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CAT 2012 Paper Pattern and Syllabus - CAT 2012

2012-07-28T21:48:00.002+05:30

There is no set or defined syllabus for the exam. CAT examination mostly consists of quantitative ability, data interpretation and English multiple type questions.

CAT 2012 Syllabus for English :
Comprehension of passage, Verbal Reasoning, Syllogisms , Contextual usage, Analogies, Antonyms, Fill In the Blanks, Foreign language words used in English, Sentence completion, Sentence correction, idioms, Errors in word choice, mania & phobia, Incorrect words, Conditionals & Multiple Usage , Punctuation, Proverb, , one word substitution, Different usage of same word Phrasal verb etc.

CAT 2012 Syllabus for Quantitative Ability :
● Geometry, (Lines, angles, Triangles, Spheres, Rectangles, Cube, Cone etc)
● Ratios and Proportion, Ratios, Percentages, In-equations
● Quadratic and linear equations
● Algebra
● Mensuration, Alligation & Mixtures, Work, Pipes and Cisterns
● Instalment Payments, Partnership, Clocks
● Probability, Permutations & Combinations
● Profit & Loss
● Averages, Percentages, Partnership
● Time-Speed-Distance, Work and time
● Number system: HCF, LCM, Geometric Progression, Arithmetic progression, Arithmetic mean, Geometric mean , Harmonic mean, Median, Mode, Number Base System, BODMAS, etc.

CAT 2012 Syllabus for Data Interpretation & Logical Reasoning :
● Data Interpretation based on text, Data Interpretation based on graphs and tables. visit tutorial>>
● Graphs can be Column graphs, Graphs representing Area, Bar Graphs, Line charts, Pie Chart, Venn Diagram, etc.
● Graphs can be Column graphs, Graphs representing Area, Bar Graphs, Line charts, Pie Chart, Venn Diagram, etc.
● Critical reasoning, Visual reasoning, Assumption-Premise-Conclusion, Assertion and reasons, Statements and conclusions, Cause and Effect, Identifying Probably true, Probably false, definitely true, definitely false kind of statement, Linear arrangements, identifying Strong arguments and Weak arguments, Matrix arrangements.

GK/GA/BA :
● Current Affairs, Business, Punch line of companies, Top officials of big companies, Major corporate events
● Science, History, Geography, International organisations
● Important quotations
● Social issues, Sports, Finance, Automobiles, Entertainment, Politics etc.
● Famous award and prizes
● World Records
● Books and authors

Railway Budget 2012-13 at a Glance

2012-03-14T15:50:00.003+05:30

The Railway Budget presented by Minister of Railways Dinesh Trivedi in Parliament on March 14 seeks to raise investment in modernization and upgradation of rail infrastructure. It gives very high priority to rail safety and security. Passenger fares have been increased marginally. Presenting the Railway Budget 2012-13 in Parliament on March 14, Trivedi proposed a Budget with highest ever plan outlay of Rs. 60,100 crore which provides Rs. 6,872 crore for new railway lines and significant funds for passengers safety, security and amenities.

In this Budget, the Railway Minister has focused on five important fields, which are: Safety; Consolidation; Decongestion & Capacity Augmentation; Modernization; and to bring down the Operating Ratio from 95% to 84.9% in 2012-13.

The marginal increase in passenger fares is as follows:

By 2 paise per km for suburban and ordinary second class; 3 paise per km for mail/express second class; 5 paise per km for sleeper class; 10 paise per km for AC Chair Car, AC 3 tier and First Class; 15 paise per km for AC 2 tier and 30 paise per km for AC I. The fares will be rounded off to the next nearest five rupees and the minimum fares and platform tickets will cost Rs. 5.

In the Railway Budget, the Minister has proposed 75 new Express trains, 21 new passenger services, 9 DEMU services and 8 MEMU services. Shri Trivedi also announced the extension of the 39 trains; increase in the frequency of 23 trains; 75 additional services to run in Mumbai suburban; 44 new suburban services to be introduced in Kolkata area; 50 new services to be introduced in Kolkata Metro; and 18 additional services to be run in Chennai area.

The Railway Budget for 2012-13 also provides for 50% concession in fare in AC-2, AC-3, Chair Car & Sleeper classes to patients suffering from ‘Aplastic Anaemia’ and ‘Sickle Cell Anaemia’. It also provides for extending the facility of travel by Rajdhani and Shatabdi trains to Arjuna Awardees. The travel distance under ‘Izzat Scheme’ has also been increasd from 100 kms to 150 kms.

Proposing highest ever plan outlay for the Railway Budget, the Railway Minister said that it will be financed through Gross Budgetary Support (GBS) of Rs 24,000 crore; Railway Safety Fund of Rs 2,000 crore; internal resources of Rs 18,050 crore; and Extra Budgetary Resources of Rs 16,050 crore, which includes market borrowing of Rs 15,000 crore through IRFC.

The Railway Budget provides for 725 km new lines; 700 km doubling; 800 km gauge conversion and 1,100 km electrification. Rs 6,872 crore have been provided for new lines; Rs 3,393 crore for doubling; Rs 1,950 crore for gauge conversation and Rs 828 crore have been provided for electrification.

The Railway Budget 2012-13 lays emphasis on safety and security of the passengers. Shri Dinesh Trivedi said that drawing from the recommendations of the Anil Kakodkar and Sam Pitroda Committees, he has chosen five focus areas. These are: Track; Bridges; Signalling & Telecommunication; Rolling Stock; and Stations & Freight Terminals. Under this a Railway Safety Authority has been proposed as statutory regulatory body; Missions will be created to implement the modernization programme; and setting up of a Railway Tariff Regulatory Authority is to be considered. Two new Board Members (Safety/Research and PPP/Marketing) are to be inducted. Shri Trivedi also announced the setting up of a Rail-Road Grade Separation Corporation to eliminate level crossings. Three ‘Safety Villages’ will also be set up at Bengaluru, Kharagpur and Lucknow for skill development for disaster management. The Railway Minister also announced that an Indian Railway Station Development Corporation will be set up to redevelop stations through PPP mode. He also announced that a Logistics Corporation will be set up for development & management of existing railway goods sheds and multi-modal logistics parks. A National High Speed Rail Authority is also to be set-up.

Highlighting the efforts being made to improve the amenities and to provide better experience to the passengers at stations the Railway Minister said that 929 stations will be upgraded as Adarsh Stations including 84 stations proposed in 2012-13. Specially designed coaches for differently-abled persons will be provided in each Mail/Express trains. RPF helpline will be integrated with the All India Passenger Helpline. SMS on passenger mobile phone in case of e-ticket will be accepted as proof of valid reservation. Satellite based real time train information system (SIMRAN) will be introduced to provide train running information to passengers through SMS, internet, etc. On board passenger displays indicating next halt station and expected arrival time will be introduced. 321 escalators will be installed at important stations of which 50 will be commissioned in 2012-13. Regional cuisine will be introduced at affordable rates.

The Railway Minister also announced launching of Book-a-meal scheme to provide multiple choice of meals through SMS or email. Coin/currency operated ticket vending machines will be introduced during 2012-13. Rail Bandhu on-board magazines will be distributed on Rajdhanis, Shatabdis and Duronto trains. The Railway Budget 2012-13 also proposes setting up of AC Executive lounges at important stations.

The Railway Minister announced that pre-feasibility studies on six high speed corridors have already been completed and study on Delhi-Jaipur-Ajmer-Jodhpur will be taken up in 2012-13.

