flores peoples as a minority ethnic in Malang and what social cultural factors affect them. Descriptive qualitative design is used in this research with utterances of members of Flores community in Malang as its data source. The data collection is done by using several techniques: observation, recording, field note, and interview. The data obtained is analyzed based on Miles and Huberman analysis model. The result shows that there are three patterns of language shift occurred: (1) from their interaction with other East Nusa Tenggara (NTT) languages like Weejewa and Kambera, resulted the shift of accent; (2) with Bahasa Indonesia resulted the convergences of code choice: code switching and code mixing and diglossia; and (3) with Javanese resulted the shift in terms of politeness strategies used. Furthermore, the social cultural factors influencing them are: situations and conditions, ethnical background, educational degree, kinship system, and topics of discussion.

Key words: Flores ethnic, language shift, language maintenance

Transformation Rules

noreply@blogger.com (awin wijaya) — Mon, 24 Mar 2014 16:10:00 +0000

Akmajian and Henry (1975: 236-237) state that “Transformation means preserving of two surface structures derive from exactly the same underlying structure and if their derivations differ only in that an optional transformation has applied in one but not the other, than they must have the same meaning”.

Elgin (1973:294), in her study believes that linguist is constructing grammar to identify the meaning of surface structure from the deep structure. Every human being who is native speaker of a language is walking around with just such a grammar in his head. There are no linguists have yet succeeded in achieving the same perfection and completeness but that is the goal toward their work. (Elgin, 1973: 54) states that “When a deep structure undergoes a rule (or rules) and the end result is a sequence that can be spoken, the rule has transformed the sequence causes no transformational rule can ever be allowed to change meaning”

Jacobs and Rosenbaum (1968: 19), in their study say that a transformation is a particular Processes of alteration by which one sentence structure is converted into another sentence structure without any change in the meaning. The changing of deep structure to surface structure is via transformation

(Jacobs and Rosenbaum 1968:18) states, “The operation is called elementary transformation. The elementary consists of adjunction, substitution, and deletion”

Adjunction
Adjunction is a process by which one constituent is attached to another to form a larger constituent of the same type. For example; we could say that in a sentence like “He shouldn’t go”, the particle “not” can be adjoined to the auxiliary should to form the negative auxiliary “shouldn’t”.

Substitution
Substitution is technique used to determine an expression which can be substituted using another expression in phrases or sentences like that in which it occurs by another expression. For example, “John speaks clearer than you”…………”John speaks more clearly”.

Deletion
There are five kinds of deletion, those are:

a. Noun Phrase Deletion
In the noun phrase deletion, the noun in the sentence gets the Processes of deletion, for example:
Igor can play the violin, and that cat can play the violin too………Igor can play the violin, and that cat can too “Igor can play the violin, and that cat can play the violin too “becomes “Igor can play the violin, and that cat can too”. It is obvious that the violin is deleted since “the violin” has become as the object of “can”.

b. Verb Phrase Deletion
In the verb phrase deletion, the constituent that experiences a deletion is a verb phrase. The verb phrase deletion is also called an identical verb phrase deletion, for example:
“the papers refused to report the trial because they were afraid to report the trial”……….”the papers refused to report the trial because they were afraid to”.

c. Linking Verb Deletion
In the linking verb deletion, the constituent that experiences a deletion is a verbal “be”. Linking verb occurs together with the noun phrase deletion. Linking verb deletion can be considered as tobe Deletion. “Be” deletion transformation happens in the present tense sentence. For example:
“wearing makeUp”…………”
three Woman are Wearing MakeUp”

d. Imperative deletion
It is called imperative deletion because it deletes the NP, for example:
You jump (Deep Structure)…………Jump (surface structure)
In order to get from this deep structure to the surface structure “Jump”, what is needed is not an additional phrase structure rule, but rather a transformational rule. This transformation will delete the NP “You” which has been generated by the phrase structure grammar. It is illustrated in the following tree diagram:

e. Deletion under identity
For example, Ellsberg was arrested by FBI and Fonda was too. These sentences seem to consist of a complete sentence, followed by the conjunction and, followed by what we can call elliptical sentence. Taken out context, these are meaningless and could not standalone. Yet, when conjoined will dull sentence used in ordinary speech. The meaning of each of the elliptical sentences is dependent on the meaning of the sentence that precedes it. Thus, Fonda was too is taken to mean that Fonda was arrested by FBI too. We should note that sentences such as those present our theory with several nontrivial problems. We have no way of generating elliptical sentences such as those just stated. Our phrase structure rule for sentences, for example: NPAuxVP, always generates structures that are “complete” and there is no way we can generate a “partial” structure such as Fonda was. Second, we have seen that the elliptical sentences are followed by
word “and”. Thus, we may choose to generate elliptical clauses, we must ensure that our theory reflects the facts that they are dependent on the preceding sentence, at least for their meaning.

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How to Draw Tree Diagram

noreply@blogger.com (awin wijaya) — Thu, 06 Mar 2014 18:08:00 +0000

A tree diagram shows the hierarchical structure of the sentence. The sentence is considered the basic of the syntactic system. Instead of beginning with actual sentences, however we begin with the directions for generating or producing structural descriptions of sentences, which are set forth in phrase structure rules. The rules should be interpreted as an instruction to rewrite or expand the symbol on the left of the arrows as the sequence on the right. In S NP + VP, “S” stands for sentence, “NP” (Noun Phrase) and “VP” (Verb Phrase). The item on the left dominates the elements on the right. Bornstein starts with S, the highest level and works down to lower level until it comes to maximally specific level where in addition symbol can be written. This process is called derivational in the sentence.

Tree diagram provides a precise means of defining syntactic relation. NP is immediately dominated by an S in the subject of that sentence. An NP is immediately dominated by a VP is the object or complement of the sentence containing the verb phrase. Tree diagram also shows which words are constituents of a sentence (Bornstein, 1997: 44). From the diagram below we can see that Aux, Vt and NP belong to the VP.

Points of juncture in tree diagram are called nodes. If one node is immediately dominated by another, it is called a daughter node. If one node is immediately dominated by the same nodes, they are called sister nodes. In the following diagram, the nodes NP and VP are daughter of S and sister nodes of each other. NP is the left sister whereas VP is the right sister.

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What Is Transformational Grammar?

noreply@blogger.com (awin wijaya) — Thu, 06 Mar 2014 17:53:00 +0000

According to Webster’s New World College Dictionary (1996: 1420), transformational grammar generates the deep structures of a language and converts this to the surface structures by means of transformation. Goodman (1970: 299) stated that all kinds of English sentences can be analyzed by using structure rule. He said that a sentence consists of phrase structure, noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (Adj. P), prepositional phrase (PP), auxiliary (Aux), and others.

Bornstein (1977: 39-99) says that “Transformations bring about various kinds of changes; they can rearrange elements in a string of symbols, add elements that were not there before, delete elements, and substitute one element for another.” He also said that in Transformational Grammar (TG) phrase structure is illustrated by means of tree diagrams called phrasemakers, which show the hierarchical structure of sentence. Bornstein symbolizes some of the common symbols used in Phrase Structure Rule as follows:

In Transformational Grammar, Phrase Structure Rules are illustrated by means of tree diagram called “phrase makers” that show the hierarchical structure of the sentence. We begin S, the highest level, and work down to the lower levels until we come to maximally specific of terminal level where no additional symbols can be written. This process is called a derivation of sentence. This steps of derivation of a sentence is:

The heart of theory is in the transformational rules that account for the relationship among different types of patterns. Transformation refers to the objective of process. “Bill painted the house” and “the house was painted by Bill” are different in surface structure but the meaning and the relationships that hold between the parts of these two sentences has same transformational grammar.

