philip

मार्केटिंग रेसेअर्च

2010-01-30T00:07:00.000-08:00

Marketing Research
Philip John F. Verallo
Many organizations find the markets they serve are dynamic with customers, competitors and market conditions continually changing. And marketing efforts that work today cannot be relied upon to be successful in the future. Meeting changing conditions requires marketers have sufficient market knowledge in order to make the right adjustments to their marketing strategy. For marketers gaining knowledge is accomplished through marketing research.
In this part of the Principles of Marketing Tutorials we begin a multi-part discussion of research in marketing. We explore what marketing research is and see why it is considered the foundation of marketing. This tutorial also looks at the elements of good research including factors that distinguish good research from poor. We examine the risks associated with marketing research and see why it should be used to aid decision-making, but never used as the sole reason for making decisions. Finally, we look at the trends shaping marketing research.
Note that in this tutorial we use the terms "marketing research" and "market research" interchangeably. Many feel there is a distinct difference, with "marketing research" covering a broader array of research efforts associated with marketing decisions while "market research" is specific to understanding nuances of a particular market. For the purpose of this tutorial we treat these as the same Importance of Marketing Research
Research, as a general concept, is the process of gathering information to learn about something that is not fully known. Nearly everyone engages in some form of research. From the highly trained geologist investigating newly discovered earthquake faults, to the author of best selling spy novels gaining insight into new surveillance techniques, to the model train hobbyist spending hours hunting down the manufacturer of an old electric engine, each is driven by the quest for information.
For marketers, research is not only used for the purpose of learning, it is also a critical component needed to make good decisions. Market research does this by giving marketers a picture of what is occurring (or likely to occur) and, when done well, offers alternative choices that can be made. For instance, good research may suggest multiple options for introducing new products or entering new markets. In most cases marketing decisions prove less risky (though they are never risk free) when the marketer can select from more than one option.
Using an analogy of a house foundation, marketing research can be viewed as the foundation of marketing. Just as a well-built house requires a strong foundation to remain sturdy, marketing decisions need the support of research in order to be viewed favorably by customers and to stand up to competition and other external pressures. Consequently, all areas of marketing and all marketing decisions should be supported with some level of research.
While research is key to marketing decision making, it does not always need to be elaborate to be effective. Sometimes small efforts, such as doing a quick search on the Internet, will provide the needed information. However, for most marketers there are times when more elaborate research work is needed and understanding the right way to conduct research, whether performing the work themselves or hiring someone else to handle it, can increase the effectiveness of these projects.
Examples of Research in Marketing
As noted, marketing research is undertaken to support a wide variety of marketing decisions. The table below presents a small sampling of the research undertaken by marketing decision area. Many of the issues listed under Types of Research are discussed in greater detail in other parts of the Principles of Marketing Tutorials.

Marketing Decision
Types of Research
Target Markets
sales, market size; demand for product, customer characteristics, purchase behavior, customer satisfaction, website traffic
Product
product development; package protection, packaging awareness; brand name selection; brand recognition, brand preference, product positioning
Distribution
distributor interest; assessing shipping options; online shopping, retail store site selection
Promotion
advertising recall; advertising copy testing, sales promotion response rates, sales force compensation, traffic studies (outdoor advertising), public relations media placement
Pricing
price elasticity analysis, optimal price setting, discount options
External Factors
competitive analysis, legal environment; social and cultural trends
Other
company image, test marketing

Doing Research Right
Marketing research is a process that investigates both organizations and people. Of course, organizations are made up of people so when it comes down to it, marketing research is a branch of the social sciences. Social science studies people and their relationships and includes such areas as economics, sociology and psychology. To gain understanding into their fields, researchers in the social sciences use scientific methods that have been tested and refined over hundreds of years. Many of these methods require the institution of tight controls on research projects. For instance, many companies survey (i.e., ask questions) a small percentage of their customers (called a sample) to see how satisfied they are with the company’s efforts. For the information obtained from a small group of customers to be useful when evaluating how all customers feel, certain controls must be in place including controls on who should be included in the sample.
Thus, doing research right means the necessary controls are in place to insure it is done correctly and increase the chance the results are relevant. Relying on results of research conducted incorrectly to make decisions could prove problematic if not disastrous. Thousands of examples exist of firms using faulty research to make decisions, including many dot-com companies that failed between 1999 and 2002.
As one might expect, the trade-off for doing research right is the increase in cost and time needed to conduct the research. So a big decision for marketers, when it comes to doing research, is to determine the balance between the need for obtaining relevant information and the costs involved in carrying out the research.
Research Validity and Reliability
As we discussed, not all research requires undertaking an elaborate study. But even marketers conducting small, informal research should know that any type of research performed poorly will not yield relevant results. In fact, all research, no matter how well controlled, carries the potential to be wrong. There are many reasons why research may not yield good results (a full discussion being beyond the scope of this tutorial), however, most errors can be traced to problems with how data is gathered. In particular, many research mistakes occur due to problems associated with research validity and research reliability.
Research Validity
This problem with data gathering represents several concepts that to the non-researcher may be quite complex. But basically validity boils down to whether the research is really measuring what it claims to be measuring. For instance, if a marketer is purchasing a research report from a company claiming to measure how people prefer the marketer’s products over competitors’ products, the marketer should understand how the data was gathered to help determine if the research really captures the information the way the research company says it does.
While research validity is measured in several ways, those evaluating research results should keep asking this simple question: Is the research measuring what it is supposed to measure? If the marketer has doubts about the answer to this question then it is possible the results should also be questioned.
Research Reliability
This problem relates to whether research results can be applied to a wider group than those who took part in a study. In other words, would similar results be obtained if another group containing different respondents or a different set of data points were used? For example, if 40 salespeople out of 2,000-person corporate sales force participate in a research study focusing on company policy, is the information obtained from these 40 people sufficient to conclude how the entire sales forces feels about company policies? What if the same study was done again with 40 different salespeople, would the responses be similar?
Reliability is chiefly concerned with making sure the method of data gathering leads to consistent results. For some types of research this can be measured by having different researchers follow the same methods to see if results can be duplicated. If results are similar then it is likely the method of data gathering is reliable. Assuring research can be replicated and can produce similar results is an important element of the scientific research method
Risk in Marketing Research
The discussion above regarding doing research right shows that good marketing research, especially when it involves formal research projects, requires strict controls in order to produce relevant information. Being relevant means the probability is high that the research results reflect what is happening now or might happen in the future. But following the right procedures to produce a relevant study does not insure the results of research will be 100% correct as there is always the potential that results are wrong.
Because of the risks associated with research, marketers are cautioned not to use the results of marketing research as the only input in making marketing decisions. Rather, smart marketing decisions require considering many factors, including management’s own judgment of what is best. But being cautious with how research is used should not diminish the need to conduct research. While making decisions without research input may work sometimes, long-term success is not likely to happen without regular efforts to collect information.
Additionally, risk in research extends to research produced by others. As we discuss in the Planning for Marketing Research Tutorial, the research process often includes using information initially gathered by other sources, such as market research firms. However, in many instances the methods for collecting this information is not be fully disclosed, thus questions exist regarding research validity and reliability. Marketers using research collected by third-party sources should do so with a reasonable level of skepticism. In fact, it is wise for marketers to always make an effort to locate multiple information sources that address the same issue (e.g., two or more sales forecasts reports). A good rule-of-thumb for all marketers is never to rely on one source for making definitive statements about a market.
Research Trends: Information Advantage
In recent years the evolution of marketing research has been dramatic with marketers getting access to a wide variety of tools and techniques to improve their hunt for information. For instance, in its role as the foundation of marketing, marketing research is arguably marketing’s most important task. Today marketers not only view research as a key ingredient in making marketing decisions they also consider information to be a critical factor in gaining advantage over competitors.
Because organizations recognize the power information has in helping create and maintain products that offer value, there is an insatiable appetite to gain even more insight into customers and markets. Marketers in nearly all industries are expected to direct more resources to gathering and analyzing information especially in highly competitive markets. Many of the trends discussed below are directly related to marketers’ quest to acquire large amounts of customer, competitive and market information.
Research Trends: Internet Technologies
To address the need for more information, marketing companies are developing new methods for collecting data. This has led to the introduction of several new technologies to assist in the information gathering process. Many of these developments are Internet-based technologies that include:
Enhanced Tracking - The Internet offers an unparalleled ability to track and monitor customers. Each time a visitor accesses a website they provide marketers with extensive information including how they arrived at the website (e.g., via a search engine) and what they did when on the website (e.g., what products were investigated). In many ways the vast data available through Internet tracking has yet to be used by the majority of marketers. However, as tracking software becomes more sophisticated the use of tracking data will be a routinely used research tool.
Improved Communication – Not only is the Internet enabling marketers to monitor customers’ website activity, it also offers significant improvement in customer-to-company communication which is vital for marketing research. For instance, the ability to encourage customers to offer feedback on the company’s products and service is easy using website popup notices and email reminders. Also, as we discuss in the Planning for Market Research Tutorial, the use of the Internet for conducting online focus group research is expanding.
Research Tools – A large number of Internet services have added options for conducting research. These include the ubiquitous search engines, tools for conducting online surveys, and access to large databases containing previous research studies (i.e., secondary research).
Research Trends: Other Technologies
In addition to the Internet, marketing research has benefited from other technological improvements including:
Virtual Reality and Simulations - Marketers can use computer developed virtual worlds to simulate real world customer activity such as store shopping. While this type of research is mostly performed in a controlled laboratory setting, there are emerging virtual worlds on the Internet where marketers can test concepts and communicate with customers.
Global Positioning Systems – GPS enables marketers to track inventory and even track mobile sales and service personnel. Soon GPS will be a common feature of customers’ communication devices, such as cellphones, offering marketers the potential to locate and track customers.
Data Analysis Software – As we will see in the Planning for Market Research Tutorial, research includes gathering information and it also involves analyzing what is collected. A number of software and statistical programs have been refined to give marketers greater insight into what the data really means
Research Trends: Affordable Research
For many years formal research projects were considered something that only the largest marketers could afford due to the expense of carrying out relevant research. However, the technologies discussed above make it affordable for companies of all sizes to engage in research that were financially prohibitive just few years ago. For instance, surveying customers is quick and easy using one of the many online survey services which charge low fees to create, distribute and analyze results.
Research Trends: Merging Data Sources
The wide range of technologies used to gather data has led to the creation of data centers where information is stored. Today many of these data centers are sharing information with other centers in a manner that offers the marketer a fuller picture of their customers. For instance, as we will discuss in the Managing Customers Tutorial, many companies have multiple contact points where customers can interact with the company (e.g., in-person, on the web, via phone call). In the past the information gathered at these points was often stored separately so if a customer contacted the company through one contact point they may not be recognized if they also contacted the company through a different point.
Companies now see the value in knowing what customers do across all contact points and work to integrate customer information. Additionally, some marketers are going outside their own data collection and seek information on their customers from other sources, such as information provided by credit card companies. This information is then merged with the company-owned information to get a fuller picture of customer activity.
Research Trends: Privacy Concerns
The continual demand for customer information, along with advances in technology and the merging of information sources, has lead marketing organizations to gather information in ways that raise concerns among privacy advocates. Many customers are unaware of the amount and nature of the data marketers collect. As new information gathering techniques and technologies emerge customer response to issues of privacy may determine whether these methods are feasible or forbidden.
Research Trends: Respondent Cooperation
The growing concern with privacy is leading many customers to limit their participation in a company’s research activities. This includes customers choosing not to respond to company requests to take part in research studies that may come via telephone or email solicitation. Customers are also becoming more aware of how their Internet activities are tracked and are responding by using techniques to restrict marketers tracking efforts. For example, marketers can place small data files called cookies on customers’ computer and then use this to track user activity. Many customers are learning to disable the cookies and, in doing so, limit the marketer’s ability to track customer activity.
Research Trends: Research as Promotion
While most people do not equate marketing research with promotion, the fact is many companies are discovering research can also function as a major promotional tool. The practice of distributing company-produced research reports to potential customers and the news media has been used for a number of years in scientific and technology industries. In recent years the practice has expanded into many other fields, particularly among firms involved in consulting, healthcare and financial industries. Such reports often provide readers with information related to product features and benefits, comparisons with competitor’s offerings and target market perceptions. These reports are produced using high quality graphs and charts backed up by carefully created narratives that proudly emphasize the company’s strengths.
Unfortunately, many research reports produced for promotional reasons are not scientific and thus may not carry much value. While many companies claim the research supports their products, many of these claims may in fact be more fluff than substance since they are not grounded in good research methods.