Announcing the measures for the welfare of railway employees, the Minister proposed a wellness programme for railway staff at their work places; ensuring proper rest for skilled and technical staff including the running crew; and institution of ‘Rail Khel Ratna’ Award for 10 rail sports-persons every year.

Caring for the environment, the Railway Minister announced the introduction of a ‘Green Train’ to run through the pristine forests of North Bengal; 200 remote railway stations will be set up as ‘green energy stations’ powered entirely by solar energy; solar lighting system will be provided at 1,000 manned level crossing gates; 2,500 coaches will be equipped with bio toilets. Shri Dinesh Trivedi also announced setting up of 72 MW capacity windmill plants in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.

The Minister said that during 2011-12 the railways recruited over 80,000 persons to fill up various vacancies; now he proposes to recruit over one lakh persons during 2012-13 so that backlog of SC/ST/OBC and other categories will be wiped off.

The Minister announced that freight loading during 2012-13 is expected to be 1,025 MT which will be 55 MT more than 2011-12. The passenger growth during the year is pegged at 5.4%.

Highlights of Railway Budget 2012-13

• Passenger fares increased marginally. The increase will be by 2 paise per km for suburban and ordinary second class; 3 paise per km for mail/express second class; 5 paise per km for sleeper class; 10 paise per km for AC Chair Car, AC 3 tier and First Class; 15 paise per km for AC 2 tier and 30 paise per km for AC I.

• Minimum fare and platform tickets to cost Rs. 5.

• 50% concession in fare in AC-2, AC-3, Chair Car & Sleeper classes to patients suffering from ‘Aplastic Anaemia’ and ‘Sickle Cell Anaemia’.

• Extending the facility of travel by Rajdhani and Shatabdi trains to Arjuna Awardees.

• Travel distance under ‘Izzat Scheme’ to increase from 100 kms to 150 kms.

• SMS on passenger mobile phone in case of e-ticket to be accepted as proof of valid reservation.

• Introduction of satellite based real time train information system (SIMRAN) to provide train running information to passengers through SMS, internet, etc.

• On board passenger displays indicating next halt station and expected arrival time to be introduced.

• Installation of 321 escalators at important stations of which 50 will be commissioned in 2012-13.

• Introduction of regional cuisine at affordable rates; launching of Book-a-meal scheme to provide multiple choice of meals through SMS or email.

• Introduction of coin/currency operated ticket vending machines.

• Upgradation of 929 stations as Adarsh Stations including 84 stations proposed in 2012-13; 490 stations have been completed so far.

• Specially designed coaches for differently-abled persons to be provided in each Mail/Express trains.

• Introduction of Rail Bandhu on-board magazines on Rajdhanis, Shatabdis and Duronto trains.

• Setting up of AC Executive lounges at important stations

• 75 new Express trains to be introduced.

• 21 new passenger services, 9 DEMU services and 8 MEMU services to be introduced.

• Run of 39 trains to be extended.

• Frequency of 23 trains to be increased.

• 75 additional services to run in Mumbai suburban; 44 new suburban services to be introduced in Kolkata area, 50 new services to be introduced in Kolkata Metro; 18 additional services in Chennai area.

• 725 km new lines, 700 km doubling, 800 km gauge conversion and 1,100 km electrification targeted in 2012-13.

• Rs 6,872 cr provided for new lines, Rs 3,393 cr for doubling, Rs 1,950 cr for gauge conversation, Rs 828 cr for electrification

• Highest ever plan outlay of Rs. 60,100 cr

• Rae Bareli coach factory manufactured 10 coaches in 2011-12; phase-II of the factory would be commissioned in 2012-13.

• A wagon factory to be set up at Sitapali (Ganjam District of Odisha)

• A rail coach factory with the support of Government of Kerala to be set up at Palakkad; two additional new manufacturing units for coaches to be established in the Kutch area in Gujarat and at Kolar in Karnataka with active participation of the State Governments.

• Setting up of a factory at Shyamnagar in West Bengal to manufacture next generation technology propulsion system for use in high power electric locomotives.

• Creating Missions as recommended by Pitroda Committee to implement the modernization programme.

• Setting up of Railway Tariff Regulatory Authority to be considered.

• New Board Members for Safety/Research and PPP/Marketing to be inducted.

• Rail-Road Grade Separation Corporation to be set up to eliminate level crossings.

• Indian Railway Station Development Corporation to be set up to redevelop stations through PPP mode.

• Logistics Corporation to be set up for development & management of existing railway goods sheds and multi-modal logistics parks.

• National High Speed Rail Authority to be set-up.

• Pre-feasibility studies on six high speed corridors already completed; study on Delhi-Jaipur-Ajmer-Jodhpur to be taken up in 2012-13.

• Introduction of a ‘Green Train’ to run through the pristine forests of North Bengal.

• Setting up of 200 remote railway stations as ‘green energy stations’ powered entirely by solar energy.

• Providing solar lighting system at 1,000 manned level crossing gates.

• 2,500 coaches to be equipped with bio toilets.

• Setting up of 72 MW capacity windmill plants in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.

• Installation of Integrated Security System at all 202 identified stations to be completed in 2012-13.

• Escorting of trains by RPF/GRP extended to 3,500 trains.

• Integration of RPF helpline with the All India Passenger Helpline.

• Setting up of a Railway Safety Authority as a statutory regulatory body as recommended by Kakodkar Committee

• . Three ‘Safety Villages’ to be set up at Bengaluru, Kharagpur and Lucknow for skill development for disaster management.

• Over one lakh persons to be recruited in 2012-13 – backlog of SC/ST/OBC and other categories to be wiped off.

• Introduction of a wellness programme for railway staff at their work places.

• Ensuring proper rest for skilled and technical staff including the running crew.

• Institution of ‘Rail Khel Ratna’ Award for 10 rail sports-persons every year.

• New coaching terminal at Naihati, the birth place of Rishi Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay commemorating him on 175th Birth Anniversary.

• .Project to connect Agartala with Akhaura in Bangladesh to be taken up in 2012-13.

• Freight loading of 1,025 MT targeted; 55 MT more than 2011-12

• Passenger growth targeted at 5.4 %.

Railway Safety Authority to be Set up

The Ministry of Railways proposes to set up an independent Railway Safety Authority as a statutory regulatory body as recommended by Kakodkar Committee. This was announced by the Minister of Railways Shri Dinesh Trivedi. Introducing the Railway Budget for 2012-13 in Parliament today, he said, the function of the authority would be worked out in greater details in line with international practices in the best interest of passenger safety. The Minister said since research and development activities are central to any tangible results in the area of safety enhancement, he also proposed to set up a Railway Research and Development Council at the apex level to spearhead such efforts. Shri Trivedi said, his entire emphasis is going to be on strengthening Safety.

Admitting that he is not at all satisfied with the safety standard at the present moment, the Minister said the commitment made in 2001 to reduce accidents per million train km from 0.55 to 0.17 has been achieved. He said, however the target should be zero death. The Minister said that more than 40% of the consequential train accidents, involving 60% to 70% of the total casualties occur at unmanned railway crossings. To fast track elimination of level crossings in the next five years, the railways have decided to set up a Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) named Rail-Road Grade Separation Corporation of India.

Shri Trivedi said, in order to achieve even higher safety standards, he has decided to set up a committee to examine the current standards of safety on Indian Railways and to suggest suitable benchmarks and safety protocols. He said, considering the zero tolerance approach in the areas of nuclear science and aerospace, he feels that the best people to guide railways in determining appropriate safety protocols should be from these two fields.

The Minister also announced that a New Board Member (Safety/Research) to be inducted in the Railway Board.

