INFORMATION

PTCL Broadband 4MB

2010-10-08T05:08:00.000-07:00

Upgrade from 1Mbps to 4Mbps with an additional Rs. 800 only”

PTCL Broadband customers using 1Mbps data rate can now up grade to 4Mbps with only an additional Rs. 800 per month.

PTCL broadband is available in the following data rates and tariffs;

1Mbps at Rs 1199
4Mbps at Rs 1999
6Mbps at Rs 4999
8Mbps at Rs 6999

Benefits and key Highlights:

PTCL Broadband service is available in over 600 cities and towns across the country.
4 times increase in bandwidth in only additional Rs. 800 which previously used to be Rs. 4000.
High speed broadband is now more affordable than ever before
PTCL Broadband gives you unlimited connectivity 24/7 with access to exciting features like BUZZ entertainment portal and online gaming free of cost exclusively for broadband customers
Seamless experience when streaming and downloading movies, tv shows and music files
Access to rich HD multimedia resources over the internet

A List of Run Commands for Windows 7

2010-10-03T04:48:00.000-07:00

Windows logo key + R

Add/Remove Programs = appwiz.cpl
Administrative Tools = control admintools
Authorization Manager= azman.msc "New"

Calculator = calc
Certificate Manager = certmgr.msc
Character Map = charmap
Check Disk Utility = chkdsk
Control Panel = control "New"
Command Prompt = cmd.exe
Component Services = dcomcnfg
Computer Management = compmgmt.msc = CompMgmtLauncher "New"

Date and Time Properties = timedate.cpl
Downloads = Downloads "New"
Device Manager = devmgmt.msc
Direct X Troubleshooter = dxdiag
Disk Cleanup Utility = cleanmgr
Defragment User Interface = dfrgui "New"
Ditilizer Calibration Tool = tabcal "New"
Disk Management = diskmgmt.msc
Disk Parmelonion Manager = diskpart
Display Properties = control desktop or desk.cpl
DPI Scaling = dpiscaling "New"
Driver Package Installer = dpinst "New"
Driver Verifier Utility = verifier or /reset
DVD Player = dvdplay "New"

Encryption File System = rekeywiz "New"
Event Viewer = eventvwr.msc

Fax Cover Sheet Editor = fxscover "New"
File Signature Verification Tool = sigverif
Folders Properties = control folders
Fonts = control fonts
Free Cell Card Game = freecell

Group Policy Editor = gpedit.msc

Internet Explorer = iexplore
Iexpress Wizard = iexpress
Internet Properties = inetcpl.cpl
IP Configuration = ipconfig.exe
iSCSI Initiator = iscsicpl "New"

Keyboard Properties = control keyboard

Libraries = explorer or Windows key + E
Local Security Settings = secpol.msc
Local Users and Groups = lusrmgr.msc
Logs You Out Of Windows = logoff

Microsoft Support Diagnostic Tool = msdt "New"
Microsoft Paint = mspaint.exe
Mouse Properties = control mouse
Mouse Properties = main.cpl
Mobility Center (only on mobile) = mblctr or Windows key + X
Network Connections = control netconnections
Network Connections = ncpa.cpl
Notepad = notepad

ODBC Data Source Administrator = odbcad32 "New"
Optional Features Manager = optionalfeatures "New"
On Screen Keyboard = osk or Windows key + U

Performance Monitor = perfmon.msc
Phone and Modem Options = telephon.cpl
Power Configuration = powercfg.cpl
Printers and Faxes = control printers
Printer Migration = PrintBrmUi "New"
Private Character Editor = eudcedit

Regional Settings = intl.cpl
Registry Editor = regedit.exe
Remote Assistance = msra "New"
Remote Desktop = mstsc
Resultant Set of Policy = rsop.msc

Scheduled Tasks = control schedtasks
Security Center = wscui.cpl
Services = services.msc
Shared Folders/MMC = fsmgmt.msc
Shuts Down Windows = shutdown
Snipping Tool = snippingtool "New"
Sounds and Audio = mmsys.cpl
Sound Recorder = soundrecorder "New"
Sound Volume = sndvol "New"
Spider Solitare Card Game = spider
SQL Client Configuration = cliconfg
Stored User Names and Passwords = credwiz "New"
Sticky Note = StikyNot "New"
System Configuration Editor = sysedit
System Configuration Utility = msconfig
System File Checker Utility = sfc
System Information = msinfo32
System Properties = sysdm.cpl or Windows key + Pause/Break

Task Manager = taskmgr
Trusted Platform Module = TpmInit "New"

Utility Manager = utilman
User Accounts = netplwiz or control userpasswords2

Windows Activation = slui "New"
Windows Backup Utility = sdclt "New"
Windows Fax and Scan = wfs "New"
Windows Firewall = firewall.cpl
Windows Firewall with Advanced Security = wf.msc "New"
Windows Image Acquisition = wiaacmgr "New"
Windows Media Player = wmplayer
Windows Magnifier = magnify
Windows Management Infrastructure = wmimgmt.msc
Windows Update App Manager = wuapp "New"
Windows Standalong Update Manager = wusa "New'
Windows System Security Tool = syskey
Windows Share Creation Wizard = shrpubw "New"
Wordpad = write

Execute System Restore from the Command Line / Safe Boot

2010-10-03T04:46:00.001-07:00

System restore not working well for you. You’ll have much better success running it from the command line.

Running System Restore from the command line is often the only way to get a system back up and running. I’ll describe it from the initial boot.

Safe Mode with Command Prompt

%systemroot%\system32\restore\rstrui.exe

Run Commands

2010-10-03T04:42:00.000-07:00

Removed 2 Duplicates.
Total : 113 Run Commands

3/18/06
Added 2 Additional Run Commands
Removed 1 Duplicate.
Total : 114 Run Commands

3/27/06
Added 42 Additional Run Commands,
Total : 156 Run Commands

Do you use the Run feature in Windows XP? For most, this feature remains unused (or rarely used). Why is that? Well, First off nearly all of the Run Commands Correspond to a particular Control Panel Item or a Utility, Tool or Task that can be accessed through Windows. There are, however, tools and utilities that I bet you never knew you had that can be accessed through the Run feature. The main reason most people don't use the Run feature is because they don't know the Commands. So, to solve that problem, I decided to put together the following listing, which lists 99 Run Commands and what they correspond too...

To Access…	Run Command
Accessibility Controls	access.cpl
Accessibility Wizard	accwiz
Add Hardware Wizard	hdwwiz.cpl
Add/Remove Programs	appwiz.cpl
Administrative Tools	control admintools
Adobe Acrobat (if installed)	acrobat
Adobe Designer (if installed)	formdesigner
Adobe Distiller (if installed)	acrodist
Adobe ImageReady (if installed)	imageready
Adobe Photoshop (if installed)	photoshop
Automatic Updates	wuaucpl.cpl
Bluetooth Transfer Wizard	fsquirt
Calculator	calc
Certificate Manager	certmgr.msc
Character Map	charmap
Check Disk Utility	chkdsk
Clipboard Viewer	clipbrd
Command Prompt	cmd
Component Services	dcomcnfg
Computer Management	compmgmt.msc
Control Panel	control
Date and Time Properties	timedate.cpl
DDE Shares	ddeshare
Device Manager	devmgmt.msc
Direct X Control Panel (if installed)*	directx.cpl
Direct X Troubleshooter	dxdiag
Disk Cleanup Utility	cleanmgr
Disk Defragment	dfrg.msc
Disk Management	diskmgmt.msc
Disk Partition Manager	diskpart
Display Properties	control desktop
Display Properties	desk.cpl
Display Properties (w/Appearance Tab Preselected)	control color
Dr. Watson System Troubleshooting Utility	drwtsn32
Driver Verifier Utility	verifier
Event Viewer	eventvwr.msc
Files and Settings Transfer Tool	migwiz
File Signature Verification Tool	sigverif
Findfast	findfast.cpl
Firefox (if installed)	firefox
Folders Properties	folders
Fonts	control fonts
Fonts Folder	fonts
Free Cell Card Game	freecell
Game Controllers	joy.cpl
Group Policy Editor (XP Prof)	gpedit.msc
Hearts Card Game	mshearts
Help and Support	helpctr
HyperTerminal	hypertrm
Iexpress Wizard	iexpress
Indexing Service	ciadv.msc
Internet Connection Wizard	icwconn1
Internet Explorer	iexplore
Internet Properties	inetcpl.cpl
Internet Setup Wizard	inetwiz
IP Configuration (Display Connection Configuration)	ipconfig /all
IP Configuration (Display DNS Cache Contents)	ipconfig /displaydns
IP Configuration (Delete DNS Cache Contents)	ipconfig /flushdns
IP Configuration (Release All Connections)	ipconfig /release
IP Configuration (Renew All Connections)	ipconfig /renew
IP Configuration (Refreshes DHCP & Re-Registers DNS)	ipconfig /registerdns
IP Configuration (Display DHCP Class ID)	ipconfig /showclassid
IP Configuration (Modifies DHCP Class ID)	ipconfig /setclassid
Java Control Panel (if installed)	jpicpl32.cpl
Java Control Panel (if installed)	javaws
Keyboard Properties	control keyboard
Local Security Settings	secpol.msc
Local Users and Groups	lusrmgr.msc
Logs You Out Of Windows	logoff
Malicious Software Removal Tool	mrt
Microsoft Access (if installed)	msaccess
Microsoft Chat	winchat
Microsoft Excel (if installed)	excel
Microsoft Frontpage (if installed)	frontpg
Microsoft Movie Maker	moviemk
Microsoft Paint	mspaint
Microsoft Powerpoint (if installed)	powerpnt
Microsoft Word (if installed)	winword
Microsoft Syncronization Tool	mobsync
Minesweeper Game	winmine
Mouse Properties	control mouse
Mouse Properties	main.cpl
Nero (if installed)	nero
Netmeeting	conf
Network Connections	control netconnections
Network Connections	ncpa.cpl
Network Setup Wizard	netsetup.cpl
Notepad	notepad
Nview Desktop Manager (if installed)	nvtuicpl.cpl
Object Packager	packager
ODBC Data Source Administrator	odbccp32.cpl
On Screen Keyboard	osk
Opens AC3 Filter (if installed)	ac3filter.cpl
Outlook Express	msimn
Paint	pbrush
Password Properties	password.cpl
Performance Monitor	perfmon.msc
Performance Monitor	perfmon
Phone and Modem Options	telephon.cpl
Phone Dialer	dialer
Pinball Game	pinball
Power Configuration	powercfg.cpl
Printers and Faxes	control printers
Printers Folder	printers
Private Character Editor	eudcedit
Quicktime (If Installed)	QuickTime.cpl
Quicktime Player (if installed)	quicktimeplayer
Real Player (if installed)	realplay
Regional Settings	intl.cpl
Registry Editor	regedit
Registry Editor	regedit32
Remote Access Phonebook	rasphone
Remote Desktop	mstsc
Removable Storage	ntmsmgr.msc
Removable Storage Operator Requests	ntmsoprq.msc
Resultant Set of Policy (XP Prof)	rsop.msc
Scanners and Cameras	sticpl.cpl
Scheduled Tasks	control schedtasks
Security Center	wscui.cpl
Services	services.msc
Shared Folders	fsmgmt.msc
Shuts Down Windows	shutdown
Sounds and Audio	mmsys.cpl
Spider Solitare Card Game	spider
SQL Client Configuration	cliconfg
System Configuration Editor	sysedit
System Configuration Utility	msconfig
System File Checker Utility (Scan Immediately)	sfc /scannow
System File Checker Utility (Scan Once At The Next Boot)	sfc /scanonce
System File Checker Utility (Scan On Every Boot)	sfc /scanboot
System File Checker Utility (Return Scan Setting To Default)	sfc /revert
System File Checker Utility (Purge File Cache)	sfc /purgecache
System File Checker Utility (Sets Cache Size to size x)	sfc /cachesize=x
System Information	msinfo32
System Properties	sysdm.cpl
Task Manager	taskmgr
TCP Tester	tcptest
Telnet Client	telnet
Tweak UI (if installed)	tweakui
User Account Management	nusrmgr.cpl
Utility Manager	utilman
Windows Address Book	wab
Windows Address Book Import Utility	wabmig
Windows Backup Utility (if installed)	ntbackup
Windows Explorer	explorer
Windows Firewall	firewall.cpl
Windows Magnifier	magnify
Windows Management Infrastructure	wmimgmt.msc
Windows Media Player	wmplayer
Windows Messenger	msmsgs
Windows Picture Import Wizard (need camera connected)	wiaacmgr
Windows System Security Tool	syskey
Windows Update Launches	wupdmgr
Windows Version (to show which version of windows)	winver
Windows XP Tour Wizard	tourstart
Wordpad	write

TCP/IP

2010-10-03T04:35:00.000-07:00

(pronounced as separate letters) Short for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, the suite of communications protocols used to connect hosts on the Internet. TCP/IP uses several protocols, the two main ones being TCP and IP. TCP/IP is built into the UNIX operating system and is used by the Internet, making it the de facto standard for transmitting data over networks. Even network operating systems that have their own protocols, such as Netware, also support TCP/IP.

Layers in the TCP/IP model

Two Internet hosts connected via two routers and the corresponding layers used at each hop.

Encapsulation of application data descending through the TCP/IP layers

The layers near the top are logically closer to the user application, while those near the bottom are logically closer to the physical transmission of the data. Viewing layers as providing or consuming a service is a method of abstraction to isolate upper layer protocols from the nitty-gritty detail of transmitting bits over, for example, Ethernet and collision detection, while the lower layers avoid having to know the details of each and every application and its protocol.

This abstraction also allows upper layers to provide services that the lower layers cannot, or choose not to, provide. Again, the original OSI Reference Model was extended to include connectionless services (OSIRM CL).^[6] For example, IP is not designed to be reliable and is a best effort delivery protocol. This means that all transport layer implementations must choose whether or not to provide reliability and to what degree. UDP provides data integrity (via a checksum) but does not guarantee delivery; TCP provides both data integrity and delivery guarantee (by retransmitting until the receiver acknowledges the reception of the packet).

This model lacks the formalism of the OSI reference model and associated documents, but the IETF does not use a formal model and does not consider this a limitation, as in the comment by David D. Clark, "We reject: kings, presidents and voting. We believe in: rough consensus and running code." Criticisms of this model, which have been made with respect to the OSI Reference Model, often do not consider ISO's later extensions to that model.

For multiaccess links with their own addressing systems (e.g. Ethernet) an address mapping protocol is needed. Such protocols can be considered to be below IP but above the existing link system. While the IETF does not use the terminology, this is a subnetwork dependent convergence facility according to an extension to the OSI model, the Internal Organization of the Network Layer (IONL) ^[7].
ICMP & IGMP operate on top of IP but do not transport data like UDP or TCP. Again, this functionality exists as layer management extensions to the OSI model, in its Management Framework (OSIRM MF) ^[8]
The SSL/TLS library operates above the transport layer (uses TCP) but below application protocols. Again, there was no intention, on the part of the designers of these protocols, to comply with OSI architecture.
The link is treated like a black box here. This is fine for discussing IP (since the whole point of IP is it will run over virtually anything). The IETF explicitly does not intend to discuss transmission systems, which is a less academic but practical alternative to the OSI Reference Model.

The following is a description of each layer in the TCP/IP networking model starting from the lowest level. PARTH

[edit] Link Layer

The Link Layer is the networking scope of the local network connection to which a host is attached. This regime is called the link in Internet literature. This is the lowest component layer of the Internet protocols, as TCP/IP is designed to be hardware independent. As a result TCP/IP has been implemented on top of virtually any hardware networking technology in existence.

The Link Layer is used to move packets between the Internet Layer interfaces of two different hosts on the same link. The processes of transmitting and receiving packets on a given link can be controlled both in the software device driver for the network card, as well as on firmware or specialized chipsets. These will perform data link functions such as adding a packet header to prepare it for transmission, then actually transmit the frame over a physical medium. The TCP/IP model includes specifications of translating the network addressing methods used in the Internet Protocol to data link addressing, such as Media Access Control (MAC), however all other aspects below that level are implicitly assumed to exist in the Link Layer, but are not explicitly defined.

The Link Layer is also the layer where packets may be selected to be sent over a virtual private network or other networking tunnel. In this scenario, the Link Layer data may be considered application data which traverses another instantiation of the IP stack for transmission or reception over another IP connection. Such a connection, or virtual link, may be established with a transport protocol or even an application scope protocol that serves as a tunnel in the Link Layer of the protocol stack. Thus, the TCP/IP model does not dictate a strict hierarchical encapsulation sequence.

[edit] Internet Layer

The Internet Layer solves the problem of sending packets across one or more networks. Internetworking requires sending data from the source network to the destination network. This process is called routing.^[9]

In the Internet Protocol Suite, the Internet Protocol performs two basic functions:

Host addressing and identification: This is accomplished with a hierarchical addressing system (see IP address).
Packet routing: This is the basic task of getting packets of data (datagrams) from source to destination by sending them to the next network node (router) closer to the final destination.

IP can carry data for a number of different upper layer protocols. These protocols are each identified by a unique protocol number: for example, Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) and Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) are protocols 1 and 2, respectively.

Some of the protocols carried by IP, such as ICMP (used to transmit diagnostic information about IP transmission) and IGMP (used to manage IP Multicast data) are layered on top of IP but perform internetworking functions. This illustrates the differences in the architecture of the TCP/IP stack of the Internet and the OSI model.