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Different Language or Dialect?

noreply@blogger.com (awin wijaya) — Thu, 27 Feb 2014 11:49:00 +0000

Key words:

Isogloss, Mutual intelligibility, Dialect continuum, Dialect boundary

Sometimes in a big city like New York, in which so many people come from different countries and regions reside and visit, not so difficult to identify whether the interaction done by the people use the same language or not, since it is already clear enough that the indigenous society of that city is extremely difficult to find nowadays. In other words, most of the people who reside in that city are immigrants. There are more or less 140 languages spoken in New York City; however, at least only four communities which become the biggest of all, those are: Arabic spoken community, Chinese, French Creole, and Spanish. Those four communities speak their language among the members of their society and English for different members of community. English becomes a lingua franca, language that is widely used as a means of communication among speakers of different languages, since those four share mutual intelligibility through it.

Moreover, the term mutual intelligibility refers to a situation in which speakers of two different languages can understand each other in their communication. It becomes an indicator whether they share a same language or not. When your hearer can understand thing that you've said and vice versa means that you and your hearer has mutual intelligibility, although you may find certain differences in terms of dictions, pronunciations, or even the structures, in his language, as long as you can still understand the language he uses and vice versa, you speak a same language. Furthermore, those differences in the study of sociolinguistics refers to what so called dialect. Therefore, you share a same language but different dialect.

Just say in one island has nine communities: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, and I. Can you guess when the member of A communicate with B, do you think that they will understand each other or not? Of course it is very possible that they can, although they may find few differences but many similarities in the language they use; but that as they move farther away the similarities become fewer and fewer. So, A is very similar to B, less similar to C, even less similar to D, and by the time they get to G, H or I, can you guess what happen when they meet? Do you think that they still have mutual intelligibility? the possibility of this is so tiny. This is the illustration of what so called dialect continuum. According to Bloomfield it refers to a range of dialects spoken across some geographical area that differ only slightly between neighboring areas, but as one travels in any direction, these differences accumulate such that speakers from opposite ends of the continuum are no longer mutually intelligible.

The different items that shape a dialect is called isogloss. As you know that British has football while American has soccer, this one difference represents one isogloss. The compilation of isoglosses found within two different communities will shape a line abstractly which separates those two regions, this abstract line is called dialect boundary.

However, not all theories are applicable, according to this theory the key to differentiate language or dialect is mutual intelligibility. Have you ever go to China? There are so many regions/ provinces China has. If you ask the China authorities how many languages the Chinese speak in their daily activities, surely you will get answer, only one namely Chinese language, with many different dialects. However, when you closely observe when two people from different provinces meet and speak their own dialect, you will find that between them there is no mutual intelligibility, or in other words, they speak different language. To unify those provinces, the Chinese government claims that they only speak different dialect but still in the same language.

Or Indonesia and Malaysia for instance, those two countries claim that they have their own language, Indonesia has Bahasa Indonesia and Malaysia has Malay language; however, if you pay attention carefully, there are so many similarities among those two languages, and in fact they share mutual intelligibility. In other words, they are a same language, but due to political consideration Indonesian and Malaysia claim that those are two different languages.

Types of Poetic Forms

noreply@blogger.com (awin wijaya) — Wed, 19 Feb 2014 15:21:00 +0000

Formula Poems

A formula poem is a poem in which every line is begun in the same way or a particular kind of word in every line is inserted; a poem that employs repetition, i.e. a stylistic device that is more effective for young poets than rhyme. Formula poems may include:

(1) “I Wish …. “ poems
(2) Color poems
(3) Five-senses poems
(4) “If I Were … poems
(5) “I Used to …, But Now…” poems
(6) “….. Is” poems
(7) Preposition poems

Example (Five-Senses Poem)
Being Heartbroken
Sounds like thunder and lightning
Looks like a carrot going through a blender
Tastes like sour milk
Feels like a splinter in your finger
Smells like a dead fish
It must be horrible

Free-Form Poems

Free-form poems are poems in which words are chosen to describe something and put together to express a thought or tell a story, without concern for rhyme or other arrangements. The number of words per line and the use of punctuation vary. Free-form poems may include:

(1) Concrete poems (words, phrases, sentences written in the shape of an object)
(2) Found poems (culling words from other sources: songs, articles, stories)

Example (Found Poem)

Fast Moving
Moving down the track,
faster than fast, is Richard Petty
seven-time winner of
the crowned jewel
Daytona 500.
At 210 mph– dangerous-
pushing his engine to the limit.
Other NASCARs running fast
but Richard Petty takes the lead
at last.
Running across the line
with good time.

Syllable- and Word-Count Poems

Syllable- and word-count poems are poems that provide a certain structure consisting certain syllables or words. Syllable- and word-count poems may include:

(1) Haiku (17 syllables arranged in three lines, 5, 7, and 5 => nature)
(2) Tanka (31 syllables arranged in five lines, 5-7-5-7-7 => nature)
(3) Cinquain (22 syllables arranged in five lines, 2-4-6-8-2 => something, story)
(4) Diamante (seven-line contrast poem written in a shape of a diamond)

Example (Diamante)

BABY
wrinkled tiny
crying wetting sleeping
rattles diapers money house
caring working loving
smart helpful
ADULT

Rhymed Verse Forms

Rhymed Verse Forms are forms of poems that utilize both rhyme and rhythm as their poetic devices. These include:

(1) Limerick (5 lines, 1st, 2nd, 5th lines rhyme; 3rd, 4th rhyme  rhyme scheme: a-a-b-b-a; last line contains a funny, surprising ending)
(2) Clerihews (4 lines describing historical figures, characters of stories; rhyme scheme: a-b-a-b)

Example (Limerick)

There once was a frog named Pete
Who did nothing but sit and eat
He examined each fly
With so careful an eye
And then said, “You’re dead meat.”

Model Poems

Model poems are poems that are modeled on poems composed by
adult/renown poets. Model poems include:

(1) Apologies (Model of William Carlos Williams’s “This is Just to Say”)
(2) Invitations (Model of Shakespeare’s “Come Unto These Yellow Sands”)
(3) Prayers from the Ark (Model of Carmen Bernos de Gasztold’s “Prayers
from the Ark”)
(4) If I were in Charge of the World (Judith Viorst’s “If I Were in Charge of the
World”)

Example (Invitation)

The Golden Shore
Come unto the golden shore
Where days are filled with laughter,
And nights filled with whispering winds.
Where sunflowers and sun
Are filled with love.
Come take my hand
As we walk into the sun.