He said, three ‘Safety Villages’ to be set up at Bengaluru, Kharagpur and Lucknow for skill development for disaster management.

New Passenger Amenities

The allocation under passenger amenities in this year’s Railway Budget has been raised to Rs. 1102 crore. The allocation under this head in 2011-12 was Rs. 762 crore. Some of the important passenger and other user friendly measures introduced or being proposed during 2012-13 are:

i. To facilitate easy movement of passengers, installation of 321 escalators at important stations of which 50 will be commissioned during 2012-13;

ii. SMS on passenger mobile phone in case of e-ticket along with an ID proof to be accepted as proof of valid reservation;

iii. To meet the needs of changing times and customer demand, launching of “Book-a-meal” scheme to provide multiple choice of meals, like low cost meal, diabetic meal etc. through SMS or email;

iv. To set up AC Executive lounges at important stations to provide value added services at a charge, offering facilities such as wifi internet, buffet services, wash and change, concierge services for pre-departure and post-arrival assistance to passengers;

v. Expansion of housekeeping schemes for trains such as Clean Train Station, On Board Housekeeping Services for cleaning en route and mechanized cleaning at originating/terminating stations;

vi. Introduction of ‘Rail Bandhu’ on-board magazine on Rajdhanis, Shatabdis and Duronto Trains;

vii. Introduction of coin/currency operated ticket vending machines as a pilot project;

viii. Introduction of alternate Train accommodation System (ATAS) as a pilot project to accommodate waitlisted passenger on alternate trains;

ix. Introduction of first model rake with world class interiors;

x. Upgradation of 929 stations as Adarsh Stations including 84 stations proposed in 2012-13;

xi. Construction of Multi-functional Complexes at 24 locations completed;

xii. Sale of PRS tickets (reserved tickets) through 151 post offices and

xiii. Implementation of electronic transmission of Railway Receipts for freight traffic direct to the customers.

S.S.C. (C.P.O.) Sub-Inspectors Exam., 2011

2012-03-14T10:22:00.000+05:30

English Comprehension

(Held on 28-8-2011)

Directions—(Q. 1–5) In these questions, some of the sentences have errors and some are correct. Find out which part of a sentence has an error and blacken the rectangle (●) corresponding to the appropriate letter (A, B, C). If a sentence is free from errors, blacken the rectangle corresponding to (D) in the Answer Sheet.

1. The political candidate talked (A) / as if she has already been elected (B) / to the presidency. (C) No Error. (D)
Ans : (B)

2. The way to increase the production of the food (A) / is to bring more land (B) / under cultivation. (C) No Error. (D)
Ans : (A)

3. The girls watched intently (A) / as the model applied her make-up (B) / with a practiced hand. (C) No Error. (D)
Ans : (C)

4. If he is a millionaire (A) / he would help (B) / the millennium project. (C) No Error. (D)
Ans : (A)

5. The Prime Minister along with his Cabinet colleagues (A) / have been welcomed by the Chief Minister (B) / at a formal ceremony. (C) No Error (D)
Ans : (B)

Directions–(Q. 6–10) In these questions, sentences are given with blanks to be filled in with an appropriate word(s). Four alternatives are suggested for each question. Choose the correct alternative out of the four and indicate it by blackening the appropriate rectangle (●) in the Answer Sheet.

6. I am exhausted, let’s …… a day.
(A) call it
(B) call at
(C) call off
(D) call in
Ans : (A)

7. The worker used …… to patch up the hole in the wall.
(A) Sand
(B) Cement
(C) Soil
(D) Grass
Ans : (B)

8. She made her stepson her ……to her large fortune.
(A) Hare
(B) Heir
(C) Hair
(D) Here
Ans : (B)

9. The stewardess showed the passenger …….
(A) When to start travelling
(B) Where to land the plane
(C) How to fasten the seat belt
(D) How to judge the altitude of the plane
Ans : (C)

10. Many people reported …… a noise in the night.
(A) To hear
(B) Having heard
(C) To have heard
(D) Been hearing
Ans : (C)

Directions–(Q. 11–15) In these questions, out of the four alternatives, choose the one which best expresses
the meaning of the given word.

11. Stringent
(A) Flexible
(B) Inflexible
(C) Staunch
(D) Tough
Ans : (B)

12. Deliberately
(A) Spontaneously
(B) Inadvertently
(C) Intentionally
(D) Naturally
Ans : (C)

13. Flaunt
(A) Cut
(B) Deceive
(C) Exhibit
(D) Blame
Ans : (C)

14. Subjugate
(A) Capitulate
(B) Conquer
(C) Strike
(D) Confuse
Ans : (B)

15. Behaviour
(A) Conduct
(B) Blessing
(C) Character
(D) Response
Ans : (A)

Directions–(Q. 16–20) In these questions, choose the word that is opposite in meaning to the given word and mark it in the Answer Sheet.

16. Impede
(A) Obstruct
(B) Advance
(C) Linger
(D) Guarantee
Ans : (B)

17. Perilous
(A) Carefree
(B) Impetuous
(C) Safe
(D) Impure
Ans : (C)

18. Brittle
(A) Weak
(B) Strong
(C) Fragile
(D) Bright
Ans : (A)

19. Callous
(A) Rude
(B) Insensitive
(C) Indifferent
(D) Sympathetic
Ans : (A)

20. Dishevelled
(A) Composed
(B) Tidy
(C) Confident
(D) Jovial
Ans : (B)

Directions–(Q. 21–25) In these questions, four alternatives are given for the idiom/Phrase Printed in Bold in the sentence. Choose the alternative which best expresses the meaning of the given Idiom/Phrase and mark it in the Answer Sheet.

21. He and his friend are sailing in the same boat.
(A) Sailing together in the same boat
(B) Sharing the financial and social condition
(C) Being in the same difficult situation
(D) Getting rid of the difficult situation
Ans : (C)

22. To be successful in Today’s world, we require the gift of the gab.
(A) Ability to speak well
(B) Good interpersonal skills
(C) Divine help and guidance
(D) A fierce competitive spirit
Ans : (A)

23. Winter was so bad that the nomadic tribesmen found it difficult to keep the wolf from the door.
(A) Hunt wild animals
(B) Escape starvation
(C) Get woollen clothes
(D) Walk on ice
Ans : (B)

24. There is no soft option to the crisis now.
(A) Popular opinion
(B) Popular solution
(C) Easy and agreeable option
(D) Difficult choice
Ans : (C)

25. The teacher’s announcement to conduct a snap test came as a bolt from the blue to many students.
(A) Imaginary
(B) Unexpected
(C) Forbidden
(D) Heavenly
Ans : (B)

Directions–(Q. 26–30) In these questions, A part of the sentence is bold part of which may need improvement. Alternatives are given at (A), (B) and (C) below which may be a better option. In case no improvement is needed, your answer is (D).

26. He work hard will succeed.
(A) Who will work hard
(B) Who will be working hard
(C) Who works hard
(D) No improvement
Ans : (C)

27. It is high time you started revising your lessons.
(A) Start
(B) Had started
(C) Will start
(D) No improvement
Ans : (A)

28. With these extra people you can work easily with this job.
(A) Deal
(B) Improve
(C) Cope
(D) No improvement
Ans : (C)

29. I visited my aunt just before a week.
(A) A week before
(B) A week earlier
(C) A week ago
(D) No improvement
Ans : (C)

30. Foreigners often come a cross with serious difficulties in studying English.
(A) Have to come across with
(B) Come cross with
(C) Come across
(D) No improvement
Ans : (C)

Directions–(Q. 31–35) In these questions, out of the four alternatives, choose the one which can be substituted for the given words/sentence.

