Arteshe Iran - Persian Military History

Siege of Pasargadae Hill

2009-01-26T21:19:00.009+01:00

Year: Spring 551 BC

Place: North-West of Pasargadae [30°20'34.35"N and 52°59'47.24"E]

Participants: Persia ¤ Media

Result: Decisive victory for the Persians

Consequence: Cyrus defeated the Medes and saved Persia. Cyrus was now more powerful than Astyages

After their heroic display of bravery in the battle of the Persian Border, Cyrus and Oebares retreated to the mountainous Pasargadae area, where they blocked the narrow passes into Persia. They had brought the women, men, children and old people of the border-city with them. Oebares defended the passes with 10.000 heavily armed soldiers and made the road into Persia imposible for the Medes. Therefore Astyages decided to envelop the defiant Persians by finding a pass in the mountains, but it was very difficult, because the mountains where very high with steep sides, and some of the passes where overtopped by high walls of rocks.

The 100.000 soldiers of Astyages decided to climb the mountain in order to surprise Cyrus and the defenceless people. The Medes encircled the hills and were standing on both sides of the hills. The Medes bravely attacked the passes and hills that were held by the heavily armed Persians. The terrain of the hills and mountains made it more difficult for the Medes to attack the seemingly invincible Persians. The mountainside was covered by oak forests and wild olive trees, and thus the Persians had the upper hand. Now the Medes reached the Persian soldiers:

"The Persians fought still more bravely; in one place Cyrus dashed forward, and in another Oebares, who urged them not to let their wives, mothers, and old men be massacred and tortured by the Medes. So they rushed down with a cry, and when their javelins failed, they threw down stones in great numbers..."

(Max Duncker, The History of Antiquity book, Book VII, pp. 352)

The Medes could not stand against the relentless charge of the Persian soldiers and people. Eventually they were driven back and did not dare to meet the Persians. Both sides finally withdrew from the fierce battle that ensued. The Persians were now stranded on the hills that were besieged by the Medes. Cyrus also realized that he was in a desperate situation, and he started to pray:

"He kindled a fire of cypress and laurel-wood, and offered the sacrifice of the man who is distressed and in desperate circumstances. Then followed thunder and lightning, and when Cyrus sank down in prayer, birds of good omen settled on the roof as a sign that he would again reach Pasargadae."

(Max Duncker, The History of Antiquity book, Book VII, pp. 352)

Thus the Persians remained on the mountain knowing that they had to fight for their very existence against the desillusioned Medes. The future of Persia was at stake the next morning, but it all looked dreadful and it was as if the future of Persia was doomed. The only thing that seemed to make them hopeful was the good omen they all witnessed when Cyrus was praying.

(The nature near Pasargadae, Livius.org)

On the following morning the Medes launched their attacks. The Persians were only relying on the good omens in a hopeless situation. The Persians fought unforgetably, and the Median king Astyages was even impressed, and he feared that his huge army was going to be obliterated. Therefore he placed 50.000 soldiers behind his own soldiers so they would not flee from the Persian men:

"...Astyages placed 50.000 at the foor of the mountain behind those who were attacking, and bade them slay all who came down."

(Max Duncker, The History of Antiquity book, Book VII, pp. 352)

Consequently the Median soldiers could not escape the battle. Therefore they fought more zealously than they had ever done. The Persians were outnumbered and were not well-equipped as their adversaries, and they were almost panicking. They decided to retreat to the top of the mountain, where all the women and children were. When the Persian women saw that the Persian men had retreated, they ran out to meet them and they cried out to them:

"Cowards, whither would ye fly, will ye creep back into the bosoms that bore you?"

(Max Duncker, The History of Antiquity book, Book VII, pp. 352)

The Persian men heard this and they were ashamed. How could they let down their women and children? Their women, children and their country reminded them the values they had to fight for. The Persians were now filled with courage and decided to figth for their values, and they attacked the pursuing Medes, and drove them down the mountainside:

"... The Persians turned, and in one onslaught drove the Medes down the mountain, and slew sixty thousand of them."

(Max Duncker, The History of Antiquity book, Book VII, pp. 352)

The women of Persia proved to be the turning-point in the vital battle, and they were rewarded for their deed. Plutarch says:

"The cry of the women brought about a change in the battle, and for this reason Cyrus made a law that as often as the king came into the city of Pasargadae, every woman should receive a piece of gold. Ochus marched past the city to evade the law; but Alexander twice entered Pasargadae, and gave double to all the women that were with child."

Cyrus defeated the Median forces one more time, and he took the camp of the Medes. Cyrus went into the tent of Astyages, who had fled the battle, and took the sceptre of the mightiest king in the world. Oebares put the throne of the king and crowned Cyrus, who now was a king. Oebares said:

"Thou art more worthy to bear it; give it to thee for thy virtue, and grant the Persians to rule over the Medes."

(Max Duncker, The History of Antiquity book, Book VII, pp. 353)

Therefore the subjects of the Medes accepted Cyrus as their king. The immense wealth found in the tents of the Medes were all brought to Pasargadae under the supervision of Oebares.

The rumors of the Persian victory reached the far corners of the empire:

"It was not long before the intelligence of the defeat and flight of Astyages spread abroad, and nations as well as individuals deserted him. First of all Artasyras, the chief of the Hyrcanians, came, with 50.000 men, and recognised Cyrus as King; afterwards came the chiefs of the Parthians, Sacse, Bactrians, and other nations, each seeking to arrive before the other"

(Max Duncker, The History of Antiquity book, Book VII, pp. 353)

Cyrus the Great had now not only saved Persia, he had started the foundation of the first true empire the world had ever seen. The day he was standing on the hills outside Pasargadae he did not know that he was creating a superpower that was going to last for the next 228 years.

But Cyrus had only one obstacle: not all the Medes had defected to the Persians, and Astyages still had faithful soldiers...