For more poetic forms: http://www.poetryfoundation.org/learning/glossary-terms?category=forms-and-types

Poetry: Under the Same Sun Analysis

noreply@blogger.com (awin wijaya) — Fri, 14 Feb 2014 02:38:00 +0000

UNDER THE SAME SUN

By: Scorpions

I saw the morning

It was shattered by a gun

Heard a scream, saw him fall, no one cried

I saw a mother

She was praying for her son

Bring him back, let him live, don’t let him die

Do you ever ask yourself

Is there a heaven in the sky

Why cant we get it right

cause we all live under the same sun

We all walk under the same moon

Then why, why cant we live as one

I saw the evening

Fading shadows one by one

We watch the lamb, lay down to the sacrifice

I saw the children

The children of the sun

How they wept, how they bled, how they died

Do you ever ask yourself

Is there a heaven in the sky

Why can’t we stop the fight

cause we all live under the same sun

We all walk under the same moon

Then why, why can’t we live as one

Sometimes I think I’m going mad

Were loosing all we had and no one seems to care

But in my heart it doesn’t change

We’ve got to rearrange and bring our world some love

And does it really matter

If there’s a heaven up above

We sure could use some love

cause we all live under the same sun

We all walk under the same moon

Then why, why can’t we live as one

cause we all live under the same sky

We all look up at the same stars

then why, tell me why can’t we live as one

Background and setting of the song
In 1993 Scorpions released Face the Heat. The album was a hit, propelled in large part by the massive success of the ballad "under the same sun". The song muses on the socio-political changes that were occurring in Eastern Europe and in other parts of the world at the end of the Cold War.

Theme of the song
The song is talking about war, why can’t we stop the war? Why can’t we live in peace and harmony?
The first stanza describes the situation of war which ruins the morning peace, the victims of the war, and parent who loss their son because he is forced to go to a battle. Moreover, the reference shows a kind of protest against the situation, why must there be a war if we basically have a same destiny and fate; we all live under the same sun and we all walk under the same moon.

Symbols
There are some symbols can be found in the song, the first, the word “the morning” in the first stanza in line one. Based on the following sentence it can be meant youths whose future is ruined by the war, they are forced to fight in combat. Moreover, it is also can be meant the beginning of day which is full of hope, also in the morning, the sun rises, the animals start to sing, all the activities of creatures on the surface of earth begins.

The second symbols can be found in the fourth stanza in line one, the word “evening” supported by the following sentence means the old generation whose hope was fading because it was taken cruelly by the war.

The third symbol is the word “lamb” in the fourth stanza line three. It can be interpreted that lamb refers to innocent people or children who were sacrificed vainly during the war.

The fourth symbol is the phrase “children of the sun” in the fourth stanza line four refers to the young generation who carries the future of a nation, even the world. However, they had been the victim of the war. “How they wept, how they bled, how they died”, from this statement we can infer that the war not only adverse the nation who fight against each other but also ruin the future of the world by murdering children who will make a change in the future.

Poetic Devices
a. Stanza of the song
The first, fourth, and last stanza are categorized into sestet since it has six lines in one stanza; while the second, third, fifth, and sixth are included into triplet; and septet in the seventh stanza.

b. Repetition
The repetition of word can be found in first and forth stanza in line one and three, “I saw…” , the second case of repetition is sentence repetition which can be found in the second and fifth stanza in line one “Do you ever ask yourself Is there a heaven in the sky” and the last is the reference of the song in the third and sixth stanza “cause we all live under the same sun We all walk under the same moon Then why, why cant we live as one”

c. figures of speech
• Most of the content of the song in the form of irony like we can see in:
Cause we all live under the same sun
We all walk under the same moon
Then why, why can’t we live as one
cause we all live under the same sky
We all look up at the same stars
then why, tell me why can’t we live as one

Poetry: Imagery

noreply@blogger.com (awin wijaya) — Fri, 14 Feb 2014 02:27:00 +0000

Imagery is something happening in the poetry that can create imagination related our five senses. In the application the writer, to arise those imagination, uses figure of speeches, or also sometimes uses direct expressions which can trigger the reader's mind to imagine such kinds of situation that the writer intends to say. Below are the example of imagery analysis.

THE NEGRO SPEAKS OF RIVERS

I’ve known rivers:

I’ve known rivers ancient as the world

And older than of the flow of human blood in human veins

My soul has grown deep like the rivers

I bathed in Euphrates when dawns were young

I built my hut near the Congo and it lulled to sleep

I looked upon the Nile and raised the pyramids above it

I heard the singing of Mississippi when Abe Lincoln

went down to New Orleans

and I’ve seen its muddy bosom turn all golden in the sunset

I’ve known rivers

Ancient dusky rivers

My soul has grown deep like the rivers

Analysis:
This poem is like weaving –design in which the poet has woven together some threads of history of some threads from the geography of the world. In the design, the rivers weave in and out with all the people who live and work on the shores. The people, in time, all pass into ancient history, but the great rivers continue to flow along. And the soul of Negro people continue to grow-deeper and deeper, like the rivers they are so closely connected within their history.

Imageries
1. “I’ve known rivers ancient as the world and older than of the flow of human blood in human veins” In this first stanza, in line 2 and 3 represent hyperbole.
The sentence is exaggerated.
2. “My soul has grown deep like the rivers” In line 4 shows simile.
There is a word like in that sentence by comparing between the negro’s soul and the river.
3. “I heard the singing of Mississippi” In the second stanza, line 4 indicates personification.
Since thing, Mississippi (river), can sing like human.

DIRGE FOR A SOLDIER

Close his eyes; his work is done! (imagery of feeling)

What to him is friend or foeman

Rise of moon, or set of sun, (imagery of seeing)

Hand of man, or kiss of woman? (imagery of touching)

Lay him low, lay him low,

In the clover or the snow!

What cares he? He cannot know:

Lay him low!

As man may, he fought his fight,

Proved his truth by his endeavor;

Let him sleep in solemn night,

Sleep forever and forever

Lay him low, lay him low,

In the clover or the snow!

What cares he? He cannot know:

Lay him low!

Fold him in his country’s stars,

Roll the drum and fire the volley! (imagery of hearing and seeing)

What to him are all our wars,

What but death be mocking folly

Lay him low, lay him low,

In the clover or the snow!

What cares he? He cannot know:

Lay him low!

Leave him to God’s watching eye, (imagery of feeling)

Trust him to the hand that made him,

Mortal love woops idly by:

God alone has power to aid him

Lay him low, lay him low,

In the clover or the snow!

What cares he? He cannot know:

Lay him low!

_ George Henry Boker

Sociolinguistics: Language Variation

noreply@blogger.com (awin wijaya) — Fri, 27 Dec 2013 16:17:00 +0000

Two people who share mutual intelligibility of a language may have different style in using the language. It can be from the way how he speaks, the diction he chooses, or even the grammatical rules he uses. These cases become one of the concern areas of sociolinguistic study, namely language variation.

Talking about the language variation, it is divided into two kinds, internal and external. The first is simply defined as the variation of a language within the language itself, which means that, it refers to the variation in each level of constructions of language: phones, morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, sentences, paragraph, and finally meanings. Some English speakers will pronounce the word "today" as /tedaI/ and some pronounce it /tedeI/, this different shows the variation of language in the level of phone, phonological variation. Some also may say theirselves” for “themselves" to show a morphological variation in English. Or in many Southern dialects to find the word "done" used as an auxiliary, as in "she done already told you" or "I done finished a while ago.“ which become the cases of syntactic variation. Furthermore, semantic variation, variation in the level of meaning, has two kinds of cases in common, fist, same concept represented by two different terms, such as, football and soccer to refer to a kind of sport game played by two teams of eleven players using a round ball. Players kick the ball to each other and try to score goals by kicking the ball into a large net. Second, a term refers to two different concept, such as "Soda", British use it for seltzer water or club soda only, and American for any kinds of soft drink.