PHILOSOPHY

2010-01-29T23:53:00.001-08:00

SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY
AN INTRODUCTION
Social Philosophy and Social Science
l Although philosophy and science spring from experience, from the inherent desire of the human person to know reality, they differ in their approach and intent.
l Philosophy seeks to understand reality in its totality and ultimate value, while science attempts to control and manipulate it.
l Philosophical approach integrative of experience; while science isolates a certain aspect of reality.
l Social philosophy penetrates into the social dimension of human existence with the immediacy of intuition, searching its meaning and value(s), conceptualizing them for the sake of integrative meaningful living.
l Structures that social philosophy seeks to understand are not taken in isolation from one another but placed in a figure-horizon sort of way.
l Attempts to understand being-with-others-in society in total integrative way.
l Social sciences try to examine a segment of social reality (a group of people, their culture, their economics or politics) as a fact and to explain it.
l Social scientist tries to find inter-objective connections between facts and formulates theories and laws, sometimes with measurements and statistics.
l Uses induction and deduction.
l Method limited to observable phenomena, to social reality as an object.
l Social philosophy and social sciences help each other.
l Philosopher’s insight substantiated by facts provided by scientist, and scientist is impelled to probe into a social fact by the insight of a philosopher.
l Scientist’s methodology contains certain philosophical presuppositions for the philosopher to unearth and criticize.
l Philosopher’s understanding of social reality would remain abstract and unfounded without findings of the social sciences.
l The Social and the Interpersonal
l Social philosophy and social sciences deal with relating to others that is called socius.
l Socius differs from the neighbor. (Paul Ricoeur)
l Neighbor is the personal way I encounter another as a person, the interpersonal, with varying degrees of intimacy.
l Neighbor is the immediate direct relationship with another.
l Socius is the human relationship I have with an organized group or the person I encounter through his/her social function.
l Socius is the mediate indirect relationship I have within the context of institutions and structures.
l In real life, the two overlap and crisscross each other.
l The personal relationship of the neighbor passes through the relationship of the socius,
l works out through the fringes of the socius, and
l rises against the socius.
l The socius and the neighbor are two ways of relating with others, and we must avoid the monopoly of one or the other.
l The socius is not evil in itself; it becomes treacherous when it absorbs and exhausts the whole of our relationships, “for the ultimate meaning of institutions is the service which they render to persons.”
l Nor can our relationships simply be that of the neighbor for this can easily lead to a false sense of charity or delusion. After all, our human existence is social through and through.
l Our life is social in everything. By “everything” we mean everything that is subject to human responsibility.
l The person’s activities are social not only because he/she performs them with others but also because he/she learns them from others, executes them according to accepted patterns and does them for his/her fellow human beings.
l Even wanting to be alone is social.
l Every genuinely human activity is interwoven with an orderly field of meaning, but this orderly field of meaning is at our disposal through others, through society. This is true in the areas of work, play, sense perception, thinking, and feeling.
l Orderly field of meaning in human activity depends upon our fellow human beings and is in turn dependent upon the human person.
l Human existence is fundamentally social in that
l 1) human existence has a historical character,
l 2) we need others to enter into the human world of meaning and to make it our own, and
l 3) being-together is a fundamental value which gives authentic fulfillment in our life.
l The authentic being-for-others is being at the service of others that promotes the existence of the other for his own sake. Here, the being-for-others and the being-through-others merge.
l Social Unity
l The German philosopher Max Scheler (1874-1928) speaks of several essential types of social unity:
l 1. mass (herd among animals):
l no understanding and experience of the other.
l There is only involuntary imitation and psychic contagion.
l The mob possesses its own lawfulness not determined by its members.
l No individuality and sphere of the person as transference of feeling takes place in absence of knowledge, and the individual member is absorbed in total experience. No solidarity because the individual does not exist at all as an experience
l 2. Life Community (as in family, tribe, a people):
l There is understanding but not preceding the experience of togetherness.
l There is an immediate experience of the other and the content of all experience is identical, though varying in course and content in their total dependency on the variations of collective experience.
l Togetherness is experienced as common stream having its own lawfulness.
l Representable solidarity: self-responsibility is built upon an experience of coresponsibility for the willing, acting, and effecting of the whole community.
l Corresponds to different tasks of community: caste, class, dignity, occupation, etc.
l 3. Society: characterized by conscious acts of self and consciousness of acts of others.
l Artificial unit constituted by mature and self-conscious individual persons who agree to come together for common interests.
l Disposition: distrust. Every willing together and doing together presuppose acts of promising and contract.
l No solidarity. Responsibility for others based on self-responsibility.
l Yet, nexus between society and life-community:
l “There can be no society without life community (though there can be life community without society). All possible society is therefore founded through community.” e.g. contract formed in common language.
l 4. Highest type of social unity:
l “the unity of independent, spiritual, and individual single persons ‘in’ an independent, spiritual, and individual collective person.”
l On this level every individual person is at the same time a member of a collective person
l Responsibility-for distinct from responsibility-to:
l In collective person, every individual and the collective person are self-responsible and at the same time every individual is coresponsible for the collective person, just as the collective person is coresponsible for each of its members. Mutual coresponsibility between individual person and collective person.
l
l Responsibility-to:
l there is neither an ultimate responsibility of the individual to the collective person (life community) nor an ultimate responsibility of the collective person to the individual (or majority of individuals) as in society, but both the collective person and the individual person are responsible to the person of persons, to God, in terms of self-responsibility as well as coresponsibility.
l
l Here solidarity takes on a new sense: change from representable solidarity to unrepresentable solidarity—the individual person is coresponsible for all other individual persons ‘in’ the collective person not only as the representative of an office, rank, or any position in social structure but also as unique personal individual and as bearer of individual conscience.
l
l The principle of solidarity is an eternal component and fundamental article of the cosmos of finite moral persons.
l Total moral world becomes one encompassing whole
l Every person, both individual and collective, participates in this according to his special and unique membership
l Two propositions of principle of solidarity:
l 1. community of persons belongs to the essence of a possible person
l 2. a priori structure of mutuality, reciprocity of social acts such as love, esteem, promising, etc.Our task then is to intentionally rise from life-community to bring society (where there is no solidarity) to the totality-person, where genuine solidarity reigns

रेसेअर्च पेपर इन फिलिपिनो २

2010-01-25T22:07:00.000-08:00

IPINSA
PHILIP

Reaksyon:

EKONOMIYA PARA SA MGA FILIPINO

1. Sa iyong palagay: Tumataas na ba talaga ang ekonomiya ng Pilipinas?
2. Ano ang pagbabago sa ekonomiya simula kay Manuel Quezon hanggang kasalukuyan?
3Meron pa ba kaung talumpati tungkol sa ekonomiya?
4Paano sumibol ang kaisipan sa ekonomiya५
.Meron pu ba kaung talumpati tungkol sa ekonomiya?

Napapansin naming ang mga produkto ng mga chines ay dumadami ang kanilang produkto satin. At ng pamurahin ang mga produkto nila sa pilipinas kompara sa ibang bansa kasulukuyan ditto ang Pilipinas, Japan at USA at iba pang bansa na ang mga produkto na galling sa china ay may posibilidad bang bumagsak ang ekonomiya ng Pilipinas? dahil gusto nila na laging mura.
Kaya ba inaalis ng mga pang ekonomiya pangbansa at ang mga pera nila, at patuloy na nag-tataas sa ibang bansa? Pero nakakapag-taka, ang buong mundo na ang nagsasabi na hindi magandang ideya ang mag-palago ng pera sa pilipinas।Ibahagi ang iyong mga saloobin sa mga kasulat sa bawat teksto।
“TSINO”
Gagampanang papel sa pag-unlad ng Ekonomiya n gating bansa
v Ang pag-uusap hinggil sa ating bansa ang pangunahing Agenda ng Tsina. Lokal na mga tagagawa ay dapat na mapabuti ang kalidad ng kanilang mga produkto upang matulungan ang ekonomiya. Hindi puwedeng sabihin lang nila na tangkilikin ang gawang Pinoy. Kailangang patunayan nila sa mga mamimili na ang producto nila ay nagkakahalaga ng pagbili. Ang parehong bagay sa mga Amerikano. Nagsasabi sila bumili taong tamad ng Americanong kotse. Pero ang mga problema ng mga amerikano sa kanilang sasakyan produkto ay mababa ang kalidad. Kaya karamihan sa mga tao ang bumibili ay mga dayuhan lamang ang bumibili ng mga sasakyan ng America... .
v Ang patuloy na krisis sa pananalapi at ang pag-galugad sa paraan ng ng mga pribadong sector ay nagdudulot ng sama-samang sa lahat ng mga intsik at tulong2x sila nag palago ng kanilang produkto tsinoy.
v Ang Pangulo ng Pilipinas na si Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo at ang pagbisita nito sa sa pangunahing Pampulitikang Tagapayo na si Jia Qinglin ay dumalo sa seremonya. Sa kanilang pagpupulong na ito na ang mga epekto ng “Global Financial Crisis”.
v