[edit] Transport Layer

The Transport Layer's responsibilities include end-to-end message transfer capabilities independent of the underlying network, along with error control, segmentation, flow control, congestion control, and application addressing (port numbers). End to end message transmission or connecting applications at the transport layer can be categorized as either connection-oriented, implemented in Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), or connectionless, implemented in User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

The Transport Layer can be thought of as a transport mechanism, e.g., a vehicle with the responsibility to make sure that its contents (passengers/goods) reach their destination safely and soundly, unless another protocol layer is responsible for safe delivery.

The Transport Layer provides this service of connecting applications through the use of service ports. Since IP provides only a best effort delivery, the Transport Layer is the first layer of the TCP/IP stack to offer reliability. IP can run over a reliable data link protocol such as the High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC). Protocols above transport, such as RPC, also can provide reliability.

For example, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a connection-oriented protocol that addresses numerous reliability issues to provide a reliable byte stream:

data arrives in-order
data has minimal error (i.e. correctness)
duplicate data is discarded
lost/discarded packets are resent
includes traffic congestion control

The newer Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) is also a reliable, connection-oriented transport mechanism. It is Message-stream-oriented — not byte-stream-oriented like TCP — and provides multiple streams multiplexed over a single connection. It also provides multi-homing support, in which a connection end can be represented by multiple IP addresses (representing multiple physical interfaces), such that if one fails, the connection is not interrupted. It was developed initially for telephony applications (to transport SS7 over IP), but can also be used for other applications.

User Datagram Protocol is a connectionless datagram protocol. Like IP, it is a best effort, "unreliable" protocol. Reliability is addressed through error detection using a weak checksum algorithm. UDP is typically used for applications such as streaming media (audio, video, Voice over IP etc) where on-time arrival is more important than reliability, or for simple query/response applications like DNS lookups, where the overhead of setting up a reliable connection is disproportionately large. Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) is a datagram protocol that is designed for real-time data such as streaming audio and video.

TCP and UDP are used to carry an assortment of higher-level applications. The appropriate transport protocol is chosen based on the higher-layer protocol application. For example, the File Transfer Protocol expects a reliable connection, but the Network File System (NFS) assumes that the subordinate Remote Procedure Call protocol, not transport, will guarantee reliable transfer. Other applications, such as VoIP, can tolerate some loss of packets, but not the reordering or delay that could be caused by retransmission.

The applications at any given network address are distinguished by their TCP or UDP port. By convention certain well known ports are associated with specific applications. (See List of TCP and UDP port numbers.)

[edit] Application Layer

The Application Layer refers to the higher-level protocols used by most applications for network communication. Examples of application layer protocols include the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)^[10]. Data coded according to application layer protocols are then encapsulated into one or (occasionally) more transport layer protocols (such as the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or User Datagram Protocol (UDP)), which in turn use lower layer protocols to effect actual data transfer.

Since the IP stack defines no layers between the application and transport layers, the application layer must include any protocols that act like the OSI's presentation and session layer protocols. This is usually done through libraries.

Application Layer protocols generally treat the transport layer (and lower) protocols as "black boxes" which provide a stable network connection across which to communicate, although the applications are usually aware of key qualities of the transport layer connection such as the end point IP addresses and port numbers. As noted above, layers are not necessarily clearly defined in the Internet protocol suite. Application layer protocols are most often associated with client–server applications, and the commoner servers have specific ports assigned to them by the IANA: HTTP has port 80; Telnet has port 23; etc. Clients, on the other hand, tend to use ephemeral ports, i.e. port numbers assigned at random from a range set aside for the purpose.

Transport and lower level layers are largely unconcerned with the specifics of application layer protocols. Routers and switches do not typically "look inside" the encapsulated traffic to see what kind of application protocol it represents, rather they just provide a conduit for it. However, some firewall and bandwidth throttling applications do try to determine what's inside, as with the Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP). It's also sometimes necessary for Network Address Translation (NAT) facilities to take account of the needs of particular application layer protocols. (NAT allows hosts on private networks to communicate with the outside world via a single visible IP address using port forwarding, and is an almost ubiquitous feature of modern domestic broadband routers). END

[edit] Hardware and software implementation

Normally, application programmers are concerned only with interfaces in the Application Layer and often also in the Transport Layer, while the layers below are services provided by the TCP/IP stack in the operating system. Microcontroller firmware in the network adapter typically handles link issues, supported by driver software in the operational system. Non-programmable analog and digital electronics are normally in charge of the physical components in the Link Layer, typically using an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) chipset for each network interface or other physical standard.

However, hardware or software implementation is not stated in the protocols or the layered reference model. High-performance routers are to a large extent based on fast non-programmable digital electronics, carrying out link level switching.

[edit] OSI and TCP/IP layering differences

The three top layers in the OSI model—the Application Layer, the Presentation Layer and the Session Layer—are not distinguished separately in the TCP/IP model where it is just the Application Layer. While some pure OSI protocol applications, such as X.400, also combined them, there is no requirement that a TCP/IP protocol stack needs to impose monolithic architecture above the Transport Layer. For example, the Network File System (NFS) application protocol runs over the eXternal Data Representation (XDR) presentation protocol, which, in turn, runs over a protocol with Session Layer functionality, Remote Procedure Call (RPC). RPC provides reliable record transmission, so it can run safely over the best-effort User Datagram Protocol (UDP) transport.

The Session Layer roughly corresponds to the Telnet virtual terminal functionality^{[citation needed]}, which is part of text based protocols such as the HTTP and SMTP TCP/IP model Application Layer protocols. It also corresponds to TCP and UDP port numbering, which is considered as part of the transport layer in the TCP/IP model. Some functions that would have been performed by an OSI presentation layer are realized at the Internet application layer using the MIME standard, which is used in application layer protocols such as HTTP and SMTP.

Since the IETF protocol development effort is not concerned with strict layering, some of its protocols may not appear to fit cleanly into the OSI model. These conflicts, however, are more frequent when one only looks at the original OSI model, ISO 7498, without looking at the annexes to this model (e.g., ISO 7498/4 Management Framework), or the ISO 8648 Internal Organization of the Network Layer (IONL). When the IONL and Management Framework documents are considered, the ICMP and IGMP are neatly defined as layer management protocols for the network layer. In like manner, the IONL provides a structure for "subnetwork dependent convergence facilities" such as ARP and RARP.

IETF protocols can be encapsulated recursively, as demonstrated by tunneling protocols such as Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE). While basic OSI documents do not consider tunneling, there is some concept of tunneling in yet another extension to the OSI architecture, specifically the transport layer gateways within the International Standardized Profile framework ^[11]. The associated OSI development effort, however, has been abandoned given the overwhelming adoption of TCP/IP protocols.

[edit] Layer names and number of layers in the literature

The following table shows the layer names and the number of layers of networking models presented in RFCs and textbooks in widespread use in today's university computer networking courses.

Kurose^[12], Forouzan ^[13]	Comer^[14], Kozierok^[15]	Stallings^[16]	Tanenbaum^[17]	RFC 1122, Internet STD 3 (1989)	Cisco Academy^[18]	Mike Padlipsky's 1982 "Arpanet Reference Model" (RFC 871)
Five layers	Four+one layers	Five layers	Four layers	Four layers	Four layers	Three layers
"Five-layer Internet model" or "TCP/IP protocol suite"	"TCP/IP 5-layer reference model"	"TCP/IP model"	"TCP/IP reference model"	"Internet model"	"Internet model"	"Arpanet reference model"
Application	Application	Application	Application	Application	Application	Application/Process
Transport	Transport	Host-to-host or transport	Transport	Transport	Transport	Host-to-host
Network	Internet	Internet	Internet	Internet	Internetwork	Host-to-host
Data link	Data link (Network interface)	Network access	Host-to-network	Link	Network interface	Network interface
Physical	(Hardware)	Physical

These textbooks are secondary sources that may contravene the intent of RFC 1122 and other IETF primary sources such as RFC 3439^[19].

Different authors have interpreted the RFCs differently regarding the question whether the Link Layer (and the TCP/IP model) covers Physical Layer issues, or if a hardware layer is assumed below the Link Layer. Some authors have tried to use other names for the Link Layer, such as network interface layer, in view to avoid confusion with the Data Link Layer of the seven layer OSI model. Others have attempted to map the Internet Protocol model onto the OSI Model. The mapping often results in a model with five layers where the Link Layer is split into a Data Link Layer on top of a Physical Layer. In literature with a bottom-up approach to Internet communication^[13]^[14]^[16], in which hardware issues are emphasized, those are often discussed in terms of physical layer and data link layer.

The Internet Layer is usually directly mapped into the OSI Model's Network Layer, a more general concept of network functionality. The Transport Layer of the TCP/IP model, sometimes also described as the host-to-host layer, is mapped to OSI Layer 4 (Transport Layer), sometimes also including aspects of OSI Layer 5 (Session Layer) functionality. OSI's Application Layer, Presentation Layer, and the remaining functionality of the Session Layer are collapsed into TCP/IP's Application Layer. The argument is that these OSI layers do usually not exist as separate processes and protocols in Internet applications.^{[citation needed]}

However, the Internet protocol stack has never been altered by the Internet Engineering Task Force from the four layers defined in RFC 1122. The IETF makes no effort to follow the OSI model although RFCs sometimes refer to it and often use the old OSI layer numbers. The IETF has repeatedly stated^{[citation needed]} that Internet protocol and architecture development is not intended to be OSI-compliant. RFC 3439, addressing Internet architecture, contains a section entitled: "Layering Considered Harmful".^[19]

[edit] See also

(DHCP) Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

2010-10-03T04:32:00.000-07:00

Short for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, a protocol for assigning dynamic IP addresses to devices on a network. With dynamic addressing, a device can have a different IP address every time it connects to the network. In some systems, the device's IP address can even change while it is still connected. DHCP also supports a mix of static and dynamic IP addresses.

Dynamic addressing simplifies network administration because the software keeps track of IP addresses rather than requiring an administrator to manage the task. This means that a new computer can be added to a network without the hassle of manually assigning it a unique IP address. Many ISPs use dynamic IP addressing for dial-up users.

(DNS) Domain Name System

2010-10-03T04:28:00.000-07:00

The Domain Name System (DNS) is a distributed hierarchical naming system for computers, services, or any resource connected to the Internet or a private network. It associates various information with domain names assigned to each of the participants. Most importantly, it translates domain names meaningful to humans into the numerical (binary) identifiers associated with networking equipment for the purpose of locating and addressing these devices worldwide. An often-used analogy to explain the Domain Name System is that it serves as the "phone book" for the Internet by translating human-friendly computer hostnames into IP addresses. For example, www.example.com translates to the addresses 192.0.32.10 (IPv4) and 2620:0:2d0:200::10 (IPv6).

The Domain Name System makes it possible to assign domain names to groups of Internet users in a meaningful way, independent of each user's physical location. Because of this, World Wide Web (WWW) hyperlinks and Internet contact information can remain consistent and constant even if the current Internet routing arrangements change or the participant uses a mobile device. Internet domain names are easier to remember than IP addresses such as 208.77.188.166 (IPv4) or 2001:db8:1f70::999:de8:7648:6e8 (IPv6). People take advantage of this when they recite meaningful URLs and e-mail addresses without having to know how the machine will actually locate them.

The Domain Name System distributes the responsibility of assigning domain names and mapping those names to IP addresses by designating authoritative name servers for each domain. Authoritative name servers are assigned to be responsible for their particular domains, and in turn can assign other authoritative name servers for their sub-domains. This mechanism has made the DNS distributed and fault tolerant and has helped avoid the need for a single central register to be continually consulted and updated.

In general, the Domain Name System also stores other types of information, such as the list of mail servers that accept email for a given Internet domain. By providing a worldwide, distributed keyword-based redirection service, the Domain Name System is an essential component of the functionality of the Internet.

Other identifiers such as RFID tags, UPC codes, International characters in email addresses and host names, and a variety of other identifiers could all potentially utilize DNS.^[1]

The Domain Name System also defines the technical underpinnings of the functionality of this database service. For this purpose it defines the DNS protocol, a detailed specification of the data structures and communication exchanges used in DNS, as part of the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP).

History

The practice of using a name as a humanly more meaningful abstraction of a host's numerical address on the network dates back to the ARPANET era. Before the DNS was invented in 1983, each computer on the network retrieved a file called HOSTS.TXT from a computer at SRI (now SRI International).^[5]^[6] The HOSTS.TXT file mapped names to numerical addresses. A hosts file still exists on most modern operating systems, either by default or through explicit configuration. Many operating systems use name resolution logic that allows the administrator to configure selection priorities for available name resolution methods.

The rapid growth of the network required a scalable system that recorded a change in a host's address in one place only. Other hosts would learn about the change dynamically through a notification system, thus completing a globally accessible network of all hosts' names and their associated IP addresses.

At the request of Jon Postel, Paul Mockapetris invented the Domain Name System in 1983 and wrote the first implementation. The original specifications appeared in RFC 882 and RFC 883 which were superseded in November 1987 by RFC 1034^[2] and RFC 1035.^[4] Several additional Request for Comments have proposed various extensions to the core DNS protocols.

In 1984, four Berkeley students—Douglas Terry, Mark Painter, David Riggle and Songnian Zhou—wrote the first UNIX implementation, called The Berkeley Internet Name Domain (BIND) Server.^[7] In 1985, Kevin Dunlap of DEC significantly re-wrote the DNS implementation. Mike Karels, Phil Almquist and Paul Vixie have maintained BIND since then. BIND was ported to the Windows NT platform in the early 1990s.

BIND was widely distributed, especially on Unix systems, and is the dominant DNS software in use on the Internet.^[8] With the heavy use and resulting scrutiny of its open-source code, as well as increasingly more sophisticated attack methods, many security flaws were discovered in BIND. This contributed to the development of a number of alternative name server and resolver programs. BIND itself was re-written from scratch in version 9, which has a security record comparable to other modern Internet software.

The DNS protocol was developed and defined in the early 1980s and published by the Internet Engineering Task Force.

[edit] Structure

[edit] Domain name space

The hierarchical domain name system, organized into zones, each served by a name server

The domain name space consists of a tree of domain names. Each node or leaf in the tree has zero or more resource records, which hold information associated with the domain name. The tree sub-divides into zones beginning at the root zone. A DNS zone consists of a collection of connected nodes authoritatively served by an authoritative nameserver. (A single nameserver can host several zones.)

Administrative responsibility over any zone may be divided, thereby creating additional zones. Authority is said to be delegated for a portion of the old space, usually in form of sub-domains, to another nameserver and administrative entity. The old zone ceases to be authoritative for the new zone.

[edit] Domain name formulation

The definitive descriptions of the rules for forming domain names appear in RFC 1035, RFC 1123, and RFC 2181. A domain name consists of one or more parts, technically called labels, that are conventionally concatenated, and delimited by dots, such as example.com.

The right-most label conveys the top-level domain; for example, the domain name www.example.com belongs to the top-level domain com.
The hierarchy of domains descends from right to left; each label to the left specifies a subdivision, or subdomain of the domain to the right. For example: the label example specifies a subdomain of the com domain, and www is a sub domain of example.com. This tree of subdivisions may consist of 127 levels.
Each label may contain up to 63 characters. The full domain name may not exceed a total length of 253 characters.^[9] In practice, some domain registries may have shorter limits.
DNS names may technically consist of any character representable in an octet. However, the allowed formulation of domain names in the DNS root zone, and most other sub domains, uses a preferred format and character set. The characters allowed in a label are a subset of the ASCII character set, and includes the characters a through z, A through Z, digits 0 through 9, and the hyphen. This rule is known as the LDH rule (letters, digits, hyphen). Domain names are interpreted in case-independent manner. Labels may not start or end with a hyphen.^[10]
A hostname is a domain name that has at least one IP address associated. For example, the domain names www.example.com and example.com are also hostnames, whereas the com domain is not.

[edit] Internationalized domain names

Main article: Internationalized domain name

The permitted character set of the DNS prevented the representation of names and words of many languages in their native alphabets or scripts. ICANN has approved the Punycode-based Internationalized domain name (IDNA) system, which maps Unicode strings into the valid DNS character set. In 2009 ICANN approved the installation of IDN country code top-level domains. In addition, many registries of the existing TLDs have adopted IDNA.

[edit] Name servers

The Domain Name System is maintained by a distributed database system, which uses the client-server model. The nodes of this database are the name servers. Each domain has at least one authoritative DNS server that publishes information about that domain and the name servers of any domains subordinate to it. The top of the hierarchy is served by the root nameservers, the servers to query when looking up (resolving) a top-level domain name (TLD).

[edit] Authoritative name server

An authoritative name server is a name server that gives answers that have been configured by an original source, for example, the domain administrator or by dynamic DNS methods, in contrast to answers that were obtained via a regular DNS query to another name server. An authoritative-only name server only returns answers to queries about domain names that have been specifically configured by the administrator.

An authoritative name server can either be a master server or a slave server. A master server is a server that stores the original (master) copies of all zone records. A slave server uses an automatic updating mechanism of the DNS protocol in communication with its master to maintain an identical copy of the master records.

Every DNS zone must be assigned a set of authoritative name servers that are installed in NS records in the parent zone.

When domain names are registered with a domain name registrar their installation at the domain registry of a top level domain requires the assignment of a primary name server and at least one secondary name server. The requirement of multiple name servers aims to make the domain still functional even if one name server becomes inaccessible or inoperable.^[11] The designation of a primary name server is solely determined by the priority given to the domain name registrar. For this purpose generally only the fully qualified domain name of the name server is required, unless the servers are contained in the registered domain, in which case the corresponding IP address is needed as well.

Primary name servers are often master name servers, while secondary name server may be implemented as slave servers.