On the other hand, external variation refers to the variation of a language influenced by factors outside the language; it will lead us to the distinction between idiolect, dialect, sociolect, and chronolect.

Idiolect

All speakers of English can talk to each other and pretty much understand each other. Yet, no two of us speak exactly alike. Some differences are the result of age, sex, social situation, and where and when the language was learned. These differences are reflected in word choices, the pronunciation of words, and grammatical rules. The language of an individual speaker with its unique characteristics is referred to as the speaker’s idiolect. English may then be said to consist of anywhere from 450 million to 850 million idiolects, or the number of speakers of English (which seems to be growing every day and is difficult to estimate).

Dialect

Like individuals, different groups of people who speak the same language speak it differently. Bostonians, New Yorkers, Texans, blacks in Chicago, whites in Denver, and Hispanics in Albuquerque all exhibit variation in the way they speak English. When there are systematic differences in the way groups speak a language, we say that each group speaks a dialect of that language. Dialects are mutually intelligible forms of a language that differ in systematic ways.

Suppose that there are two friends, Awin and Alice, who come from different regions, south and east of East Java Province, in which those two regions have the same language as their means of communication, reside in the same city located in the center of East Java Province, which also has the same language like the other two. However, when they communicate each other there are so many differences among them in using the language. Awin representing the east region people tends to use "rude" version of Javanese language which is strongly influenced by Surabaya style which is "very rude” and Alice tends to use "polite" version of Javanese since the people in her region is strongly influenced by Blitar style in their daily language. The different of geography shapes the variation of the language they use. This kind of variation which is influenced much by geographical factors is called dialect.

Sociolect

Among many languages in the world, Javanese is unique. it has three levels of politeness, Ngoko, Kromo Madya, and Kromo Inggil, each has its own vocabularies but similar in its rules and share mutual intelligibility. Moreover, in its society strata, the social of class is divided into three: priyayi, the term to call nobleman, santri is educated and religious people, and abangan is for both educated and uneducated but irreligious people. the highest strata uses kromo inggil and kromo madya in their daily communication but they also master ngoko, santri use kromo madya and ngoko and only few of them can speak kromo inggil; while abangan use ngoko as the dominant and kromo madya for only in certain occasions. When a Javanese talks to someone older or more honorable than him, he will use the highest level of politeness that he has mastered. He will use (1)'sare/ nendra' (kromo inggil) for sleep instead of (2)'tilem' (kromo madya) or (3)'turu'' (ngoko) when he speaks to his parent or boss, use the second to someone older than him, and third to someone of the same age. This variation of language which is influenced by social class in a society is called sociolect.

Chronolect

This term refers to variation of language due to the factor of time. by using diachronic method it can be discovered the variation of a language.

What is a theme?

noreply@blogger.com (awin wijaya) — Fri, 20 Sep 2013 17:37:00 +0000

THE first problem every student of literature faces is a feeling of blankness. I have read the text, now I am supposed to study it: how do I start? Teachers and critics sometimes make this stage more difficult by pretending that literature is a special subject which only experts can understand. Nothing could be more misleading. Great writers and poets write because they want to communicate with ordinary readers like you and me: they do not write for experts. They are not writing on a specialised subject, either. Literature is about the same things you and I are concerned with: life and living. Be confident, therefore. Every student finds the first step in studying literature difficult, but there is nothing mysterious or specialised about it. The difficulty you face at the beginning is simply one of choosing what to focus on out of the rich mass of details, characters, events and so on, which you have met in reading the text. You are faced with the intricate complexity of a literary work: as soon as you can decide what to study first, and where to start, you can make a start.

What will obviously help you is if you have a method which tells you how and where to start. The method I will be explaining in this book can be applied to any of the texts you have to study, whether they are novels, plays or poems. I shall be showing how you can think about the text, and go on to study important passages, so your understanding develops fruitfully and is supported by the detailed analysis you need when you come to write essays or examinations. The way to overcome the first difficulty is really quite straightforward: you can make a start by finding a theme.

A theme is simply this: a subject which interests the writer, and which is discussed in the text or portrayed in it in some way. Finding a ‘subject’ in a book may sound difficult, but when you know the kind of subject you are looking for you will see that it is quite easy. A theme is not a summary of the story: that is not what the text is ‘about’; nor is it a special subject you have to search for. Literature is about ordinary life, so the big themes in literature are the important subjects and experiences of our public and private lives: they are the ordinary and common words in our everyday thoughts and conversations, like love, death, marriage, freedom, hope, despair, power, war, revenge, evil, and so on. This list of the big common experiences of life could go on and on, because anything which is a subject in life can become a theme in literature. The first thing you can say about a text is that it is about one of these common subjects, so the first thing you say is startlingly simple. You might think it even too obvious, but it is a very important step forward because you have left the feeling of blankness behind: you simply say ‘There is a lot in it about love’, or ‘It is about hope and despair’. Then you have made a start.

There is one more point to make about themes. They are big ordinary subjects, but they are complex. The texts you study focus on the problems people face, their contradictory feelings, and the complex moral and social entanglements which confront people and make our experience of living so complex. So the big ideas in a text are not simple opinions: they are full of complexity like our experience of life itself.

Source: Nicholas Marsh. How to Begin Studying English Literature

Some Basic Terms in SLA (An Introduction)

noreply@blogger.com (awin wijaya) — Sun, 15 Sep 2013 15:33:00 +0000

Andy Lee, a fictional character, is a Korean-American who was born in the city of Los Angeles. His parents are both Korean who immigrated to the United States. One day, he joined a worldwide audition held by a Korean entertainment company, and was chosen to be one of those to be trained as a singer in Korea. During his training days, Andy learned from basic on how to communicate in Korean both spoken and written. Now, being known as a member of an idol group, he appears in TV stations and often makes people laugh as he slips his tongue between one Korean word and another Korean word.

The illustration about Andy gives us a chance to pops-up some questions about the languages he acquired. Does English become his first language since he was born in Los Angeles? Or, is it Korean language that becomes his first language since his parents are both Korean? If Korean language is not his first language, than does Korean language become Andy’s second or foreign language? Were Andy acquired or learned both the English and Korean Language? Let us find a glimpse of the answers for those questions by first comparing the terms first language acquisition and second language acquisition. Next, we compare the terms second language acquisition and foreign language acquisition. Last, we contrast the term acquire and learning.

First Language Acquisition vs. Second Language Acquisition
The native language that a child acquired is called first language (L1). It is also commonly called mother tongue. In contrast, Ellis (1986) describes second language (L2) as an additional language that a child learned after they have acquired their mother tongue. Gass (2000) uses another term to refer to second language as nonprimary. She also mentions that the broad term second language (L2) learning does not only refer to second language, but also to third or fourth language. According to Ellis (1986), there is a relation between L1 acquisition and L2 acquisition since the study of second language acquisition (SLA) began with the study of first language (L1) acquisition. SLA research has tended to follow the footsteps of L1 acquisition research, both in its methodology and in many of the issues that it has treated.