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Battle of the Persian Border

2009-01-20T12:16:00.057+01:00

Year: Spring 551 BC

Place: Near the Medo-Persian border [31°04'18.02''N and 52°23'16.84''E]

Participants: Persia ¤ Media

Result: Stalemate, but the Median army suffer huge losses

Consequence: Median Empire weakened seriously. Median soldiers and cities join the Persians under Cyrus

A few months after the victory in the battle of Hyrba, Cyrus awaited the huge and powerful Median army. Therefore he encouraged the Persians to fight for their country and brought the people from the open and unprotected cities into well-fortified cities.

The Median army under the command of Astyages was marching from Ecbatana, the Median capital, towards Cyrus who was waiting with his small army in the rebellious Persia. They saw the abandoned cities on their way and burned them to the ground.

Cyrus gave the Medes a chance and demanded the retreat of the Median army from Persian soil while accepting Persian independence. This demand enraged Astyages who saw a better reason to wage war on his 25 year old grandson.

Thus it came to a battle on the Persian border:

"Astyages, surrounded by 20.000 of his bodyguard, looked on: among the Persians Atradates had the right, and Oebares the left, wing; Cyrus surrounded by the bravest warriors, was in the centre..."

(Max Duncker, The History of Antiquity book, Book VII, pp. 350)

The mighty Medes who were arguably the strongest power in the ancient world at that time charged the outnumbered Persians with their experienced soldiers.

Cyrus once again displayed his bravery and courage. It seemed as if the Persians were much stronger than the Medes, and they were defending themselves bravely. When Astyages saw that the Persians kept killing his soldiers without sustaining any serious damage, he cried:

"How bravely these 'terebinth-eaters' fight!"

(Max Duncker, The History of Antiquity book, Book VII, pp. 350)

Anyhow, it seemed as if the Persians were getting tired, because they were outnumbered and therefore overpowered by the Medes. So Cyrus decided to retreat into the city that they were fighting in front of. Cyrus and Oebares (commander of the left wing) evacuated the city and sent all the people to Pasargadae. The army of Cyrus was the only thing standing between the infuriated Median army and the Persian people. Therefore Cyrus knew that the ensuing battles against the Medes would make or break Persia and the people of his country...

The Persian soldiers were in the city and preparing to fight the Medes who were waiting outside the city-walls. Therefore Cyrus said this to his fellow Persians:

"If we are defeated we must all die, and if that must be so it is better to fall in victory and for the freedom of our country."

(Max Duncker, The History of Antiquity book, Book VII, pp. 351)

(Sunset in the Fars-Province, where Cyrus met the Medes, DreamView.net)

This caused the Persians to be motivated to fight for their country against the Medes, who were waiting confidently for the desperate Persians outside the city-walls. Some of the inhabitants decided to stay and fight in the city and did not want to be evacuated to the mountainous area of Pasargadae, where they would be safe. If Cyrus lost the battle near the Persian border what would stop the Median army from killing the Persians in Pasargadae? The young inhabitants decided to follow Cyrus and Oebares. Atradates (commander of the right wing the day before) stayed with the old men of the city to defend the walls.

So the city-gates were opened in the morning and Cyrus and Oebares marched out knowing that this battle was of immense importance. The Astyages did the following:

"... [He] caused 100.000 men to go round and attack the Persian army in the rear. The attack succeeded."

(Max Duncker, The History of Antiquity book, Book VII, pp. 351)

The Medes overwhelmed Atradates who was defending the city-walls along the old men of the city. Atradates was wounded in the fierce battle against the Medes and at last they captured the brave commander of the Persians. Astyages came to the mortally wounded Atradates and said:

"An excellent satrap are you; is it thus that you thank me, you and your son, for what I have done for you?"

(Max Duncker, The History of Antiquity book, Book VII, pp. 351)

Atradates begged Astyages not to torture him, because he was dying. When Atradates died, Astyages gave him an honorable burial. Meanwhile Cyrus and Oebares fought unforgettably against the Medes. They killed many Medes and like the day before the Persians were overwhelmed and overpowered by the disillusioned Medes who could not believe how bravely the Persians were fighting. How could they suffer these serious losses when the Persians were commanded by a 25 year old prince?

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Battle of Hyrba

2009-01-01T16:11:00.030+01:00

Year: Winter, 552 BC

Place: Near the City of Hyrba, Media [34°11'3.35"N and 49°17'55.04"E]

Participants: Persia ¤ Media

Result: Persian victory

Consequences: Astyages, king of Media, decides to invade Persia

Cyrus the Great was only 24 years old, when he rebelled against his grandfather Astyages, the king of the Median Empire. The first showdown between the Persian army and the army of the Medes happened near Hyrba, a city in Media.

But in 576 BC, 24 years before the revolt, Astyages ordered the newborn Cyrus to be killed, because he was afraid that Cyrus would be a potential contender and threat to the Median throne. Astyages gave the responsibility to Harpagus who could not kill a baby. So Harpagus handed the baby, along the responsibility of killing him, to a shepherd. The shepherd's wife had a stillborn child the same day, and she decided to hand over her own child as the body of Cyrus and give him a royal funeral. Therefore they decided to raise Cyrus as their own child. Cyrus grew up and was eventually recognized by Astyages. Cyrus was allowed to visit his father Cambyses several times. Meanwhile Astyages punished Harpagus due to his disobedience, by slaying his son and serving him as food. Therefore he was ready to avenge the death of his son:

"... Harpagus, who was bent on revenging himself upon Astyages, began to pay him court by gifts and messages. His own rank was too humble for him to hope to obtain vengeance without som foreign help ..."

(The Histories of Herodotus, Book One, Translated by George Rawlinson)

So Harpagus decided to aid Cyrus in his coming revolts. When Cyrus visited his father in Persia Harpagus sent him letters hidden in rabits. As Herodotus says:

"... These preparations made, Harpagus, being now ready for revolt, was anxious to make known his wishes to Cyrus, who still lived in Persia; but as the roads between Media and Persia were guarded, he had to contrive a means of sending word secretly, which he did in the following way. He took a hare, and cutting open its belly without hurting the fur, he slipped in a letter containing what he wanted to say..."