v
Si Pangulong Arroyo Ang Pilipinas at ang iba pang may malaking komunidad ng Intsik ay weathered ang krisis na may mas mahigit na kabataan, sinasabing ang tulong – tulong sa mga pag-gawa ang siyang daan upang makamit ang kaunlarang pang – Ekonomiya.
v Kapansin – pansin na ang mga Kontribusyong pang – Ekonomiya ng mga Tsino sa pag – unlad sa ating bansa ay maaaring magdala ng oportunidad sa buong mundo.
v ANG PINAKAMALIIT NA BATAS SA PASAHOD
Isang napaka-salimuot pang-ekonomiyang isyu na kung saan maaari naming pag-usapan dito lamang sa mababaw ang problema ng mga batas sa pinakamababang na pasahod. Ito ay itinuturing bilang isang problema dahil ang katumpakan ng pinakamababang pasahod ay paksa ng kontrobersiya. Iyon ang dahilan kung bakit ang pinakamababang sahod ng batas ay ilang ulit ulit sa huling tatlong dekada. Ang pinakahuling dumating sa 8 Enero 1991.
Hindi isa dapat mabigla na ang pinakamababang na sahod ay naitakda sa Pilipinas nang maaga bilang 1951, ito ay lamang ay inaasahan na ang isang napaliwanagan ng pamahalaan ay dapat tumanggi dapat kaliwa libre upang matukoy ang mga sahod na manggagawa ay matanggap. Sa isang mahusay na buod ng mga pinakamababang na sahod pag-aayos ng mga gawi sa Pilipinas, Froilan Bacungan, na ginagamit upang maging sahod komisyonado na kumakatawan sa mga tagapag-empleyo, nabanggit ang mga sumusunod na makatwirang paliwanag para sa mga pinakamababang sahod na batas na ito:
* 1. Puksain ang mga paggawa sa pamamagitan ng mababang sahod at masamang kondisyon ng pagtatrabaho sa pangkalahatan.
* 2. Hindi masyado magdala ng masyado mababa ang sahod tungo sa pangkalahatang antas, tulad ng sa magsikap paitaas presyon sa pangkalahatang antas ng kanyang sarili.
* 3. Ang layunin ng pinakamababang sahod pag-aayos ay isang pagnanais na puksain ang di-patas na kumpetisyon.
* 4. Ang layunin ng panakamababang sahod ay dapat puksain. Tinitingnan ito bilang hindi lamang isang instrumento upang mapabuti ang mga kondisyon para sa mababang bayad ng mga manggagawa, ngunit sa halip, ito ay din tumingin sa bilang isang instrumento ng mga mas pangkalahatang patakaran aiming sa mabilis na paglago at pantay na pamamahagi ng mga pambansang kita.
ANG BATAYAN NG MGA PAMILYA KITA.
Ang konsepto ng (TFI) pag-aaral ay ganap napagkakaayos. Ang pamilya ay ang pangunahing yunit ng lipunan. Ito ay kung saan ang mga tao na nahahanap ang kanyang sarili at sa kanyang pakisama sa iba at kung saan sabay na natututo siya sa pakikitungo sa iba. Ang kanyang personal na laki at panlipunang mga kasanayan ay binuo sa isang pamilya, ang pinakamahusay na paghahanda para sa buhay ng isang makatarungan at kapaki-pakinabang ang buhay sa lipunan malaki ang maitutulong sa pamilya at ay madalas na itinatag sa isang malakas na istraktura ng pamilya at gayon din naman ang pinakamasama sa lipunan na kung saan maaari naming mahanap ang pamilya porma o maayos ang pakikisasama sa lipunan . Ito ay malinaw na ang kanilang sarili ay segurado ng pamilya at higit sa lahat ang kahalagahan ng kung gusto namin ang ating mga anak na magkaroon ng isang mas mahusay na hinaharap. Kapisanan ay dapat mag-ingat ng kanyang kasalukuyan at sa hinaharap na mga miyembro, para sa mga hindi natin mabuhay para sa araw lamang. Pagsisikap na ito ay nangangailangan ng maraming mapagkukunan sa bahagi ng mga gobyerno at mga pinaka-lalo na ng mga pribadong sektor. At sa pamamagitan ng malaki, sa bawat indibidwal na tumatanggap ng mga benepisyo sa pamamagitan ng sahod. Muli naming bumalik sa napakalawak na halaga sa likod ng mga pasahod para sa mga ito ay responsable para sa mga materyal na kagalingan ng isang tao na tao. Ang isang mabuting pasahod tao ay kinakailangan, ngunit hindi sapat para sa tunay na pang-ekonomiyang pag-unlad na mangyayari. Subalit kung ano ay isang magandang sahod? Kung ang manggagawa ay nag-iisa, marahil siya ang nag babadyet sa kanyang mga kailangan maging sa mga importanteng bagay at mga damit lang ang kanyang maiibigay sa kanyang sarili kung ikaw ay nagbadyet sayong sahod. Ang TFI ay naiiba mula sa mga pormang ng pangkalahatan ay pagsukat ng halaga ng pamilya o may matanggap. Minsan ang mga kasangkapan ay ang kahirapan linya, isang maliliit na halaga ng isang manggagawa ay na makatanggap upang mapanatili ang katawan at kaluluwa sama-sama. Ngunit ito ay nagbibigay-kasiyahan sa iyong pisikal na mga pangangailangan ng sapat?
Tiyak na Hindi dahil sa mga pisikal na mga pangangailangan ng mga tao ay hindi lamang ang kanyang mga pangangailangan. Sa halip, dapat itong pahintulutan ng tao upang masunod ang kahit na ang kanyang pinakamataas na layunin at lahat ng iba pang mga penomena na gumawa ng mga tao at hindi isang makina.
ANG EKONOMIYA NG MGA MANGGAGAWA.
Ang aming pangako sa ang kapakanan ng mga Filipino Workers ay malinaw na nakasaad sa 1,987 Philippine saligang-batas. AS ang seksyon 3, Artikulo XIII kalagayan: Sek. 3. Ng estado ay dapat kayang full proteksyon sa paggawa, sa lokal at sa ibayong dagat, organisado at unorganized, at itaguyod ang buong trabaho at pagkapantay-pantay ng oportunidad sa trabaho para sa lahat. Ito ay dapat ng garantiya ang mga karapatan ng lahat ng mga manggagawa sa sariling organisasyon, sama-sama bargaining at negotiations, at mapayapang sama-sama mga gawain, kasama na ang karapatan sa protesta alinsunod sa batas. Sila ay dapat maging karapat-dapat sa seguridad ng pagmamay-ari, mabait na mga kalagayan sa trabaho, at isang sahod. Dapat din silang lumahok sa mga patakaran at paggawa ng desisyon na proseso naaapektuhan ang kanilang mga karapatan at benepisyo bilang ay maaaring ibigay sa pamamagitan ng batas.
Ang ganitong mga clearcut deklarasyon ng mga prinsipyo ng estado at patakaran tungkol sa trabaho ay hindi lamang salita serbisyo. Sa lahat ng mga pagbuo ng mga plano formulated ng pamahalaan, ang pinakamataas na priority ay palaging na nakatalaga sa layunin ng attaining buong trabaho. Sa 1974, isang bagong code ay paggawa din promulgated na binagong at pinagtibay paggawa ng bansa at panlipunang mga batas na maaaring sila ay mas mahusay na kayang na proteksyon sa paggawa, itaguyod ang trabaho at pang-industriya masiguro ang kapayapaan na nakabatay sa panlipunang katarungan. Sa 1,978, ang pagkilala sa kahalagahan ng papel na ginagampanan ng mga manggagawa sa pambansang pag-unlad ay ibinigay ng karagdagang lakas sa mga halalan ng mga kinatawan ng manggagawa sa Batasang Pambansa. Sa ilalim ng 1,987 saligang-batas, ang mga manggagawa ay may karapatan sectoral representation sa Kapulungan ng mga Kinatawan ng Philippine Congress.
Sa kabila ng tulad clearcut declarations ng mga pangunahing mga prinsipyo na sinusundan ng estado na kaugnay sa paggawa, emosyonal sisingilin ng mga talakayan sa mga tiyak na mga aplikasyon sa mga batayang prinsipyo pa rin abound. Ano ang dapat naming gawin sa kabanata na ito ay mag-focus sa ilang mga kasangkapan pang-ekonomiya na dapat hasa upang talakayin ang mga isyu na mas dispassionately. Ito ay pagkabalisa na ang problema ay hindi maaaring napagmasdan eksklusibo mula sa pang-ekonomiyang paninindigan. May mas mahalaga noneconomic mga bagay na dapat ay isinasaalang-alang sa pagdidisenyo, halimbawa, ng isang makatwirang patakaran sa pasahod. Ngunit ang pang-ekonomiyang aspeto ng tulad ng isang patakaran ay hindi pinansin. Tanging sa pamamagitan ng pagiging malinaw na ang tungkol sa pang-ekonomiyang repercussions ng mga partikular na patakaran sa trabaho ay maaari aming mga lider ay napaliwanagan sapat na upang ituloy noneconomic mga layunin sa gastos ng mahigpit na mga pang-ekonomiya.
ANG PRESYO NG MGA LABOR
Ang pinaka-debated pang-ekonomiyang isyu tungkol sa paggawa ay ang presyo na dapat bayaran para sa mga ito, karaniwang termed ang pasahod. A malaki makitungo ng arbitration ay ginugol n ang tanong ng sahod, upang siguraduhin na, ito ay nananatiling isa sa mga mas sensitibong paksa sa ekonomiya at pampulitikang spheres. Labor union unendingly keep on demanding magbayad ng mas mataas na, habang ang mga tagapag-empleyo ay madalas na nahuli sa isang magbigkis sa pagitan ng pagbibigay sa mga unyon ay may kaugaliang maging sanhi ng inflation na humihikayat ng isa pang round ng arbitration na itaas ang sahod sa lahat ng dako muli, at iba pa. Kung ito ay lalabas nakakaabala at counterproductive sa iyo, kumuha ng puso. Mayroon kaming na maunawaan na ang parehong laborers at mga empleyado ay advancing lehitimong interes. Ang mga manggagawa ay nag-aalala sa kapakanan ng kanyang pamilya, habang ang mga negosyante, sa posibilidad na mabuhay ng kanyang mga negosyo na kung saan, sa turn, ang kanyang sariling pamilya ay nakasalalay. Ngunit may kailangan para sa labanan? Puwede ba kaming hindi pagmasdan na ang parehong mga manggagawa at mga manager lamang sa bawat isa sa isang symbiotic relasyon? Marahil na ang isang bit higit pa sa pag-unawa mula sa magkabilang panig ay maaaring magtrabaho kababalaghan, upang ang bawat isa ay maaaring lumapit sa mga bargaining table na may kadalian.
1,986 Nakita ko ang isang muling pagkabuhay ng pampulitika at pang-ekonomiyang kalayaan. Fresh mula sa parehong pang-ekonomiya at pampulitikang krisis, ang bansa ay handa na upang simulan ang lahat ng higit sa muli. At sa ilalim ng isang mas magiliw na kapaligiran ng kalayaan, ang isyu ng pinakamababang sahod na hindi maaaring hindi na muli surfaced. Inaasahan sa pagitan ng mga tao para sa mabilis at malalim na nagbago sa kanilang kabutihan ay sa isang oras ang lahat ng mataas na, at ito ay ngunit ang likas na labor union clamored para sa mas mataas na sahod. At sa isang bilang ng mga theses ay ibinibigay. Sa katapusan ng 1990, gayunman, ang kalagayan ay radically nagbago. Ang ekonomiya ay muli sa threshold ng ibang krisis at mga patakaran na gumagawa ay naging mas maingat sa kanilang mga pronouncements. Ang kalagayan ay naging mabigat na lalo na kapag ang mga digmaan sa Gitnang Silangan ay nalalapit. Ang pamahalaan ay upang makalikom ng sama-sama sa isang multi-sectoral katawan tasked sa chart ng isang plano upang magawa ang krisis. Isa sa mga more memorable sektor na kinakatawan sa mga pulong ay ang paggawa grupo. Ito ay mahusay na mag-ingat sila napaka-unawa hinggil sa kalagayan ng ating pamahalaan, na ang kanilang mga kamalayan ng mga potensiyal na inflation ng isang wage hike ay maaaring maging sanhi, at ang lahat ay nagkaroon na gawin ang kanilang share sa tiding sa ibabaw ng kasalukuyang mga problema.
At kami ay nagtagumpay, salamat sa pagsisikap sama-sama ng lahat ng sektor. Tagtuyot ay maaaring sa amin, ito ay maaring sirain ang loob ng isang bilyong piso halaga ng mga agricultural output, ngunit hindi namin mananatiling matatag. Brownouts maaaring gambalain sa amin, ngunit hindi namin magtiyaga kasama. Isipin kung ano ang maaari naming makamit ang sukdulan kooperasyon mula sa lahat ng mga sektor? Gusto mo napansin na ang mga manggagawa at mga grupo ng minimum na sahod mula sa isang napaka-mahalaga na link sa ating ekonomiya. Sa pawis ng aming mga laborers ang karanasan namin ang maraming mga Amenities ng modernong buhay. Ngunit minsan sa minimum na pasahod tumaas o paggawa grupo ng ingay para sa isang hike sa minimum na sahod, lahat ay apektado. Upang maunawaan ang phenomena na ito mas matindi, sabihin sa amin pamilyar sa ating sarili na may maraming mga bagay na impluwensiya sa presyo ng paggawa.
Sa unang sulyap, ang presyo ng isang kadahilanan ng produksyon-kung ang lupa, paggawa, o kabisera-anyong halos katulad sa kalikasan t na ng anumang ibang mga kalakal. Halimbawa, tingnan ang table sa ibaba sa ilang mga numero pasahod. Don's tumingin sila tulad ng mga presyo ng bigas, mais, karne ng baka, gatas, manok, isda, o anumang iba pang araw-araw na kalakal kang bumili? Kung may hindi ang dami ng pagkakaiba, bakit kailangan nating maglaan ng isang buong kabanata sa ekonomiya ng paggawa? Dapat hindi ang pasahod ay tinutukoy lamang sa pamamagitan ng supply at demand, tulad ng anumang bagay? Ang mga kasanayan na kasangkot sa maliit na bahay at pagyari sa kamay industriya ay mas masalimuot kaysa sa iyo sakahan kamay. Kapareho para sa mga nagtatrabaho sa pribadong ospital, o sa tingian trades. At ibinigay ang katamtaman ang paglago ng ating ekonomiya ang mga nakaraang ilang taon, ang demand para sa mga tindahang negosyante ay maaaring may mas mataas na, at ito ay maaaring tawad up ng kanilang mga sahod. Dahil ang mga ito, ang presyo ng labor maaaring wari ay ipinaliwanag ng parehong mga kadahilanan na matukoy ang presyo ng isang kilo ng baboy o ng mga karne ng baka-ang pwersa ng supply at demand.
Kailangan namin ang reminded, gayunpaman, na paggawa ng tao ay hindi maaaring tratuhin bilang isang kusang-kalakal na binili at ipinagbili sa pinaka-profitable presyo. Ang kalakal ng tao ay hindi maaaring maihambing sa isang object na walang buhay katulad ng bigas, sabon, o baboy. Ang pagpapasiya ng rate ng sahod ay hindi isang walang pinipili resulta ng pakikipag-ugnayan sa pagitan ng supply at demand. Ito ay apektado sa iyo sa pamamagitan ng mga sagot na ibinigay ng mga tao sa mga tulad pilosopiko katanungan bilang sa kalikasan ng pag-iral ng tao at ang mga kahulugan ng trabaho. Ito ay hangarin sa pamamagitan ng mga pwersang tulad ng sibilisasyon, kultura, mga pasadyang, panlipunan at ang mga relasyon sa pagitan ng mga iba't-ibang mga grupo at mga klase sa lipunan. Ang pangangailangan para sa paggawa ay maaaring isang simpleng bagay na iyon ng kakayahang kumita sa mga tagapag-empleyo. Ngunit ang suplay ng paggawa ay sa katunayan ng isang multifaceted laki. Ito ay hindi lamang isang bagay ng pang-ekonomiya ay bumalik sa manggagawa. Ito ay intricately interwoven kasama ng kanyang mga tunay pilosopiya ng buhay, ang kanyang relihiyon.
Samakatuwid, sa isang ekonomiya kung saan ang mga walang trabaho rate ay mataas critically, gobyerno ng isang maaaring tempted alisin sa minimum wage at pahintulutan ang antas ng sahod sa mga tumira ayon sa mga supply at demand na pwersa, sa ganyang paraan na nagpapahintulot sa mga pang-ekonomiyang sistema sa absorb ng maraming manggagawa hangga't maaari. Tunay na sapat, ang pagkawala ng trabaho rate ay mababawasan, ngunit ang mga resulta na rate ng sahod ay tiyak na ne ridiculously mababa. Kapag noneconomic kadahilanan ay kinuha sa pagsasaalang-alang, tulad ng patakaran na ito ay tiyak na hindi pinagtibay. Ang pagpapasiya ng rate ng sahod ay hindi maaaring iwanang sa pulos mga pwersang pang-ekonomiya dahil ang tao ay hindi isang ganap na pang-ekonomiya. Sahod ay dapat ding maging isang lamang ng kabayaran para sa trabaho. Ito ay dapat pahintulutan ang mga manggagawa upang mabuhay sa isang tunay na tao at marangal na buhay. Ang sahod ay dapat katumbas sa kanyang mga kontribusyon sa produksyon na aktibidad kung saan siya ay pansin. Lahat ng mga kadahilanang ito ay pantay na ginagamit mahalaga sa pagpapasiya ng sahod. Magkahawak-kamay na may pagsasaalang-alang pang-ekonomiya ay ang mga elemento ng hustisya, katarungan at dangal.