Second Language Acquisition vs. Foreign Language Acquisition
In regard to the current comparison, the term second language acquisition refers to learning a language in the environment where that language is spoken (such as Italian in Italy, English in the United States), whereas the term foreign language refers to learning a language in one’s “home” environment (such as English in Indonesia, Japanese in Australia). However, many linguists do not really differentiate the use of both terms. Ellis (1986) mentions that second language acquisition is not intended to contrast foreign language acquisition. SLA is used as a general term that embraces both untutored (or ‘naturalistic’) acquisition and tutored (or ‘classroom’) acquisition. Gass (2000) also argues that there is little evidence that the mental processes involved in learning a language beyond the native language differ as a function of whether the learning is in a second versus a foreign language environment. Yet, she also admits that there may be significance differences in terms of the context itself, and hence the materials available to learners.

Acquisition vs. Learning
Based on Krashen’s approach (in Gass, 2000), second language acquisition is contrasted with second language learning on the assumption that in learning an L2, learners develop two independent knowledge systems, one is referred to as acquisition and the other as learning. The term acquisition is used to refer to the unconscious picking up a second language through exposure, whereas the term learning is used to refer to the conscious study of a second language (i.e. knowing the rules, being aware of the rules, and being able to talk about the rules) (Ellis, 1986; Gass, 2000). However, many SLA researchers use the terms (acquisition and learning) interchangeably since many say that Krashen’s ideas on L2 learning are lacked of theoretical thoroughness.

Allegory

noreply@blogger.com (awin wijaya) — Mon, 05 Aug 2013 17:50:00 +0000

Allegory which comes from Greek, allos means other and agoreuein that means to speak in public, is figurative mode of representation conveying a meaning other than literal meaning. Allegory is one of ways that the writer may use to express what he or she actually wants to convey through his or her literary work. This kind of literary work that is written in the form of allegory, the writer usually wants to convey indirectly what he or she usually means, a writer camouflage what he or she actually wants to express that the literary work cannot be understood by reading its surface language but it must be deeper meaning below the surface. That is why allegory is often defined as a story or visual image with a second distinct meaning partially hidden behind its literal or visible meaning. An allegory is a work which has meaning behind the surface meaning”. In other word with the same point, allegory as a literary statement presenting its meaning in a veiled way; the literal meaning is a metaphor for the real meaning. It means that allegory, in short, is simply one thing consistently being presented in the guise of something else.

An allegory is a narrative in which the agents and action, and sometimes the setting as well, are contrived both to make coherent sense on “literal” or primary level of signification, and also to signify a second, correlated order of agents, concepts, and events. Allegory is also a narrative that serves as an extended metaphor. It may be written in the form of fables, parables, poems, stories, and almost any other style or genre. The main purpose of an allegory is to tell a story that has characters, a setting, as well as other types of symbols that have both literal and figurative meanings. But, allegory differs from symbolism. The difference between an allegory and a symbol is that an allegory is a complete narrative that conveys abstract ideas to get a point across, while a symbol is a representation of an idea or concept that is able to have a different meaning throughout a literary work. Furthermore, although both of them have the meaning behind the surface meaning, but in symbolism is exclusive and cannot be translated into other word. In allegory is otherwise that we can state confidently what the precise meaning is that lies behind the surface, because we are meant to see through the text to its underlying significance.

Allegory, in literature, is symbolic story that serves as a disguised representation for meanings other than those indicated on the surface. In addition, allegory in literature is the representation of a subject under the guise of another suggestively similar. In written narrative, allegory involves a continuous parallel between two or more levels of meaning in a story, so that its persons and events correspond to their equivalents in a system of ideas or a chain of events external to the tale. In the other word, the characters in an allegory often have no individual personality, but are embodiment of moral qualities and other abstractions. For example, Bunyan’s Pilgrims Progress (1678) is more than just an account of the hero’s adventure; because of his name, Christian, and because of the nature of his experience, it is recognized that the text as having a more general significance as an allegory of Christian’s journey through life. That is why allegory is generally treated as a figure of rhetoric, but an allegory does not have to be expressed in language. Medieval thinking accepted allegory as having a reality underlying any rhetorical or fictional uses. The allegory was as true as superficial facts of surface appearances.(*_*)

Positive Politeness Strategies (Brown and Levinson)

noreply@blogger.com (awin wijaya) — Wed, 26 Jun 2013 06:22:00 +0000

Positive politeness is redress directed to the addressee’s positive face, his perennial desire that his wants (or the actions/ acquisitions/ values resulting from them) should be thought of as desirable. Redress consists in partially satisfying that desire by communicating that one’s own wants (or some them) are in some respects similar to the addressee’s wants. There are 15 strategies of positive politeness proposed by Brown and Levinson, those are:

Strategy 1: Notice, attend to H (his interests, wants, needs, goods)
This output suggests that S should take notice of aspects of H’s condition (noticeable changes, remarkable possessions, anything which looks as though H would want S to notice and approve of it).
e.g. “You must be hungry,
it’s a long time since breakfast. How about some lunch?”

Another aspect of the notice output is that when H makes an FTA against himself (a breakdown of body control, or any faux pas), S should ‘notice’ it and indicate that he’s not embarrassed by it. (By contrast, in negative politeness S should always ignore H’s faux pas). He can do this by a joke, or teasing H about his penchant for faux pas: For example: “God you are farty tonight!”

Strategy 2: Exaggerate (interest, approval, sympathy with H)
This is often done with exaggerated intonation, stress, and other aspects of prosodic, as well as with intensifying modifiers.
e. g: “How wonderful!”

Strategy 3: Intensify interest to H
S wants to share his interest to H as a form of S’s contribution into the conversation. Therefore, S exaggerates facts as well as he makes good story to draw H as a participant into the conversation, and H also usually uses tag questions like ‘uhuh’, ‘what do you think?’, etc. Sometimes, this can involve switching back between past and present tenses.
e. g: “I never imagined that there were thousands beautiful girls in Jim’s party
last night!”

Strategy 4: Use in-group identity markers
By using any of the innumerable ways to convey in-group membership, S can implicitly claim the common ground with H that is carried by that definition of the group. These include in group usages of address forms, of language or dialect, of jargon or slang, and of ellipsis.

Address forms. Other address forms used to convey such in-group membership include generic names and terms of address like Mate, honey, dear, babe, mom, brother, sister, cutie, sweetheart, guys. Using such in group kinds of address forms with imperatives. For example: “Come here, honey” indicates that S considers the relative P (power, status difference) between himself and the addressee to be small thus softening the imperative by indicating that it isn’t a power-backed command.
Use of in-group language or dialect. Another type of code-switching phenomenon is the switch in English into a spurious dialect, or a dialect not normally used by S or H, to soften an FTA or turn it into a joke.
Use of jargon or slang. Use brand names in a request may stress that S and H share an (in-group) reliance on the required object.
Contraction and Ellipsis. S and H must share some knowledge about the context that makes the utterance understandable (for example that S and H are cooperating in building a house and S has the hammer in his hand).