An authoritative server indicates its status of supplying definitive answers, deemed authoritative, by setting a software flag (a protocol structure bit), called the Authoritative Answer (AA) bit in its responses.^[4] This flag is usually reproduced prominently in the output of DNS administration query tools (such as dig) to indicate that the responding name server is an authority for the domain name in question.^[4]

[edit] Recursive and caching name server

In principle, authoritative name servers are sufficient for the operation of the Internet. However, with only authoritative name servers operating, every DNS query must start with recursive queries at the root zone of the Domain Name System and each user system must implement resolver software capable of recursive operation.

To improve efficiency, reduce DNS traffic across the Internet, and increase performance in end-user applications, the Domain Name System supports DNS cache servers which store DNS query results for a period of time determined in the configuration (time-to-live) of the domain name record in question. Typically, such caching DNS servers, also called DNS caches, also implement the recursive algorithm necessary to resolve a given name starting with the DNS root through to the authoritative name servers of the queried domain. With this function implemented in the name server, user applications gain efficiency in design and operation.

The combination of DNS caching and recursive functions in a name server is not mandatory, the functions can be implemented independently in servers for special purposes.

Internet service providers typically provide recursive and caching name servers for their customers. In addition, many home networking routers implement DNS caches and recursors to improve efficiency in the local network.

[edit] DNS resolvers

[edit] Operation

[edit] Address resolution mechanism

Domain name resolvers determine the appropriate domain name servers responsible for the domain name in question by a sequence of queries starting with the right-most (top-level) domain label.

A DNS recursor consults three nameservers to resolve the address www.wikipedia.org.

The process entails:

A system that needs to use the DNS is configured with the known addresses of the root servers. This is often stored in a file of root hints, which are updated periodically by an administrator from a reliable source.
Query one of the root servers to find the server authoritative for the top-level domain.
Query the obtained TLD DNS server for the address of a DNS server authoritative for the second-level domain.
Repeating the previous step to process each domain name label in sequence, until the final step which would, rather than generating the address of the next DNS server, return the IP address of the host sought.

The diagram illustrates this process for the host www.wikipedia.org.

The mechanism in this simple form would place a large operating burden on the root servers, with every search for an address starting by querying one of them. Being as critical as they are to the overall function of the system, such heavy use would create an insurmountable bottleneck for trillions of queries placed every day. In practice caching is used in DNS servers to overcome this problem, and as a result, root nameservers actually are involved with very little of the total traffic.

[edit] Circular dependencies and glue records

Name servers in delegations are identified by name, rather than by IP address. This means that a resolving name server must issue another DNS request to find out the IP address of the server to which it has been referred. If the name given in the delegation is a subdomain of the domain for which the delegation is being provided, there is a circular dependency. In this case the nameserver providing the delegation must also provide one or more IP addresses for the authoritative nameserver mentioned in the delegation. This information is called glue. The delegating name server provides this glue in the form of records in the additional section of the DNS response, and provides the delegation in the answer section of the response.

For example, consider the domain example.org. Assume that the authoritative name server for example.org is ns1.example.org. A computer trying to resolve www.example.org will first have to resolve ns1.example.org. Since ns1 is also under example.org, resolving ns1.example.org requires resolving example.org—a circular dependency. To break the dependency, the nameserver for the org top level domain includes glue along with the delegation for example.org. The glue records are A and/or AAAA records that provide IP addresses for ns1.example.org. The resolver uses one or more of these IP addresses to satisfy the circular dependency, which allows it to communicate with ns1.example.org and finish resolving the DNS query.

[edit] Record caching

Because of the large volume of requests generated in the DNS for the public Internet, the designers wished to provide a mechanism to reduce the load on individual DNS servers. To this end, the DNS resolution process allows for caching of records for a period of time after an answer. This entails the local recording and subsequent consultation of the copy instead of initiating a new request upstream. The time for which a resolver caches a DNS response is determined by a value called the time to live (TTL) associated with every record. The TTL is set by the administrator of the DNS server handing out the authoritative response. The period of validity may vary from just seconds to days or even weeks.

As a noteworthy consequence of this distributed and caching architecture, changes to DNS records do not propagate throughout the network immediately, but require all caches to expire and refresh after the TTL. RFC 1912 conveys basic rules for determining appropriate TTL values.

Some resolvers may override TTL values, as the protocol supports caching for up to 68 years or no caching at all. Negative caching, i.e. the caching of the fact of non-existence of a record, is determined by name servers authoritative for a zone which must include the Start of Authority (SOA) record when reporting no data of the requested type exists. The value of the MINIMUM field of the SOA record and the TTL of the SOA itself is used to establish the TTL for the negative answer.

[edit] Reverse lookup

The term reverse lookup refers to performing a DNS query to find one or more DNS names associated with a given IP address.

The DNS stores IP addresses in form of specially formatted names as pointer (PTR) records using special domains. For IPv4, the domain is in-addr.arpa. For IPv6, the reverse lookup domain is ip6.arpa. The IP address is represented as a name in reverse-ordered octet representation for IPv4, and reverse-ordered nibble representation for IPv6.

When performing a reverse lookup, the DNS client converts the address into these formats, and then queries the name for a PTR record following the delegation chain as for any DNS query. For example, the IPv4 address 208.80.152.2 is represented as a DNS name as 2.152.80.208.in-addr.arpa. The DNS resolver begins by querying the root servers, which point to ARIN's servers for the 208.in-addr.arpa zone. From there the Wikimedia servers are assigned for 152.80.208.in-addr.arpa, and the PTR lookup completes by querying the wikimedia nameserver for 2.152.80.208.in-addr.arpa, which results in an authoritative response.

[edit] Client lookup

DNS resolution sequence

Users generally do not communicate directly with a DNS resolver. Instead DNS resolution takes place transparently in applications programs such as web browsers, e-mail clients, and other Internet applications. When an application makes a request that requires a domain name lookup, such programs send a resolution request to the DNS resolver in the local operating system, which in turn handles the communications required.

The DNS resolver will almost invariably have a cache (see above) containing recent lookups. If the cache can provide the answer to the request, the resolver will return the value in the cache to the program that made the request. If the cache does not contain the answer, the resolver will send the request to one or more designated DNS servers. In the case of most home users, the Internet service provider to which the machine connects will usually supply this DNS server: such a user will either have configured that server's address manually or allowed DHCP to set it; however, where systems administrators have configured systems to use their own DNS servers, their DNS resolvers point to separately maintained nameservers of the organization. In any event, the name server thus queried will follow the process outlined above, until it either successfully finds a result or does not. It then returns its results to the DNS resolver; assuming it has found a result, the resolver duly caches that result for future use, and hands the result back to the software which initiated the request.

[edit] Broken resolvers

An additional level of complexity emerges when resolvers violate the rules of the DNS protocol. A number of large ISPs have configured their DNS servers to violate rules (presumably to allow them to run on less-expensive hardware than a fully compliant resolver), such as by disobeying TTLs, or by indicating that a domain name does not exist just because one of its name servers does not respond.^[12]

As a final level of complexity, some applications (such as web-browsers) also have their own DNS cache, in order to reduce the use of the DNS resolver library itself. This practice can add extra difficulty when debugging DNS issues, as it obscures the freshness of data, and/or what data comes from which cache. These caches typically use very short caching times—on the order of one minute^{[citation needed]}.

Internet Explorer offers a notable exception: versions up to IE 3.x cache DNS records for 24 hours by default. Internet Explorer 4.x and later versions (up to IE 8) decrease the default time out value to half an hour. That value can be changed by modifying corresponding registry keys.^[13]

[edit] Other applications

The system outlined above provides a somewhat simplified scenario. The Domain Name System includes several other functions:

Hostnames and IP addresses do not necessarily match on a one-to-one basis. Many hostnames may correspond to a single IP address: combined with virtual hosting, this allows a single machine to serve many web sites. Alternatively a single hostname may correspond to many IP addresses: this can facilitate fault tolerance and load distribution, and also allows a site to move physical location seamlessly.
There are many uses of DNS besides translating names to IP addresses. For instance, Mail transfer agents use DNS to find out where to deliver e-mail for a particular address. The domain to mail exchanger mapping provided by MX records accommodates another layer of fault tolerance and load distribution on top of the name to IP address mapping.

E-mail Blacklists: The DNS system is used for efficient storage and distribution of IP addresses of blacklisted e-mail hosts. The usual method is putting the IP address of the subject host into the sub-domain of a higher level domain name, and resolve that name to different records to indicate a positive or a negative. A hypothetical example using blacklist.com,
- 102.3.4.5 is blacklisted => Creates 5.4.3.102.blacklist.com and resolves to 127.0.0.1
- 102.3.4.6 is not => 6.4.3.102.blacklist.com is not found, or default to 127.0.0.2
- E-mail servers can then query blacklist.com through the DNS mechanism to find out if a specific host connecting to them is in the blacklist. Today many of such blacklists, either free or subscription-based, are available mainly for use by email administrators and anti-spam software.

Software Updates: many anti-virus and commercial software now use the DNS system to store version numbers of the latest software updates so client computers do not need to connect to the update servers every time. For these types of applications, the cache time of the DNS records are usually shorter.

Sender Policy Framework and DomainKeys, instead of creating their own record types, were designed to take advantage of another DNS record type, the TXT record.
To provide resilience in the event of computer failure, multiple DNS servers are usually provided for coverage of each domain, and at the top level, thirteen very powerful root servers exist, with additional "copies" of several of them distributed worldwide via Anycast.
Dynamic DNS (also referred to as DDNS) provides clients the ability to update their IP address in the DNS after it changes due to mobility, e.g.

[edit] Protocol details

DNS primarily uses User Datagram Protocol (UDP) on port number 53^[14] to serve requests. DNS queries consist of a single UDP request from the client followed by a single UDP reply from the server. The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is used when the response data size exceeds 512 bytes, or for tasks such as zone transfers. Some operating systems, such as HP-UX, are known to have resolver implementations that use TCP for all queries, even when UDP would suffice.

[edit] DNS resource records

Further information: List of DNS record types

A Resource Record (RR) is the basic data element in the domain name system. Each record has a type (A, MX, etc.), an expiration time limit, a class, and some type-specific data. Resource records of the same type define a resource record set. The order of resource records in a set, returned by a resolver to an application, is undefined, but often servers implement round-robin ordering to achieve load balancing. DNSSEC, however, works on complete resource record sets in a canonical order.

When sent over an IP network, all records use the common format specified in RFC 1035 and shown below:

**RR (Resource record) fields**
Field	Description	Length (octets)
NAME	Name of the node to which this record pertains	(variable)
TYPE	Type of RR in numeric form (e.g. 15 for MX RRs)	2
CLASS	Class code	2
TTL	Unsigned time in seconds that RR stays valid (maximum 2147483647)	4
RDLENGTH	Length of RDATA field	2
RDATA	Additional RR-specific data	(variable)

NAME is the fully qualified domain name of the node in the tree. On the wire, the name may be shortened using label compression where ends of domain names mentioned earlier in the packet can be substituted for the end of the current domain name.

TYPE is the record type. It indicates the format of the data and it gives a hint of its intended use. For example, the A record is used to translate from a domain name to an IPv4 address, the NS record lists which name servers can answer lookups on a DNS zone, and the MX record specifies the mail server used to handle mail for a domain specified in an e-mail address (see also List of DNS record types).

RDATA is data of type-specific relevance, such as the IP address for address records, or the priority and hostname for MX records. Well known record types may use label compression in the RDATA field, but "unknown" record types must not (RFC 3597).

The CLASS of a record is set to IN (for Internet) for common DNS records involving Internet hostnames, servers, or IP addresses. In addition, the classes CH (Chaos) and HS (Hesiod) exist. Each class is a completely independent tree with potentially different delegations of DNS zones.

In addition to resource records defined in a zone file, the domain name system also defines several request types that are used only in communication with other DNS nodes (on the wire), such as when performing zone transfers (AXFR/IXFR) or for EDNS (OPT).

[edit] Wildcard DNS records

Main article: Wildcard DNS record

The domain name system supports wildcard domain names which are names that start with the asterisk label, '*', e.g., *.example.^[2]^[15] DNS records belonging to wildcard domain names specify rules for generating resource records within a single DNS zone by substituting whole labels with matching components of the query name, including any specified descendants. For example, in the DNS zone x.example, the following configuration specifies that all subdomains (including subdomains of subdomains) of x.example use the mail exchanger a.x.example. The records for a.x.example are needed to specify the mail exchanger. As this has the result of excluding this domain name and its subdomains from the wildcard matches, all subdomains of a.x.example must be defined in a separate wildcard statement.

X.EXAMPLE.       MX   10 A.X.EXAMPLE.
*.X.EXAMPLE.     MX   10 A.X.EXAMPLE.
*.A.X.EXAMPLE.   MX   10 A.X.EXAMPLE.
A.X.EXAMPLE.     MX   10 A.X.EXAMPLE.
A.X.EXAMPLE.     AAAA 2001:db8::1

The role of wildcard records was refined in RFC 4592, because the original definition in RFC 1034 was incomplete and resulted in misinterpretations by implementers.^[15]

[edit] Protocol extensions

The original DNS protocol had limited provisions for extension with new features. In 1999, Paul Vixie published in RFC 2671 an extension mechanism, called Extension mechanisms for DNS (EDNS) that introduced optional protocol elements without increasing overhead when not in use. This was accomplished through the OPT pseudo-resource record that only exists in wire transmissions of the protocol, but not in any zone files. Initial extensions were also suggested (EDNS0), such as increasing the DNS message size in UDP datagrams.

[edit] Dynamic zone updates

Dynamic DNS updates use the UPDATE DNS opcode to add or remove resource records dynamically from a zone data base maintained on an authoritative DNS server. The feature is described in RFC 2136. This facility is useful to register network clients into the DNS when they boot or become otherwise available on the network. Since a booting client may be assigned a different IP address each time from a DHCP server, it is not possible to provide static DNS assignments for such clients.

[edit] Security issues

DNS was not originally designed with security in mind, and thus has a number of security issues.

One class of vulnerabilities is DNS cache poisoning, which tricks a DNS server into believing it has received authentic information when, in reality, it has not.

DNS responses are traditionally not cryptographically signed, leading to many attack possibilities; the Domain Name System Security Extensions (DNSSEC) modifies DNS to add support for cryptographically signed responses. There are various extensions to support securing zone transfer information as well.

Even with encryption, a DNS server could become compromised by a virus (or for that matter a disgruntled employee) that would cause IP addresses of that server to be redirected to a malicious address with a long TTL. This could have far-reaching impact to potentially millions of Internet users if busy DNS servers cache the bad IP data. This would require manual purging of all affected DNS caches as required by the long TTL (up to 68 years).

Some domain names can spoof other, similar-looking domain names. For example, "paypal.com" and "paypa1.com" are different names, yet users may be unable to tell the difference when the user's typeface (font) does not clearly differentiate the letter l and the numeral 1. This problem is much more serious in systems that support internationalized domain names, since many character codes in ISO 10646, may appear identical on typical computer screens. This vulnerability is often exploited in phishing.^{[citation needed]}

Techniques such as Forward-confirmed reverse DNS can also be used to help validate DNS results.

[edit] Domain name registration

The right to use a domain name is delegated by domain name registrars which are accredited by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), the organization charged with overseeing the name and number systems of the Internet. In addition to ICANN, each top-level domain (TLD) is maintained and serviced technically by an administrative organization, operating a registry. A registry is responsible for maintaining the database of names registered within the TLD it administers. The registry receives registration information from each domain name registrar authorized to assign names in the corresponding TLD and publishes the information using a special service, the whois protocol.

ICANN publishes the complete list of TLD registries and domain name registrars. Registrant information associated with domain names is maintained in an online database accessible with the WHOIS service. For most of the more than 240 country code top-level domains (ccTLDs), the domain registries maintain the WHOIS (Registrant, name servers, expiration dates, etc.) information. For instance, DENIC, Germany NIC, holds the DE domain data. Since about 2001, most gTLD registries have adopted this so-called thick registry approach, i.e. keeping the WHOIS data in central registries instead of registrar databases.

For COM and NET domain names, a thin registry model is used: the domain registry (e.g. VeriSign) holds basic WHOIS (registrar and name servers, etc.) data. One can find the detailed WHOIS (registrant, name servers, expiry dates, etc.) at the registrars.

Some domain name registries, often called network information centers (NIC), also function as registrars to end-users. The major generic top-level domain registries, such as for the COM, NET, ORG, INFO domains and others, use a registry-registrar model consisting of hundreds of domain name registrars (see lists at ICANN or VeriSign). In this method of management, the registry only manages the domain name database and the relationship with the registrars. The registrants (users of a domain name) are customers of the registrar, in some cases through additional layers of resellers.

Nokia 6790 Surge Contract

2010-09-19T07:10:00.000-07:00

Nokia 6790 Surge Deals - The Nokia 6790 Surge is a smart phone which runs on the Symbian S60 platform and includes Exchange support, a number of productivity tools, GPS, and 3G support. The handset is much favorable for younger audience, offering easy access to social networking sites and a spacious full QWERTY keyboard for easy messaging. The Surge sports 2.4 inches TFT screen displaying 16 M colors. The handset has internal memory of 128 MB and comes with a microSD card slot that can add extra memory of 8 GB. The handset has wide array of data connectivity options which include: GPRS, EDGE, 3G, Bluetooth and USB. The handset has 2 MP camera which can record QVGA videos. With various kinds of audio and video players, the handset is an complete entertaining device. This exciting smart phone is available on free3gmobilephoneoffers under various contract deals. A person gets cheap or low price call rates on services of leading network providers which include O2, Orange, Vodafone, T-Mobile, Virgin etc. Like a good online shop, we also provide comparison of various contract deals. Compare and buy best, latest and cheapest deals through our site.

Nokia N8 official!