ANG PABALIK BENDING CURVE
Ano ang mangyayari sa kabila ng hangganan pagsasaalang-alang ng isang lamang ng sahod? Paano manggagawa tumugon ang nagpapataas sa pang araw-araw na rate ng sahod? Let us ngayon tingnan para sa unang panahon sa isang pang-ekonomiya kuru-kuro ng trabaho. Maaari naming subukan na may kaugnayan sa antas ng sahod inaalok at ang mga kaukulang bilang ng mga araw ng isang manggagawa ay malugod na pumapayag sa trabaho: Sa unang tingin, ang aming supply curve Mukhang napaka-normal na: ang mas mataas ang presyo, ang mas mataas ang dami ng binigay. Subalit sosyolohista ay sundin na may ilang mga tao sa mas maraming mga pabalik na lugar sa kanayunan na trabaho ay mas mababa kung ang kanilang mga sahod ay sapat na dagdagan. Sa ibang, ang kanilang supply ng alon ang mga sumusunod na katangi-tangi hugis. Ito ay hindi mahirap na ipaliwanag ang mga pabalik-bending curve supply sa itaas. Lalaki sa tradisyonal na lipunan ay may matagal na itinatag kagustuhan para sa lahat ng uri ng dahan-dahan sa mga gawain tulad na makatawag pansin sa sports. Sila ay handang magbigay ng up ang mga Pleasures lamang kung may matinding pangangailangan para sa kanila na magtrabaho upang suportahan ang kanilang mga pamilya. Gayunman, kapag ang kanilang mga kabahayan makamit ang isang tiyak na antas ng pang-ekonomiyang kagalingan, ang kanilang mga kagustuhan para sa paglilibang ay nagsisimula sa lumamang ang kanilang pagnanais para sa mas mataas na kita. Kaya, kung ang rate ng sahod ay nadagdagan ng sapat, maaari namin alamin na ang mga manggagawa ay handang mag-alok ng mas kaunting oras o araw ng trabaho.
ANG SELF-NAGTATRABAHO MANGGAGAWA
Kahit na nagkaroon ng hindi sa pamamagitan ng pagsisiyasat ng supply ng alon ng mga Filipino ng mga manggagawa, ito ay mahalaga na isaalang-alang ang posibilidad ng pabalik-bending curve supply dahil sa pamamayani ng sarili nagtatrabaho manggagawa at hindi bayad na mga pamilya ng mga manggagawa sa ating paggawa puwersa. Tulad ng mga manggagawa ay hindi kailangang sumunod sa anumang mga iskedyul ng trabaho. Maaari silang maging mga manggagawa ng isang araw, loafers sa susunod na araw! Lamang ng isang minorya ng mga manggagawa Filipino kumikita ng sahod o suweldo. Ang iba ay nagtatrabaho para sa kanilang sarili o para sa kanilang mga pamilya. Dahil dito, maaari naming sabihin na ang karamihan ng ating mga manggagawa ay hindi pa kita eh uri ng gawain na nangangailangan ng karagdagang disiplina at pagtitiyaga. Ang karamihan sa aming mga manggagawa ay bihasa pa rin paminsan-minsan sa mga pamamaraan ng nagtatrabaho. Pamamagitan ng panahon, gayunpaman, maaari naming asahan ang proporsyon ng sahod at suweldo ng mga manggagawa upang madagdagan. Sa katunayan, ang isang pag-aaral ng kasaysayan ng ekonomiya ng bansa na pag-unlad ay nagpapakita ng malapit na ugnayan sa pagitan ng paglago ng ekonomiya at ang pagbawas sa proporsyon ng sarili empleyado ng mga manggagawa sa kabuuang lakas paggawa. Sa karagdagang binuo ng mga bansa, karamihan sa mga manggagawa ay sa ilalim ng ilang uri ng mga kontrata ng serbisyo.

ANG KAPALARAN NG SARILI-TRABAHO.
Ang ganitong pag-unlad ay isang lohikal na resulta ng extension ng merkado na napupunta kasama ng mga pang-ekonomiyang paglago. Bilang palawakin ang mga merkado, producer ang makahanap ng kanyang mga customer malayo at mas malayo ang layo. Maaari siyang hindi na pareho ang tagagawa at merchant sa maraming mga pagkakataon. Hus, ang mga middlemen o ang mga mangangalakal ay kinakailangan. Dahil sa oligopolistic istraktura ng mga grupo sa merchant's, maaga o huli mangangalakal kumuha ng higit sa bilang mga tagapag-empleyo at ang dating sarili nagtatrabaho producer maging sahod ng mga manggagawa. Ang extension ng merkado, tulad ng mga tala Adam Smith, na humahantong sa isang mas higit na dibisyon ng paggawa. Manggagawa upang magpakadalubhasa sa iba't-ibang bahagi sa parehong proseso ng produksyon. Upang makapag-mahusay na gawain, kailangan nila ng isang pangkaraniwang bubong at specialized tools. Ang mga ito ay karaniwang ibinibigay para maging isang kapitalista. Hindi nagtagal, ang dating sa sarili nagtatrabaho manggagawa maging wage earners sa pabrika ng pag-aari ng iba.
ANG MGA MALILIIT NA NEGOSYO.
Ay may sapat na manggagawa sa kasalukuyang inuri isang self-nagtatrabaho manggagawa at bilang hindi-bayad na pamilya sa mga manggagawa na mahalay underemployed at maaaring hinihikayat na pumunta sa mas makahulugan small-scale Ventures. Kailangan namin ng hindi kinakailangan subukan na pang-akit sa mga na nagtatrabaho bilang mga sahod at suweldo ng mga manggagawa mula sa mga umiiral na trabaho. Kami na lang ay upang tiyakin na ang iba pang mga 60% ng mga manggagawa ay ibinigay ang pagkakataon na maging tunay na nagbubunga sa mga maliliit at medium-scale kumpanya ng negosyo. Ang mga kamakailan-lamang pa rin at higit sa lahat sa pagpunta krisis inilatag off daan-daang libo ng mga manggagawa. Siguro sa tamang mga insentibo at mabuting pagkakataon, ang ilan sa kanila ay dapat hinihikayat upang simulan ang maliit na negosyo ng kanilang mga sarili. Hindi namin kailangan mag-isip malaki bagaman ang aming kultura ay may kaugaliang luwalhatiin ang napakalaki at sa panghahamak sa maliit na maliit. Gayunman, ang mga maliliit na negosyo ay hindi palaging isang function ng laki.
Ito ay lalo na kinakailangan upang tumingin sa kabila ng walang pinipili pwersa ng supply at demand sa pagsisikap na maunawaan ang pagpayag sa trabaho sa pagitan ng mga miyembro ng pamilya sa isang enterprise ng isang maliit na negosyo-scale na kung saan ang may-ari ng rin ang pangunahing manggagawa. Ang pagmamataas sa isang trabaho na magaling, ang pang-unawa ng mga birong gawa, ang malusog na pakiramdam ng pang-ekonomiya sa pagsasarili at ang espiritu ng serbisyo sa lipunan, ay maaring maging pantay-pantay motivations mahalagang isaalang-alang. Sa katunayan, ang mga ito ay ang motivations na maaaring pagbuhatan ng wakas ng isang matatag pundasyon para sa isang malaganap pang-industriya rebolusyon sa Pilipinas, isang rebolusyon na maaaring putulin ng kabuuan ng lahat ng mga grupo ng kita at sosyal na klase.