31. The study of insects—
(A) Anthropology
(B) Zoology
(C) Etymology
(D) Entomology
Ans : (D)

32. List of issues to be discussed at a meeting—
(A) Schedule
(B) Agenda
(C) Time-table
(D) Plan
Ans : (B)

33. Speed of an object in one direction—
(A) Pace
(B) Tempo
(C) Velodrome
(D) Velocity
Ans : (D)

34. The place where public, government or historical records are kept—
(A) Coffer
(B) Pantry
(C) Archives
(D) Scullery
Ans : (C)

35. Theft of another person’s writings or ideas and passing them off as one’s own—
(A) Plagiarism
(B) Burglary
(C) Piracy
(D) Pilferage
Ans : (A)

Directions–(Q. 36–40) In these questions, groups of four words are given. In each group, one word is correctly spelt. Find the correctly spelt word.

36. (A) Embarass
(B) Embarrass
(C) Embaras
(D) Embarras
Ans : (A)

37. (A) Separetion
(B) Seperation
(C) Seperetion
(D) Separation
Ans : (D)

38. (A) Discrepancy
(B) Descrepancy
(C) Discripancy
(D) Discrepansy
Ans : (A)

39. (A) Adviceable
(B) Advicable
(C) Advisable
(D) Adviseable
Ans : (C)

40. (A) Millenium
(B) Millennium
(C) Milennium
(D) Milenium
Ans : (A)

Directions–(Q. 41–50) In the following passage, some of the words have been left out. First read the passage over and try to understand what it is about. Then fill in the blanks with the help of the alternatives given. Mark your answer in the Answer sheet.

PASSAGE
(Questions No. 41–50)

Martin Luther King, Jr., was born Michael Luther King, Jr., …41… his grandfather had his name …42… to Martin. Martin Luther attended segregated public schools in Georgia, …43… from high school at the age of fifteen; he received the B.A. degree in 1948 …44… Morehouse college, a distinguished Negro institution of Atlanta from which both his father and grandfather had graduated. After three years of …45… study at Crozer Theological Seminary in Pennsylvania where he was elected president of a …46… white senior class, he was awarded the B.D. in 1951. …47… a fellowship won at Ebenezer he enrolled in graduate studies at Boston University, completing his residence …48… the doctorate in 1953 and receiving the degree in 1955. In Boston he …49… and married Coretta Scott, a young woman of …50… intellectual and artistic attainments.

41. (A) And
(B) So
(C) Since
(D) But
Ans : (A)

42. (A) Given
(B) Changed
(C) Become
(D) Made
Ans : (B)

43. (A) Graduating
(B) Finishing
(C) Graduated
(D) Finished
Ans : (C)

44. (A) In
(B) From
(C) By
(D) With
Ans : (B)

45. (A) Theological
(B) Intellectual
(C) Educational
(D) Psychological
Ans : (A)

46. (A) Predetermined
(B) Predominantly
(C) Significantly
(D) Somewhat
Ans : (B)

47. (A) From
(B) By
(C) With
(D) Through
Ans : (C)

48. (A) For
(B) Of
(C) About
(D) To
Ans : (A)

49. (A) Saw
(B) Eloped
(C) Met
(D) Watched
Ans : (C)

50. (A) Common
(B) Particular
(C) Uncommon
(D) General
Ans : (C)

59th National Film Awards Winners

2012-03-14T10:20:00.002+05:30

Best feature film: Shared by Deool (Marathi) and Byari(Kannada)
Best Actor: Girish Kulkarni for ‘Deool’
Best Actress: Vidya Balan for 'The Dirty Picture'
Best film critic: Manoj P Pujari
Best Children's Film: Chillar Party
Best Hindi Film: 'I AM' directed by Onir
Special Jury Award: Anjan Dutta
Best Book Award: Anirudha Bhattacharjee and Balaji Vittal for the title
'R.D. Burman The Man, The Music.'
Best Music Direction: Neel Dutt for Ranjana Ami Ar Ashbona
Best Background Score: Mayookh Bhaumik for Bengali film Laptop
Best Lyrics: Amitabh Bhattacharya for 'I AM'
Best Female Playback Singer: Rupa Ganguly
Best Male Playback Singer: Anand Bhate for 'Bal Gandharva'
Best Costume: Neeta Lulla for ‘Bal Gandharva’ (Marathi) and Niharika
Khan for 'The Dirty Picture' (Hindi)
Best Choreography: Bosco and Ceaser for 'Zindagi Naa Milegi Doobara'
Best Special Effects: 'RA.One'
Best Editing: Praveen KL for 'Aaranya Kaandam'
Best Marathi Film: 'Shala'
Best Bengali Film: 'Ranjana Ami Aar Ashbo Na' directed by Anjan Dutta
Best Dogri Film: Dille Ch Vasya Koi
Best Kannada Film: Kurmavatara
Best Manipuri film: Phijigee Mani
Best Punjabi Film: Anhe Ghorey Da Daan
Best Tamil Film: Vaagai Sooda Va
Best Non Feature Film: And We Play On
Best Debut Film of a Director: The Silent Poet (Manipuri)
Best film on Social Issues: Mindscapes...of Love and Longing shared with Inshallah, Football (Kashmiri, Urdu and English)
Best Film On Family Values: Red Building Where the Sun Sets (English)
Best Screenplay: Vikas Behl and Nitish Tiwari for 'Chillar Party'
Best Adapted screenplay writer: Avinash Deshpande
Best Dialogue: Girish Kulkarni
Best Child Artist: Partho Gupte for 'Stanley ka Dabba' and the Chillar Party
Indira Gandhi award for debut film director: Thiagarajan Kumararaja for 'Aaranya Kaandam'
Special Mention: Director Shari for 'Adi Madhyantam' (Malayalam Film) and Mallika for 'Byari' (Kannada Film)

Forthcoming Competitive Exams

2012-03-14T10:19:00.002+05:30

March
● Uttar Bihar Gramin Bank Officers Exam. (March 18)
● Himachal Gramin Bank Officers Scale I & Scale II Exam. (March 18)
● Pragathi Gramin Bank Officer Junior Management Scale I Exam. (March 18)
● M.P. MBA and MCA Courses Entrance Exam. 2012 (March 18)
● Madhya Pradesh Patwari Selection Test, 2012 (March 25 onwards)
● Himachal Gramin Bank Office Assistant Exam. (March 25)
● Madhya Pradesh Agriculture Development Officer (Backlog Post) Selection Test, 2012 (March 25)

April
● CBSE All India Pre-Medical and Pre-Dental (Pre.) Exam., 2012 (April 1)
● SSC Junior Engineer (Civil and Electrical) Exam., 2012 (April 8)
● Chhattisgarh Subedar/Sub-Inspector Cadre/Platoon Commander Pre. Exam., 2011 (April 8)
● Oriental Insurance Co. Ltd. Administrative Officers Exam. (April 8)
● Gurgaon Gramin Bank Office Assistants Exam. (April 8)
● Jharkhand Polytechnic Competitive Exam., 2012 (April 14)
● Bihar Kshetriya Gramin Bank Officer (Scale I, II and III) Exam., 2012 (April 15)
● UPSC National Defence Academy and Naval Academy Exam. (I), 2012 (April 15)
● M. P. Forest Guard Selection Test, 2012 (April 15)
● Gurgaon Gramin Bank Officers Scale-I Exam. (April 15)
● Simultala Residential School Preliminary Exam., 2012 of Class VI (April 15)
● Rajasthan Principles Competitive Exam., 2012 (April 18)
● National Insurance Co. Administrative Officers Recruitment Exam. (April 22) (Online Closing Date: 17 March, 2012)
● Recruitment of Constables (GD) and Rifleman (GD) in CAPFs, 2012 (BSF/CRPF/CISF/SSB/ITBPF/Assam Rifles) (April 22)
● Rajasthan Pre-Teacher Education Test, 2012 (Apri1 22)
● U.P. B.Ed. Joint Entrance Exam., 2012-13 (April 23)
● All India Engineering/Architecture Entrance Exam., 2012 (April 29)
● U.P. Ph.D. Common Eligibility Test (Held by Ram Manohar Lohia Avadh Visvavidyalaya) (April 29) (Closing Date: 20 March, 2012)
● Reserve Bank of India Assistants Recruitments Exam. (April 29) (Online Closing Date: 25 March, 2012)
● RAS and RTS Combined Competitive Exam., 2012 (April-May)