2010-09-19T03:32:00.000-07:00

GLOBAL – The Nokia N8 today officially emerges into the daylight, stepping out of the shadows equipped with a host of smartphone talents. The first device to be powered by the brand new Symbian^3 platform, the Nokia N8 will launch with a new breed of camera that promises to capture photos and video to rival dedicated point and shoot cameras. Read on to explore Nokia N8′s full list of talents.

The biggest feature on the Nokia N8 is its 12-megapixel camera with Carl Zeiss optics and Xenon flash. It features a substantially larger sensor than any ever used in any other Nokia device – even bigger than many found in dedicated cameras. Recently, we caught up with Nokia’s resident camera guru, Damian Dinning, to get the full lowdown on what went into fine-tuning the N8′s camera and video capture skills – you’ll be able to read the full fact-packed story right here on Conversations this week, so stay tuned.

Check out the first sample images from the Nokia N8

The Nokia N8 also introduces the ability to record high definition videos and edit them with a smart built-in editing suite on the device. Playback quality is just as important, and the 3.5-inch HD capacitive touchscreen is the ideal window for assessing your flicks and footage. There’s also a HDMI connector allowing you to hook the smartphone to your HD TV and share your media with friends and family in superb quality. We wanted to find out more about the benefits of HDMI in the Nokia N8 so we spoke to Paul Wheeler, a software program manager at Nokia, to get the full story – again, be sure to keep an eye out for our full story this later this week.

Check out the first HD video sample from the Nokia N8

The Nokia N8 also doubles as a portable entertainment centre. Watch HD quality video with Dolby Digital Plus surround sound and hook into a dedicated Web TV application for access to news and entertainment on the move.

It’s not just its 12-megapixel camera and HD video skills with HDMI support that set the Nokia N8 apart from the crowd. Packing more memory than most, the Nokia N8 has 16GB of built-in storage and is expandable up to 48GB with a micro SD card.

Joining the social messaging fold with the likes of the latest Eseries and Cseries devices, the N8 enters the fray with live Twitter and Facebook updates direct to your homescreen. Comment, read and send messages, update your status and share your location and photos with one touch.

Embracing location based services, the N8 is location-savvy and comes with free global Ovi Maps walk and drive navigation with support in more than 70 countries worldwide.

Powering the Nokia N8 is the all-new Symbian^3 platform. This latest incarnation introduces major new advances including multi-touch and support for gestures such as pinch-to-zoom. Onboard there’s also three customisable homescreens that can be loaded with applications and widgets and flicked through by a swish of the finger. There’s also improved 2D and 3D graphics for a faster and more responsive UI, greater memory management and a visual task manager.

Of course, the Nokia N8 comes with access to the full range of Ovi services and it’s Nokia’s first smartphone to be integrated with Qt. Got and idea for an app? Qt is a software development environment that makes it a cinch to build apps and deploy across the Symbian and other software platforms.

Not to be outdone by its innards the Nokia N8 is carved from a single piece of anodised aluminium and looks glorious decked in one of five eye-catching colours (we’ll shortly be bringing you an entire article dedicated to the colours). It will cost €370 (before the usual local taxes and subsidies) when it starts shipping in the third quarter of 2010.

Over the coming week we’ll bring you heaps more insight and info surrounding the new Nokia N8, including designer interviews, exclusive videos, and much more. Stay tuned for all our unmissable coverage throughout the week. In the meantime, share your instant reactions and let us know what you want to know about the Nokia N8 by joining the conversation below.

Check out more at Nokia.com

Nokia expands Symbian^3 family with Nokia E7, Nokia C6-01 and Nokia C7

2010-09-16T10:17:00.000-07:00

LONDON, England – Today the Symbian^3 family of devices is growing with the announcement of three new products across Cseries and Eseries. Joining the Symbian^3 based Nokia N8 are the all new touchscreen and QWERTY business device, the Nokia E7, a compact touchscreen C6 and the sleek touchscreen Nokia C7.

Billed as the ultimate business smartphone, the Nokia E7 boasts Microsoft Exchange ActiveSync support alongside a luscious 4-inch touchscreen display, which uses Nokia’s ClearBlack technology for improved outdoor visibility. The Nokia E7 also comes with a slide out four-row QWERTY keyboard making it the ideal mobile business device. Despite the addition of a full keyboard, the E7 is only a smidge deeper than the Nokia N8 at 13.6mm thin. The device also boasts an 8-megapixel snapper and comes complete with 16GB of on-board storage.

As a business device, the Nokia E7 comes sporting a raft of security features including business grade device lock and wipe functionality, secure intranet access and remote device management. These come alongside its connectivity and productivity prowess, with support for Mail for Exchange, Microsoft Communicator Mobile and Microsoft Share Point Server. Business folk on the move will also benefit from free walk and drive navigation thanks to Ovi Maps including premium guides from the likes of Lonely Planet and Via Michelin.

Like the Nokia N8, the Nokia E7 also boasts an HDMI connection and Dolby Digital Plus Surround Sound. With the 8-megapixel camera, users will be able to shoot and edit HD quality images (including 720p video) and sound. As a Symbian^3 device, users can customise up to three homescreens and get live updates from the likes of Facebook and Twitter live on their homescreens.

Those on the move will welcome the Nokia E7′s travel-friendly 18 days of standby time and up to 9 hours of talktime. The device, which will be available in dark grey, silver white, green, blue and orange will be available in the last quarter of 2010 and is expected to retail for €495 before taxes and subsidies.

Joining the Nokia E7 and Nokia N8 as part of the Symbian^3 family are the all-new Nokia C6 and Nokia C7. Both of these devices raise the bar for design and social networking amongst their already good-looking Cseries brethren. Homescreen access to the latest updates from your favourite social networks are offered on tap for both devices.

First in the new Cseries lineup is the sleek C7 which boasts a 3.5-inch AMOLED display and is a hand-friendly 10.5mm thin. Like the E7 this device also sports an 8-megapixel camera with 8GB of onboard storage (expandable to 40GB with microSD).

The Nokia C7 will also shoot HD video in 720p and comes with free global walk and drive navigation and a digital compass. City users will welcome the active noise cancellation for clearer voice calls whilst the battery will keep calls going for up to 9.5 hours (in GSM mode) and stay on standby for an astounding 27 days (3G mode). The Nokia C7 is expected to go on sale before the end of 2010 and will be available in black, metal or brown for an estimated retail price of €335 before taxes and subsidies.

Like its big Cseries brother, the latest Nokia C6 (C6-01) is a compact little number that will also sport an 8-megapixel camera though with a more pocket-friendly 3.2-inch AMOLED capacitive touchscreen. The latter sporting the same Nokia ClearBlack technology as the E7, offering much improved outdoor visibility. Like the C7, this new device will also be a social networker’s dream with live feeds from your favorite social networks available on your home screen. The C6-01 will support microSD up to 32GB and capture HD video in 720p. Users can expect to see up to 17 days standby time and up to 11.5 hours talktime from the C7 battery.

Expected to be shipping before the end of 2010, the Nokia C6-01 will be available in silver or black and is estimated to retail at €260 before taxes and subsidies.

Today sees the Symbian^3 family of products grow to four, all to be available before the end 2010. This latest version of Symbian is packing 250 new features and improvements whilst remaining familiar to the millions of existing Symbian users worldwide. With multiple homescreen support, multitasking and gesture-based interactions, this latest version of Symbian^3 is a big leap forward.

We’re excited to see the Symbian^3 family of devices come to life and we can’t wait to get our hands on them after the keynotes have finished. Stay tuned for more later, meanwhile let us know what you think in the comments below.

China Mobile

2010-07-17T00:49:00.000-07:00

China Mobile Lollypop, Innocence-oriented

July 17th, 2010 No Comments

Even the coldest lady has some lovely personality. Even the rudest lady may appear to be pure and innocent. The “Lollypop” had directly shown the secret characteristics of female. That makes female pure.

To Flip mobile phone, “Lollypop” is quite comfortable to touch and good to look. The model KV3900 introduced today just meet a lot of advantages of the flip phones. Its special design is just like beautiful eyebrow which is soothing for eyes. We can even imagine in the street the girls who hold lollypops must have holy hands, nice nails, long eyelashes and slender legs. That is just cool and adorable.

With perfect voice, dual card dual standby, QQ2009, dual cams, video chat, some entertainments, gentle and elegant white keyboard, fashionable pink and blue, that’s more suitable for lovers. Some slightest taint of light may come out from the transparency part when playing music. It’s quite eye-catching.

No matter from its outlook or inside factors, right color light and the unique keyboard design with special art characters can prove the superiority of KV3900.

The design of the KV3900 is either Korean work or Japanese style.

Mini Notebook Style，First model of Japanese Android Exposed

July 17th, 2010 No Comments

Japanese corporation DoCoMo has displayed a new Sharp model in the 2010 Communications Fair in Japan. That is Sharp Lynx SH-10B. Its marked feature is its mini notebook outlook and it’s a smart phone which adopts Android system. The model will have a very big touch screen with 52 lac colors cam, Bluetooth and Wi-Fi functions. HSDPA network is also available.

SH-10B looks like notebook. As you see, it adopts side flip design. It has built-in screen of very big size and notebook keyboard. Besides, the phone supports touch control which meets the requirements for the clients.

It is a pity is that it doesn’t seem to be in the mobile phones’ circle. It merely adopts Android 1.6 operation system. What’s more, the model can only be sole in Japan. Yes, it has meet the requirements of Japanese, but Sharp Company hasn’t clarify that they would publish such kind of Android phone to the other districts.

Smallest Phone, Changeable Shell, Weights Only 40g

July 16th, 2010 No Comments

In most cases the extraordinary designs are much more concerned by people. When the big smart phone is very popular, a great many phone factories are trying to dig out some fresh stuff. To our surprise, they have produced the global smallest phone which weights only 40g or so.

As a matter of fact, it’s not the first time for this smallest phone modu to appear in the world. It often showed up in some fairs last 2 years and also gained large attention for it’s quite handy. From its outlook, the designers had took painstaking efforts in order to break the world record. The size of its body is 72mm×37mm×7.8mm. Obviously it’s still lighter than credit card. Of course, the price for it is apparent. For example, the screen is so little that it even does not have keyboard. To those users who have big hands, they may only use their nails to realize part of the functions.

However, if you think this model is simply small, then you are supposed to be wrong. It has special function called “changeable Outer Covering”. When its outlook is changed, the phone can be of various types and can be used as mobile phones, for example, it will have complete figures, keyboard, function and navigation keys etc.

Though it’s mini phone, it does not mean the function is simplified. On the contrary, apart from normal voice function, the phone can play music very well. The phone supports MP3 except the built-in 2GB memory. The 530mAh battery provides continuous play of music for 8 hours, continuous call time for 2.5 hours, and wait time for 100 hours. For the smallest phone in the globe, it’s just fabulous.

It’s famous not only for its “small”, but also for its operation model. It’s a innovative breakthrough in the light of operation. Whether the breakthrough can bring changes to phone circle is worthy of our attention, especially in the present market, the same pattern brought by open system is more and more severe. Thus the innovative phones become less and less. So we do hope the small MODU can bring us a new world.

The Face Time Video in iPhone4 can be Played in the Airplane

July 16th, 2010 No Comments

It was reported in the previous news that phone calls might be realized in the airplane. Recently an American net friend Bill G. has had a very natural video chat with TUAW website. The interesting thing is he was just in an airplane which was flying to Arkansas. During his trip to Texas, Bill went on talking via WIFI service in the cabin. Just think about its surroundings, we can see that the network is sort of terrific. However, the video paused at the last minute while the voice was delivered normally. Perhaps the video can be normal automatically after a while. In a word, the function can be added to the “Cool Function” of iPhone4 reasonably.

Hero G3 Speed,High configuration High performance

July 14th, 2010 No Comments

800MHZ DUUAL CORE PROCESSOR +512M ROM + 288M RAM

Since G3ACPC is so trendier,G3 speed is powered by 800MHZ,dual core processor, without any problem on its running speed, and incorporated with 288M/512M ROM, more programs able to run simultaneously. A trackball is embedded in the middle of the keyboard, free and convenient to control.

MAGNESIUM ALLOY SUPRFACE FOXCONN OEM

Magnesium alloy front panel is endurable, portable and good feel. Ergonomic design for its keyboards and white back panel represent its simplicity and fashion. The SPEED’s mainboard is the OEM by Foxconn, high performance and stability.

2.5G+WIFI, HIGH-SPEED WIRELESS INTERNET ACCESS

Surfing on phone is popular. With this speed, you can browser website, connect local area network, read news online, watch videos and so on. There is even no limit on surfing. You can do what computer can do for you by this phone.

COMMERCIAL & ENTERTAINMENT FUNCTIONS SUPPORTED

IT tools as MSN,email, stock software online,etc, what you want, what we can own.Without a big size and lumpish personal computer, you can still enjoy your work or have a fun on phone anytime you like.

GPS NAVIGATOR

With GPS mode built-in, voise navigation is no problem, as AGPS or Google map. With this phone on drive on your trip, no worry lost in a strange city and no fines from the police any more.

http://www.azsmart.cn/special/G3SPEED/

YOTA MAX4G 3.8inch sharp LCD screen lists

July 14th, 2010 No Comments

3.8 inch Super-big sharp LCD screen, WVGA high definition

YOTA MAX4G installs a 3.8 inch super-big sharp LCD screen with 800*480px high resolution, full-view from 180。You can see from any sides due to its original Sharp LCD screen ,with five as bright and colorful as common phones. Whether using office software, watching videos or browsing web, you enjoy the unprecedented visual effect.

BD film hard decoding chip, better than DVD

YOTA MAX4G is powered by a high performance CPU，800MHZ,built in MP4 hard decoding chip and supports playing 800*480px high definition BD film. With a high playing speed of 30f/s,the effect is much better than of DVD at your home. Matching a 3.8 inch super-big sharp LCD screen, it is just your pocket BD theatre.

Built in Opera browser,sync with computer

YOTA MAX4G has WIFI, supports 2.75G tech, enables you surf on WWW webpage, with the browser of Opera, provides you a different experience online. Dispose of that bad WAP browser and enjoy internet truly.

http://www.mtkphones.com/special/ENmax4g/max4g.aspx

4.3 inch biggest screen Touch HD2

July 14th, 2010 No Comments

The top design in the industry, large 4.3inch with high definition WVGA (480*800)touch screen, give you a cinematic vision experience, the wider web browsing domain and more comfortable full-size keyboard control.

12.8mm Extreme thin high-class texture

12.8mm body even much thinner than IPHONE. With such a big screen, you would still be surprised by its comfortable feeling. Non-slip durable high-grade matte main shell nano-level, with low radiation, anti-jamming alloy back cover, business feature is showed incisively and vividly.

533 mhz high performance central pro Strong performance comes from the Hisilicon

K3 533MHZ CPU, dual processor power,and multi-media hardwired decode. They response smoothly, no matter in switching applications, enjoying audio and video or playing games.

256M*2 Large capacity memory

Configuration 256M RAM+256 ROM, make the phone run the programs more smoothly,more extensive in multi-task execution environment. No more worry about the resource block by running multi-task, it can fully tap the potential of operating system to speed the program execution efficiently.

6.5 professional windows phone Pre-installed Microsoft windows mobile 6.5 professional, it can realize e-mail, contacts and call history, multi-terminal instant synchronization, enterprise collaboration software, and millions of self-defining software for setup. You would enjoy one multi-functional business and entertainment digit.

500mp high-definition camera

5.0 megapixels CMOS camera supports motion JPEG and unique Truelife software, which caused the picture clearer and color more real, no matter Buildings,plant,characters and more small vision.

http://www.mtkphones.com/special/HD2EN/index.html

Automatic cleaning sterilization — a concept design of Dream Mobile HTC 1

July 13th, 2010 1 Comment

Today we show you a concept mobile phone HTC 1.This phone also has a unique feature that it can open the built-in UV disinfection system to clean itself when charging.

Maybe our corrent phone is filthy .This cleaning idea makes sense.

Cool! 180°rotation mirror phone!

July 13th, 2010 No Comments

Cell phone has become an indispensable part of fashion products.

Today we bring you a mirror mobile phone, which has a excellent look and 180° rotation.

Beautiful,isn’t it? Ladies may enjoy it .

iPod classic

2010-06-25T08:26:00.000-07:00

The new iPod classic comes with 160GB of storage in the same compact size, making it the take everything- everywhere iPod. Itʼs available in quintessential silver or striking black. iPod classic also has plenty of battery life (up to 36 hours of audio playback or 6 hours of video playback3), good looks (a sleek, anodised aluminium design) and other great features (Cover Flow and Genius playlists for creating perfect playlists). You can even rent a film from iTunes and watch it on the go.

Belkin N1 Vision Wireless Modem Router - wireless router - F5D8632uk4A

2010-06-25T08:22:00.000-07:00

Belkin's N1 Vision Wireless Router with integrated Modem shows relevant network information on its interactive network display. You can quickly view your network�s broadband speed, computer bandwidth usage, and the status of your network devices all from an easy-to-read display. Ideal usage: streaming video, music and photos; online gaming; surfing the web; chatting with friends and emailing. For optimal wireless performance, use N1 clients in your network.