(The Histories of Herodotus, Book One, Translated by George Rawlinson)

One of the letters of Harpagus contained the following message:

"... Listen now to me, and obey my words, and all the empire of Astyages shall be thine. Raise the standard of revolt in Persia, and then march straight on Media. Whether Astyages appoint me to command his forces against thee or whether he appoint any other of the princes of the Medes, all will go as thou could wish. They will be the first to fall away from him, and joining thy side, exert themselves to overturn his power. Be sure that on our part all is ready; wherefore do thou thy part, and that speedily."

(The Histories of Herodotus, Book One, Translated by George Rawlinson)

In this manner the revolt of Persia led by Cyrus was prepared, and Harpagus kept persuading the Median army to defect to the Persians. And Cyrus did not have any time to waste. It was now known that Astyages was keen on getting rid of Cyrus because he was posing a threat to the Median hegemony.

(Cyrus commanding the Persians, heritage-history.com)

Cyrus was now the leader of the Persians and the tribes that he assembled and persuaded to revolt were:

"... the principal ones on which all the others are dependent. These are the Pasagadae, the Maraphians, and the Maspians, of whom the Pasargadae are the noblest. The Achaemenidae, from which spring all of the Perseid kings, is one of their clans. The rest of the Persian tribes are the following: the Panthialaeans, the Derusiaeans, the Germanians, who are engaged in husbandry: the Daans, the Mardians, the Dropicans, and the Sagartians, who are nomads."

(The Histories of Herodotus, Book One, Translated by George Rawlinson)

Cyrus was now ready to meet his grandfather near the Median city Hyrba. Astyages wanted his grandson back dead or alive. Therefore he quickly sent 300 horsemen to:

"... bring him [Cyrus] back; if he would not obey they were to cut off his head and bring back that."

(Max Duncker, The History of Antiquity book, Book VII, pp. 349)

So the Median soldiers met Cyrus, and they presented the commands of Astyages. Cyrus was very clever and knew the fate that awaited him, if he turned the commands of his grandfather down. So he answered:

"Why should I not return as my lord summons me? Today we will feast; tomorrow we will set out"

(Max Duncker, The History of Antiquity book, Book VII, pp. 349)

The Median horsemen accepted this, and Cyrus sacrificed many oxen and other animals and caused the Medes to drink heavily so they were intoxicated. Cyrus did what he became famous for; he acted unbelievably quickly and sent a message to his father, Cambyses I in order to:

"... send at once 1000 cavalry and 5000 foot-soldiers to the city of Hyrba which lay on the way, and to arm the rest of the Persians as quickly as possible in such a way that it should seem to be done by command of the king. His true aims he did not communicate to him."

(Max Duncker, The History of Antiquity book, Book VII, pp. 349)

So Cyrus left the 300 sleeping Medes in the night and quickly went to the city of Hyrba and armed the inhabitants. When the Medes slept out there debauch and saw that Cyrus was nowhere to be found, they pursued him and came to Hyrba. And the battle of Hyrba ensued where:

"... Cyrus first displayed his bravery, for with his Persians he slew 250 of the horse of Astyages. The remainder escaped, and brought the news to Astyages. 'Woe is me!' cried the king striking his thigh, 'that I, well knowing that we should not do good to the evil, have allowed myself to be carried away by clever speeches, and have raised up this Mardian [Cyrus] to be such a mischief to me."

(Max Duncker, The History of Antiquity book, Book VII, pp. 350)

Astyages was infuriated by the rebellious youngster who was only 24 years. so he decided to invade Persia and summoned up:

"... against the Persians nearly 1.000.000 foot-soldiers, 200.000 horse and 3.000 chariots"

(Max Duncker, The History of Antiquity book, Book VII, pp. 350)

So Cyrus had now enticed the mighty Median war-machine against the tiny but motivated Persia. The inequality in numbers and resources seemed to motivate Cyrus to meet the vast armies of his grandfather in battles that were going to determine the future of Persia...

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Battle of the Eclipse

2008-12-29T18:15:00.025+01:00

Date: May 28, 585 BC

Place: The river Halys [40°32'07.95''N and 34°22'10.22''E]

Participants: Media ¤ Lydia

Result: Stalemate in the midst of battle due to a solar eclipse

Consequence: A peace-treaty between the Medes and the Lydians and a peaceful period, because the four powers at that time were to weak to wage war on each other

The world now had four powers: Media, Lydia, Egypt and Babylon. These countries were exhausted as a result of the Assyrian Empire, but the Medes and the Lydians had fought each other for 6 years since 591 BC.

It all started when a group of Scythians took refuge in Media due to some unrest in their country. Herodotus mentions how he accepted these refugees:

"Recognizing them [The Scythians] as suppliants, he began by treating them with kindness, and coming presently to esteem them highly, he entrusted to their care a number of boys, whom they were to teach their language and to instruct in the use of the bow. Time passed, and the Scythians employed themselves, day after day, in hunting, and always brought home some game; but at last it chanced that one day they took nothing."

(The Histories of Herodotus, Book One, Translated by George Rawlinson)

Cyaxares was known for his temper, and when he saw that the Scythians returned to him empty-handed, he got enraged and received them very rudely and insultingly. The Scythians thought that they did not deserve this degrading behavior by the Median king. Therefore they decided to avange this humiliation:

"... the Scythians determined to take one of the boys whom they had in charge, cut him in pieces, and then dressing the flesh as they were wont to dress that of the wild animals, serve it up to Cyaxares as game: after which they resolved to convey themselves with all speed to Sardis, to the court of Alyattes, the son of Sadyattes."

(The Histories of Herodotus, Book One, Translated by George Rawlinson)

(Scythians in Persepolis, payvand.com)

So the Scythians escaped to Sardis, The capital of Lydia, after they had served Cyaxares' son. Later on, he found out that the meat he was eating with his guests, was the flesh of his son. Meanwhile the Scythians were nowhere to be seen, because the Lydian king accepted them as suppliants like Cyaxares did a couple of years prior.