ANG PAPEL NG EDUKASYON
Walang tanong na pang-edukasyon ay contributed makabuluhan sa pangkalahatang-a-upgrade ng mga resources tauhan sa Pilipinas. Sa pamamagitan ng isang literacy rate ng mahigit 90%, ang isa sa mga pinakamataas sa Timog-silangang Asya, ang Pilipinas ay maaaring magyabang ng isang lubhang madaling ituro pool ng mga tauhan. Ang bilang ng mga mag-aaral sa unibersidad sa Pilipinas staggers ang imahinasyon ng maraming kanluranin observers. Ang Philippine ratio ng mga mag-aaral sa unibersidad sa populasyon ay pangalawa lamang na magkaroon ng isang mas bumuo ng sistema ng unibersidad kaysa sa tulad highly industrialized na bansa tulad ng Inglatera, Alemanya at Pransya. Numero, gayunpaman, maaari kasinungalingan. At sa pangyayaring ito, ang kanilang kasinungalingan. Ang lahat ng sa amin mapagtanto kung paano sub-standard na sa unibersidad na edukasyon sa Pilipinas ay na. Kabilang sa mga higit sa 1.1 million sa unibersidad o kolehiyo na mga mag-aaral kami, nais naming maging mapalad sa mapulot kahit 100,000 na gusto ipasa ang internasyonal na pamantayan para sa mga unibersidad sa trabaho.
KABUHAYAN GAYUNMAN
Ang ganitong paglaganap ng pseudo-mag-aaral sa unibersidad, gayunpaman, ay maaari pa rin mabibilang sa aming mga bendisyon. Tue, ang kalagayan ay nagdulot ng isang labis na supply ng white manggagawa kwelyo. Dahil sa sitwasyon, gayunpaman, kami ay makakapag-supply, walang gaanong kahirapan, ang demand para sa aming mga manggagawa sa ibang bansa. Maaari naming magkaroon ng isang substandard ang sistema ng edukasyon ngunit walang maaaring makipagtalo ang katunayan na ang mga mag-aaral sa unibersidad at nagtapos magbigay sa amin ng isang pool ng madaling trainable mga manggagawa na ngayon ay mataas na appreciated ng mga tagapag-empleyo sa ibang bansa.
Ang pagiging produktibo ng paggawa namin nakita ang lahat ng mga katangi-tangi pwersa na ang hugis ng supply curve ng paggawa sa Pilipinas. Ngunit ano ang mga kadahilanan matukoy ang demand para sa paggawa? Bakit kailangan ng isang negosyante magbayad ng isang tiyak na presyo para sa isang tiyak na dami ng manggagawa? Sa bakuran ng pang-ekonomiya ay nagbalik nag-iisa, kung ano ang tumutukoy sa pagpayag ng mga employer sa pag-upa ng mga manggagawa sa isang tiyak na halaga ng sahod? Ang ekonomiya ay may handa na sagot. Ang pagiging produktibo ng mga manggagawa ay nagpasiya na ang gusto ng mga employer sa pag-upa sa kanila sa isang partikular na rate ng sahod. Let us suriin muli ang ilang mga concepts na na namin pinag-aralan. Ayon sa batas ng lumiliit nagbalik, bilang namin dagdagan ang paggamit ng isang tiyak na uri ng input, sabihin paggawa, habang pinapanatili ang lahat ng iba pang mga bagay pare-pareho, ang produktibo ng bawat karagdagang yunit ay nagsisimula sa magbawas matapos ang isang tiyak na punto ay naabot.
ANG PANGANGAILANGAN PARA SA LABOR
Pagkatapos suriin ang APL at MPL alon, dapat naming makita kung bakit ang pinakamataas na rate ng sahod na negosyante ang mga dapat bayaran ay OW2. Sa anumang mas mataas na rate ng sahod, siya ay nagbabayad ng higit pa sa average ng produkto at dahil dito ay magiging incurring a pagkawala. Sa W2, ang employer ay hire L2, ang bilang ng mga laborers. Sa mga halaga ng pinakamababang pasahod, ang employer ay sundin ang mga MPL kurba sa pagkatuto upang matukoy kung gaano karaming mga laborers siya ay hire. Sa W3, halimbawa, ay dapat na siya hire L3 laborers dahil sa antas na siya ay maaaring mapakinabangan ang kanyang kabuuan na kita na kung saan ay pantay-pantay sa shaded na lugar sa graph. Kung suriin natin ang graph malapit na, ay dapat naming patunayan na ang producer ay palaging mapakinabangan ang kanyang kabuuan na kita na kung siya ay sumusunod sa kanyang MPL curve at hindi ang APL curve. Sa katunayan, kung siya ay sumusunod sa APL curve, hindi siya ay gumagawa ng anumang mga tubo. Siya ay nagbabayad ng lahat ng gumawa ng kanyang sa mga manggagawa. Sa sandaling ito, kailangan namin gumawa ng malinaw na sa palagay namin ay ang paggawa tungkol sa salability ng produkto ng mga manggagawa. Malinaw, ang employer ay hindi interesado sa ang produkto per se. Siya ay interesado sa presyo ng produkto na maaaring utos sa merkado. Kaya, sa huling pagsusuri, ang demand para sa paggawa ay wala na nagmula sa demand para sa kanyang produkto. Ito ay tinatawag na kaya ang isang nagmula demand. Sa katunayan, ang mga kadahilanan ng produksyon na nagmula demand.
ANG MERKADO PARA SA PAGGAWA
Ngayon ay maaari naming ilagay ang supply at demand curve sama-sama, nakita namin na ang mga supply curve ay makakakuha ng hugis nito mula sa karamihan sa mga magkakaibang mga kadahilanan: ang mga kamag-anak na halaga na ibinibigay sa oras na walang ginagawa at trabaho, preconceived notions tungkol sa undesirability ng ilang paraan ng paggawa, pilosopiko kuru-kuro ng mga trabaho na nauukol sa kalahatan ng pag-iral ng tao, atbp Sa kaibahan ang demand para sa mga trabaho ay may isang sumasamo simple. Ito ay lamang nagmula sa produktibo ng mga manggagawa. Ito competitive na proseso ay approximated ng countervailing pwersa ng kapangyarihan ng mga unyon ng manggagawa at ang lakas ng management. May ay walang pagsala ng isang lumalagong kahalagahan ng mga unyon ng manggagawa sa Pilipinas. Pamamahala ng hindi na kayang ipagwalang-bahala ito ng lakas na isang mahalagang pangalagaan ang mga karapatan ng mga manggagawa. Kahit na maraming mga mamimili ay maaaring inconvenienced sa pamamagitan ng strikes, hindi namin dapat kalimutan na ang kalayaan na ito upang iugnay upang yakapin ang isang karaniwang sanhi ay isang karapatang likas sa matalas ang isip at walang tao. Bukod dito, sa isang lipunan na binubuo ng may depekto mga tao, ng isang balanse ng kapangyarihan sa maaari lagi tumulong sa kagalingan ng lahat.
Talaan ng Nilalaman
Tsino
Gagampanang papel sa pag-unlad ng Ekonomiya ng ating bansa.
II. Ang pinakamaliit na Bartas sa pasahod
III. Ang Bartauyan ng mga kirtang pampamiluya
IV. Pagkamirt ng mga pinagkukunang uyaman ng Komonidad.
1. Intoduksyon sa pagkakamit ng pagkukunan ng yaman.
1.1 Pagbibigay-buhay at pagtuturo para saa lahat sa pamahala ng
Komunidad:
1.2 ang pakay ng dokumentong ito:
1.3 ang pananalapi ay pinagkunanng yamn:
2. ang layunin ng pagbawi ng gasto ng komunidad:
2.1 isaisip ang mga pangkalahatang layunin:
2.2 bakit natin nilalabanan ang pag-asa sa iba?
3. mga uri ng pagbawi ng gastos:
3.1 bayad sa serbisyo vs. donasyon

Nasaan na ang pinagmamalaking 7.3 “ECONOMIC GROWTH” ni GMA?
Noon pa man ay hindi na pinaniwalaan ang mga pagyayabang ng pamahalaang Arroyo na lumaki ng ilang purysento ang ekonomiya ng bansa. Hibang ang taong maniniwalang totoo ito.
Kamakailan lang ay ipinagmalaki ni GMA na nakaranas ng 7.3% na paglaki ang ating ekonomiya, isang bagay na labis nilang ipinagyayabang para matakpan ang mga katiwalian sa kanyang pamamahala.
Ginagamit din ito ng kanyang mga taga suporta para patuloy na liuhin at linlangin ang taumbayan sa paghahanap nito sa katotohanan sa likod ng mga sunud-sunod na kontrobersyang kinasasangkutan ni GMA, ng kanyang pamilya at ng kanyang mga alipores. Mas mabuti na raw si GMA dahil kahit papaano ay napapalago ang ating ekonomiya.
Nakakalungkot dahil may mga taong kumakagat sa ganitong propaganda ng administrasyong Arroyo.
Kung ayaw pa rin nilang maniwala at gustong patuloy na magbulag-bulagan, heto ang isang balita na yayanig sa kanilang mundo.
Simbahan: Gagampanang papel sa pag-unlad ng Ekonomiya n gating bansa
v Ang Pilipinas ay isang multi-cultural Hybrid (83% Katoliko, 9% Protestante, 5% Muslim, 3% Budista/Iba pa)
v Ang Kristiyano ang tanging relihiyon nsa kumakatawan sa saan man sa archipelago. Ang simbahang Katoliko ay may matinding Pampulitikang impluwensya na kung saan, ang Cardinals at Obispo ay hindi kailanman mag – atubiling gamitin, kahit na laban sa pamilya ng mga programa sa pagpapalano o sa karagdagang idyonsinkratikong Agenda Pampilitika.
v Natatandaan niyo ba na may malaking papel si Caridal Jaime Sin sa rally ng mahalagna araw ng “People Power” ng mga Aquino? Upang suportahan ang mga Aquino
v Ang Iglesia din ay may mahalagang papel sa pagsalungat sa epetibong pagpaplano ng pamilya na kung saanay may isang problemang hindi katanggap – tanggap na binigay ng “POPULATION GROWTH RATE” sa bansa ng 2.7%.
v Si Pangulong Arroyo ay nagkaroon ng linggo sa paggawa ng kitang malkakas na pangako ukol sa “POPULATION GROWTH RATE”.
v Ang mga muskum din ay gumaganap ng ng isang mahalang ambag, mapaghimagsik at kaunting armas sa minorya ng grippo. Ang patilluna labanan sa pagitan ng mga muslim at ng mga Kristiyano ay maaaring traced pabalik sa panahon ng kolonualismo ng mga Espanyol ditto sa Pinas.
Pangunahing Grupo ng mga Muslim
§ Maguindanao
§ Maranao
§ TAusog
v Ang mga Muslim ay malamang na nakatuon sa (International Islaminc) halip na sa tapat ng apila ng Makabayan. (MNLF, Terorismo)

थे टोपिक

2010-01-17T17:18:00.000-08:00

NS-2 PHYSICAL SCIENCE

THE RESEARCH PAPER

PHILIP JOHN F. VERALLO
BSBA-MAJOR IN MARKETING MANAGEMENT

PROF. CATHERINE LABANDERO

Measurement - Lessons
Time - Time is possibly an emergent concept that arises secondary to the presence of motion and forces. It is proposed here that the motion and forces are due to expansion of the universe. Slower expansion of space around large masses like earth and sun could be considered as the cause of slower time linking time to the expansion of space
· Seasons
· Months
· Days of the Week
· AM and PM times
· Converting Minutes to Hours
· Converting Hours to Minutes
Metric System -
· Metric Prefixes I
· Metric Prefixes II
· Metric Symbols I
· Metric Symbols II
Mass -
· Metric Mass
· Comparing Metric Masses
· Add Pounds and Ounces

Length –
· Metric Length
· Comparing Metric Lengths
· Add Feet and Inches

Volume -
· Metric Volume
· Comparing Metric Volumes I
Temperature Conversions -
· Celsius to Fahrenheit I
· Celsius to Fahrenheit II
· Fahrenheit to Celsius I
· Fahrenheit to Celsius II
What is Chemistry all about?
Chemistry is such a broad subject and one so full of detail that it is easy for a newcomer to find it somewhat overwhelming, if not intimidating. The best way around this is to look at Chemistry from a variety of viewpoints:
How Chemistry relates to other sciences and to the world in general

What are some of the fundamental concepts that extend throughout Chemistry?

Dynamics refers to the details of that rearrangement of atoms that occur during chemical change, and that strongly affect the rate at which change occurs.
Energetic refers to the thermodynamics of chemical change, relating to the uptake or release of heat. More importantly, this aspect of chemistry controls the direction in which change occurs, and the mixture of substances that results.
Composition and structure define the substances that are results of chemical change. Structure refers specifically to the relative arrangements of the atoms in space. The extent to which a given structure can persist is itself determined by energetic and dynamics.
Synthesis, strictly speaking, refers to formation of new (and usually more complex) substances from simpler ones, but in the present context we use it in the more general sense to denote the operations required to bring about chemical change and to isolate the desired products

What Is Physics?
Physics is the scientific study of matter and energy and how they interact with each other.
This energy can take the form of motion, light, electricity, radiation, gravity . . . just about anything, honestly. Physics deals with matter on scales ranging from sub-atomic particles (i.e. the particles that make up the atom and the particles that make up those particles) to stars and even entire galaxies.
What is astronomy all about?
Astronomy is the science of space beyond Earth’s atmosphere. The name is derived from the Greek root astron for star, and nomos for arrangement or law. Astronomy is concerned with celestial objects and phenomena – like stars, planets, comets and galaxies – as well as the large-scale properties of the Universe
Astronomy also plays a much more practical role that is not nearly as important today as it was in the past. Since the time of our earliest ancestors, humans have used the motions of celestial objects to position themselves in space and time.