Product Description - Belkin N1 Vision Wireless Modem Router - wireless router
Device Type - Wireless router + 4-port switch (integrated)
Form Factor - External
Localisation - United Kingdom
Data Transfer Rate - 300 Mbps
Routing Protocol - Static IP routing
Data Link Protocol - Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, IEEE 802.11b, IEEE 802.11g, IEEE 802.11n (draft)
Network / Transport Protocol - TCP/IP, PPTP, IPSec, PPPoE, PPPoA, DHCP
Remote Management Protocol - HTTP
Digital Signaling Protocol - ADSL2, ADSL2+
Included Accessories - POTS filter
Features - Dynamic IP address assignment , NAT support, VPN support, auto-uplink (auto MDI/MDI-X), VPN passthrough, MIMO technology, Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS), IPSec passthrough
Compliant Standards - IEEE 802.11b, IEEE 802.11g, IEEE 802.11n (draft)
System Requirements - Apple MacOS X 10.2, Apple MacOS X 10.3, Apple MacOS X 10.4, Microsoft Windows Vista / 2000 / XP, Apple MacOS X 10.5
Manufacturer Warranty - Limited lifetime warranty

eReaders

2010-06-25T08:20:00.000-07:00

Sick and tired of having to lug around that heavy book you’ve been reading on the morning commute? Are you hampered by Hamlet or frustrated by Frankenstein? Then Elonex have a rather novel invention that could help.

With the eBook you can carry around literally thousands of books with you in the palm of your hands. Perfect for the daily commute or taking on holiday, if you love reading you'll love the eBook.

Acer Aspire 8735G Windows 7 Laptop - LX.PHF02.086

2010-06-25T08:16:00.000-07:00

Microsoft Office 2010 in stock now - click here for more details.

See Windows 7 in action

If you want a laptop that’s got some serious power and loads of fancy gadgets then I’d recommend this Acer Aspire 8735G. Acer machines always come packed with the latest technology, and this one is no exception!

If you’re into your movies like me then the 8735G is perfect; it’s got a massive screen and a Blu-ray player so you can enjoy all your favourite flicks. Gamers needn’t worry though, because this laptop’s got a powerful gaming graphics card too!

This Acer Aspire 8735G is one of my most impressive multimedia machines, and at this price you’d be crazy to say no.

Screen size - 18.4 in
Processor - Intel Core 2 Duo P7450 - 2.13
RAM - 4 GB
Hard Drive - 640 GB
Operating System - Windows 7 Home Premium 64 bit
Optical Drive - Blu Ray
Graphics - NVIDIA GeForce GT240M 1GB DDR3
Webcam - Integrated
Warranty - 1 year warranty

Red LG KF510 Released on T-Mobile – LG KF510 Red UK

2010-06-22T04:45:00.000-07:00

The new LG KF510 in Red has now been made available on T-Mobile contract deals in the UK, the new Red KF510 offers exactly the same features, design and technology as the Silver LG KF510 but comes in a beautiful gradiated Red coloured metal casing.

This attractive looking phone is equally attractive to use. Its tactile and visually interactive user interface includes captivating animation developed based on the LG’s advanced touch technology. Users will especially appreciate the quality of the Red LG KF510’s multi-function camera with 3.0 mega pixel and MP3 player.

At just 10.9 mm thick, the LG KF510 is an extremely slim slider phone. It combines a slim style with strength created by its metal frame and tempered glass. At the center of its design are metal gradation paint schemes available in Stardust Dark Gray or Sunset Red.
.

How Microwave Cooking Works

2010-06-19T15:25:00.000-07:00

The microwave oven is one of the great inventions of the 20th century -- millions of homes in America have one. Just think about how many times you use a microwave every day:

You're running late for work, so there's no time to fix breakfast at home. On your way to the office, you stop to gas up your car. Inside the quickie-mart, you grab a frozen breakfast burrito and pop it in the microwave on the counter. Later that day, you have to work through lunch. By 3:00 p.m., you're starving, so you grab a snack-pack of microwaveable popcorn from the vending machine and pop that in the break-room microwave. That night, after a really long day at work, you're simply too tired to grill out, so you dish up last night's lasagna and heat it up in the microwave...

As you can see, microwave ovens are popular because they cook food in an amazingly short amount of time. They are also extremely efficient in their use of electricity because a microwave oven heats only the food -- and nothing else. In this article, we'll discuss the mystery behind the magic of "meals in a minute" with microwave cooking.

Fujitsu Launches 300GB Portable USB Drive

2010-06-19T15:17:00.000-07:00

At a time when most portable 2.5-in. USB drives are maxing out in the 160GB to 200GB range, Fujitsu decided to set its own amazing 300GB platter to the task. Today it unveiled a 300GB bus-powered external drive that should be in stores by September. It's got a 16-point omnidirectional shock mounting plus an integrated USB 2.0 cable for easy access. The software suite includes Apricorn Inc.'s EZ Gig II for Windows backup-ware, Second Copy 2000 for file management and Cryptainer for encryption. Total cost of ownership? $229.

FUJITSU INTRODUCES THE WORLD'S HIGHEST CAPACITY, SECURE, 2.5" PORTABLE EXTERNAL HARD DISK DRIVE

External 2.5" Hard Disk Drive with up to 300GB1 Capacity Provides Record-Breaking Storage, Backup, and Security Solution for Mobile Users

SUNNYVALE, Calif., July 2, 2007 - Fujitsu Computer Products of America, Inc., one of the world's leading suppliers of innovative computer products including hard disk drives, peripherals and biometric security solutions, today launched its new travel-ready and world's highest capacity 2.5" External Hard Disk Drive (HDD) for the U.S. market. Featuring up to 300GB of storage space in a sleek, compact design, the new External HDDs are built on the Fujitsu mobile hard disk technology, providing an ideal solution for users looking for a portable HDD with industry-leading capacity.

Designed for the busy mobile professional, the Fujitsu External Hard Disk Drive comes equipped with all of the necessary components to enable users to take their data wherever they go. The slim device includes an integrated USB 2.0 cable to allow for quick and easy connectivity. Additionally, because the product is USB bus-powered, a laptop can lend the device the necessary power without external resources required. Users can also be assured that their data will be protected with the distinctive 16-point omnidirectional shock mounting design, which helps to reduce the effect of impact.

For extra security and backup convenience, the Fujitsu External HDDs are also bundled with a comprehensive Data Protection Suite for PC. Apricorn Inc.'s EZ Gig II® for Windows® enables a system to be backed up as an image or an exact clone, while at the same time permitting backups to be compressed into a single file, allowing individual files to be restored, and providing security with password protection. There is also the Cryptainer® encryption program that helps guarantee privacy, with the AES 256 or Blowfish®448 bit encryption.

One gigabyte (GB) = one billion bytes; accessible capacity will be less and actual capacity depends on the operating environment and formatting.

Finally, to ensure data integrity, Second Copy® 2000 synchronizing software coordinates file sharing and backup between multiple computers.

"We are proud to launch the world's highest capacity 2.5" External HDD product into the marketplace at a time when consumers are demanding more storage, compact designs, and features that advance the level of data security," said Lorne Wilson, senior vice president, sales and marketing, Fujitsu Computer Products of America, Inc. "Fujitsu has almost forty years of experience in the hard disk drive industry, and we have successfully expanded our 2.5" HDD business over the last fourteen years. As a result of our focus and commitment to R&D, we have been able to leverage our expertise in this field to create an ideal solution for portable backup and storage solutions."

Available in capacities of up to 300GB and featuring a user-friendly interface, the new Fujitsu device is an excellent solution for backing up and storing work files, MP3s, videos and photos. Additionally, the external hard disk drive can be utilized as a backup application for an entire PC system.

Pricing and Availability
The Fujitsu External Hard Disk Drive 300GB/4200RPM is available for $229 (U.S. MSRP) and is also available in a 120GB/5400RPM version for $129 (U.S. MSRP) through Fujitsu authorized distributors and retail channels in the third quarter of 2007 in the U.S. market

Google Earth Basics

2010-06-19T15:15:00.001-07:00

"Google Earth combines satellite imagery, maps and the power of Google Search to put the world's geographic information at your fingertips." - from the Google Earth Home Page

If you are new to Google Earth (GE), there are some useful stories written in the Google Earth Blog which might give a beginner, or even an experienced user, some insights about this exciting program. If you are looking for more advanced things, try going to the GEB home page and use the categories or Search option for things like: GPS, Geocaching, GIS, network links, image overlays, and more. On this page are links to stories which might help guide you to learning enough about Google Earth that you will soon be a GE expert.

(Note: these articles are gradually being updated with new information based on Google Earth version 5.0.)

Important Basics - how to move your view: zoom, pan, tilt
About Google Earth Imagery (Updated)
Overview Map (Updated) - a nice feature to help you locate yourself
Setting up GE Options (Updated) - Optimize performance
Using Street View in Google Earth (Updated)
Google Earth Flight Simulator Tips - all you need to know to use Google Earth's Flight Simulator
Google Earth Layers (Updated)
Using GE Offline (Updated) - no Internet connection
3D Buildings Layer (Updated)
1. Google SketchUp - a free 3D modeling program for Google Earth
Ten Easy Steps to Learning about a Place with GE
Visual Guides to GE User interface
Play Tour mode - learn how to use it
GE Files, KML/KMZ - explanation of these file types
Network Links - Basic explanation of network links. See also Matt Fox's explanation.
Navigation Tricks with GE
Short Video Tutorials on GE Basics - by Googler John Gardiner

The official Google Earth User Guide has all the details on the features within Google Earth.

Here is some useful information from the Google Earth Community:

Come back often to Google Earth Blog (GEB). GEB brings you new information and GE Files every day. It's the best way to keep up with what's happening with Google Earth. For these and other stories which might give you important tips and ideas, check out the GEB Tips category. Also check out the Reference Links page for other important web resources.

Good luck, and have fun with Google Earth!

Nokia X6 review

2010-06-18T08:22:00.000-07:00

Update - the Nokia X6 has now been updated to include a 16GB version, which strips the Comes with Music offering and is available at a lower price too.

The persistence of manufacturers when it comes to touchscreen mobile phones has to be applauded.

It might be that only a few - notably HTC, Apple and Palm - have really cracked the marriage of hardware and software - but that hasn't stopped everyone else attempting to achieve the same success. Nokia's own efforts have been hit and miss.

The Nokia 5530 XpressMusic isn't without its good points, but all of Nokia's touchscreen phones so far have had resistive screens.

Also read: 15 best mobile phones in the world today

Among other things, that means they all came with old-fashioned styluses, and didn't work properly when you touched the screen with more than one finger. That meant reduced typing speeds, and user gestures that are so intuitive on other phones – pinching to zoom on the iPhone, for instance - were unavailable.

Nokia has heard its customers' complaints.

The X6 looks like a traditional slider phone - at 13.8mm thick it certainly looks like it could accommodate a physical keyboard. However, there are hardly any buttons to be found as the 3.2-inch touchscreen is capacitive, theoretically making a physical keyboard redundant.

There is a wealth of features besides. A whopping 32GB/16GB of internal storage and an FM radio make it tempting for entertainment even before you consider Nokia's intriguing Comes With Music service.

Even the camera has received the kind of attention you don't see on cheaper models - a 5MP sensor behind Carl Zeiss optics gives the X6 plenty of sheen.

But is the touchscreen a gimmick? The S60 operating system has a number of detractors, and just because a phone ticks all the right boxes on a specification sheet doesn't necessarily mean it'll make its users happy.

2010-06-12T07:59:00.000-07:00

The iPad is a tablet computer developed by Apple Inc. Announced on January 27, 2010, it is considered to be in a category between the smartphone and the laptop computer. Reaction to Apple's new iPad is mixed, with some technology sites praising it while others are a little more reserved in their enthusiasm.

Information to hand states the Apple iPad has a 9.7-inch screen, weighs 1.5 pounds, Wi-Fi with a 3G option, and up to 10 hours of battery life. The iPad runs the iPhone OS and "almost all" iPhone apps and uses the ePub format for books.

The iPad's chip runs at 1GHz, compared to the estimated 600MHz (0.6GHz) of the iPhone 3GS. The A4 is billed as "the most advanced chip" Apple has created yet. The A4 chip is so power efficient that it helps iPad get up to 10 hours of battery life," according to Apple's iPad Web page.

There are already over a thousand apps (applications) designed specificaly for the iPad, with more being released every day. In addition the Apple iPad can run almost all the 150,000 apps ceated for the iPhone and iPod touch.

The new Apple iPad enables you to visit online websites, write an email, flick through photos, or watch your favorite movies on a big Multi-Touch screen, with just the touch of your finger. The touchscreen is a 25-cm (9.7-in) liquid crystal display (1024 x 768 px, 132 ppi, XGA) with oleophobic scratch-resistant glass. Like the iPhone, the iPad is designed to be controlled by bare fingers, not gloves and styluses that prevent electrical conductivity.

The built-in Bluetooth 2.1 + EDR chipset supports the HSP, A2DP, and HID profiles, which allows wireless headphones and keyboards to be used with the iPad. The iPad won't just be an e-book Internet reader like the Kindle and Sony Reader. It's sure to be a terrific media player or widescreen iPod.

iPad Accessibility Features:

Accessibility list from the Apple iPad Specifications Page (www.apple.com/ipad/specs/)

* VoiceOver screen reader
* Zoom Feature
* Support for playback of closed-captioned content
* Mono audio
* Full-screen zoom magnification
* White on black high contrast screen

iPad comes standard with accessibility features that help people with disabilities experience all that it has to offer including a screen reader, support for playback of closed-captioned content, and other innovative universal access features. These features make iPad easier to use for people who have a vision impairment, are deaf or hard of hearing, or have a physical or learning disability.

VoiceOver - Like the Apple iPhone and iPod touch, the iPad includes VoiceOver, a gesture-based screen reader for the blind. Instead of memorizing keyboard commands or pressing tiny arrow keys, you simply touch the screen to hear a description of the item under your finger, then double-tap, drag, or flick to control iPad. VoiceOver speaks 21 languages and works with all of the applications built into iPad.

Zoom Feature - Zoom on iPad lets you magnify the entire screen of any application. Zoom up to five times the normal size and move left, right, up, and down to view any portion of the screen close up.

Closed Captioning - Every iPad can display subtitles and closed captioning for the deaf and hard of hearing when playing movies and podcasts that support it. Movies and podcasts with closed captioning are available on the iTunes Store and can be downloaded directly to iPad or synced to iPad using iTunes.

Mono Audio - If your hearing is limited in one ear, tap a checkbox to route both right- and left-channel audio into both headphones, so you can hear both channels in either ear.

Contrast - If you want higher contrast, iPad lets you change the display to white on black. Use the White on Black feature in any application, as well as the Home, Unlock, and Spotlight screens, and with Zoom and VoiceOver.

The iPad comes with these applications: Safari, Mail, Photos, Video, YouTube, iPod, iTunes Store, App Store, Maps, Notes, Calendar, Contacts, and Spotlight.[39] The iPad syncs with iTunes on a Mac or Windows PC. Apple ported its iWork suite from the Mac to the iPad, and sells the Pages, Numbers, and Keynote apps in the App Store. Although the iPad is not designed to replace a cellphone, a user can pair it with a Bluetooth headset and place phone calls over Wi-Fi or 3G using a VoIP application.

Current iPad Accessories Include:

* iPad Keyboard Dock with hardware keyboard, 30-pin connector, and audio jack
* iPad Case which can be used to stand the iPad in various positions
* iPad Dock with 30-pin connector and audio jack
* iPad Dock Connector to VGA Adapter for external monitor or projector
* iPad Camera Connection Kit including a USB Type A connector adapter and an SD card reader, for transferring photos and videos
* iPad 10W USB Power Adapter with 2A (10W)

Apple began taking pre-orders for the iPad from U.S. customers on March 12, 2010. The Wi-Fi version of the iPad went on sale in the United States on April 3, 2010, at 9:00 am local time, with hundreds of customers lined up outside stores nationwide.

The Wi-Fi + 3G version will be released at the end of April. The iPad will also be available in Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Spain, Switzerland and the UK beginning in late April. 3G service in the United States will be provided by AT&T and sold with two prepaid contract-free data plan options: one for unlimited data and the other for 250 MB per month at half the price. The plans will be activated on the iPad itself and can be canceled at any time.

The Wi-Fi + 3G model includes a micro-SIM slot located on the side of the device. Unlike the iPhone, which is usually sold locked to specific carriers, the 3G iPad is sold unlocked and can be used with any compatible GSM carrier. However, the physical shape of the micro-SIM tray is too small to fit regular SIM cards, making it impossible for end users to use their existing carrier plans with the device.

Pricing for the iPad will be between $500 and $830, depending on configuration. The Apple iPad Wi-Fi models should start shipping worldwide in late March 2010 ($500 for 16GB version, $600 for 32GB, and $700 for 64GB). Apple has yet to release pricing on the iPad's accessories like the keyboard dock, iPad case and camera connector. The keyboard dock is especially important, since its price may be a deciding factor for people who want to travel with the iPad instead of a netbook.

The National Federation of the Blind commended Apple Inc. for including its VoiceOver application on its latest device, the iPad. VoiceOver is a screen access application that uses text-to-speech technology in conjunction with the device's touch-screen interface so that blind people can independently operate the device. VoiceOver is also integrated into Apple's Mac operating system and is included on the iPhone 3GS and recent models of the iPod Touch.

Blind consumers, like our sighted friends and colleagues, will be able to share in the experience of using this new device from the moment we take it out of the box. By integrating accessibility into its products, Apple is setting an example that we believe the rest of the electronics industry should follow. Furthermore, the fact that Apple has successfully integrated a screen access solution with its touch-screen technology demonstrates that touch screens need not be a barrier to the use of electronic devices by the blind.

The Birth of Fiber Optics

2010-06-07T08:35:00.000-07:00

Fiber optics is the contained transmission of light through long fiber rods of either glass or plastics.

In 1854, John Tyndall demonstrated to the Royal Society that light could be conducted through a curved stream of water, proving that a light signal could be bent.

In 1880, Alexander Graham Bell invented his 'Photophone', which transmitted a voice signal on a beam of light. Bell focused sunlight with a mirror and then talked into a mechanism that vibrated the mirror. At the receiving end, a detector picked up the vibrating beam and decoded it back into a voice the same way a phone did with electrical signals. Many things -- a cloudy day for instance -- could interfere with the Photophone, causing Bell to stop any further research with this invention.