So Cyaxares demanded Alyattes to hand over the Scythians, but the refusal enraged Cyaxares, and he planned an invasion of Lydia in 591 BC. Herodotus says how the invasion and the ensuing battles of the Medes and the Lydians went:

"... war broke out between the Lydians and the Medes, and continued for five years, with various succes. In the course of it the Medes gained many victories over the Lydians, and the Lydians also gained many victories over the Medes."

(The Histories of Herodotus, Book One, Translated by George Rawlinson)

But the main battle was still waiting for them in the 6th year of the battle. The battle was fought in the river of Halys, now known as Kizilirmak in Turkey. The battle was going to be the strangest thing the soldiers would have seen in their lives. The day turned in to night! Herodotus says what happened in the battle:

"As, however, the balance had not inclined in favor of either nation, another combat took place in the sixth year, in the course of which, just as the battle was growing warm, day was on a sudden changed into night"

(The Histories of Herodotus, Book One, Translated by George Rawlinson)

(What the soldiers saw in the middle of battle, Austin Childrens Museum)

This solar eclipse was going to change the course of the ancient world drastically. The eclipse had been foretold by Thales of Miletus. The soldiers also saw this as a sign from the gods to stop the battles:

"The Medes and Lydians, when they observed the change, ceased fighting, and were alike anxious to have terms of peace agreed on."

So the Medes and the Lydians stopped their war after the Battle of the Eclipse. In order to guarantee a long lasting peace, Cyaxares' son, Astyages, married Aryenis, the daughter of Alyattes.

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Maps of the Persian Gulf

2008-12-28T16:04:00.035+01:00

1482 - Map of Ptolemy's Geographia in the Bologna Edition. The Persian Gulf is written in Latin as "Sinvs Persicvs" [Persian Gulf].

1511 - Map of Ptolemy's Geographia by Pentius de Leucho. The Persian Gulf is written in Latin as "Sinvs Persicvs" [Persian Gulf].

1540 - Map of Arabia from the Tabvla Asiae IIII by Sebastian Munster. The Persian Gulf is written in Latin as "Sinvs Persicvs" [Persian Gulf].

1542 - Map of Arabia from the Tabvla Asiae VI by Sebastian Munster. The Persian Gulf is written in Latin as "Sinvs Persicvs" [Persian Gulf].

1565 - World Map. The Persian Gulf is written in spanish as "Colfo Persico" [Persian Gulf].

1578 - Map of Ptolemy's Geographia by Gerhard Mercator's Atlas production. The Persian Gulf is written in Latin as "Sinvs Persicvs" [Persian Gulf].

1752 - Map of the Middle East by Sir Robert de Vaugondy.

1767 - Map of Anatolia, from A New Geographical and Historical Grammar by Thomas Salmon.

1831 - Persia and Parts of the Ottoman Empire by G. Long.

1842 - German map of the Middle-East by Landshut Vogel. The Persian Gulf is written in German as "Persischer Meerbusen" [Persian Gulf].

Date unknown - Map of Persia.

Date Unknown - Map of the Arabian Peninsula and the Persian Gulf. The Persian Gulf is written in Arabic as "Al-Khalij Al-Farsi" [The Persian Gulf].

1965 - Map of the Islamic Caliphate in its greatest extent by Sobhi Abdul-Karim, Cairo. The Persian Gulf is written in Arabic as "Khalij Farsi" [Persian Gulf].

1966 - Arabic map of Saudi Arabia by Map Art USA. The name of the Persian Gulf is written in Arabic as "Bahr Farsi" [Persian Ocean].

1968 - Islamic map of the Arabian Peninsula made by the Egyptian writer Mohamad Hossein. The name of the Persian Gulf is written in Arabic as "Al-Khalij Al-Farsi" [The Persian Gulf].

(Courtesy of PersianGulfOnline.org)

Flags of Iran

2008-12-28T00:37:00.032+01:00

Flag of Cyrus the Great and Achaemenid Persia, 550 BC

The first flag of Iran was likely introduced by the father of Iran; Cyrus the Great. The picture above is the standard of Cyrus the Great. Xenophon had also seen the flag and he said:

"...and the word went down the lines, "Eyes on the standard and steady marching!". The standard was a golden eagle, with outspread wings, borne aloft on a long spear-shaft, and to this day such is the standard of the Persian king."

(Xenophon: Cyropaedia, Book VII, C.1)

Safavid Empire, 1502 - 1514

Flag of Shah Ismail I, the founder of the Safavid Empire. His flag was green with a with a yellow moon on top.

Safavid Empire 1524 - 1576

Flag of Tahmasb I who was crowned at the age of 10. The sheep and sun emblem is very similar to the lion and sun emblem.

Safavid Empire, 1576 - 1736

Flag of the Safavid Empire from the reign of Ismail II and the rest of the Safavid kings. The lion and sun emblem had replaced the sheep and sun, and the ancient symbol of the lion and the sun was going to have its place on the Iranian flag for the next 403 years.

Nader Shah & the Afsharid Dynasty, 1736 - 1750

The flag of Nader Shah. The lion and sun emblem had remained, but the background was yellow with red borders. Nader Shah became famous due to his military genius, and he expanded Iranian influence all the way to North India.

Zand Dynasty, 1750 - 1794

The flag of Karim Khan Zand, the founder of the Zand dynasty, was triangular with the lion and sun emblem in the middle.

Mohamad Khan Qajar, 1794

The flag of Mohamad Khan Qajar, the founder of the Qajar Dynasty. The lion and sun emblem had changed, and the lion was carrying a sword.

Fath Ali Shah, 1797

The Flag of Fath Ali Shah, the Nephew of Mohamad Khan Qajar. The Iranian kings had used the sun and lion emblem for 221 years. Fath Ali Shah had two other flags that he used:

This was the peace flag of Iran. Unfortunately he did not use this flag to much during his reign.