May
● Bihar Para Medical Dental and Para Medical (Intermediate Level) Exam., 2012 (May 5) (Closing Date : 7 April, 2012)
● Madhya Bihar Gramin Bank Office Assistant Exam. (May 6) (Closing Date: 15 March, 2012)
● Madhya Pradesh Civil Judge Category-2 Preliminary Exam., 2012 (May 6) (Online Closing Date: 19 March, 2012)
● Chhattisgarh Public Service Commission State Services Exam., 2011 (May 6)
● Bihar Polytechnic Entrance Exam., 2012 (May 6) (Closing Date : 7 April, 2012)
● U.P. Polytechnic Joint Entrance Exam., 2012 (May 6-8)
● Madhya Bihar Gramin Bank Officers Scale I, II and III Exam. (May 13) (Closing Date: 15 March, 2012)
● C.B.S.E. All India Pre-Medical and Pre-Dental (Main) Exam., 2012 (May 13)
● Common Law Admission Test (CLAT), 2012 (May 13) (Closing Date: 31 March, 2012)
● Chhattisgarh Subedar/Sub-Inspector/Platoon Commander (Main) Exam., 2011 (May 13-14)
● UPSC Civil Services Examination, 2012 (May 20)
● SSC Sub-Inspector in CAPFs and Assistant Sub-inspectors in CISF Exam., 2012 (May 27) (Closing Date : 16 March, 2012)
● State Bank of India Clerical Cadre Exam. (May 27 & June 3) (Online Closing Date: 26 March, 2012)
● Netarhat and Hazaribagh Residential School Entrance Exam., 2012 for Class VI (May 30-31)

June
● UPPCS Combined State/Upper Subordinate Services (Pre.) Exam., 2012 (June 10)
● CSIR UGC NET Exam. (June 17) (Closing Date : 26 March, 2012)

July
● SSC Combined Graduate Level (Tier-I) Exam., 2012 (July 1 & 8) (Closing Date: 20 April, 2012)
● Madhya Pradesh Civil Judge Category-2 Main Exam., 2012 (July 8)
● SSC Stenographers Grade 'C' & 'D' Exam., 2012 (July 29) (Closing Date: 25 May, 2012)

September
● SSC Combined Graduate Level (Tier-II) Exam., 2012 (September 15-16)

October
● SSC Combined Higher Secondary Level (10+2) for Data Entry Operator, LDC etc. Exam., 2012 (October 21) (Closing Date: 10 August, 2012)

November
● SSC Junior Translators (CSOLS)/Junior Hindi Translator Exam., 2012 (November 18) (Closing Date: 5 October, 2012)

UPSC CIVIL SERVICES NOTIFICATION 2012

2012-02-04T19:03:00.001+05:30

UNION PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION (UPSC)
Dholpur House, Shahjahan road, New Delhi - 110069

Civil Service Examination, 2012

The Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) will hold the Civil Services (Preliminary) Examination, 2012 on 20/05/2012 for recruitment of various posts of Indian Administrative Service (IAS), Indian Foreign Service (IFS), Indian Police Service (IPS) and certain other Group 'A' and Group 'B' Central Services / Posts.

Eligibility:

Age : Not less than 21 years and not more than 30 years as on 01/08/2012. The upper age is relaxable for SC/ST/OBC and certain other categories of candidates to the extent specified in the Notice.
Educational Qualification: Degree of a recognised university or an equivalent qualification.
Physical Standards: Candidates must be physically fit according to the Regulations given in notice.
Number of Attempts: The maximum number of attempts permissible to different categories of aspirants, who are otherwise eligible will be as follows:
- General Category : Four
- Physical Handicapped : Seven
- OBC : Seven
- SC / ST : No Limit

Online Application Submission : Candidates must apply Online also at http://upsconline.nic.in/mainmenu2.php upto 05/03/2012.

Fee: Deposit Rs.50/- (No fee for Female/ SC/ST/PH candidates) either by remitting the money in any Branch of SBI by Cash, or by using net banking facility of State Bank of India/ State Bank of Bikaner
& Jaipur/ Sate Bank of Hyderabad/ State Bank of Mysore/ State Bank of Patiala /State Bank of Travancore or by using Visa/ Master Credit/ Debit Card.

Candidates can obtain details of the examination, venues of the examination and syllabus etc. at http://upsc.gov.in/exams/notifications/2012/csp/upsc%20civil%20services%202012.pmd.pdf.

Allahabad U.P. Gramin Bank Office Assistant Exam., 2011

2012-02-02T10:45:00.002+05:30

English Language

(Exam Held on 23-10-2011)

Directions–(Q. 1-10) Read each sentence to find out whether there is any grammatical error in it. The error, if any, will be in one part of the sentence. The letter of that part is the answer. If there is no error, the answer is (E).
(Ignore the errors of punctuation, if any)

1. A cigarette (A) / is make (B) / up of (C) / tobacco and paper. (D) No error (E)
Ans : (B)

2. Sachin prefers (A) / extra (B) / sugars in (C) / his tea. (D) No error (E)
Ans : (C)

3. I like (A) / to read (B) / comics in (C) / a evening. (D) No error (E)
Ans : (D)

4. A garden (A) / usually have (B) / flowers and (C) / trees in it. (D) No error (E)
Ans : (B)

5. A ring can (A) / be comprise (B) / of either gold (C) / or silver. (D) No error (E)
Ans : (C)

6. In the (A) / room there was (B) / chairs, tables and (C) / cupboards. (D) No error (E)
Ans : (B)

7. To climb (A) / a mountain (B) / is an extremely (C) / difficulty task. (D) No error (E)
Ans : (E)

8. I would (A) / like to buy (B) / a house (C) / with a swimming pool. (D) No error (E)
Ans : (E)

9. His youngest (A) / brother is elder (B) / enough to (C) / go to school now. (D) No error (E)
Ans : (A)

10. All the child playing (A) / at the beach ran (B) / towards Sam when (C) / they heard him shout. (D) No error (E)
Ans : (A)

11. "Many news papers and magazines pay a huge sum of money for sensational stories by well known public figures who wash their dirty linen in public." In the above statement the idiom wash their dirty linen in public." suggests which of the following ?
(A) The newspapers cover news about washermen.
(B) Washing materials have become expensive.
(C) There is a community of washermen that is being covered specifically in news for its public movement.
(D) Some public figures talk to the newspapers and magazines about personal things that one should keep private.
(E) Public figures refuse to talk to media people.
Ans : (D)

Directions–(Q. 12-21) In the following passage there are blanks, each of which has been numbered. These numbers are printed below the passage and against each, five words are suggested, one of which fits the blank appropriately. Find out the appropriate word in each case.