Phases of the Moon
Full moons are really cool. Why can't we have them all the time? Why is the moon never the same, glowing, fully round orb that we know so well? The four different phases of the moon - first quarter, full, last quarter, and "new" moon - have to do with the relative positions of the sun, the moon and the earth in the moon's monthly orbit of the earth. It can get pretty confusing because of all the different orbits and rotations; the moon orbiting around the rotating earth, the earth and moon orbiting around the sun. But remember; the light of the moon is actually the light of the sun reflecting off the face of the moon. Check out the cartoon, at left and below, showing the moon's orbit around the earth. The reason we don't see any light on the moon during a new moon is because the far side of the moon is getting all the light, while the side we see is cast completely in shadow. When we have a full moon it's because the moon is facing us AND the sun, so we see its light reflected fully.

माय फवोरिते होटल इन माय लाइफ

2009-08-21T21:56:00.000-07:00

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माय सर्च इन माय सुब्जेक्ट इन नस १ बिओलोगिकल

2009-08-21T21:38:00.000-07:00

PHILIP JOHN F. VERALLO- BSBA
Introduction to Biology
Electron micrograph showing transcription of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes in the developing egg cell of the spotted newt. Fibers extending in clusters are molecules of rRNA used in the construction of cell's ribosomes. The long filaments indicated by green arrow are DNA molecules coated with proteins. RNA molecules get longer as transcription proceeds to completion as indicated by the red arrow. (Courtesy of Oak Ridge National Laboratory , U.S. Department of Energy. Used with permission.)
Education development efforts for these introductory biology courses are one of many activities conducted by the HHMI Education Group at MIT. This group focuses on curriculum development work for creating teaching tools in undergraduate biology courses.
Course Description

The MIT Biology Department core courses, 7.012, 7.013, and 7.014, all cover the same core material, which includes the fundamental principles of biochemistry, genetics, molecular biology, and cell biology. Biological function at the molecular level is particularly emphasized and covers the structure and regulation of genes, as well as, the structure and synthesis of proteins, how these molecules are integrated into cells, and how these cells are integrated into multicellular systems and organisms. In addition, each version of the subject has its own distinctive material.
7.012 focuses on the exploration of current research in cell biology, immunology, neurobiology, genomics, and molecular medicine.
Acknowledgements
The study materials, problem sets, and quiz materials used during Fall 2004 for 7.012 include contributions from past instructors, teaching assistants, and other members of the MIT Biology Department affiliated with course #7.012. Since the following works have evolved over a period of many years, no single source can be attributed.
What is biology?
Biology - The study of living organisms and their vital processes. It is the science devoted living organisms both plants and animals. The term biology has been derived from two Greek words; bios=life, logos=thinking, discourse or knowledge. It is divided into two main branches, botany and zoology. Biology is the area of science that studies life and its processes

The word biology is derived from the Greek words /bios/ meaning /life/ and /logos/ meaning /study/ and is defined as the science of life and living organisms. An organism is a living entity consisting of one cell e.g. bacteria, or several cells e.g. animals, plants and fungi. Aspects of biological science range from the study of molecular mechanisms in cells, to the classification and behavior of organisms, how species evolve and interaction between ecosystems.
The study of biology can be divided into different disciplines –
• Ethnology
• Evolutionary Biology
• Physiology
• Genetics
• Molecular Biology
• Morphology
• Systematic
• Ecology
Biology often overlaps with other sciences; for example, biochemistry and toxicology with biology, chemistry, and medicine; biophysics with biology and physics; stratigraphy with biology and geography; astrobiology with biology and astronomy. Social sciences such as geography, philosophy, psychology and sociology can also interact with biology, for example, in administration of biological resources, developmental biology, biogeography, evolutionary psychology and ethics.
What is the importance of biology?
Biology is a natural science which studies living organisms and how they interact with each other and their environment. It examines the structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution of living things. Also, it classifies and describes organisms, their functions, and how species come into existence. Four unifying principles form the foundation of modern biology: cell theory, evolution, genetics and homeostasis. Biology as a separate science was developed in the nineteenth century as scientists discovered that organisms shared fundamental characteristics. Biology is now a standard subject of instruction at schools and universities around the world, and over a million papers are published annually in a wide array of biology and medicine journals. Most biological sciences are specialized disciplines. Traditionally, they are grouped by the type of organism being studied: botany, the study of plants; zoology, the study of animals; and microbiology, the study of microorganisms. The fields within biology are

further divided based on the scale at which organisms are studied and the methods used to study them:
1. biochemistry examines the fundamental chemistry of life;
2. molecular biology studies the complex interactions of systems of biological molecules;
3. cellular biology examines the basic building block of all life, the cell;
4. physiology examines the physical and chemical functions of the tissues and organ systems of an organism; and
5. ecology examines how various organisms and their environment interrelate.
another answer
is the science that studies living organisms. Prior to the nineteenth century, biology came under the general study of all natural objects called natural history. The term biology was first coined by Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus.[citation needed] It is now a standard subject of instruction at schools and universities around the world, and over a million papers are published annually in a wide array of biology and medicine journals.[1]
Biology examines the structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution and classification of all living things. Five unifying principles form the foundation of modern biology: cell theory, evolution, gene theory, energy, and homeostasis.
HISTORY OF BIOLOGY
Biology - The Study of Life
By Regina Bailey, About.com
anatomy
biology
characteristics of life
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What is biology? Simply put, it is the study of life -- life in all of its grandeur. From the very small algae to the very large elephant, life has a certain wonder about it. With that in mind, how do we know if something is living? Is a virus alive or dead? What are the characteristics of life? These are all very important questions with equally important answers. Characteristics of LifeLiving things include both the visible world of animals and plants, as well as the invisible world of bacteria. On a basic level, we can say that life is ordered. Organisms have an enormously complex organization. We're all familiar with the intricate systems of the basic unit of life, the cell.Life can also "work." No, not the daily employment variety, but living creatures can take in energy from the environment. This energy, in the form of food, is transformed to maintain metabolic processes and for survival.Life grows and develops. This means more than just getting larger in size. Living organisms also have the ability to rebuild and repair themselves when injured.Life can reproduce. Have you ever seen dirt reproduce? I don't think so. Life can only come from other living creatures. Life can respond. Think about the last time you accidentally stubbed your toe. Almost instantly, you flinched back in pain. Life is characterized by this response to stimuli.Finally, life can adapt and respond to the demands placed on it by the environment. There are three basic types of adaptations that can occur in higher organisms.
· Reversible changes occur as a response to changes in the environment. Let's say you live near sea level and you travel to a mountainous area. You may begin to experience difficulty breathing and an increase in heart rate as a result of the change in altitude. These symptoms go away when you go back down to sea level.
· Somatic changes occur as a result of prolonged changes in the environment. Using the previous example, if you were to stay in the mountainous area for a long time, you would notice that your heart rate would begin to slow down and you would begin to breath normally. Somatic changes are also reversible.

· The final type of adaptation is called genotypic (caused by mutation). These changes take place within the genetic makeup of the organism and are not reversible. An example would be the development of resistance to pesticides by insects and spiders.
In summary, life is organized, "works," grows, reproduces, responds to stimuli and adapts. These characteristics form the basis of the study of biology.Basic Principles of BiologyThe foundation of biology as it exists today is based on five basic principles. They are the cell theory, gene theory, evolution, homeostasis, and laws of thermodynamics.
· Cell Theory: all living organisms are composed of cells. The cell is the basic unit of life.
· Gene Theory: traits are inherited through gene transmission. Genes are located on chromosomes and consist of DNA.
· Evolution: any genetic change in a population that is inherited over several generations. These changes may be small or large, noticeable or not so noticeable.
· Homeostasis: ability to maintain a constant internal environment in response to environmental changes.
· Thermodynamics: energy is constant and energy transformation is not completely efficient.
Subdiciplines of BiologyThe field of biology is very broad in scope and can be divided into several disciplines. In the most general sense, these disciplines are categorized based on the type of organism studied. For example, zoology deals with animal studies, botany deals with plant studies, and microbiology is the study of microorganisms. These fields of studycanbe broken down further into several specializedsubdisciplines. Some of which include anatomy, cell biology, genetics, and physiology

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS

It is not always an easy thing to tell the difference between living, dead, and non-living things. Prior to the 1600's many people believed that nonliving things could spontaneously turn into living things. For example, it was believed that piles of straw could turn into mice. That is obviously not the case. There are some very general rules to follow when trying to decide if something is living, dead, or non-living. Listed here are the six rules used by scientists:
Living things are made of cells.
Living things obtain and use energy.
Living things grow and develop.
Living things reproduce.
Living things respond to their environment.
Living things adapt to their environment.
If something follows one or just a few of the rules listed above, it does not necessarily mean that it is living. To be considered alive, an object must exhibit all of the characteristics of living things. Sugar crystals growing on the bottom of a syrup container is a good example of a nonliving object that displays at least one criteria for living organisms.

Ontario Biomedical Inst.Professional development courses in Clinical Research, Bioinformaticswww.ontariobiomedical.comhttp://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/davidschutz/livingEnv/notescharacteristics.htm Characteristics of living things
1. All living things are made up of cells. Organisms may be Unicellular (made up of one cell or Multicellular (made up of many cells)
2. All living things must be able to reproduce. Required for the species but not for each individual. Two basic kinds of reproduction are
Sexual reproduction- two cells from different parents unite to form zygote (first cell of new organism)
Asexual reproduction- one parent gives rise to new individual (binary fission or budding for example)
3. A L T are based on a universal genetic code, generally DNA

4. A L T Grow and develop - to get larger and change, have a life cycle
5. A L T Obtain and use materials and energy
Transport- movement of materials into out of or within
Metabolism - Chemical reactions of the life processes
Ingestion - taking in materials
Digestion - breaking down large molecules into simpler usable substances
Respiration - Combining oxygen with the products of digestion to release energy
Excretion - ridding the organism of unusable and waste materials
Nutrients- substances an organism needs for Energy Growth repair or maintenance
Synthesis- Production of large molecules by combining smaller ones
Photosynthesis- Production of large molecules (which contain stored energy) from smaller molecules using the suns energy
6. ALT respond to their environment - leaves face the sun, birds may fly south
7. ALT Maintain and regulate (control) an internal balance
Homeostasis - process by which organisms keep their internal conditions relatively the same
8. ALT evolve or can change over generations in response to environmental changes
Individual organisms can't evolve, a species can over many generations
8 Steps To The Scientific Method:
The 8 steps to the scientific method must be followed if the young scientist wants to be successful. You should also make sure the problem the experiment is trying to solve is not too big (look around the site for various science fair project ideas you can use).
Summary of the Scientific Method:
#1: The student will need to identify the problem. This begins when the scientist narrows down the possible projects to one topic.
#2: The child will ask an appropriate question. The question should be very specific and at this point parents and teachers can assist the child.

#3: It’s time to develop the hypothesis. The hypothesis is an educated guess or prediction about how the experiment will turn out.
#4: The student will now do the experiment. This is when the young scientist will organize and conduct the experiment.
#5: Always keep good records of the experiment. Everything should be recorded.
#6: The experiment should be repeated. When the experiment is repeated the student can be sure that the results noted the first time were correct and precise.
8 steps to the scientific method #7: Now the results will be analyzed. The student will look at the facts, numbers or statistics and see if the data is the same as their hypothesis. Sometimes the results match the hypothesis and sometimes they do not. Either outcome is all right.
8 steps to the scientific method #8: The conclusion can now be developed. The student may find that the conclusion provides answers to the question asked in step #2. The conclusion may or may not prove the scientist’s hypothesis.
Another key element in the scientific method is the research that will need to be done. Interviews can be done as well as the reading of books, magazines and any other materials available.