This was the war flag of Iran. Fath Ali Shah used this flag in the disastrous wars against Russia which ended with the treaty of Gulistan in 1813 and the treaty of Turkemchay in 1828.

Nasser e-Din Shah, 1848

This flag was designed by Amir Kabir. The lion and sun emblem remained, but the light green and red bands were added, paving the way for what was going to be the the future flags of Iran. It was also during this period that the first national anthem of Iran (the Lemaire March) was made by the French military-musician Alfred Jean Baptiste Lemaire.

Mozaffar e-Din Shah, Late 1800

This was a common design of the Iranian flag during the reign of Mozaffar e-Din Shah in the late 19th Century.

During the Constitutional Revolution, 1905

This flag was used during the Constitutional Revolution (1905 - 1911) in Iran. This was the last flag to be used before the introduction of the horizontal tricolor flag founded by Amir Kabir 57 years prior.

Post Constitutional Revolution, 1911

The flag of Iran after the constitutional revolution in 1911. Each color had its symbolic significance. The green color symbolized the Islamic faith of the Iranian people. The white color symbolized peace and the ancient Zoroastrian heritage of the Iranian people. The red color symbolized the blood sacrificed by all martyrs who fought for their beloved fatherland, Iran.

Pahlavi Dynasty, 1925

The flag of Iran during the Pahlavi dynasty. The colors of the flag were darkened. The flag continued a long tradition of using the lion and sun emblem for 403 years.

Islamic Republic of Iran, 1979

The flag of Iran has undergone significant changes since the revolution and the establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran in 1979. The colors are the same as the Pahlavi flag, but the green and red colors are all embroidered with "God is Great" in Arabic, and the lion and sun emblem is substituted by the coat of arms of the Islamic Republic.

Battle of Nineveh

2008-12-27T17:08:00.031+01:00

Date: 612 BC

Place: Nineveh, the capital of Assyria [36°22'N and 43°09'E]

Participants: Assyria ¤ Media, Babylonia and Scythians

Result: Decisive victory for the allied forces

Consequences: The fall of the mighty Assyrian Empire and the resurrection of Babylonia

After the fall of Elam, a great civilization that had existed in southern Iran for more than 4500 years, the Persians moved in to the area and incorporated the Elamites in their own society. Now the Iranian Plateau was split between the the Medes in North Iran and the Persians in South Iran. The Medes, the Persians and the Scythians were Iranians, and they were all Iranian-speaking. The Median king Cyaxares proved himself as a very strong king that had great ambitions for the newly-unified Media.

(The Walls of Nineveh, Kyle A. King)

The Medes decided to ally themselves with the Babylonians, Scythians etc. . At some point it looked as if that most of the nations allied against the merciless Assyrians, and as Herodotus says:

"The Assyrians had held the Empire of Upper Asia for the space of five hundred and twenty years, when the Medes set the example of revolt from their authority. They took arms for the recovery of their freedom, and fought a battle with the Assyrians, in which they behaved with such gallantry as to shake off the yoke of servitude, and to become a free people. Upon their success the other nations also revolted and regained their independence."

(First Book: The Histories of Herodotus, Translated by George Rawlinson)

Media mustered all its strength and met with other coalition forces on its way to the Assyrian capital. It is descriped in the Nabopolassar chronicle:

"The king of the Medes marched towards the king of Akkad and they met one another at ... . The king of Akkad and his army crossed the Tigris; Cyaxares had to cross the Radanu, and they marched along the bank of the Tigris. In the month Simanu, the Nth day, they encamped against Nineveh."

(The Chronicle of Nabopolassar: 612 - 611)

In February 612 BC they laid siege to Nineveh. The siege lasted for three months, and when they breached the wall a battle full of blood and gore ensued. As the chronicle of Nabopolassar states:

"From the month Simanu until the month Abu - for three months - they subjected the city to a heavy siege. On the N-th day of the month Abu they inflicted a major defeat upon a great people. At that time Sin-shar-ishkun, king of Assyria, died. They carried off the vast booty of the city and the temple and turned the city into a ruin heap... ."

(The Chronicle of Nabopolassar: 612 - 611)

It is very obvious that the Medes and her allies gave the Assyrians "the Assyrian treatment". Even the Sin-shar-ishkun, the king of Assyria was slain when the Medes entered the capital. The same happened to Nineveh as the Assyrians did to Susa 35 years prior.

The Assyrians had ruled the most of the known world for almost 1500 years, and they were the unrivaled superpower from the beginning of human civilization to that date. The victory of the Medes and her allies sent shock-waves throughout the world. The Greek poet Phocylides, and the Jewish prophet Nahum mention the sacking of the Assyrian Capital.

The Battle of Nineveh resulted in the reemergence of the Babylonian Empire and the consolidation of Media as a major power. A new world order emerged where the balance of power kept these four empires away from eachother.

The Ancient world, 600 BC

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Battle of Susa

2008-12-26T22:34:00.025+01:00

Year: 647 BC

Place: Susa, the capital of Elam [32°11'21.11''N and 48°16'02.26''E]

Participants: Assyria ¤ Elam

Result: Assyrian victory and destruction of Susa

Consequences: The Fall of Elam and the rise of the Medians

Five years after the Battle of the Ulaï River the Assyrians finally decided to destroy the formidable Elamites. in 647 BC Ashurbanipal destroyed Susa, the Elamite capital, as a retribution of an alleged Elamite humiliation of the people of Mesopotamia. Ashurbanipal says what he did to Susa:

"Susa, the Great holy city, abode of their Gods, seat of their mysteries, I conquered. I entered its palaces, I opened their treasuries where silver and gold, goods and wealth were amassed... I destroyed the ziggurat of Susa. I smashed its shining copper horns. I reduced the temples of Elam to naught; their gods and goddesses I scattered to the winds. The tombs of their ancient and recent kings I devastated, I exposed to the sun, and I carried away their bones toward the land of Ashur. I devastated the provinces of Elam and on their lands I sowed salt"

( Persians: Masters of Empire - Lost Civilizations)

(The Destruction of Susa by Ashurbanipal, Wikipedia)

The battles before had been so violent that the Elamite king Teumann had been beheaded when he was trying to escape in his chariot 8 years before the destruction of Susa. In 639 BC, Ashurbanipal decided to move his entire army from Assyria to destroy Elam once and for all. They managed to do say and Ashurbanipal gives his own account:

"For a distance of a month and twenty-five days' journey I devastated the provinces of Elam. Salt and sihlu I scattered over them... The dust of Susa, Madaktu, Haltemash and the rest of the cities I gathered together and took to Assyria... The noise of people, the tread of cattle and sheep, the glad shouts of rejoicing, I banished from its fields. Wild asses, gazelles and all kinds of beasts of the plain I caused to lie down among them, as if at home."