Women emancipation has had its way and there has been a change in the way women are looked at. For centuries women have been content to ...(12)... the ...(13)... of a wife, mother and home-maker. Men married with the idea of having ...(14)... to look ...(15)... their families. It seems very ...(16)... that these "talents" have remained ...(17)... for so ...(18).... These days one can ...(19)... women taking a higher proportion of jobs in shops, offices, colleges and universities than they did ten years ...(20)... It certainly makes me ...(21)... who is left at home to look after the homes, husbands and children, while the women are at work.

12. (A) terminate
(B) expect
(C) accept
(D) help
(E) humiliate
Ans : (C)

13. (A) business
(B) tact
(C) role
(D) con
(E) acting
Ans : (C)

14. (A) peace
(B) calm
(C) security
(D) someone
(E) dutiful
Ans : (D)

15. (A) after
(B) about
(C) away
(D) above
(E) beneath
Ans : (A)

16. (A) ritual
(B) curse
(C) decent
(D) ethical
(E) obvious
Ans : (D)

17. (A) hidden
(B) burden
(C) guise
(D) utility
(E) objective
Ans : (A)

18. (A) era
(B) long
(C) age
(D) duration
(E) length
Ans : (B)

19. (A) deny
(B) change
(C) point
(D) reward
(E) notice
Ans : (E)

20. (A) after
(B) ago
(C) behind
(D) time
(E) rewind
Ans : (B)

21. (A) wonder
(B) careless
(C) proud
(D) bloom
(E) disrespect
Ans : (A)

22. In the statement -"The doctors operated on her at the last minute and saved her life.", which of the following will be the most appropriate idiom to replace the phrase "last minute"?
(A) Eleventh Hour
(B) Twelfth Hour
(C) Tenth Hour
(D) Twenty Fourth Hour
(E) None of these
Ans : (A)

23. In the statement -"Even though it wasn't his mistake he decided to be calm so as not to add fuel to the names." the phrase add fuel to the flames." suggests which of the following meanings ?
(A) To shout
(B) Follow non violence
(C) Take medicines and rest
(D) Add fresh causes for anger
(E) Be violent
Ans : (D)

Directions–(Q. 24-28) Re-arrange the following five sentences (a), (b), (c), (d), (e) in the proper sequence so as to form a meaningful paragraph, and then answer the questions given below—
(a) However, there was a decline in sales following copyright issues on original songs .
(b) The trend started 3 decades ago with the advent of a Dew band in the market.
(c) Following this decline, there was tough competition between the remixes and original songs.
(d) The rise and fall in sales of remixes has been an interesting trend.
(e) The band's first few remixes met with opposition and ridicule but the youth liked them much as they had put new beats to original songs.

24. Which of the following should be the FIRST sentence ?
(A) (c)
(B) (a)
(C) (e)
(D) (d)
(E) (b)
Ans : (D)

25. Which of the following should be the THIRD sentence ?
(A) (b)
(B) (a)
(C) (d)
(D) (e)
(E) (c)
Ans : (D)

26. Which of the following should be the LAST sentence ?
(A) (b)
(B) (d)
(C) (c)
(D) (e)
(E) (a)
Ans : (C)

27. Which of the following should be the SECOND sentence ?
(A) (e)
(B) (b)
(C) (a)
(D) (c)
(E) (d)
Ans : (B)

28. Which of the following should be the FOURTH sentence ?
(A) (a)
(B) (c)
(C) (d)
(D) (b)
(E) (e)
Ans : (A)

Directions–(Q. 29-38) In each question below a sentence with four words printed in bold type is given. These are marked as (A), (B), (C) and (D). One of these four words printed in bold may either be misspelt or inappropriate in the context of the sentence. Find out the word which is wrongly spelt or inappropriate if any. The letter of that word is your answer. If all the words printed in bold are correctly spelt and also appropriate in the context of the sentence, mark (E) i.e., ‘All Correct' as your answer.

29. At some places (A) in India, people nead (B) to boil (C) the water to make (D) it pure. All correct (E)
Ans : (B)

30. All (A) the diploma courses (B) that began (C) in January funish (D) by June. All correct (E) Ans : (D)

31. Had (A) he taken the medicines (B) on time, he would (C) have been cured (D) by now. All correct (E)
Ans : (E)

32. The police (A) thoroughly examened (B) the parcel (C) that they suspected. (D) All correct (E)
Ans : (B)

33. Past (A) Tuesday Vimal went (B) to the palace (C) to take some photographs. (D) All correct (E)
Ans : (A)

34. We were (A) so late that we hardly (B) had time (C) to catch (D) the train. All correct (E)
Ans : (E)

35. This year (A) he has (B) been perfforming (C) very well. (D) All correct (E)
Ans : (C)

36. Our guide (A) told us to be prepared (B) for a hard (C) day ahead. (D) All correct (E)
Ans : (E)

37. The leed (A) role in the play (B) was played (C) by a talented (D) actor. A11 correct (E)
Ans : (A)

38. He made (A) himself a cup of coffee (B) and ate (C) some biscuits (D) with it. All correct (E)
Ans : (E)

39. In the statement – "The police could not understand anything about his story of the bandits who robbed him and vanished by magic.", which of the following idioms would best replace the phrase "could not understand anything about" ?
(A) Could not make head or tail of
(B) Could not prepare head and tail of
(C) Went tossing head and tail of
(D) Pronounced head and tail of
(E) Tossed a coin to determine head and tail of
Ans : (A)

40. In the statement – "The client wanted to hear all the aspects of the proposed deal before coming to any conclusions.", which of the following idioms would best replace the phrase "all the aspects" ?
(A) All the pros and cons
(B) All the black and white
(C) All the white and black
(D) All the hidden things
(E) None of these
Ans : (A)

Directions–(Q. 41-50) Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given below it. Certain words have been printed in bold to help you locate them while answering some of the questions.

Raju was a lonely farmer and had an ox with which he worked all day. Raju would share every problem with the ox as he regarded it to be his friend. One day, Raju was walking home with the ox. When he felt tired and could walk no more, he tied the ox to a tree and sat down to rest for a while. There was a school nearby. Raju overheard a teacher scolding the students, 'Here I am, trying to turn you donkeys into human beings, but you just won't study!’

As soon as Raju heard these words, his ears pricked up. A man could actually turn donkeys into humans! Perhaps, it may also be possible for him to turn an ox into a human! Impatiently, he waited for school to be over that day. When everyone had gone home, and only the teacher remained behind to check some papers, Raju entered the classroom.

'How can I help You ?' asked the teacher. Raju scratched his head and said, 'I heard what you said to the children. Will it be possible for you to turn my companion ox into a. human ? If you made it human, we could have such good times together.' The teacher decided to trick Raju. He pretended to think for a while and then said, 'Give me six months and it will cost you a thousand rupees.' The farmer agreed and rushed home to get the money. He then left the ox in the teacher's care.

After the six months had passed, Raju went to the school to meet the teacher. The teacher had been using the ox for his own work. Not wanting to give it up, he said, 'Oh, your ox became so clever that it ran away. He is the headman of the nearby village-Pokhar .'When Raju reached Pokhar he found the elderly sitting under a tree, discussing serious problems. They were taken aback when Raju marched up to the headman, grabbed his arm and said, 'How dare you ? You think you are so clever that you run away ? Come home at once !'

The headman was indeed a very wise man. He immediately understood that someone had played a dirty trick on the poor farmer. 'I am not your companion!' he said. 'Go and find the sage in the forest.' Raju found the sage sitting under a tree. Raju stared at the sage. The sage did not notice Raju, as he had closed his eyes; deep in meditation. Raju crept up and grabbed the sage's beard. 'Come back home now!' he shouted. The startled sage somehow calmed Raju.