In 1880, William Wheeler invented a system of light pipes lined with a highly reflective coating that illuminated homes by using light from an electric arc lamp placed in the basement and directing the light around the home with the pipes.

In 1888, the medical team of Roth and Reuss of Vienna used bent glass rods to illuminate body cavities.

In 1895, French engineer Henry Saint-Rene designed a system of bent glass rods for guiding light images in an attempt at early television.

In 1898, American David Smith applied for a patent on a bent glass rod device to be used as a surgical lamp.

In the 1920's, Englishman John Logie Baird and American Clarence W. Hansell patented the idea of using arrays of transparent rods to transmit images for television and facsimiles respectively.

Fiber optics is the contained transmission of light through long fiber rods of either glass or plastics. The light travels by a process of internal reflection. The core medium of the rod or cable is more reflective than the material surrounding the core. That causes the light to keep being reflected back into the core where it can continue to travel down the fiber. Fiber optic cables are used for transmitting voice, images and other data at close to the speed of light.

In 1930, German medical student, Heinrich Lamm was the first person to assemble a bundle of optical fibers to carry an image. Lamm's goal was to look inside inaccessible parts of the body. During his experiments, he reported transmitting the image of a light bulbThe image was of poor quality, however. His effort to file a patent was denied because of Hansell's British patent.

n 1954, Dutch scientist Abraham Van Heel and British scientist Harold. H. Hopkins separately wrote papers on imaging bundles. Hopkins reported on imaging bundles of unclad fibers while Van Heel reported on simple bundles of clad fibers. He covered a bare fiber with a transparent cladding of a lower refractive index. This protected the fiber reflection surface from outside distortion and greatly reduced interference between fibers. At the time, the greatest obstacle to a viable use of fiber optics was in achieving the lowest signal (light) loss.

In 1961, Elias Snitzer of American Optical published a theoretical description of single mode fibers, a fiber with a core so small it could carry light with only one wave-guide mode. Snitzer's idea was okay for a medical instrument looking inside the human, but the fiber had a light loss of one decibel per meter. Communications devices needed to operate over much longer distances and required a light loss of no more than 10 or 20 decibels (measurement of light) per kilometer.

In 1964, a critical (and theoretical) specification was identified by Dr. C.K. Kao for long-range communication devices, the 10 or 20 decibels of light loss per kilometer standard. Kao also illustrated the need for a purer form of glass to help reduce light loss.

In 1970, one team of researchers began experimenting with fused silica, a material capable of extreme purity with a high melting point and a low refractive index. Corning Glass researchers Robert Maurer, Donald Keck and Peter Schultz invented fiber optic wire or "Optical Waveguide Fibers" (patent #3,711,262) capable of carrying 65,000 times more information than copper wire, through which information carried by a pattern of light waves could be decoded at a destination even a thousand miles away. The team had solved the problems presented by Dr. Kao.

In 1975, the United States Government decided to link the computers in the NORAD headquarters at Cheyenne Mountain using fiber optics to reduce interference.

In 1977, the first optical telephone communication system was installed about 1.5 miles under downtown Chicago, and each optical fiber carried the equivalent of 672 voice channels.

Today more than 80 percent of the world's long-distance traffic is carried over optical fiber cables, 25 million kilometers of the cable Maurer, Keck and Schultz designed has been installed world wide.

Nokia E63 Black

2010-05-27T13:19:00.000-07:00

With the Internet Talker 100 you get:

A mix of 100 minutes & texts to use how you like (anytime, any network)
Unlimited internet*

Unlimited 3-to-3 minutes*
Voicemail
Picture Mails

£2 Monthly Discount

2 months Free Spotify

Free PAYG SIM for a friend

Free Skype™-to-Skype calls

Free Windows Live™ Messenger chats

Free Twitter

*Fair Use Policy applies See this on other plans

Details of your deal

Nokia E63 Black

2.4”Large display
Full qwerty keyboard, dedicated keys to calendar & contacts for easy access
2 Megapixel camera
3.5mm audio jack
Fast access to the internet on the move

Internet Talker 100

This package gives you a flexible mix of 100 minutes and texts, unlimited internet, unlimited Three-to-Three minutes, voicemail and Picture Mails. You also get free Skype-to-Skype calls, free Windows Live Messenger, free Twitter and a free Pay As You Go SIM.

Contract Length

This tariff is a 24 month contract.

FREE Next day delivery

Free next day delivery on all orders placed before 12pm from Mon - Fri.
Free Tuesday delivery on all orders placed before 12pm on Monday
All deliveries are free no matter what time of day they're made
All deliveries are subject to availability.

14 day money back guarantee

If you are a new 3 customer and for some reason you are not happy with 3, you can return your mobile and original boxed accessories, including any additional free promotional items you may have received with your order, along with your proof of purchase, within 14 days of receipt to us and we will give you a full refund.
In order to be eligible to return your mobile under the 14-Day Money Back Guarantee you must not have used your handset to make or receive calls or texts, take photos, or download content.
Similarly, if your mobile has been damaged since you received it, this guarantee will not cover you.
This does not affect your statutory rights.

Whats in the box

Handset
Nokia Battery (BP-4L)
Nokia Charger (AC-8)
Nokia Headset (WH-102)
User Guide & Quick Start Guide

Offer valid until

This offer is available until 31st May 2010

Windows 7

2010-05-27T04:32:00.000-07:00

Windows 7
is a version of Microsoft Windows, a series of operating systems produced by Microsoft for use on personal computers, including home and business desktops, laptops, netbooks, tablet PCs, and media center PCs.^[3] Windows 7 was released to manufacturing on July 22, 2009,^[4] and reached general retail availability on October 22, 2009,^[5] less than three years after the release of its predecessor, Windows Vista. Windows 7's server counterpart, Windows Server 2008 R2, was released at the same time. Windows 7 will be succeeded by Windows 8, which has no release date as of yet.

Unlike its predecessor, which introduced a large number of new features, Windows 7 was intended to be a more focused, incremental upgrade to the Windows line, with the goal of being compatible with applications and hardware with which Windows Vista is already compatible.^[6] Presentations given by Microsoft in 2008 focused on multi-touch support, a redesigned Windows Shell with a new taskbar, referred to as the Superbar, a home networking system called HomeGroup,^[7] and performance improvements. Some applications that have been included with prior releases of Microsoft Windows, including Windows Calendar, Windows Mail, Windows Movie Maker, and Windows Photo Gallery, are not included in Windows 7;^[8]^[9] most are instead offered separately at no charge as part of the Windows Live Essentials suite.^[10]

[hide]

[edit] Development

Main article: Development of Windows 7

Originally, a version of Windows codenamed Blackcomb was planned as the successor to Windows XP (codename Whistler) and Windows Server 2003. Major features were planned for Blackcomb, including an emphasis on searching and querying data and an advanced storage system named WinFS to enable such scenarios. However, an interim, minor release, codenamed "Longhorn," was announced for 2003, delaying the development of Blackcomb.^[11] By the middle of 2003, however, Longhorn had acquired some of the features originally intended for Blackcomb. After three major viruses exploited flaws in Windows operating systems within a short time period in 2003, Microsoft changed its development priorities, putting some of Longhorn's major development work on hold while developing new service packs for Windows XP and Windows Server 2003. Development of Longhorn (Windows Vista) was also restarted, and thus delayed, in August 2004. A number of features were cut from Longhorn.^[12] Windows 7 is programmed in C, C++, and Assembly.^[13]

Blackcomb was renamed Vienna in early 2006^[14] and again Windows 7 in 2007.^[15] In 2008, it was announced that Windows 7 would also be the official name of the operating system.^[16]^[17] There has been some confusion over naming the product Windows 7,^[18] while versioning it as 6.1 to indicate its similar build to Vista and increase compatibility with applications that only check major version numbers,^[19] similar to Windows 2000 and Windows XP both having 5.x version numbers.^[20]

The first external release to select Microsoft partners came in January 2008 with Milestone 1, build 6519.^[21] At PDC 2008, Microsoft demonstrated Windows 7 with its reworked taskbar. Copies of Windows 7 build 6801 were distributed at the end of the conference; however, the demonstrated taskbar was disabled in this build.

On December 27, 2008, Windows 7 Beta was leaked onto the Internet via BitTorrent.^[22] According to a performance test by ZDNet,^[23] Windows 7 Beta beat both Windows XP and Vista in several key areas; including boot and shutdown time and working with files, such as loading documents. Other areas did not beat XP; including PC Pro benchmarks for typical office activities and video editing, which remain identical to Vista and slower than XP.^[24] On January 7, 2009, the 64-bit version of the Windows 7 Beta (build 7000) was leaked onto the web, with some torrents being infected with a trojan.^[25]^[26] At CES 2009, Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer announced the Windows 7 Beta, build 7000, had been made available for download to MSDN and TechNet subscribers in the format of an ISO image.^[27] The Beta was to be publicly released January 9, 2009, and Microsoft initially planned for the download to be made available to 2.5 million people on this date. However, access to the downloads was delayed because of high traffic.^[28] The download limit was also extended, initially until January 24, then again to February 10. People who did not complete downloading the beta had two extra days to complete the download. After February 12, unfinished downloads became unable to complete. Users could still obtain product keys from Microsoft to activate their copies of Windows 7 Beta, which expired on August 1, 2009. The release candidate, build 7100, has been available for MSDN and TechNet subscribers and Connect Program participants since April 30 and became available to the general public on May 5, 2009. It has also been leaked onto the Internet via BitTorrent.^[29] The release candidate is available in five languages and will expire on June 1, 2010, with shutdowns every two hours starting March 1, 2010.^[30] Microsoft stated that Windows 7 would be released to the general public on October 22, 2009. Microsoft released Windows 7 to MSDN and Technet subscribers on August 6, 2009, at 10:00 a.m. PDT.^[31] Microsoft announced that Windows 7, along with Windows Server 2008 R2, was released to manufacturing on July 22, 2009. Windows 7 RTM is build 7600.16385, which was compiled on July 13, 2009, and was declared the final RTM build after passing all Microsoft's tests internally.^[4]

[edit] Goals

Bill Gates, in an interview with Newsweek, suggested that this version of Windows would be more "user-centric".^[32] Gates later said that Windows 7 would also focus on performance improvements.^[33] Steven Sinofsky later expanded on this point, explaining in the Engineering Windows 7 blog that the company was using a variety of new tracing tools to measure the performance of many areas of the operating system on an ongoing basis, to help locate inefficient code paths and to help prevent performance regressions.^[34]

Senior Vice President Bill Veghte stated that Windows Vista users migrating to Windows 7 would not find the kind of device compatibility issues they encountered migrating from Windows XP.^[35] Speaking about Windows 7 on October 16, 2008, Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer confirmed compatibility between Vista and Windows 7, indicating that Windows 7 would be a refined version of Windows Vista.^[36]

New and changed features

Main article: Features new to Windows 7

Windows 7 includes a number of new features, such as advances in touch and handwriting recognition, support for virtual hard disks, improved performance on multi-core processors,^[37]^[38]^[39]^[40] improved boot performance, DirectAccess, and kernel improvements. Windows 7 adds support for systems using multiple heterogeneous graphics cards from different vendors (Heterogeneous Multi-adapter), a new version of Windows Media Center,^[41] a Gadget for Windows Media Center, improved media features, the XPS Essentials Pack and Windows PowerShell being included, and a redesigned Calculator with multiline capabilities including Programmer and Statistics modes along with unit conversion. Many new items have been added to the Control Panel, including ClearType Text Tuner, Display Color Calibration Wizard, Gadgets, Recovery, Troubleshooting, Workspaces Center, Location and Other Sensors, Credential Manager, Biometric Devices, System Icons, and Display.^[42] Windows Security Center has been renamed to Windows Action Center (Windows Health Center and Windows Solution Center in earlier builds), which encompasses both security and maintenance of the computer. The default setting for User Account Control in Windows 7 has been criticized for allowing untrusted software to be launched with elevated privileges without a prompt by exploiting a trusted application.^[43] Microsoft's Windows kernel engineer Mark Russinovich acknowledged the problem, but noted that malware can also compromise a system when users agree to a prompt.^[44] Windows 7 also supports Mac-like RAW image viewing through the addition of WIC-enabled image decoders, which enables raw image thumbnails, previewing and metadata display in Windows Explorer, plus full-size viewing and slideshows in Windows Photo Viewer and Window Media Center.^[45]

The taskbar has seen the biggest visual changes, where the Quick Launch toolbar has been replaced with pinning applications to the taskbar. Buttons for pinned applications are integrated with the task buttons. These buttons also enable the Jump Lists feature to allow easy access to common tasks.^[46] The revamped taskbar also allows the reordering of taskbar buttons. To the far right of the system clock is a small rectangular button that serves as the Show desktop icon. This button is part of the new feature in Windows 7 called Aero Peek. Hovering over this button makes all visible windows transparent for a quick look at the desktop.^[47] In touch-enabled displays such as touch screens, tablet PCs, etc., this button is slightly wider to accommodate being pressed with a finger.^[48] Clicking this button minimizes all windows, and clicking it a second time restores them. Additionally, there is a feature named Aero Snap, that automatically maximizes a window when it is dragged to either the top or left/right edges of the screen, similar to Linux.^[49] This also allows users to snap documents or files on either side of the screen to compare them. When a user moves windows that are maximized, the system restores their previous state automatically. This functionality is also accomplished with keyboard shortcuts. Unlike in Windows Vista, window borders and the taskbar do not turn opaque when a window is maximized with Windows Aero applied. Instead, they remain translucent.

For developers, Windows 7 includes a new networking API with support for building SOAP-based web services in native code (as opposed to .NET-based WCF web services),^[50] new features to shorten application install times, reduced UAC prompts, simplified development of installation packages,^[51] and improved globalization support through a new Extended Linguistic Services API.^[52] At WinHEC 2008 Microsoft announced that color depths of 30-bit and 48-bit would be supported in Windows 7 along with the wide color gamut scRGB (which for HDMI 1.3 can be converted and output as xvYCC). The video modes supported in Windows 7 are 16-bit sRGB, 24-bit sRGB, 30-bit sRGB, 30-bit with extended color gamut sRGB, and 48-bit scRGB.^[53]^[54] Microsoft has also implemented better support for solid-state drives,^[55] including the new TRIM command, and Windows 7 is able to identify a solid-state drive uniquely. Microsoft is planning to support USB 3.0 in a subsequent patch, support not being included in the initial release due to delays in the finalization of the standard.^[56]

Internet Spades, Internet Backgammon and Internet Checkers, which were removed from Windows Vista, were restored in Windows 7. Windows 7 includes Internet Explorer 8 and Windows Media Player 12.

Wikinews has related news: Windows 7 will allow users to disable Internet Explorer

Users are also able to disable many more Windows components than was possible in Windows Vista. New additions to this list of components include Internet Explorer, Windows Media Player, Windows Media Center, Windows Search, and the Windows Gadget Platform.^[57] Windows 7 includes 13 additional sound schemes, titled Afternoon, Calligraphy, Characters, Cityscape, Delta, Festival, Garden, Heritage, Landscape, Quirky, Raga, Savanna, and Sonata.^[58] A new version of Microsoft Virtual PC, newly renamed as Windows Virtual PC was made available for Windows 7 Professional, Enterprise, and Ultimate editions.^[59] It allows multiple Windows environments, including Windows XP Mode, to run on the same machine. Windows XP Mode runs Windows XP in a virtual machine and redirects displayed applications running in Windows XP to the Windows 7 desktop.^[60] Furthermore, Windows 7 supports the mounting of a virtual hard disk (VHD) as a normal data storage, and the bootloader delivered with Windows 7 can boot the Windows system from a VHD, only in the Professional and Ultimate editions however.^[61] The Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP) of Windows 7 is also enhanced to support real-time multimedia application including video playback and 3D games, thus allowing use of DirectX 10 in remote desktop environments.^[62] The three application limit, previously present in the Windows Vista Starter Edition, has been removed from Windows 7.^[63]

[edit] Removed features

Main article: List of features removed in Windows 7

A number of capabilities and certain programs that were a part of Windows Vista are no longer present or have been changed, resulting in the removal of certain functionality. These include the classic Start Menu user interface, some taskbar features, Windows Explorer features, Windows Media Player features, Windows Ultimate Extras and InkBall. Four applications bundled with Windows Vista — Windows Photo Gallery, Windows Movie Maker, Windows Calendar^[64] and Windows Mail — are not included with Windows 7, but applications with mostly similar functionality are instead available for free in a separate package called Windows Live Essentials which can be found on the Microsoft website.

[edit] Antitrust regulatory attention

As with other Microsoft operating systems, Windows 7 is being studied by United States federal regulators who oversee the company's operations following the 2001 United States v. Microsoft settlement. According to status reports filed, the three-member panel began assessing prototypes of the new operating system in February 2008. Michael Gartenberg, an analyst at Jupiter Research said that, "[Microsoft's] challenge for Windows 7 will be how can they continue to add features that consumers will want that also don't run afoul of regulators."^[65]

[edit] Editions

In order to comply with European antitrust regulations, Microsoft has proposed the use of a "ballot" screen, allowing users to download a competing browser, thus removing the need for a version of Windows completely without Internet Explorer, as previously planned.^[66] In response to criticism involving Windows 7 E and concerns from manufacturers about possible consumer confusion if a version of Windows 7 with Internet Explorer were shipped later after one without Internet Explorer, Microsoft announced that it would scrap the separate version for Europe and ship the standard upgrade and full packages worldwide.^[67]

As with previous versions of Windows, an N version, which does not come with Windows Media Player, has been released in Europe, but only for sale directly from Microsoft sales websites and select others.^[68]

[edit] Reception

In July 2009, in only eight hours, pre-orders of Windows 7 at Amazon.co.uk surpassed the demand Windows Vista had in its first 17 weeks.^[69] It became the highest-grossing pre-order in Amazon's history, surpassing sales of the previous record holder, the seventh Harry Potter book.^[70] After 36 hours, 64-bit versions of Windows 7 Professional and Ultimate editions sold out in Japan.^[71] Two weeks after its release, it was announced that its market share had surpassed that of Snow Leopard, released two months previously as the most recent update to Apple's Mac OS X operating system.^[72]^[73] According to Net Applications, Windows 7 reached a 4% market share in less than three weeks. In comparison, it took Windows Vista seven months to reach the same mark.^[74] As of March 4, 2010, Microsoft announced that they had sold more than 90 million Windows 7 licenses.^[75] Windows 7 has now sold more than 100 million copies in six months, making it Microsoft's fastest selling operating system.