(Mark Healey: The Ancient Assyrians)

(Clubbing and Beheading of Teumann the Elamite king, Utah State University)

The Assyrians had now laid the foundations for their own destruction, because the Iranians more notably the Medes and the Persians filled the power-vacuum left by the Elamites. The Assyrian Empire had the classical problem of great empires; over-stretching. The Medes were united as a nation instead of city-states under the leadership of Deioces, and they were now allying with the Babylonians against the Assyrians. The new coalition planned to treat the Assyrians the same way they treated their defeated adversaries...

Assyria in Its Greatest Extent 650 BC

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Battle of the Ulaï River

2008-12-26T18:20:00.023+01:00

Date: 652 BC

Place: 28 miles west of Susa [32°12'41.97''N and 47°45'44.88''E]

Participants: Assyria ¤ Elam

Result: Decisive Assyrian victory

Consequence: The beginning of the fall of Elam and the rise of the Iranian tribes in the area

The Elamites had a bad habit of interfering in the domestic policies of their Babylonian allies, who were in the Assyrian sphere of interest. They had also aided the Babylonians in several rebellions. A major showdown between these rivals was inevitable. Ashurbanipal, the grandson of Sennacherib and king of Assyria, saw the Elamites as a potential threat due to their geopolitical situation close to the trading routes of Mesopotamia and The Iranian plateau. The Assyrians figured out that the wisest move was an assault on Elam, because by annexing Elam, they could secure their trade and they could prevent potential rebellions by the Babylonians.

(The relief of Ashubanipal, livius.org)

Therefore they attacked the Elamites and defeated them decisively in the Battle of the Ulaï River. Ashurbanipal even made reliefs in the palace of Sennacherib, depicting his victory over their historical adversaries.

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Battle of Halule

2008-12-26T18:16:00.031+01:00

Year: 691 BC

Place: South of Babylon [ 32°29'20.62"N and 44°31'6.49"E]

Participants: Assyria ¤ Babylonia, Elam, Iranian Tribes & Chaldeans

Result: Pyrrhic victory for the allied forces

Consequence: A war against Elam that leads to the rising power of the Medes

Sennacherib, the King of Assyria had to deal with dangerous threats. The Chaldeans were historically friends with the Elamites, and they were usually allied. In 721 BC Merodach-Baladan sat on the Babylonian throne, and in 693 BC he allied with the Elamites against Assyria, but the Babylonian-Elamite army was defeated by Sennecherib at Nippur. Two years later, in 691 BC, a large coalition of forces led by Shuzubu (Mushezib-Marduk), a Chaldean, with a career of rebelling against Sennacherib. A couple of years prior to the battle, he had fled to Elam and later returned to Babylon, where the people of Babylon installed him as a king. This obviously made Sennacherib furious, because he saw him as a "robber" and a "runaway", and now he was sitting on a throne "for which he was not suited".

(Sennacherib fighting against the Babylonians in his chariot, wikipedia)

The Assyrians eventually meet the coalition, in what was to become, a very bloody and grim battle. The nucleus of the allied forces consisted of strong Iranian and Elamite charioteers, infantry and cavalry. Sennacherib entered the battle in his chariot wearing a mail shirt. According to Sennaherib the fierce battle was full of confusion with hors

es galloping everywhere, and the coalition forces seemed to be as strong as the Assyrians, until Sennacherib entered the battle in his chariot. When the Elamites and Babylonians saw Sennacherib, they started to rout. Consequently he created order out of chaos. There were many casualties on both sides. However the "heroic deeds" of Sennacherib and the victory of the Assyrians are disputed, due to the strong resemblance to the Assyrian Creation Epic.

Both sides claimed victory due to the fact that the battle was indecisive. However, the coalition forces won a Pyrrhic victory, and consequently could not take advantage of their success against the mighty Assyrian superpower.

Assyria and Elam, 650 BC

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Maps of Iran

2008-12-23T12:03:00.031+01:00

Elam, 5000 BC

Assyria and Elam, 660 BC

Median Empire, 600 BC

Egypt, Lydia, Babylon and Media, 600 BC

Cyrus the Great, 529 BC

Campaigns of Cyrus the Great, 552 BC - 530 BC

Persia and Egypt, 529 BC

Cambyses, 522 BC

Darius the Great and Xerxes, 480 BC

Alexander the Great, 323 BC

Seleucid Empire, 300 BC

Parthian Empire, 218 BC

Parthia, Rome and Carthage, 218 BC

Sassanid Persia, 400 AD

Sassanid Persia and the Roman Empire, 400 AD

Sassanid Persia in its Greatest Extent, 620 AD

Sassanid Persia, Eastern- and Western Roman Empires, 620 AD

Texts, Books and Articles

2008-12-21T14:26:00.051+01:00

The Elamites

The Median Empire & The Achamenid Empire

Parthian Empire & Sassanid Empire

Medieval, Safavid, Afsharid & Qajar Era

Modern Iran

Persian Gulf

Art, Religion, Tradition & Culture

Articles

Iranian Language

The Persian Wars: Darius the Great

2008-12-19T12:56:00.014+01:00

The man who lead the revolt in Persia in 522 BC claimed to be the son of Cyrus the Great, despite the fact that the real Bardia was killed by his own brother Cambyses II before the conquest of Egypt. Darius, a nobleman from the Immortals unit, decided to defeat the fake Bardia and quell the rebellion.