When he heard what had happened, he had a good laugh. Then he told the farmer kindly, 'The teacher made a fool of you. Your ox must still be with him. Go and take it back from him. Try to make some real friends, who will talk with you and share your troubles, no animal will ever be able to do that!' Raju returned home later that day with his ox, sadder and wiser.

Directions–(Q. 41-45) Choose the word which is MOST SIMILAR in MEANING to the word printed in bold as used in the passage.

41. TRICK
(A) Befriend
(B) Welcome
(C) Decieve
(D) Humiliate
(E) Advise
Ans : (C)

42. REMAINED
(A) Allowed
(B) Balanced
(C) Continued
(D) Survived
(E) Stayed
Ans : (E)

43. CARE
(A) Charge
(B) Residence
(C) Consideration
(D) Hospital
(E) Contradiction
Ans : (A)

44. CLEVER
(A) Respectable
(B) Domestic
(C) Loveable
(D) Shrewd
(E) Awake
Ans : (D)

45. DEEP
(A) Sleep
(B) Fear
(C) Engrossed
(D) Superficial
(E) Certain
Ans : (C)

46. Why did the farmer talk to the ox ?
(A) He felt lonely and his work was monotonous.
(B) He wanted to entertain himself.
(C) He believed that the ox was a human in disguise.
(D) He regarded the ox as his friend.
(E) None of these.
Ans : (D)

47. Which of the following can be said about the teacher ?
(A) He had the ability to transform animals into human beings.
(B) He plotted with village men to trick the farmer.
(C) He tried to take advantage of the farmer's innocence.
(D) He was honest to his students.
(E) None of these
Ans : (C)

48. Which of the following is NOT TRUE as per the passage ?
(A) Raju was a naive farmer.
(B) Raju misbehaved with the headman of a village.
(C) The sage had hidden Raju's ox.
(D) The headman advised Raju to meet the sage.
(E) The teacher was cunning by nature.
Ans : (C)

49. What was the teacher's intention for asking Raju to leave the ox with him for six months ?
(A) The teacher wanted to reduce Raju's dependency on animals.
(B) The teacher wanted to rescue the ox from Raju's trap.
(C) The teacher needed six months to convert the ox to human.
(D) The teacher presumed that the ox will forget Raju in six months.
(E) None of these.
Ans : (E)

50. What made Raju pull the sage's beard ?
(A) He believed that all sages were cheats.
(B) He was irritated, and hungry.
(C) He was angry at the sage who resembled the teacher.
(D) The ox had instructed him to do so.
(E) None of these.
Ans : (E)

Central Government Jobs

2012-01-14T11:23:00.001+05:30

Central Bank of India
Application invited for the post of: AGM-IT & Chief Manager (Mid Office – Market Risk & Forex)
Last date: 25-01-2012

Security Printing Press
Application invited for the post of: Junior Data Entry Operator
Last date: 16-01-2012 to 15-02-2012 (online)

Indian Institute of Foreign Trade
Application invited for the post of: Sr. Finance Officer & Finance Officer
Last date: 31-01-2012

Neyveli Lignite Corporation Ltd.
Application invited for the post of: Executive Trainee (Mechanical Electrical, Civil, Control & Instrumentation, Mining, Computer, Finance, Human Resource, Company Secretarial Public Relation & Legal)
Last date: 01-02-2012 (Online)

Sikkim University
Application invited for the post of: Internal Audit Officer, Assistant Librarian, Executive Engineer, Semi Professional Assistant, Executive Assistant, Executive, Assistant Executive, Junior Executive, Security Supervisor, Library Attendant, Car Support, Technical Assistant, Laboratory Assistant, Laboratory Attendant, Medical Officer, Nurse & Nursing Attendant
Last date: 07-02-2012

Bank of Baroda
Application invited for the post of: Chief Manager & Senior Manager (Chartered Accounted)
Last date: 24-01-2012 to 02-02-2012 (online)

UNICEF
Application invited for the post of: Child Protection Specialist
Last date: 25-01-2012

THDC India Limited
Application invited for the post of: Dy. Manager (Civil & Finance), Sr. Accounts Officer & Assistant Hindi Officer
Last date: 13-02-2012

BEML Limited
Application invited for the post of: Executive Director (Marketing & Manufacturing)
Last date: 31-01-2012 (Online)

Railtel Corporation of India Limited
Application invited for the post of: Director (NP&M)
Last date: 17-02-2012 (online)

ITI Limited
Application invited for the post of: Engineers (Electronics, Electronics & Communication, Telecommunication & Computer Science Engineer
Last date: 20-01-2012

Aeronautical Development Agency
Application invited for the post of: Test Pilot & Flight Test Engineer
Last date: 15-02-2012

Employees' State Insurance Corporation
Application invited for the post of: Multitasking Staff (MTS)
Last date: 14-01-2012 to 04-02-2012 (online)

Steel Authority of India Limited
Application invited for the post of: Jr. Assistant (Trainee) & Translator (Hindi/ English)
Last date: 20-01-2012 (online)

Bharat Dynamics Limited
Application invited for the post of: Additional General Manager, Deputy General Manager, Deputy Manager, Management Trainee and Junior Manager
Last date: 17-01-2012

Indian Institute of Foreign Trade
Application invited for the post of: Sr. Finance Officer & Finance Officer
Last date: 31-01-2012

Unique Identification Authority of India
Application invited for the post of: Assistant Director General
Last date: 29-02-2012

Employees’ State Insurance Corporation
Application invited for the post of: Senior Resident
Last date: 20-01-2012

National Geotechnical Facility
Application invited for the post of: Scientist
Last date: 05-02-2012

Rashtriya Chemicals & Fertilizers Limited
Application invited for the post of: Junior Horticulture Officer, Assistant Fire Officer , Assistant Safety Officer , Assistant Plant Engineer (Mechanical) &Asst. Medical Officer (General)
Last date: 19-01-2012

Institute of Advanced Study in Science and Technology
Application invited for the post of: Director
Last date: 20-02-2012

Instrumentation Limited
Application invited for the post of: General Manager (Technical)
Last date: 30-01-2012

Bengal Chemicals & Pharmaceuticals Ltd.
Application invited for the post of: Deputy General Manager & Chief Manager (PERS & Admn.)
Last date: 21-01-2012

Hindustan Aeronautics Limited
Application invited for the post of: Managing Director
Last date: 29-02-2012

Engineers India Limited
Application invited for the post of: Engineer & Sr. Engineer (SPECIAL RECUITMENT DRIVE)
Last date: 27-01-2012

UNICEF
Application invited for the post of: Social Policy Specialist
Last date: 18-01-2012

National Law University
Application invited for the post of: Deputy Librarian & Assistant Librarian
Last date: 31-01-2012

Centre For Wind Energy Technology
Application invited for the post of: Scientist ‘B’ and Administrative & Accounts Officer
Last date: 31-01-2012

UNICEF
Application invited for the post of: Procurement Assistant
Last date: 18-01-2012

Center for Development of Advance Computing
Application invited for the post of: Associate Director (E-Gov), Joint Director (Technical), Principal Technical Officer / Principal Engineer, Senior Technical Officer / Senior Engineer, Technical Officer / Engineer, Senior Technical Assistant, Technical Assistant , Senior Assistant / Personal Assistant & Assistant
Last date: 15-02-2012 (online)

State Bank of India
Application invited for the post of: Clerical
Last date: 20-01-2012

Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation Ltd.
Application invited for the post of: Manager (Legal)
Last date: 25-01-2012