Strategy 5: Seek Agreement

Safe topics. The raising of ‘safe topics’ allows S to stress his agreement with H and therefore to satisfy H’s desire to be ‘right’, or to be corroborated in his opinions.
Repetition. Agreement may also be stressed by repeating part or all of what the preceding S has said in the conversation and by using that function to indicate emphatic agreement (‘yes’, ‘Really’, etc) whenever someone is telling story.

e. g: “There was flood in my hometown.”
“Oh my God. Flood!”

Strategy 6: Avoid Disagreement

Token agreement. S may go in twisting their utterances so as to appear to agree or to hide disagreement-to respond to a preceding utterance with ‘yes, but…..'in effect, rather than a blatant ‘No’.

e. g. H: “How the girl looked like, beautiful?”
S: “Yes, I think she is quite, but not really beautiful, she is certainly not really ugly.”

Pseudo-agreement. Another example of apparent or pseudo-agreement is found in English in the use of then as a conclusory marker.

e.g. I’ll meet you in front of the theatre just before 8.0, then.

White lies. S may do white lie to hide disagreement. By doing this, S is saving H’s face.

e. g. In response to a request to borrow a car, “Oh I can’t, my father will use it
tonight.”

Hedging opinions. To soften FTA of suggesting, criticizing or complaining, hedges may also be used.

e. g.: “I know you are sort of a polite person”

Strategy 7: Presuppose/ raise/ assert common ground

Gossip or small talk. S is talking about unrelated topics to show that S is interested in H as the mark of friendship and does not come only to impose him.

e. g.: “You look so bright today. It must be because MU had defeated Chelsea, right? By the way, can you take me to the airport this afternoon?”

Point-of-view operations. S may claim common ground by using cooperation point of view. (S speaks as if H were S, or H’s knowledge were equal to S’s knowledge).

e. g. I had a really hard time learning to drive, didn’t I.

Presupposition manipulations. S presupposes something when he presumes that it is mutually taken for granted.

e.g.: “Wouldn’t you like a drink?”

Strategy 8: Jokes
Jokes can be used to stress the fact that there must be some mutual background knowledge and values that S and H share. That is why, the strategy of joking may be useful in diminishing the social distance between S and H.
e. g.: “OK if I tackle those cookies now?”
“How about lending me this old heap of junk?” (H’s new Cadillac)

Strategy 9: Assert or Presuppose S’s knowledge of and concerns for H’s wants.
It is the way to indicate that S and H are co-operators, and thus potentially to put pressure on H to cooperate with S. S wants to assert and imply knowledge of H’s wants and willingness to fit one’s own wants in with them.
e. g.: “I understand you can do it yourself, but this time, do what I suggested
you.”

Strategy 10: Offer or promises
S and H are good co-operators that they share some goals or S is willing to help to achieve those goals. Promise or offer demonstrates S’s good attention in satisfying H’s positive-face wants, even if they are false.
e. g.: “I’ll go there sometimes”

Strategy 11: Be optimistic
S assumes that H wants S’s wants for S (or for S and H) and will help to obtain them. This usually happens among people with close relationship.
e. g.: “You’ll tell your father that you did it, I hope”

Strategy 12: Include both S and H in the activity
Here, S manipulates the subject of an activity is done together. S uses an inclusive ‘we’ from when S actually means ‘you’ or ‘me’. Inclusive form ‘we’ is usually used in the construction ‘let’s’.
e. g.: “Bring us the book’ (i.e. me)
“Let’s go downtown, uh?” (i. e you)

Strategy 13: Give (or ask for) reasons
S uses H as the reason why S wants something so that it will seem reasonable to the hearer. S assumes (via optimism) that there are no good reasons why H should not or cannot cooperate.
e. g.:”Why not lend me your car for the weekend?”

Strategy 14: Assume or assert reciprocity
S asks H to cooperate with him by giving evidence of reciprocal rights or obligations between S and H. Thus, S may say, in effect, “I’ll do x for you if you can do y for me”.
e. g.:”I’ll tell you what it looks like if you tell me where she is now.”

Strategy 15: Give gifts to H (goods, sympathy, understanding, cooperation)
S satisfies H’s Positive Face want by giving gift, not only tangible gifts, but human relation wants which are the wants to be liked, admired, cared about, understood, listened to, etc. in other words, this strategy is usually used for the benefit of H.
e. g.:”I’m sorry to hear that”.

Leech's Politeness Principles

noreply@blogger.com (awin wijaya) — Tue, 25 Jun 2013 12:49:00 +0000

Politeness concerns a relationship between self and other. In conversation, self is identified as the speaker and other is the hearer. Beside that, the speaker also shows politeness to the third parties who may be present or not. The politeness principle (PP) is introduced by Geoffrey Leech. PP is Minimizing (other things being equal) the expression of impolite beliefs, and there is a corresponding positive version (maximizing (other things being equal) the expression of polite beliefs) which is somewhat less important. PP proposes how to produce and understand language based on politeness. The purpose of PP is to establish feeling of community and social relationship. Thus, PP focuses on process of interpretation that the center of the study is on the effect of the hearer rather than the speaker. There are six maxims of the politeness principle that are used to explain relationship between sense and force in daily conversation, those are:

The Tact maxim
The tact maxim is minimizing cost to other and maximizing benefit to other. This maxim is applied in Searle’s speech act, commissives and directives called by Leech as impositives. Commissives is found in utterances that express speaker’s intention in the future action. Then, Directives/ impositives are expressions that influence the hearer to do action. The example of the tact maxim is as follows:

“Won‘t you sit down?”

It is the directive/ impositive utterance. This utterance is spoken to ask the hearer sitting down. The speaker uses indirect utterance to be more polite and minimizing cost to the hearer. This utterance implies that sitting down is benefit to the hearer.

The Generosity Maxim
The generosity maxim states to minimizing benefit to self and maximizing cost to self. Like tact maxim, the generosity maxim occurs in commissives and directives/ impositives. This maxim is centered to self, while the tact maxim is to other. The example will be illustrated as follows:

“You must come and dinner with us.”

It is an advice utterance that is involved in directive illocutionary act. In this case the speaker implies that cost of the utterance is to his self. Meanwhile, the utterance implies that benefit is for the hearer.

The Approbation Maxim
The approbation maxim requires to minimizing dispraise of other and maximizing praise of other. This maxim instructs to avoid saying unpleasant things about others and especially about the hearer. This maxim occurs in assertives/ representatives and expressives. Assertives/ representatives are utterances that express the true propositional. Meanwhile, expressive are utterances that show the speaker feeling. The example is sampled below.

A: “The performance was great!”
B: “Yes, wasn’t it!”

In the example, A gives a good comment about the performance. He talks the pleasant thing about other. This expression is a congratulation utterance that maximizes praise of other. Thus this utterance is included the approbation maxim.

The Modesty Maxim
In the modesty maxim, the participants must minimize praise of self and maximize dispraise of self. This maxim is applied in assertives/ representatives and expressives like the approbation maxim. Both the approbation maxim and the modesty maxim concern to the degree of good or bad evaluation of other or self
that is uttered by the speaker. The approbation maxim is exampled by courtesy of congratulation. On other hand, the modesty maxim usually occurs in apologies. The sample of the modesty maxim is below.

“Please accept this small gift as prize of your achievement.”

In this case, the utterance above is categorized as the modesty maxim because the speaker maximizes dispraise of himself. The speaker notices his utterance by using “small gift”.