Darius and six other Persian noblemen conspired against Bardia and finally killed him. Herodotus writes that three Persian noblemen were discussing the future of Persia, and that Darius finally won the discussions and was crowned the king of Persia in 521 BC, when he was 29 years old. On the other hand, on the Behistun inscription, Darius said that he defeated one rebellion after another before becoming the king of Persia. Finally he won the Empire in 521 BC by his military skill, and he legitimized his rule by marrying Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus the Great. Now he only had to consolidate his rule by investing heavily in building the infrastructure of the empire.

(Darius the Great on his Throne)

Darius also continued the humanitarian path of Cyrus the G

reat by building many temples in Egypt. He built the Royal Road from Persis to the western part of Asia Minor which facilitated the first postal system in history that he created. He again proved himself as an outstanding organizer by dividing his empire into 20 satrapies, in which a satrap was installed as the governor. He created a very stabile currency known as the Dareik. He started building the impressive Persepolis that arguably was the United Nations of the ancient world. This palace-complex was built throughout 150 years and his son and grandson continued building it. The magnificent reliefs proved the stability and peace of the

Persian Empire because there was not a single variation in the building relief in 150 years, while the Greeks were experiencing major changes in their art as a result of their wars. More important is the fact that Darius and his successors never used slaves and always paid the workers, who were building Persepolis and the first canal (Suez Canal), connecting the Red Sea to the Nile. All these brilliant feats earned him the name Darius the Great.

(Persepolis, National Geographic)

He incorporated the Phoenician navy into the Imperial Persian Navy. He demanded that each satrapy contributed with a certain amount of troops and taxes. It resulted in the dramatic change of the Persian army, because it went from a mainly Persian army to a multicultural army with soldiers from India and Central Asia to Greece & Egypt. He also expanded the kingdom in Central Asia, India, Caucasus and into the Balkans.

In 499 when Darius the Great was 51 years old, the Ionian Greeks revolted. The Persians defeated this revolt 6 years after, but they were infuriated by the Greek aid to the Ionian rebels when they burned down Sardes. Therefore Darius wanted them to suffer the consequences of endangering the Persian hegemony.

In 490, when Darius the Great was 60 years old, his army met the Athenians at the Battle of Marathon in one of the first naval assaults in history. Herodotus says that the Greek were afraid of looking at the Persians, and now they had to meet them in a battle. The Persians had never met an army consisting of brilliantly trained heavy infantrymen and the Persians were used to fight with very high speed and mobility which the Greek land didn't allow. On the other hand, they fought bravely against the Greek center which they pushed back, but the Persian flanks were overrun by the Greeks. This caused the envelopment of the center of the Persian Empire that decided to retreat with the Greeks pursuing. The Greeks were overjoyed by the victory and Pheidippides, a Greek soldier, ran all the way from the b

attlefield to Athens to inform the inhabitants of Greece about the victory. He managed to say "We Have Won" and then he died on the spot due to exhaustion. Now the Persians wanted to reach Athens before the Athenian army in order to conquer the city-state, but they gave up, when they saw that the Athenian army had reached Athens beforehand.

One of the reasons of the defeat in the Battle of Marathon was the late arrival of the Persian horses, who were famous killing-machines. Darius died 5 years after the Battle of Marathon, and he had made the Persian Empire into an efficient and very stabil empire. Now his son Xerxes was ready to defeat the annoying Greeks once and for all...

The Persian Empire 485 BC

The Egyptian Campaign: Cambyses II

2008-12-12T23:48:00.020+01:00

After the Battle of Pelusium in May 525 BC, Cambyses conquered Egypt. It was 4 years after the death of his father, Cyrus the Great. The main source of Cambyses' Egyptian campaign is the Histories written by Herodotus. In his book, he mentions 3 reasons for the Persian conquest of Egypt:

When Cambyses was a little boy, he saw that his mother Cassandane was sad. He wanted to know the reason of her sadness, and she said that her husband, Cyrus the Great, didn't love her anymore, because he was with his Egyptian concubine all the time. When Cambyses heard that, he promised his mother that he would turn Egypt upside down when he grew up.
When Cambyses was the King of Persia he demanded a doctor due to his eye-problems. The Egyptians had famous doctors at that time, and consequently the Egyptian king, Amasis II, sent a doctor to treat him. The doctor was angry, because he didn't want to leave Egypt, but he was forced to do so by the Egyptian King. Therefore he wanted to avenge this, and said to Cambyses that the Egyptian king had a very beautiful daughter. Therefore, Cambyses wanted to marry her. Amasis II was afraid now. In either way he would lose something. If he married his daughter to Cambyses, he would never see her again, and if he didn't send his daughter to Cambyses, he would lose his country to the Persians. So he decided to send another beautiful girl to Persia pretending to be his daughter. Eventually Cambyses found out that it wasn't an Egyptian princess and he got very angry and decided to conquer Egypt.
Cyrus the Great had conquered almost all the known world and thus created the largest empire the world had ever seen at that time. When Cambyses was crowned as king, only Egpyt remained unconquered in that area. Subsequently, Cambyses had to conquerer this ancient civilization. One day, a Greek general, Phanes of Halicarnassus, defected to the Persians from Egyptian service. He said to Cambyses that he knew a path into Egypt and would help the Persians to conquer Egypt. Amasis II hoped to stop the coming Persian invasion by allying with the Greeks, but it didn't happen and a large number of Greek ships from Cyprus and Samos joined the Persian army. Cambyses, allied with the arab chieftains, made the world's first pipeline with camel-skin, so the Persian army was well-supplied with water when crossing the desert towards Egypt.