Chemical Basis of Life

Terms to define:
atoms -
elements - pure substances
Ex:
molecules -
Ex:
compounds -
Ex:

Parts of an Atom:
1. nucleus -
2. protons -
3. neutrons -
4. electrons -
Atomic mass -
Atomic number -
ISOTOPES - All atoms of the same element possess the same number of protons and electrons, but they may vary in the # of neutrons in their nucleus. Atoms with the same atomic number but different atomic weights are called isotopes.
Some unstable isotopes release energy or "pieces" of their nucleus as they decompose. These unstable isotopes are called radioactive isotopes and can be used as a diagnostic tool and in cancer treatments (see Martini Applications Manual for more information).
CHEMICAL BOND FORMATION
Valence shells (or orbitals)
Maximum # electrons in the 1st shell =
Maximum # electrons in the 2nd shell =
Maximum # electrons in the 3rd shell =
An atom is considered stable or inert (chemically inactive) when its outermost shell is completely filled. Helium, with 2 electrons is an example.
Types of Chemical Bonds:
1. Ionic Bonds -
2. Covalent Bonds -
3. Hydrogen Bonds -
Types of Chemical Reactions:
1. Catabolism
2. Anabolism
3. Exchange

Also Reversible Reactions...

Two Basic Types of Compounds in Living Organisms:
1. Inorganic compounds
2. Organic compounds
Examples and Properties of Inorganic compounds:
A. Gases
1. Oxygen
2. Carbon dioxide
B. Solutions (water: H2O)
1. Most essential and abundant compound in the body
2. Important solvent
3. Serves as a medium for chemical reactions
C. Inorganic Acids and Bases
1. Acids -
HCl -->
2. Bases -
NaOH -->
3. pH -
a. pH scale ranges from zero to fourteen
b. 0 - 6.9 =
c. 7.0 =
d. 7.1 - 14 =
4. Buffers
a. Resist very strong changes in pH
b. Release H+ when the pH starts to ____?
c. "Grabs" onto excess H+ when the pH starts to ____?

D. Inorganic salts (electrolytes)
Ex: Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, PO4 3-
Classes of Organic Compounds and Their Importance:
A. Carbohydrates (sugars, starch)
1. Monosaccharides
2. Disaccharides
3. Polysaccharides
4. Functions of carbohydrates
a. Fuel
b. Cell markers
c. Part of nucleotides
B. Lipids (fats)
1. Fatty acids
2. Triglycerides
3. Steroids
4. Phospholipids
5. Functions of lipids
a. Storage
b. Cell membranes
c. Steroid hormones
C. Proteins (polymers amino acids)
1. Structure of an amino acid (building blocks of proteins)
a. Amino group
b. R group

c. Carboxyl group
2. Functions
3. Enzyme Action
D. Nucleic Acids (DNA, RNA - for more information, see the Cell handout)
1. Building blocks = nucleotides
2. DNA -
3. RNA -
E. High-energy Compounds
Ex: ATP
STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
Matter has mass and takes up space. Atoms are basic building blocks of matter, and cannot be chemically subdivided by ordinary means.
The word atom is derived from the Greek word atom which means indivisible. The Greeks concluded that matter could be broken down into particles to small to be seen. These particles were called atoms
Atoms are composed of three type of particles: protons, neutrons, and electron. Protons and neutrons are responsible for most of the atomic mass e.g in a 150 person 149 lbs, 15 oz are protons and neutrons while only 1 oz. is electrons. The mass of an electron is very small (9.108 X 10-28 grams).
Both the protons and neutrons reside in the nucleus. Protons have a postive (+) charge, neutrons have no charge --they are neutral. Electrons reside in orbitals around the nucleus. They have a negative charge (-).
It is the number of protons that determines the atomic number, e.g., H = 1. The number of protons in an element is constant (e.g., H=1, Ur=92) but neutron number may vary, so mass number (protons + neutrons) may vary.
The same element may contain varying numbers of neutrons; these forms of an element are called isotopes. The chemical properties of isotopes are the same, although the physical properties of some isotopes may be different. Some isotopes are radioactive-meaning they "radiate" energy as they decay to a more stable form, perhaps another element half-life: time required for half of the atoms of an element to decay into stable form. Another example is oxygen, with atomic number of 8 can have 8, 9, or 10 neutrons.

ELEMENTSAn element is a pure substance which cannot be broken down by further chemical techniques. These include heating, cooling, electrolysis and reacting with other chemicals. A sample of an element contains only one kind of atom in the sample.COMPOUNDSA compound is a pure substance composed of two or more different atoms chemically bonded to one another. A compound can be destroyed by chemical means. It might be broken down into simpler compounds, into its elements or a combination of the two.
A molecule is defined as a sufficiently stable, electrically neutral group of at least two atoms in a definite arrangement held together by very strong (covalent) chemical bonds.[1][2] Molecules are distinguished from polyatomic ions in this strict sense. In organic chemistry and biochemistry, the term molecule is used less strictly and also is applied to charged organic molecules and biomolecules.
In the kinetic theory of gases the term molecule is often used for any gaseous particle regardless of its composition.[3] According to this definition noble gas atoms are considered molecules despite the fact that they are composed of a single non-bonded atom.[4]
A molecule may consist of atoms of a single chemical element, as with oxygen (O2), or of different elements, as with water (H2O). Atoms and complexes connected by non-covalent bonds such as hydrogen bonds or ionic bonds are generally not considered single molecules.
No typical molecule can be defined for ionic crystals (salts) and covalent crystals (network solids), although these are often composed of repeating unit cells that extend either in a plane (such as in graphene) or three-dimensionally (such as in diamond or sodium chloride). The theme of repeated unit-cellular-structure also holds for most condensed phases with metallic bonding. In glasses (solids that exist in a vitreous disordered state), atoms may also be held together by chemical bonds without any definable molecule, but also without any of the regularity of repeating units that characterises crystals