The Agreement Maxim
In the agreement maxim, there is tendency to maximize agreement between self and other people and minimize disagreement between self and other. The disagreement, in this maxim, usually is expressed by regret or partial agreement. This maxim occurs in assertives/ representatives illocutionary act. There example will be illustrated below.

A: “English is a difficult language to learn.”
B: “True, but the grammar is quite easy.”

From the example, B actually does not agree that all part of English language difficult to learn. He does not express his disagreement strongly to be more polite. The polite answer will influence the effect of the hearer. In this case, B’s answer minimize his disagreement using partial agreement, “true, but…”.

The Sympathy Maxim
The sympathy maxim explains to minimize antipathy between self and other and maximize sympathy between self and other. In this case, the achievement being reached by other must be congratulated. On other hand, the calamity happens to other, must be given sympathy or condolences. This maxim is applicable in assertives/ representatives. The example is as follows.

“I’m terribly sorry to hear about your father.”

It is a condolence expression which is expressed the sympathy for misfortune. This utterance is uttered when the hearer gets calamity of father’s died or sick. This expression shows the solidarity between the speaker and the hearer.

Brown and Levinson's Politeness Strategies

noreply@blogger.com (awin wijaya) — Tue, 21 May 2013 18:20:00 +0000

As it has been discussed in the previous article: means of communication, that as a means of communication, related to discourse study, language has two primary functions, those are, transactional and interactional function. In a simple definition, the first term refers to language as a means of conveyance of information, while the second refers to language that functions as a means of social relation maintenance. In line with the second function of language, interactional function, people have to see to whom they are speaking, because it may be some expressions are considered rude. It is needed to identify the social values of a society in order to speak politely. Making decisions about what is not regarded as polite expressions in any community will involve assessing social relationship along the dimensions of social distance or solidarity, and relative power or status. Being polite may also involve the dimension of formality.

The study of politeness strategy is basically the study of knowing the way the people use the language while they are having interaction or communication. It preaches how to use the language and conduct the conversation run well and go smoothly.
In case of communication, however, everyone wants to be understood and not to be disturbed by others; moreover, he or she does not want to loose his face while communicating. Loosing face means the notions of being embarrassed, humiliated or disappointed. That is why face is something that is emotionally invested, maintained, enhanced and constantly attended in an interaction.

Concept of face
Face means respect, self-esteem, self-image in the community, Brown and Levinson say that society is governed by two desires: to be free from imposition, and to be appreciated and approved of. First desire considered a negative politeness, and the latter is considered a positive politeness.
Face is the central idea of this theory:

Negative face includes the following aspects: the basic demands of the private property and personal space, rights not to be disturbed, freedom of action and freedom from imposition.
Positive face refers to personality as well as desires that his own self-image is accepted and respected, the value of face is different in different cultures: the definite boundary is a private space and the local culture.

Face-Threatening Act (FTA)
Meanwhile, in a conversation, the interlocutor could be a threat to someone's face and the face of his own by making a question, suggestion, criticism, reveling mistake, thanking, and so on. All of these are so-called face-threatening act (FTA). Most of the speech acts of speaker emerged potentially results FTA.

FTA could threaten the face of both positive and negative, as in point (I) and (II):
(I) Negative FTA: command, request, suggest, suggestions, remind, threaten, warn, offer, promise, express jealousy, admiration, hate, anger, passion, etc
(Ii) Positive FTA: an expression of disapproval, criticism, felt disgust, complaining, accusing, insulting, diagreeing, emotionally abusive, mentioning taboo topics, interrupting and uncooperative, etc.

4 Kinds of politeness strategies (Brown & Levinson)
• The bald on-record strategy does nothing to minimize threats to the hearer's "face" (directly without regard to the "face" of listener-usually in a subordinate-supervisor relationship)

e.g. close the door!

• The positive politeness strategy shows you recognize that your hearer has a desire to be respected. It also confirms that the relationship is friendly and expresses group reciprocity. (Wish yourself image is accepted and appreciated)

e.g. we both know that (seek agreement) everything will be alright from now on.

Brown and Levinson propose fifteen positive and 10 negative politeness strategies in which for further explanation will be discussed in "Positive Politeness Vs. Negative Politeness Strategies".

kinds of positive politeness strategies
1. Notice, Attend to H: speakers are advised to pay attention to the condition of the listener
2. Exaggerate: exaggeration on the condition of the listener
3. Intensify interest: strengthening S's interest to the condition H
4. Use in group identity markers: put H as part of the community of S
5. Seek agreement: provide the same perception of the condition that occurs towards the S.
6. etc.

• The negative politeness strategy also Recognizes the hearer's face. But it also Recognizes that you are in some way imposing on them. (Right to not be disturbed)

e.g. "I do not want to bother you but ..." or "I was wondering if ..."

• Off-record indirect strategies the main purpose is to take some of the pressure off of you. You are trying to avoid the direct Face Threatening Act of asking something. (Do indirect FTA-satire / questions)

e.g. This day is very hot, is not it?

Used to tell someone standing / sitting near the window to open it.

The Functions of Illocutionary Acts

noreply@blogger.com (awin wijaya) — Mon, 20 May 2013 16:18:00 +0000

Leech's (1993:104) purposes the illocutionary acts based on its functions. It is according to how illocutionary acts relate to the social goals or purposes of establishing and maintaining politeness. The form types of illocutionary acts functions are as follows:

1. Competitive aims at competing with the social purposes, such as ordering, asking, demanding, and begging. It is intended to produce some effects through action by the hearer. For instance, “I ask your cookies”.

2. Convivial aims in compliance with the social purposes, for instance offering, inviting, greeting, thanking and congratulating. Such as, “Do you want these cookies?”

3. Collaborative aims at ignoring the social purposes as like asserting, reporting, announcing, and instructing. It is commit the speaker to the truth of expressed proposition. For instance, “I like this book”.

4. Conflictive aims at conflicting against the social purposes. Such as threatening, accusing, and reprimanding. If you say again “I will say to your father”.

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See also:

Kinds of Performative Utterance

noreply@blogger.com (awin wijaya) — Mon, 20 May 2013 15:10:00 +0000

Yule (1996: 53-54) states that one general classification system lists five types of general functions performed by speech acts, those are:

1. Directives
A directive speech act is an attempt by speaker to get hearer to do something. Example of directives are ordering, commanding, requesting, pleading, begging, entreating, daring, suggesting, inviting, questioning, insisting and permitting. Note that the action must be future and voluntary, because it is impossible to ask someone to perform an action in the past or to do something which is not a matter of human will. e.g. ;
• Give me your hand, please!
• Could you lend me a book, please!
The expressed psychological state is that speaker wants hearer to do something. The direction of fit is world-to-word, for speaker (S) is attempting to get the world resemble his or her words.

2. Commisives
In a commisives speech act, speaker commits himself or herself to the performance of an action. Examples of commisives are promising, pledging, threatening, guaranteeing, agreeing, consenting and refusing. Again, the promised action must be future and voluntary. The examples are;
• I’ll accompany you going to the market tomorrow
• If you disobey the rule, I will give you a punishment.
The expressed psychological state is that speaker intends to do something. The direction of fit is world-to-word.