The two armies eventually met at Pelusium. The Persians outnumbered the Egyptians, and the Egyptian king Amasis II was succeeded by his inexperienced son Psamtik III. The Persians were very clever and they had painted their shields with a large image of Bestat, an Egyptian deity. Therefore, the Egyptians were unwilling to attack the Persians. Consequently they suffered a crushing defeat and routed. According to Ctesias, The Egyptians lost 50.000 men, while the Persians had only lost 7.000 men.

(Cambyses II Fighting the Egyptians, Encarta)

The Egyptians fled into the fortress of Pelusium. The Persians again demonstrated their cleverness by collecting as many cats as possible, because cats were considered as holy animals by the Egyptians, and they symbolized peace and security. So Cambyses ordered the Persians to make the cats run towards the Egyptians, as if they were making an assault, while the Persians stormed the fortress. Consequently, the Persians easily defeated the Egyptians.

After the siege of Memphis in Northern Egypt, the Persian conquest of Egypt was complete. Now Cambyses wanted to conquer Ethiopia, and the soldiers were unable to do so, because of the lack of food. And the conquest of Carthage (modern Tunisia) was impossible, because the Phoenicians that made up the imperial Persian fleet wouldn't attack their kindred.

Now Cambyses only wanted to consolidate the empire. In 522 BC, three years after the battle of Pelusium, a rebellion started in Persia, and Cambyses left Egypt to attack the leader of the rebellion, who claimed to be his brother Bardia.

In may 522, Cambyses died on his way to quell the rebellion. Now the Persian Empire was up for grabs. At that time, Darius, one of the soldiers in the Persian army was on his way to Persia...

The Persian Empire 522 BC

The Birth of The Persian Empire

2008-12-12T16:04:00.029+01:00

Astyages had nightmares about his coming grandson, when his daughter Mandana was pregnant. He dreamt that all Asia would be under the shadow of his grandson Cyrus the Great. When Cyrus was born in 576 BC, Astyages ordered him to be killed and gave the responsibility to Harpagus who couldn't kill a baby. So Harpagus handed the baby, along the responsibility of killing him, to a shepherd. The shepherd's wife had a stillborn child at the same day, and she decided to bury her own child instead of Cyrus...

Cyrus grew up and was recognized by Astyages. Cyrus moved to Persia and planned a rebellion against the Medes. Meanwhile, Astyages punished Harpagus, due to his disobedience, when he was ordered to kill Cyrus. Therefore he decided to help Cyrus. He managed to defeat Astyages after several fierce battles, and he eventually managed to gain the loyalty of the Median army in 550 BC. Now The Medes had become the subject of the Persians.

At the same time the Lydian king Croesus was afraid of the growing Persian power, and wanted to stop it's potential expansion into all of Asia Minor. Cyrus decided to expand the Persian Empire to all of Asia Minor. So the two armies met near the river Halys in April 547 BC, where they fought the fierce Battle of Thymbra. Croesus decided to retr

eat to his capital Sardis in order to fight, when it was spring, but he didn't know that Cyrus the Great had followed him all the way in an unbelievable forced march. Cyrus conquered the Lydian Empire and installed Croesus as his personal advisor.

(Cyrus the Great)

Meanwhile, the Jews where praying to God to be released from their Babylonian captivity. Fortunately, Cyrus the Great had planned the conquest of the Babylonian Empire. After the fierce Battle of Opis on September 25, 539 BC, Cyrus defeated the Babylonians. Then he demonstrated the skill of the Persian engineers by letting them dig canals and divert the river away from Babylon. Therefore the Persian soldiers entered Babylon without drawing a single sword, and Cyrus the Great was hailed as a liberator.

(Campaigns of Cyrus the Great, 552 BC - 530 BC)

Cyrus the Great proved his epithet with a charter, which now is known as the first declaration of human rights. He followed this revolutionary act with releasing the Jews from their captivity and helping them build their temple in Jerusalem. Because of his contribution to humanity Cyrus the Great has been praised in the Koran, Torah & Bible.

(The Tomb of Cyrus the Great, Pasargadae)

Cyrus the Great decided to form a elite unit known as the 10.000 Immortals. This united was formed by the Persians and Medes who proved themselves as brave and extraordinary warriors. There was also many nobles who were a part of the army, and they had golden pomegranates as the counterweight on their spears. Herodotus also admired the luxury and splendor of the Immortals, when they were marching into Greece.

(Two Immortals from Susa)

Cyrus Now turned eastwards against the Massagetae in Central Asia. In a fierce battle he was defeated and killed in 529 BC.

After his death he was succeeded by his son Cambyses. The Persian Empire became the superpower of the ancient world. Cyrus the Great created a vast empire, from India to the Ionian Coast. The greatest empire the world had ever seen. But Egypt remained unconquered...

The Persian Empire 529 BC

The First Iranian Empire: Media

2008-12-12T16:02:00.028+01:00

Iran has been inhabited by many civilizations before the arrival of the Aryans. The Elamites established themselves in South Iran in 5000 BC. The rise of the Assyrian Empire subjected Elam to constant attacks and raids into their lands. In 645 the Assyrians, under the leadership of Ashurbanipal, sacked the capital Susa and annexed the country. This laid the foundation for the Medes and the Persians to fill the void, and it lead to the dramatically change of the Ancient World Order.

Elam, 2000 BC

Northern Iran consisted of Median city-states. In 715 BC, Deioces united these city-states and was considered to be the founder of the Median Empire. The Medes allied with the Babylonians against the Assyrian Superpower. In 612 BC, the alliance captured the Assyrian capital Nineveh and overthrew the Assyrian Empire.

(Two Median Men, Persepolis)

The Median Empire emerged as the dominant power and consequently expanded the borders to eastern Anatolia under the Median king, Cyaxares. In 584 BC, Cyaxares was succeeded by his son, Astyages, who became allied with the Lydian king, Croesus.

Meanwhile, the Persians were the subjects of the Medians. Astyages' daughter, Mandana, married the Persian king, Cambyses I, and gave birth to the end of the Median Empire...

Median Empire, 600 BC