2009-08-21T20:56:00.000-07:00

फिलिप जॉन फ्रूट वेराल्लो

Benigno S। Aquino, Jr। मानब of the Year, 1971

In Classic articles on August 20, 2006 at 1:27 pm
January 8, 1972
Man of the Yearby Teodoro L. Locsin, Jr.
There was rice shortage again. Prices were never higher. Unemployment was appalling, lawlessness reigned. Justice was compartmentalized, with one law for the rich and powerful, another law, a sterner one, for the poor and weak. Graft and corruption in the government was more rampant than ever. Demonstrators against the administration were shot at by government troops as if they were game and the President shed crocodile tears. Lip service was paid to reform while chaos if not revolution threatened. Who could challenge the regime? It seemed irresistible, controlling as it did not only Congress but the local governments. How could the Opposition hope to win against the Marcos candidates in the senatorial election? Their victory would be taken as a national endorsement of the Marcos idea of government—and his perpetuation in power. Who would lead the resistance? The privileges of the writ of habeas corpus had been suspended and martial law continually mentioned if not actually threatened. Democracy was going down, down, down. Who would stop the fall? He would be the Man of the Year.
IN a conversation which took place about a week before the Plaza Miranda bombing incident on 21 August 1971, Sen. Benigno Aquino, Jr., said to this writer:
“President Marcos has threatened again to charge me with subversion. It’s a bluff, but who knows?”
“Can he have forgotten so quickly how the Yuyitung affair backfired on him?” one said. But then, one thought, Marcos is not a machine weighing dispassionately the chances of success in this or that adventure but a vain and ambitious man with a great deal of power.
“A very dangerous man,” said Ninoy. He went on to say that he had a feeling of something big about to happen.
Some Ilocano politicians were in the room, among them the young Chavit Singson. They were reporting the steep rise of violent incidents in the North. Army-trained professional killers had been unleashed on the population of Northern and Central Luzon in preparation for the elections in November. They spoke in particular of a certain “Major” whose expertise in the art of assassination had earned him a license to kill. This assassin did not have to answer for his deeds to anyone and could kill at his own discretion. He had done a fine job in the North and was moving south. According to the latest reports then, he was operating in Mountain Province. Soon, they said, he would be in Manila.
They looked apprehensive and had come to Ninoy to see what he could do for them. “Nothing,” Ninoy answered them. He had neither the money nor the muscle to help them with. But he wanted to know for certain if they would stick it out with the Opposition to the end or succumb to the threats of the authorities. So long as they identified with the Opposition they were marked men. He would not hold it against them personally if they backed out at that moment but he did not want to waste time with anyone who would have a change of heart later on. A little reluctantly they all agreed to stick it out to the end. “You are dead men on leave,” Ninoy said. They nodded their heads in acknowledgment of the fact.
“If Singson makes it in Ilocos Sur and Dy in Isabela, I don’t care if we lose everywhere else,” said Ninoy. “Our cause will have been vindicated. These are the two spots most cruelly oppressed by the Marcos military machine. If we win in them, then we know we have pierced his armor. That’s consolation enough.”
That far back, Ninoy Aquino was already drawing the lineaments of the persona he would assume after the Plaza Miranda bombing and the President’s suspension of the privileges of the writ of habeas corpus, when the country tottered on the brink of dictatorship: that of the resistance-hero. Within a week Ninoy would serve as the symbol of democratic man confronted with forces that seek to suppress his individuality and freedom.
Expressing his forboding that the forces of reaction and dictatorship were ready and eager to break out in a wave of repression that would sweep away all our rights and liberties, frankly, he said, he did not know how anyone could meet, with the hope of overcoming, the threat to the Republic.
“The secret is not to be afraid,” one said. Not that one knew for certain that courage overcomes all obstacles but that to be brave and defiant is the only way consonant with human dignity to face tyranny.
A week later two fragmentation bombs were tossed onto the stage of the Liberal Party’s proclamation rally held in Plaza Miranda. Nine persons were killed and 95 others were wounded. The leadership of the Liberal Party could have been wiped out that fateful night of 21 August. Not one politician was killed but many of those who stood on the stage were seriously hurt. One lost a foot and, for a week or so, Sergio Osmeña, Jr., and Senator Salonga fought for their lives on operating tables.
Upon hearing of the tragic event the first thought that occurred to one was that this was the perfect pretext to liquidate Philippine democracy “in the interest of order and security.” The question of who perpetrated the crime seemed irrelevant in the light of the knowledge that only the government had the power to use the incident to its own advantage.
One could suspect the Communists. How often had one heard them declaim that in the confrontation between capital and labor, between the bourgeoisie and the common people, discussion is futile and serves only as an intellectual sport for the upper class, peaceful reform is a pipe dream and society’s contradictions can only be resolved through bloody revolution! The Communist argument is logical enough. There may be other ways to improve social conditions but the Communist way has an impressive record of success. But what one should do is not necessarily what one would do—especially when the conditions are far from favorable. In the present context, a total breakdown of social order could only favor the “fascists”—if one may be allowed to use that term, with its strict historical associations, to designate all who are hostile to and have no use for the democratic way of life, holding it too inefficient—meaning to say, it breeds a climate that is not always healthy for rich thieves.
The Left is noisy but basically powerless. Were it not for the protection afforded it by the liberal bourgeoisie, the Left would be either dead, in jail or scratching out a bare existence in the mountains. It has neither the talent nor the muscle to command popular respect and obedience. It cannot, therefore, impose its kind of order on the country should anarchy break out and a power vacuum appear. Since constant self-criticism is the hallmark of the Marxist movement, no doubt the Left in this country is fully conscious of its limitations. What to do about them is the question.
The rumor that Ninoy Aquino had masterminded the bombing to rid himself of rivals for his party’s nomination for Presidential candidate spread swiftly throughout the country. The press in time discredited that rumor but what was puzzling then was the celebrity with which the story spread. The bombing and the rumor seemed connected, parts of one clever scheme whose aim was to destroy the Opposition. The Opposition was bombed and the Opposition was to be blamed.
On Monday, 23 August, President Marcos made the announcement that he had as of midnight, Saturday, suspended the privileges of the writ of habeas corpus. The reason for this extraordinary measure, he said, was that there was a Maoist rebellion in progress.
Twenty persons had been arrested and were being detained in Camp Crame. All but one of them could not by any stretch of the imagination be described as Maoist. That was an oversight on the part of the President none made a note of the. His suspension of the writ had stunned the nation. The people felt, anyway, that is was not a question of whether he was rationally justified in the action he had taken. The power at his disposal could “justify” anything he did. The question was how far could he go, how far would he go. Hardly anyone believed the President’s words, but everyone paid heed to his power. From the outset it was a contest of nerves between the power of tyranny and the courage without arms of democratic men.
From noon onwards, on the day of the President’s announcement, the hours passed slowly in deathly calm. It was like a foretaste of life under a dictatorship: a life of quiet fear. A little longer the nation might have becomed accustomed to the situation, so easy is it to acquire the habit of obedience!
Suddenly the tense calm was broken. The voluble and tireless Ninoy Aquino began his counter-offensive and the spell of fascism was broken. Wherever he appeared, he carried a submachine gun at a time when no one outside the Administration would have dared be seen with one.
At the Manila Medical Center, the milling crowd at the entrance parted to admit the rotund frame of Senator Aquino come to check up on the condition of his colleagues. He passed by the government troops without even glancing at them, tight-lipped and looking confident of his ability to stand up to the Administration.
It was that picture that crystallized the people’s timid resentment against the Marcos Administration into an unshakeable determination to resist. The people fixed their eyes on Ninoy. If he got away with defying the President, how much better would they—the whole nation—fare!
The Administration caught on fast. Before it could expect the nation to submit, it would have to break the will of Senator Aquino. An object lesson would have to be made of him.
On Tuesday, President Marcos went on television. He laid the blame for the bombing of the LP rally on the Communists, who were planning, he said, to stage a revolution, of which the first act was the bombing incident at Plaza Miranda. He charged Senator Aquino with lending support to the Communist insurgent movement. He had “reliable” information that Ninoy Aquino had frequently met with such Huk field commanders as Dante, Mallari, Alibasbas, Freddie and Ligaya. He brought out a carbine with telescopic sight and a nickel-plated grease gun, which, he claimed, had been given by Ninoy to Huk commanders.
President Marcos presented two men, Max Llorente and Hernan Ilagan, who had been, he said, close friends of Senator Aquino until they discovered what he was really up to. Neither of them spoke a word all the time they were on TV. They just stood before the cameras with blank expressions until the President motioned for them to go away.
The evidence against Senator Aquino, he said, was overwhelming. It was only because he had hitherto “erred on the side of generosity” that he had not yet arrested the senator. But his tone suggested that that was a fault he would soon correct.
A raid on a Communist camp in Tarlac had uncovered a master plan to raze Manila and kidnap or assassinate prominent persons, the President went on. The bombing in Plaza Miranda was merely the prelude to a wave of Red Terror and a general civil war. He warned the radicals that the armed forces could cope with any situation they might create. He asked them to abandon the rest of their master plan, since it had no hope of succeeding, anyway. To avoid a costly confrontation between the Communists and the army, he would not hesitate to declare martial law and crush the insurgents before they had time to stage their planned insurrection.
Once more the Administration had the psychological advantage. People started losing heart. It was rumored that before the night was over, Senator Aquino would be arrested. After him, it would be only a question of time and accommodations in the stockades before all persistent critics of the Administration were in their turn arrested.
Later that night, Ninoy Aquino appeared on Channel 13. For once he looked serious. Opposite him, Juan Ponce Enrile, secretary of national defense, sat, grinning.
“I have been charged,” said Ninoy Aquino, “with the most serious crime against the Filipino people by President Marcos. I have, he has charged, subverted the state and planned the overthrow of the government in a conspiracy with the Communists. I have armed and funded the Huks, he told a press-TV-radio conference earlier tonight. And he hoisted before the people what he asserted was military intelligence information to nail down these charges.
“I say to him now: these are devious lies. I deny them flatly.
“He also hauled up arms I supposedly gave to the Huks. These, I charge him back, are his fabrications. Likewise, he brought before the TV cameras two supposed witnesses against me, one a longtime friend. I tell him: I will confront his witnesses.
“I say his charges are fabrications. And I challenge him to prove they are not.
“I say these are part of a sinister plot to obliterate the Opposition. And his very act is my proof. I say his motive is, far from securing the security of the people and the Republic, rather to secure the politics of his Party. This—again—is proven by his unholy timing.
“He says he has had the goods on me—that I have armed, funded and comforted the enemies of the state since 1965 and 1966. Why did he wait until tonight to unwrap the bill?
“I say that where the black bombers failed to wipe out the Opposition at Plaza Miranda, he would now succeed. This is his motive.
“I tell him: Mr. President, don’t do me any favors. Do your duty—and file your charges against me.
“Your duty is clear. And don’t forget your oath to apply the law evenly—if harshly. I know Lady Justice has worn a peek-a-boo since you came to power, but let Justice be blind once again in my case and let Justice take her full course in the charges you have leveled against me.
“I demand, in fact, Mr. President, that you bring to court—and prove that I am guilty or be shown as the biggest liar in Philippine political life.
“I ask him to charge me formally so he and I can meet before the bar of Philippine justice.
“If I am guilty, I will pay for my alleged crimes.
“If I am innocent, he must face the people and account for the lies, the plots, the smears he has so freely and ruthlessly waged against me. But if this is the price I must now pay for having abided unflinchingly with the faith you have put in me, I say: So be it. It is a privilege, not a sacrifice.”
Aquino stood up. Enrile squeezed his arm and gave him a reassuring smile, as though to say it was all a game, a show, and no real harm would come to him. But Ninoy’s dark expression did not change. If the President was in earnest, he did not like being threatened. If the whole thing was a ploy to save the President from having to make embarrassing explanations concerning the bombing incident and the measures he had adopted, he did not like being used. He walked out of the room without saying a word. We drove to his house in his car.
“Jesus Christ!” he said, shaking his head in disbelief. “Imagine the canard he is trying to foist. Ako pa ang nag-bomba together with the New People’s Army.”
On the night of the bombing he had not been on stage with the other Liberals. He was at a goddaughter’s despedida de soltera. His absence had lent some credence to the speculation that he had planned the bombing.
“Christ’s sake, this guy is really determined to send me to jail,” he said.
He leaned back in the seat. The ordeal there was over. He looked contented. Now there was no more having to choose. He had flung the President’s threat back in the man’s complacent face and he was happy with his decision. All that remained was for the authorities to pick him up.
“So what? So one or two years in a stockade. At least I’ll died with my boots on.”
Had he plans of escaping into the hills? I asked.
“Ha, oblige him? Nah, I’ll stick it out here.”
If they came for him, what would he do?
“Aba, I’ll go. Christ’s sake! And tell your father not to forget the pocketbooks when he’s brought in, too. I’ll bring in the Philippine Reports and resume my law studies in jail and when I come out, take the bar. This is the only chance I’ll have.”
At this we started laughing.
“ ‘I erred on the side of generosity,’ did you hear that? Boy oh boy, what a shit of bluffer. He’s thrown everything at me, but I’m numb. I told you that even before all this, at the Inter-continental. I’m really numb.”
I asked him about the two witnesses Marcos had presented.
If one added up all the time he had seen Hernan Ilagan, it would amount to three hours, he said. As for Max Llorente, he saved the man’s life once and his skin several times over. This was how the man repaid him!
“The classic Filipino,” said Ninoy. It was a favorite phrase of his. He had used it in previous conversations to describe Filipinos who lived off the fat of the land but refused to pay for any of it.
I asked him about the affidavits made by other witnesses implicating him in the crime of subversion.
“All his witnesses are dead, anyway. Putang ina. Hahahaha. Naku linabas ang mga baril, ayong mga lahat na…. Hahahaha. Jesus, what a farce! Aye, God! Goddamned this guy, he’s good, this Marcos. He almost convinced me I’m a Huk.”
Every day from then on the Marcos Administration hurled a new charge or threat at the senator, who exposed every charge as a lie and met each threat with smiling nonchalance. And yet the threats were real enough. One night the PC ringed his house to frighten his family. Members of the medical staff of the Central Azucarrera de Tarlac were picked up and questioned by the PC, who tried to force them into signing affidavits implicating Ninoy with the Huks. Houseboys and cooks were also arrested. His brother-in-law, Antolin Oreta, Jr., was “invited” by the army and then detained.
That he had had dealings with the Huks, Ninoy did not deny.
“What can I do about that? I have lived in Tarlac where the Huks operate most. The point I’m driving at with my frequent mention of Huks is that as governor of Tarlac I tried to arrive at a condition of peace that was not reached through bloodshed. In my six years of governorship, I don’t think there were more than 21 Huk killings. It was not until Mr. Marcos arrived on the scene that these things began to escalate. From 1966 up the present about 1,500 have been killed. My policy as governor had been to let everyone come to my office and talk things over: Huk and non-Huk, Nacionalista and Liberal. I believed that was the only way I could maintain peace in the province. I told the Huks, ‘This is a free country. So long as you don’t kill anyone this is a free country for you. You can speak against me, attack me in the barrios. Go ahead. I believe in our democracy. You have the right to air your views. If the people should ultimately prefer your system to the one I espouse, who am I to oppose the people?’
“The Army calls this co-existence.
“I call it survival. Moreover I have extreme faith in our democratic way of life. I firmly believe that exposed to both the democratic and Communist ideologies, the people will opt for democracy.
“When the Huks complained about bad roads, I immediately repaired them. When the Huks said a landowner was abusive, I immediately approached the landowner, and if the Huks were speaking the truth, I asked him to mend his ways. The landowners have called me a radical but all I did was ask them, ‘Which would you prefer? To negotiate with the Huks or get your head chopped off?
“The Army called it co-existence. Well, they can call it anything they want, but the Army was happy then. There was peace.”
As for his frequent meetings with the Huks, he had arranged these meetings not to solicit Huks support for his candidates but, on the contrary, to ask the Huks not to interfere in Tarlac politics. One such meeting had been at the request of Danding Cojuangco, the President’s right hand man, who was then running for governor, according to Ninoy.
To deprive the Liberals of support from any sector, the Marcos Administration continued its smear campaign against the spokesman for the Liberal Party. The charge of Communism dangling over Aquino’s head kept the Chinese, for one, from giving him any aid. The memory of the fate of the Yuyitung brothers was still fresh in their minds. To deny the Liberals American support, President Marcos invited a New York Times correspondent to interview him. He repeated his charges against Ninoy and said that if the Communists fielded a candidate in 1973, meaning Ninoy Aquino, he would be compelled to field his wife, Imelda, as his party’s candidate for President.
In answer, Ninoy said that eight years of Marcos are enough and to inflict six more years of Imelda on the country would be unthinkable! Addressing himself to the President, Ninoy said:
“If Mr. Marcos is fielding his wife in ’73 just to stop Ninoy Aquino, I’m telling him now, I’m not running. Keep your wife home, Mr. Marcos, do not tire her out with a gruelling campaign. I would like to spare her the hardship. I will not run in 1973, so long as Imelda’s doesn’t run either. Let Imelda and I make a blood compact, vowing not to run in 1973 as Presidential candidates.”
Asked to comment on Ninoy’s proposal, President Marcos answered:
“I refuse to comment on a speech by a comedian.”
Ninoy Aquino’s audacity and defiance bore fruit on November 8. The Liberal senatorial candidates swept the elections. In Ilocos Sur, Singson won as governor and in Isabela, despite the presence of Task Force Lawin, Dy won as well. Ninoy’s cause had, indeed, been vindicated. Even the poorest and most downtrodden emulated the example he had set. In Tarlac, the barrio folk themselves went out to protect the ballots they had cast, forming long processions to escort the ballot boxes to the municipalities. The senator had given a new lease on life to the democratic idea, which cynics had dismissed as an empty catchphrase incapable of firing anyone’s imagination, let alone convincing anyone to risk his life for it. The “people’s victory,” as Ninoy called it, of November 8 proved them wrong.
Because he stood for the people’s will to resist tyranny, drawing upon himself all the fury of its wrath without flinching, Sen. Benigno Aquino, Jr., did more than anybody else to make that victory possible and is, therefore, the Man of the Year 1971 in the Philippines.

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