3. Representatives (also known as “Assertives”)
In this type of speech act, speaker represents a state of affairs. Examples of representatives are affirming, declaring, describing, claiming, stating, explaining, classifying, insisting, emphasizing, and predicting. representative commits speaker to the truth of the preposition. The expressed psychological state is one of belief. The direction of fit is wordto- world. The examples are:
• Dad : he is my son
• I tell you that Jakarta is the capital city of Indonesia

4. Expressives
In an expressive speech act, speaker expresses a psychological state about the situation or state of affairs denoted by the preposition. Examples of expressives are thanking, apologizing, consoling, congratulating, greeting, deploring, and welcoming. The propositional content is something which affects speaker or hearer. In using expressive, the speaker makes words fit the world (feeling). e.g.
• I’m really sorry!
• Congratulation for your success
• Thank you for being helped, Nick!

5. Declaratives
Declaratives are the prototypical speech acts. Here the speaker brings about a change a world by uttering a locutionary act. The example of declaratives are declaring war, seconding a motion, adjourning a meeting, firing, nominating, betting, baptizing, finding guilty or innocent, divorcing arresting, and resigning. E.g.
• Priest: I now pronounce you husband and wife
• Bush : attack!, Iraq
The speaker has to have a special institutional role, in a specific context, in order to perform a declaration appropriately.
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See also:

SLA: Universal Hypothesis and A Neurofunctional Theory

noreply@blogger.com (awin wijaya) — Thu, 02 May 2013 16:30:00 +0000

6. The Universal Hypothesis
A language pattern or phenomenon which occurs in all known languages.
For example, it has been suggested that:
a. if a language has dual number for referring to just two something, it also that PLURAL number (for referring to more than two). This type of universal is sometimes called an implication universal.

b. There is a high probability that the word referring to the female parent will start with
NASAL consonant, e.g. /m/ in English mothe, in German Mutter, in Swahili mama and in Chinese (Mandarin) muqin.

Evaluation
The Hypothesis provides an interesting account of how the linguistic properties of target language and the learner’s first language may influence the course development.
The value of the Universal hypothesis for SLA theory is twofold: (1) it focuses attention on the nature on the target language itself, and (2) it provides a suitable and persuasive reconsideration of transfer as an important factor in SLA. In addition, the Universal Hypothesis operates on the assumption that linguistic knowledge is homogeneous and, therefore, ignores variability.

7. A Neurofunctional Theory
The basic premise of a neurofunctional view of SLA is that there is a connection between and the neural anatomy. It is important to recognize, as Hatch (1983a:213) puts it, ‘there is no single black box’ for language in the brain.
Lamendella claims that SLA can be explained neurofunctionally with reference to (1) which neurofunctional system is used-the communication or cognitive-and (2) which level within the chosen neurofunctional system is engage.

Evaluation
Neurofunctional explanations of SLA are based on the premise that is possible to trace the neurolinguistic correlates of specific language function. Neurolinguistic and neurofunctional explanations are perhaps best treated as affording additional understanding about SLA, rather than an explanation of it. However, in the long run it will be useful if psycholinguistic construct used to explain SLA can be matched up with neurofunctional mechanisms.

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There are seven theories of Second Language Acquisition. They are:
1. The Acculturation Model
2. Accommodation Theory
3. Discourse Theory
4. The Monitor Model
5. The Variable Competence Model
6. The Universal Hypothesis
7. A Neurofunctional Theory

SLA: Monitor and Variable Competence Model

noreply@blogger.com (awin wijaya) — Thu, 02 May 2013 16:25:00 +0000

4. The Monitor Model
Krashen’s Monitor Model has enjoyed considerable prominence in SLA research. However, as I shall attempt to show later, the theory is seriously flawed in a number of respects, in particular in its treatment of language-learner variability.
The Monitor Model consists of five central hypotheses;

The five hypotheses
1. The acquisition learning hypothesis
The ‘acquisition –learning’ distinction has already been considered. ‘Acquisition’ occurs subconsciously as result of participating in natural communication where the the focus is on meaning. And Learning occurs as a result of conscious study of the formal properties of the language. In storage, ‘acquired’ knowledge is located in the left hemisphere of the brain in the language area; it is not linguistic nature.

2. The natural order hypothesis
The natural order hypothesis draws on the SLA research literature that indicates that learners may follow a more or less invariant order in the acquisition of formal grammatical features.

3. The Monitor hypothesis
The monitor is the device that learners use to edit their language performance. It utilizes ‘learnt’ knowledge’ by acting upon and modifying utterances generated from ‘acquired’ knowledge.
Krashen gives three monitoring conditions for it’s use:
(1) there must be sufficient time, (2) the focus must be on the form and not meaning; and (3) the user mus know the rule for fuller discussion.

4. The input hypothesis
It states that ‘acquisition’ takes place as result of the learner having understood input that is a little beyond the current level of his competence ( i + 1 level). Input that is comprehensible to learner will automatically be at the right level.

5. The affective filter hypothesis
Affective factor which determine its strength have to do with the learner’s motivation, self-confidence, or anxiety state. Learners with high motivation and self confidence and with low anxiety have low filters. And learners h\with low motivation, little confidence, and high anxiety have high filters.

Causative variables taken into account in the Monitor Model
Krashen also discusses a number of other factors, each of which figures conspicuously in the SLA research literature.
1. Aptitude
2. Role of the first language
3. Routines and patterns
4. individual differences
There is no individual variation in acquisition process. And Krashen indicates three types of Monitor Users: (1) over-users, (2) under user, (3) optimal user (i.e those who apply conscious knowledge when it is appropriate).
5. Age.
Age influences SLA. Older learners are the better better suited to study language than younger.

Evaluation
The ‘acquisition – learning’ distinction has been called ‘theological’ in that it has been formulated in order to confirm a specific goal, namely that successful SLA is the result of ‘acquisition.
Variable. The monitor model is a dual competence, that is “acquisition and learning (Krashen-labe,) it consists of variable performance, seen as a reflection of stylistic continuum, and variable competence model best fits the known fact about SLA.

5. The Variable Competence Model
The model is based on two distinctions-one of which refers to the process of language use, and second refers to language product.
Language use is to understood in term of the distinction between linguistic knowledge (procedure). It refers to the competence and capacity.
The following is from the process of language use that product.
1. a variable competence, i.e the user processes a heterogeneous rule system;
2. variable application of procedures for actualizing knowledge in discourse. The VCM of SLA claims that both occur..

To summarize, the Variable Competence Model proposes:
1. there is a single knowledge score containing variable inter-language rules according to how automatic and how analyzed the rules are.
2. the leaner process a capacity for language use which consists of primary and secondary discourse, or secondary process and cognitive process.
3. L2 performance is variable.
4. Development occurs as result of
(a) acquisition of new L2 rules through participation in various types of discourse.
(b) Activation of L2 rules which initially exist in either a non automatic dis-analyzed form or in an analyzed form so they can be used in unplanned discourse.

Evaluation
The VCM of SLA attempts to account for (1) variability of language-learner language, and (2) the external and internal processes responsible for SLA. SLA is the result of the exchange of linguistic process of discourse construction involving both the leaner and interlocutor.
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There are seven theories of Second Language Acquisition. They are:
1. The Acculturation Model
2. Accommodation Theory
3. Discourse Theory
4. The Monitor Model
5. The Variable Competence Model
6. The Universal Hypothesis
7. A Neurofunctional Theory