Reviews of Windows 7 were mostly positive, praising its usability when compared to its predecessor, Windows Vista. CNET gave Windows 7 Home Premium a rating of 4.5 out of 5 stars,^[76] stating that it "is more than what Vista should have been, [and] it's where Microsoft needed to go". PC Magazine rated it a 4 out of 5 saying that Windows 7 is a "big improvement" over Windows Vista, with fewer compatibility problems, a retooled taskbar, simpler home networking and faster start-up.^[77] Maximum PC gave Windows 7 a rating of 9 out of 10 and called Windows 7 a "massive leap forward" in usability and security, and praised the new Taskbar as "worth the price of admission alone".^[78] PC World called Windows 7 a "worthy successor" to Windows XP and said that speed benchmarks showed Windows 7 to be slightly faster than Windows Vista.^[79] PC World also named Windows 7 one of the best products of the year.^[80] In its review of Windows 7, Engadget said that Microsoft has taken a "strong step forward" with Windows 7 and reported that speed is one of Windows 7's major selling points particularly for the netbook sets.^[81] LAPTOP Magazine gave Windows 7 a rating of 4 out of 5 stars and said that Windows 7 makes computing more intuitive, offered better overall performance including a "modest to dramatic" increase in battery life on laptop computers.^[82] Techradar gave it a 5 star rating calling it the best version of Windows yet.^[83] The New York Times,^[84] USA Today,^[85] The Wall Street Journal,^[86] and The Telegraph^[87] also gave Windows 7 favorable reviews.

Some Vista Ultimate users have expressed concerns over Windows 7 pricing and upgrade options.^[88]^[89] Windows Vista Ultimate users wanting to upgrade from Windows Vista to Windows 7 must either pay $219.99^[90] to upgrade to Windows 7 Ultimate or perform a clean install, which requires them to reinstall all of their programs.^[91]

[edit] Editions

Main article: Windows 7 editions

Windows 7 is available in six different editions, but only the Home Premium, Professional, and Ultimate editions are available for retail sale to consumers in most countries.^[92] The other editions are aimed at other markets, such as the developing world or enterprise use.^[92] Each edition of Windows 7 includes all of the capabilities and features of the edition below it.^[92]^[93]^[94]^[95]^[96] All editions support the 32-bit (IA-32) processor architecture and all editions except Starter and Home Basic support the 64-bit (x86-64) processor architecture. The installation media is the same for all the consumer editions of Windows 7 that have the same processor architecture, with the license determining the features that are activated, and license upgrades permitting the subsequent unlocking of features without re-installation of the operating system.^[97] This is the first time Microsoft has distributed 2 DVDs (1 DVD for IA-32 processor architecture, the other DVD for x86-64 processor architecture) for each edition of Windows 7 (Except for Starter and Home Basic). Users who wish to upgrade to an edition of Windows 7 with more features can then use Windows Anytime Upgrade to purchase the upgrade, and unlock the features of those editions.^[93]^[97]^[98] Some copies of Windows 7 have restrictions, in which it must be distributed, sold, or bought and activated in the geographical region (One of the geographical regions can be either: Southeast Asia; India; or Latin America and the Caribbean) specified in its front cover box.

Microsoft is offering a family pack of Windows 7 Home Premium (in select markets) that allows installation on up to three PCs.^[99] The "Family Pack" costs US$259.99 in the United States;^[100] it was available at a cost of US$149.99 for some weeks when it was first introduced.^[99]

On September 18, 2009, Microsoft said they were to offer temporary student discounts for Windows 7. The offer ran in the US and the United Kingdom, with similar schemes available in Canada, Australia, Korea, Mexico, France and Germany. Students with a valid .edu or .ac.uk email address could apply for either Windows 7 Home Premium or Professional, priced at $30 or £30.^[101]^[102] This offer has ended as of January 5.

Windows 7 is also currently available as an embedded version to developers (previously Windows Embedded 2011).^[103]

[edit] Marketing

Microsoft has marketed the whole of Windows 7 as "making your PC simpler." However, the different editions of Windows 7 have been designed and marketed toward different types of people. Out of all the different editions (Starter, Home Basic, Home Premium, Professional, Enterprise, and Ultimate), the Starter edition has been designed for netbooks, Home Basic for the developing world, Home Premium designed and marketed for normal home users, Professional for businesses, Enterprise for larger businesses and corporations, and Ultimate for enthusiasts.

[edit] Hardware requirements

The Windows 7 sticker is affixed to most PCs that meet the minimum hardware requirements for Windows 7 purchased on or after October 22, 2009

Microsoft has published the minimum specifications for a system to run Windows 7.^[104] Requirements for the 32-bit version are similar to that of premium editions of Vista, but are higher for 64-bit versions. Microsoft has released an upgrade advisor that determines if a computer is compatible with Windows 7.

Minimum hardware requirements for Windows 7^[104]
Architecture	32-bit	64-bit
Processor	1 GHz 32-bit processor	1 GHz 64-bit processor
Memory (RAM)	1 GB of RAM	2 GB of RAM
Graphics Card	DirectX 9 graphics processor with WDDM driver model 1.0 (For Aero)
HDD free space	16 GB of available disk space	20 GB of available disk space
Optical drive	DVD drive (only to install from DVD/CD Media)

Additional requirements to use certain features:^[104]

Windows XP Mode (available on Professional, Ultimate and Enterprise), requires an additional 1 GB of RAM and an additional 15 GB of available hard disk space. The requirement for a processor capable of hardware virtualization has been lifted.^[105]
Windows Media Center (included with Home Premium, Professional, Ultimate and Enterprise), requires a TV tuner to receive and record TV.

[edit] Service packs

Windows 7 Service Pack 1 (SP1) was announced on March 18, 2010 and is currently in development, planned for release in autumn 2010.^[106]^[107] After months of speculation by analysts, Microsoft confirmed that the service pack is to be on a much smaller scale than those released for previous versions of Windows, particularly Windows Vista.^[108] Service Pack 1 is expected to contain minor updates, including all patches and hotfixes already delivered through Windows Update, and add USB 3.0 support, improvements to Bluetooth performance, and an updated Remote Desktop client implementing upcoming RemoteFX technology.

On April 7, 2010, a build of Windows 7 Service Pack 1 dated from March 27, 2010 was leaked onto torrent sites.^[109]^[110] The leaked service pack has a build number of 6.1.7601.16537.amd64fre.win7.100327-0053 and installation has been reported to be much quicker than service packs for previous versions of Windows.^[111]

[edit] See also

Microsoft portal

[edit] References

^ Nash, Mike (14 October 2008). "Why 7?". The Windows Blog. http://windowsteamblog.com/blogs/windowsvista/archive/2008/10/14/why-7.aspx. Retrieved 3 December 2009.
^ "Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 Officially RTM At Build Version 6.1.7600.16385". http://www.mydigitallife.info/2009/07/23/windows-7-and-windows-server-2008-r2-officially-rtm-at-build-version-6-1-7600-16385/. Retrieved 2009-07-23.
^ Ricciuti, Mike (July 20, 2007). "Next version of Windows: Call it 7". CNET News. http://www.news.com/2100-1016_3-6197943.html.
^ ^a ^b Brandon LeBlanc. "Windows 7 Has Been Released to Manufacturing". http://windowsteamblog.com/blogs/windows7/archive/2009/07/22/windows-7-has-been-released-to-manufacturing.aspx.
^ "Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 Timelines Shared at Computex". Microsoft. June 3, 2009. http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/features/2009/Jun09/06-02SteveGuggenheimer.mspx. Retrieved 2009-06-03.
^ Nash, Mike (28 October 2008). "Windows 7 Unveiled Today at PDC 2008". Windows Team Blog. Microsoft. http://windowsteamblog.com/blogs/windows7/archive/2008/10/28/windows-7-unveiled-today-at-pdc-2008.aspx. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
^ LeBlanc, Brandon (28 October 2008). "How Libraries & HomeGroup Work Together in Windows 7". Windows Team Blog. Microsoft. http://windowsteamblog.com/blogs/windowsexperience/archive/2008/10/28/how-libraries-amp-homegroup-work-together-in-windows-7.aspx. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
^ "Windows 7 to Skip Photo, Mail, Calendar and Movie Editing tools". http://www.techpluto.com/softwares-missing-in-windows-7/.
^ "E-mail, photos, movie making will not be included in Windows 7". http://www.networkworld.com/community/node/33084.
^ LeBlance, Brandon (28 October 2008). "The Complete Windows Experience – Windows 7 + Windows Live". Windows Team Blog. Microsoft. http://windowsteamblog.com/blogs/windowsexperience/archive/2008/10/28/the-complete-windows-experience-windows-7-windows-live.aspx. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
^ Lettice, John (2001-10-24). "Gates confirms Windows Longhorn for 2003". The Register. http://www.theregister.co.uk/2001/10/24/gates_confirms_windows_longhorn. Retrieved 2008-03-05.
^ "Microsoft cuts key Longhorn feature". Todd Bishop. Hearst Seattle Media, LLC. August 28, 2004. http://www.seattlepi.com/business/188339_msftcuts28.html. Retrieved 2009-03-25.
^ Microsoft Windows System Overview
^ Thurrott, Paul (14 February 2007). "Windows "7" FAQ". Paul Thurrott's SuperSite for Windows. http://www.winsupersite.com/faq/windows_7.asp. Retrieved 2008-01-05.
^ Foley, Mary J (2007-07-20). "Windows Seven: Think 2010". ZDNet. http://blogs.zdnet.com/microsoft/?p=592. Retrieved 2007-09-19.
^ Fried, Ina (2008-10-13). "Microsoft makes Windows 7 name final". CNET. http://news.cnet.com/8301-13860_3-10064971-56.html. Retrieved 2008-10-13.
^ Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (October 2008). "For Microsoft's Windows, 7th time's a charm". http://www.cbc.ca/technology/story/2008/10/14/tech-windows.html. Retrieved 2008-10-27.
^ Alex Castle (2008-10-15). "Microsoft Justifies Its Windows 7 Naming Decision". Maximum PC. http://www.maximumpc.com/article/news/microsoft_justifies_its_windows_7_naming_decision. Retrieved 2009-11-18.
^ "Version numbers of Windows.". technologizer.com. http://technologizer.com/2009/07/14/version-numbers/2/.
^ Andrew. "Why Call it Windows 7?". www.worldstart.com. http://www.worldstart.com/tips/tips.php/why-call-it-windows-7. Retrieved 20 November 2009.
^ Ian Cunningham (3 December 2008). "Windows 7 Build Numbers". http://www.w7forums.com/windows-7-build-numbers-t58.html.
^ "OSNews.com". OSNews.com. http://www.osnews.com/story/20703/Windows_7_Beta_1_Leaked. Retrieved 2009-05-25.
^ "Windows 7 beta 1 performance - How does the OS compare to Vista and XP? | Hardware 2.0 | ZDNet.com". Blogs.zdnet.com. 2009-01-01. http://blogs.zdnet.com/hardware/?p=3236&page=2. Retrieved 2009-05-25.
^ Graham-Smith, Darien (January 2009). "Follow-up: Benchmarking Windows 7". http://www.pcpro.co.uk/blogs/2008/11/12/follow-up-benchmarking-windows-7/. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
^ "Leaked Windows 7 RC torrents infected with trojan". http://www.slashgear.com/leaked-windows-7-rc-torrents-infected-with-trojan-2842048/. SlashGear
^ Pennington, Kenneth (January 2009). "Windows 7 64-Bit Beta Hits the Web". http://w7info.com/articles/2009/01/windows-7-64-bit-beta-hits-the-web/. Retrieved 2009-01-07.
^ Johnson, Bobbie (2009-01-08). "CES: Steve Ballmer unveils Microsoft's Windows 7 | Technology | guardian.co.uk". London: Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2009/jan/08/steve-ballmer-ces-keynote. Retrieved 2009-05-25.
^ "Microsoft delays first Windows 7 public beta". Gavin Clarke. The Register. January 10, 2009. http://www.theregister.co.uk/2009/01/10/winows_7_beta_delay/. Retrieved 2009-03-25.
^ Miller, Paul (2009-04-24). "Windows 7 RC 7100 making its way to OEMs, a torrent tracker near you". Engadget.com. http://www.engadget.com/2009/04/24/windows-7-rc-7100-making-its-way-to-oems-a-torrent-tracker-near/. Retrieved 2009-05-25.
^ "Windows 7 Release Candidate Customer Preview Program". Microsoft. http://www.microsoft.com/windows/windows-7/download.aspx. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
^ "The Windows Blog". http://windowsteamblog.com/blogs/windows7/archive/2009/07/21/when-will-you-get-windows-7-rtm.aspx.
^ Steven Levy (3 February 2007). "Bill Gates on Vista and Apple's 'Lying' Ads". http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/16934083/site/newsweek/page/4/print/1/displaymode/1098/.
^ Bill Gates (12 May 2007). "Bill Gates: Japan—Windows Digital Lifestyle Consortium". http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/exec/billg/speeches/2008/05-07japanwdlc.mspx.
^ Sinofsky, Steven (15 December 2008). "Continuing our discussion on performance". Engineering Windows 7. Microsoft. http://blogs.msdn.com/e7/archive/2008/12/15/continuing-our-discussion-on-performance.aspx. Retrieved 2008-12-18.
^ Oiaga, Marius (24 June 2008). "Windows 7 Will Not Inherit the Incompatibility Issues of Vista". http://news.softpedia.com/news/Windows-7-Will-Not-Inherent-the-Incompatibility-Issues-of-Vista-88625.shtml.
^ Dignan, Larry (October 2008). "Ballmer: It’s ok to wait until Windows 7; Yahoo still ‘makes sense’; Google Apps ‘primitive’". http://blogs.zdnet.com/BTL/?p=10464. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
^ "Windows 7 Takes More Advantage of Multi-Core CPUs - Windows 7". Windowsvienna.com. http://www.windowsvienna.com/windows-7-takes-more-advantage-of-multi-core-cpus-a24.html. Retrieved 2009-05-25.
^ "Windows 7 to get parallel-processing tweaks | All about Microsoft | ZDNet.com". Blogs.zdnet.com. 2008-09-30. http://blogs.zdnet.com/microsoft/?p=1612. Retrieved 2009-05-25.
^ "Windows 7 to get parallel-processing tweaks | PC Tips". Pctipsbox.com. 2008-10-05. http://www.pctipsbox.com/windows-7-to-get-parallel-processing-tweaks/. Retrieved 2009-05-25.
^ "Windows 7 enters parallel universe". Vista.Blorge. 2008-09-30. http://vista.blorge.com/2008/09/30/windows-7-enters-parallel-universe/. Retrieved 2009-05-25.
^ Gruener, Wolfgang (2008-01-16). "TG Daily — Windows Vista successor scheduled for a H2 2009 release?". TG Daily. http://www.tgdaily.com/content/view/35641/118/. Retrieved 2008-01-17.
^ "ThinkNext.net: Screenshots from a blogger with Windows 7 M1". http://www.thinknext.net/archives/2150.
^ Zack Whittaker (2009-06-12). "Windows 7 UAC flaw: "Pandora's box of all vulnerabilities"". http://blogs.zdnet.com/igeneration/?p=1826. Retrieved 2009-06-14.
^ Russinovich, Mark. "User Account Control Inside Windows 7 User Account Control". Microsoft Corporation. http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/magazine/2009.07.uac.aspx. Retrieved 2009-06-14.
^ "How to add Mac-like RAW image support to Windows 7, Vista, XP". http://www.downloadsquad.com/2009/10/21/raw-image-support-windows/.
^ Softpedia (November 2008). "Windows 7 User Interface – The Superbar (Enhanced Taskbar)". http://news.softpedia.com/news/Windows-7-User-Interface-The-Superbar-Enhanced-Taskbar-97143.shtml. Retrieved 2008-11-12.
^ "Windows 7: Some Minor Improvements, No Game Changer". http://money.cnn.com/news/newsfeeds/siliconalley/big-tech/2008_12_windows_7_some_minor_improvements_no_game_changer_msft.html.
^ "Touching Windows 7 (Engineering Windows 7 Blog)". http://blogs.msdn.com/e7/archive/2009/03/25/touching-windows-7.aspx.
^ "Engineering Windows 7 : Designing Aero Snap". Steven Sinofsky/Microsoft. http://blogs.msdn.com/e7/archive/2009/03/17/designing-aero-snap.aspx. Retrieved 2009-06-08.
^ "Windows 7: Web Services in Native Code". PDC 2008. http://channel9.msdn.com/pdc2008/PC01/. Retrieved 2008-09-26.
^ "Windows 7: Deploying Your Application with Windows Installer (MSI) and ClickOnce". PDC 2008. http://channel9.msdn.com/pdc2008/PC42/. Retrieved 2008-09-26.
^ "Windows 7: Writing World-Ready Applications". PDC 2008. http://channel9.msdn.com/pdc2008/PC52/. Retrieved 2008-09-26.
^ "WinHEC 2008 GRA-583: Display Technologies". Microsoft. 2008-11-06. http://download.microsoft.com/download/5/E/6/5E66B27B-988B-4F50-AF3A-C2FF1E62180F/GRA-T583_WH08.pptx. Retrieved 2008-12-04.
^ "Windows 7 High Color Support". Softpedia. 2008-11-26. http://news.softpedia.com/news/Windows-7-High-Color-Support-98741.shtml. Retrieved 2008-12-05.
^ "Support and Q&A for Solid-State Drives". Engineering Windows 7. Microsoft. 2009-05-05. http://blogs.msdn.com/e7/archive/2009/05/05/support-and-q-a-for-solid-state-drives-and.aspx. Retrieved 2009-05-09.
^ Crothers, Brooke (6 November 2008). "Microsoft describes USB 3.0 delays". CNet. http://news.cnet.com/8301-13924_3-10083822-64.html. Retrieved 2008-11-13.
^ "Beta to RC Changes — Turning Windows Features On or Off". http://blogs.msdn.com/e7/archive/2009/03/06/beta-to-rc-changes-turning-windows-features-on-or-off.aspx.
^ Thurrott, Paul (2009-03-08). "Paul Thurrott's SuperSite for Windows: Windows 7 Build 7048 Notes". Paul Thurrott's SuperSite for Windows. http://www.winsupersite.com/win7/win7_7048_02.asp. Retrieved 2009-04-24.
^ "Windows Virtual PC". Microsoft. http://www.microsoft.com/windows/virtual-pc/. Retrieved 2009-05-06.
^ "Windows XP Mode for Windows 7 brochure". Microsoft. http://download.microsoft.com/download/7/5/A/75A2C993-BFCC-47D0-8B6C-7C8CE2BA9833/Windows%20XP%20Mode%20for%20Windows%207_brochure.pdf. Retrieved 2009-05-06.
^ "Demonstration: Windows 7 VHD Boot". Microsoft. http://www.microsoft.com/downloads/info.aspx?na=90&p=&SrcDisplayLang=en&SrcCategoryId=&SrcFamilyId=80ede31d-3509-407b-a896-0beea8705589&u=http%3a%2f%2fdownload.microsoft.com%2fdownload%2f7%2f0%2fF%2f70FE9C38-08D1-4FCC-BEF8-42B47DD968FE%2fWindows7VHDBoot.wmv. Retrieved 2009-04-29.
^ "Windows 7 Presentation Virtualization: Graphics Remoting (RDP) Today and Tomorrow". Microsoft. http://channel9.msdn.com/pdc2008/ES21/. Retrieved 2008.
^ "Let’s talk about Windows 7 Starter". Windows 7 Team. http://windowsteamblog.com/blogs/windows7/archive/2009/05/29/let-s-talk-about-windows-7-starter.aspx. Retrieved 2009-05-29.
^ Windows Live team (2009-10-22). "Finding your applications in Windows 7". Microsoft. http://download.live.com/windows7. Retrieved 2009-10-23.
^ Keizer, Gregg F. (March 2008). "Windows 7 eyed by antitrust regulators". http://www.computerworld.com/action/article.do?command=viewArticleBasic&articleId=9068339&taxonomyId=14&intsrc=kc_top. Retrieved 2008-03-19.
^ "Microsoft proposes "Browser Ballot Screen" to the EU". Neowin. July 24, 2009. http://www.neowin.net/news/main/09/07/24/microsoft-propose-browser-ballot-screen-to-the-eu. Retrieved 2009-08-01.
^ Warren, Tom (August 1, 2009). "Microsoft scraps Windows 7 'E' version for Europe". Neowin. http://www.neowin.net/news/main/09/08/01/microsoft-scraps-windows-7-e-version-for-europe. Retrieved 2009-08-01.
^ "Microsoft online Windows 7 store page". http://emea.microsoftstore.com/UK/Microsoft/Windows/Windows-7/?WT.mc_id=MSCOMUK_HomePage_Buy_Windowstab. Retrieved 2009-09-09.
^ "Windows 7 flies off virtual shelf". BBC News. 2009-07-15. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/8151342.stm. Retrieved 2009-07-15.
^ Johnson, Bobbie (2009-10-21). "Windows 7 set to break retail records". London: The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2009/oct/21/windows-7-launch. Retrieved 2009-10-21.
^ "64bit版Windows 7は人気でやや品薄、週明けには回復？". 2009-10-24. http://akiba-pc.watch.impress.co.jp/hotline/20091024/etc_win75.html.
^ "October 2009 OS stats: Windows 7 passes Snow Leopard, Linux". ars technica. 2009-11-06. http://arstechnica.com/microsoft/news/2009/11/october-2009-os-stats-windows-7-passes-snow-leopard-linux-1.ars?utm_source=microblogging&utm_medium=arstch&utm_term=Main%20Account&utm_campaign=microblogging. Retrieved 2009-11-07.
^ "Windows 7 surpasses Snow Leopard in under two weeks". Neowin. 2009-11-07. http://www.neowin.net/news/main/09/11/06/windows-7-surpasses-snow-leopard-in-under-two-weeks. Retrieved 2009-11-07.
^ Ina Fried (2009-11-10). "Windows 7 use continues to climb". CNET. http://news.cnet.com/8301-10805_3-10394517-75.html. Retrieved 2009-11-13.
^ http://digitaldaily.allthingsd.com/20100304/windows-7-90-million-licenses-sold-in-4-months/
^ "Microsoft Windows 7 (Home Premium) Review - CNet". CNet. 2009-07-31. http://reviews.cnet.com/windows/microsoft-windows-7-home/4505-3672_7-33704139.html.
^ Michael Muchmore (2009-10-22). "Microsoft Windows 7". PC Magazine. http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0%2C2817%2C2348899%2C00.asp. Retrieved 2009-11-13.
^ Will Smith (2009-10-19). "Windows 7 Review: XP vs Vista vs 7 in 80+ Benchmarks". Maximum PC. http://www.maximumpc.com/article/reviews/windows_7_review. Retrieved 2009-11-13.
^ Harry McCracken (2009-10-19). "Windows 7 Review". PC World. http://www.pcworld.com/article/172602/windows_7_review.html. Retrieved 2009-11-13.
^ The PC World Editorial Team (2009-10-19). "The PC World 100: Best Products of 2009". PC World. http://www.pcworld.com/article/174171-2/the_pc_world_100_best_products_of_2009.html. Retrieved 2009-11-13.
^ Paul Miller (2009-08-12). "Windows 7 review". Engadget. http://www.engadget.com/2009/08/12/windows-7-review/. Retrieved 2009-11-13.
^ Dana Wollman (2009-08-21). "Windows 7". LAPTOP Magazine. http://www.laptopmag.com/review/software/windows-7.aspx. Retrieved 2009-11-13.
^ Mary Branscombe (2009-08-07). "Windows 7 review". TechRadar. http://www.techradar.com/reviews/pc-mac/software/operating-systems/microsoft-windows-7-622923/review. Retrieved 2009-11-13.
^ David Pogue (2009-10-21). "Windows 7 Keeps the Good, Tries to Fix Flaws". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/22/technology/personaltech/22pogue.html. Retrieved 2009-11-13.
^ Edward C. Baig (2009-10-21). "After Vista, Windows 7 is a giant leap for Microsoft". USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/tech/products/2009-10-16-baig16_CV_N.htm. Retrieved 2009-11-13.
^ Walter S. Mossberg (2009-10-08). "A Windows to Help You Forget". Wall Street Journal. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703298004574459293141191728.html. Retrieved 2009-11-13.
^ Matt Warman (2009-10-20). "Microsoft Windows 7 review". The Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/microsoft/6384509/Microsoft-Windows-7-review.html. Retrieved 2009-11-13.
^ "Some Vista users say they're getting the Ultimate shaft". 2009-07-02. http://news.cnet.com/8301-13860_3-10277506-56.html.
^ "Vista Ultimate users fume, rant over Windows 7 deals". 2009-07-02. http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9135121/Vista_Ultimate_users_fume_rant_over_Windows_7_deals.
^ "Shop: Windows 7". 2009-10-22. http://www.microsoft.com/windows/buy/default.aspx.
^ "Windows 7 Upgrade Considerations". 2009-10-22. http://www.microsoft.com/windows/windows-7/get/upgrade-considerations.aspx.
^ ^a ^b ^c "All Windows 7 Versions—What You Need to Know". ExtremeTech. 2009-02-05. http://www.extremetech.com/article2/0,2845,2340431,00.asp. Retrieved 2009-02-05.
^ ^a ^b Thurrott, Paul (2009-02-03). "Windows 7 Product Editions". http://www.winsupersite.com/win7/win7_skus.asp. Retrieved 2009-02-03.
^ "Windows 7 will come in many flavors". CNET News. 2009-02-03. http://news.cnet.com/8301-13860_3-10155193-56.html. Retrieved 2009-02-03.
^ "Windows 7 Editions - Features on Parade". Softpedia. 2009-02-05. http://news.softpedia.com/news/Windows-7-Editions-Features-on-Parade-103766.shtml. Retrieved 2009-02-05.
^ "Windows 7: Which Edition is Right For You?". PCWorld. 2009-02-03. http://www.pcworld.com/article/158870/microsoft_announces_six_windows_7_editions.html. Retrieved 2009-02-05.
^ ^a ^b LeBlanc, Brandon (February 9, 2009). "A closer look at the Windows 7 SKUs". Windows Team Blog. Microsoft. http://windowsteamblog.com/blogs/windows7/archive/2009/02/04/a-closer-look-at-the-windows-7-skus.aspx. Retrieved 2009-02-09.
^ "All Windows 7 Versions—What You Need to Know - Release Date, Cost, and Upgrades". ExtremeTech. 2009-02-05. http://www.extremetech.com/article2/0,2845,2340432,00.asp. Retrieved 2009-02-16.
^ ^a ^b "Microsoft Announces "Family Pack" For Windows 7". Microsoft. 2009-07-21. http://windowsteamblog.com/blogs/windows7/archive/2009/07/21/when-will-you-get-windows-7-rtm.aspx. Retrieved 2009-07-21.
^ "Microsoft Windows 7 Home Premium Upgrade Family Pack (3-User)". Amazon. 2009-12-20. http://www.amazon.com/Microsoft-Windows-Premium-Upgrade-Family/dp/B002MV2MG0/. Retrieved 2009-12-20.
^ Microsoft. "Windows: Student Offer". http://www.microsoft.com/uk/windows/studentoffer/default.aspx. Retrieved 2009-09-18.
^ Warren, Tom. "Microsoft: Students to get Windows 7 for £30/$30". http://www.neowin.net/news/main/09/09/17/microsoft-uk-students-to-get-windows-7-for-30. Retrieved 2009-09-18.
^ http://www.microsoft.com/windowsembedded/en-us/products/westandard/futureversion.mspx?WT.mc_ID=FY10_Standard2011
^ ^a ^b ^c "Windows 7 system requirements". Microsoft. http://windows.microsoft.com/en-us/windows7/products/system-requirements.
^ "Windows Virtual PC – no hardware virtualization update now available for download". http://blogs.msdn.com/virtual_pc_guy/archive/2010/03/18/windows-virtual-pc-no-hardware-virtualization-update-now-available-for-download.aspx.
^ "Microsoft: Few issues to address with Windows 7 Service Pack 1". TechRadar UK. http://www.techradar.com/news/software/operating-systems/microsoft-few-issues-to-address-with-windows-7-service-pack-1-665048.
^ "Microsoft Announces Windows 7 Service Pack 1". Computer World. http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9172738/Microsoft_announces_Windows_7_SP1.
^ "Microsoft: Few issues to address with Windows 7 Service Pack 1". TechRadar UK. http://www.techradar.com/news/software/operating-systems/microsoft-few-issues-to-address-with-windows-7-service-pack-1-665048.
^ "Windows 7 SP1 Hits The Torrents". Lifehacker. http://lifehacker.com/5511581/windows-7-sp1-beta-hits-the-torrents.
^ "Windows 7 Service Pack 1 Leaks Out". TechRadar UK. http://www.techradar.com/news/software/windows-7-service-pack-1-leaks-out-681913.
^ "Windows 7 SP1 Beta Leaks". GeekSmack. http://geeksmack.net/microsoft/1235-exclusive-windows-7-sp1-beta-leaks-screenshots.

Online Computer Science Degree Programs

2010-05-26T13:45:00.000-07:00

Online computer science degree programs teach students to analyze and design computer systems and complex software programs.

Online Computer Science Degrees – Education and Training

It is critical for a learner looking to earn a degree in computer science to also have strong analysis and problem-solving skills, as well as a background in math.

Associate degree programs teach basic technical computer skills, but students in bachelor's degree programs learn to apply models of software design to real-world problems, understand the functions of algorithms, and choose the appropriate computation techniques and programming languages. Computer, math, and science courses dominate the curriculum, preparing students for post-graduate degrees.

In master's degree programs students focus on specific aspects of computer science, such as computer graphics, human-computer interaction, computer networking, information systems security, emerging media, applied algorithms and data structures, scientific computing, or artificial intelligence, among other concentrations. Students gain the skills and knowledge they need for careers in their chosen areas of computer science.

A PhD in computer science is required in order to obtain research funding or teach at the university level. Doctoral students conduct research that advances the field of computer science, enabling them to predict trends and make contributions in their areas of expertise.

Online Computer Science Schools & Colleges

Herzing University offers the following computer science online degree programs:

AS in Computer Science
BS in Computer Science with a concentration in Software Engineering

Regis University - offers the following computer science degree online program:

Bachelor degree in Computer Science (BS)

Colorado Technical University - offers the following online computer science degrees:

Doctorate in Computer Science - Executive Format
Doctorate Computer Science in Enterprise Information Systems - Executive Format

American Sentinel University offers the following computer science degree online programs:

B.S. in Computer Science
BS in Computer Science - Game Programming
Masters in Computer Science

Baker College offers the following computer science online degree programs:

Bachelor of Computer Science
Bachelor of Computer Science - Database Technology

The University of Liverpool - offers the following online computer science degree program:

Master of Science in Computer Security

Search for online computer science courses and degrees by zip code.

Jobs and Careers with a Computer Science Degree

Computer scientists apply information and computer theory to computer systems. Because of their broad area of expertise, they can work in many different computer-related positions in any industry.

Computer science graduates find positions in robotics, multimedia applications, financial services, telecommunications, software publishing, computer system design, consultation, and data management. Job titles for graduates with degrees in computer science may be computer engineer, systems analyst, database administrator, programmer analyst, information technology manager, systems engineer, web developer, and information technology analyst. They may work for startup businesses, non-profit organizations, major corporations, government, education, or the military.

Expected Salary with a Degree in Computer Science

The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) anticipates excellent job prospects for computer scientists. The demand is great for highly skilled professionals, especially those with doctoral degrees in computer science and engineering. BLS estimates the mean annual wage for computer and information scientists was $100,900 in May 2008.

Computer systems software engineers design, develop, and test operating systems software. According to BLS the mean annual salary for this profession was $94,520 in May 2008. Computer applications software engineers-who design, develop, and modify computer applications software-had a mean annual wage of $87,900. Computer systems analysts design and develop new programs and modify existing programs in order to help organizations reach their goals, and earned $78,830.

INFORMATION

PTCL Broadband 4MB

Benefits and key Highlights:

A List of Run Commands for Windows 7

Execute System Restore from the Command Line / Safe Boot

System restore not working well for you. You’ll have much better success running it from the command line.

Run Commands

TCP/IP

Layers in the TCP/IP model

[edit] Link Layer

[edit] Internet Layer

[edit] Transport Layer

[edit] Application Layer

[edit] Hardware and software implementation

[edit] OSI and TCP/IP layering differences

[edit] Layer names and number of layers in the literature

[edit] See also

(DHCP) Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

(DNS) Domain Name System

History

[edit] Structure

[edit] Domain name space

[edit] Domain name formulation

[edit] Internationalized domain names

[edit] Name servers

[edit] Authoritative name server

[edit] Recursive and caching name server

[edit] DNS resolvers

[edit] Operation

[edit] Address resolution mechanism

[edit] Circular dependencies and glue records

[edit] Record caching

[edit] Reverse lookup

[edit] Client lookup

[edit] Broken resolvers

[edit] Other applications

[edit] Protocol details

[edit] DNS resource records

[edit] Wildcard DNS records

[edit] Protocol extensions

[edit] Dynamic zone updates

[edit] Security issues

[edit] Domain name registration

Nokia 6790 Surge Contract

Nokia N8 official!

Nokia expands Symbian^3 family with Nokia E7, Nokia C6-01 and Nokia C7

China Mobile

iPod classic

Belkin N1 Vision Wireless Modem Router - wireless router - F5D8632uk4A

eReaders

Acer Aspire 8735G Windows 7 Laptop - LX.PHF02.086

Red LG KF510 Released on T-Mobile – LG KF510 Red UK

How Microwave Cooking Works

Fujitsu Launches 300GB Portable USB Drive

Google Earth Basics

Nokia X6 review

The Birth of Fiber Optics

Nokia E63 Black

With the Internet Talker 100 you get:

Details of your deal

Details of your deal

Nokia E63 Black

Internet Talker 100

Contract Length

FREE Next day delivery

14 day money back guarantee

Whats in the box

Offer valid until

Windows 7

Contents

[edit] Development

[edit] Goals

New and changed features

[edit] Removed features

[edit] Antitrust regulatory attention

[edit] Editions

[edit] Reception

[edit] Editions

[edit] Marketing

[edit] Hardware requirements