Union Bank of India
Application invited for the post of: Officer MMG Scale –III, Officer MMG Scale –II, Officer JMG Scale - I & Office Assistant (Multipurpose)
Last date: 27-01-2012

Union Bank of India
Application invited for the post of: Probationary Officer
Last date: 14-01-2012

Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Ltd
Application invited for the post of: Station Controller/ Train Operator , Customer Relations Assistant, Jr. Engineers, Maintainers, Fire Inspector, Office Assistant Account, Assistant & Store Assistant
Last date: 24-01-2012

National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship and Management
Application invited for the post of: Professor
Last date: 16-01-2012

Indira Gandhi Medical College & Research Institute
Application invited for the post of: Medical Superintendent, Professor, Associate Professor, Assistant Professor, Senior Resident & Tutor/ Demonstrator/ Junior/Resident
Last date: 20-01-2012

National Institute of Oceanic Technology
Application invited for the post of: Project Scientific Assistant , Project Technicians, Research Associate , SRF & JRF
Last date: 18-01-2012 (Online)

National Institute of Oceanic Technology
Application invited for the post of: Project Scientist (III, II & I)
Last date: 03-02-2012 to 10-02-2012 (online)

Employees' State Insurance Corporation
Application invited for the post of: Staff Nurse, Medical Record Officer & Para Medical Staff Staff Technical and Non-Technical
Last date: 07-02-2012 (online)

Employees' State Insurance Corporation
Application invited for the post of: Staff Nurse, Physiotherapist, Radiographer , Pharmacist (Allopathic) , Respiratory Lab Assistant, Operation Theatre Assistant, Junior Radiographer , Laboratory Assistant, Laundry Operator, Nursing Orderly , Dresser, Blood Bank Technician, Lab Technician, Optometrist, Librarian Gr.-II , Audiometry Technician, Dialysis Technician, Respiratory Lab Technician, Dental Technician, Social Worker/ Social Guide, Photographer, Junior Medical Record Technician , Dental Chair Side Assistant & Library Assistant
Last date: 14-02-2012

INDO-TIBETAN BORDER POLICE FORCE
Application invited for the post of: Head- Constable (Dresser Veterinary)
Last date: 31-01-2012

Indian Space Research Organiation
Application invited for the post of: Scientist & Engineer-SC
Last date: 16-01-2012 (online)

Indian Space Research Organiation
Application invited for the post of: Technical Assistant & Catering Supervisor
Last date: 16-01-2012

Bank of India
Application invited for the post of: Deputy General Manager - Economist , Assistant General Manager - Marketing, Assistant General Manager - Cash Management, Finance Executive, Statistician, Chartered Accountants , System Auditor , Finance Executive , Security Advisor, General Banking Officers and General Banking Officers
Last date: 16-01-2012 (Online)

Corporation Bank
Application invited for the post of: Probationary Officers
Last date: 03-01-2012 to 17-01-2012 (Online)

Syndicate Bank
Application invited for the post of: Probationary Officer (PO)
Last date: 02-01-2012 to 16-01-2012

Cochin Port Trust
Application invited for the post of: Marine Engineer and Pilot
Last date: 13-01-2012

University of Hyderabad
Application invited for the post of: Assistant Professor, Associate Professor and Professor
Last date: 25-01-2012

Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited
Application invited for the post of: Senior Management Trainees (Telecom) and Senior Management Trainees (Marketing)
Last date: 20-01-2012

Indian Institute of Foreign Trade
Application invited for the post of: Interns (Law & Economics)
Last date: 12-01-2012

Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University
Application invited for the post of: Controller of Examinations
Last date: 31-01-2012

Bharat Dynamics Limited
Application invited for the post of: Additional General Manager ( Personnel & Administration), Deputy Genral Manager (Personnel & Administration, Mechanical, Electronics/Instrumentation, Computers, Electrical & IMM), Management Trainees ( Personnel & Administration & Finance), Junior Manager(mechanical, Electronics, Electrical, Computers & Official Language)
Last date: 17-01-2012 (Online)

Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Ltd.
Application invited for the post of: Station Controller/Train Operator, Jr. Engineers, Fire Inspector, Account Assistant, Customer Relations Assistant, Maintainers, Office Assistant & Store Assistant
Last date: 30-12-2011 to 24-01-2012 (online)

United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio +20)

2012-01-08T13:59:00.002+05:30

The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD) is being organized in pursuance of General Assembly Resolution 64/236. The Conference will take place in Brazil on 4-6 June 2012 to mark the 20th anniversary of the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), in Rio de Janeiro, and the 10th anniversary of the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg. It is envisaged as a Conference at the highest possible level, including Heads of State and Government or other representatives. The Conference will result in a focused political document.

Objective of the Conference

The objective of the Conference is to secure renewed political commitment for sustainable development, assess the progress to date and the remaining gaps in the implementation of the outcomes of the major summits on sustainable development, and address new and emerging challenges

Themes of the Conference

The Conference will focus on two themes: (a) a green economy in the context of sustainable development and poverty eradication; and (b) the institutional framework for sustainable development.

SUMMITS/CONFERENCES HELD IN 2012

2012-01-08T13:45:00.002+05:30

Second Assembly of the International Renewable Energy Agency
(by: International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA))

14 Jan 2012 - 15 Jan 2012
Abu Dhabi, UAE

Workshop on the Trade Dimension of Rio+20: Unpacking the Issues
(by: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD))

19 Jan 2012 - 19 Jan 2012
ECOSOC Chamber of the North Lawn Building (NLB)

Special Event on the Trade Dimension of Rio+20: Unpacking the Issues
(by: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD))

25 Jan 2012 - 25 Jan 2012
Conference Room 6 of the North Lawn Building (NLB)

12th Special Session of the Governing Council/Global Ministerial Environment Forum
(by: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP))

20 Feb 2012 - 22 Feb 2012
To be confirmed

3rd Session of the International Conference on Chemicals Management (ICCM3), SAICM

Mar 2012 (To be confirmed)
To be confirmed

6th World Water Forum, World Water Council

12 Mar 2012 - 17 Mar 2012
Marseilles, France

World Meteorological Day, WMO

23 Mar 2012 - 23 Mar 2012
Worldwide

UNCTAD XIII Ministerial Conference, UNCTAD

Apr 2012 (To be confirmed)
Doha, Qatar

SD-Learning

13 Jun 2012 - 22 Jun 2012
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, Rio+20

20 Jun 2012 - 22 Jun 2012
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

4th International disaster and risk conference IDRC Davos 2012
(by: United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR))

26 Aug 2012 - 30 Aug 2012
Davos, Switzerland

SUMMITS/CONFERENCES HELD IN 2011

2012-01-08T13:40:00.002+05:30

9th Session of the UN Forum on Forests, DESA

24 Jan 2011 - 4 Feb 2011
New York, USA

Informal Thematic Debate of the General Assembly on Disaster Risk Reduction, President of the General Assembly

9 Feb 2011 - 9 Feb 2011
New York, USA

Workshop 1 on Green Economy in Practice

11 Feb 2011 - 11 Feb 2011
New York, USA, Conference room 6 NLB

9th Session of Committee for the Review of the Implementations of the Convention (CRIC.9) and 2nd Special Session of Committee on Science and Technology (CST-2), UNCCD Secretariat

14 Feb 2011 - 25 Feb 2011
Geneva, Switzerland

34th session of the Governing Council, Governing Bodies IFAD

19 Feb 2011 - 20 Feb 2011
Rome, Italy

26th session of the Governing Council/Global Ministerial Environment Forum of UNEP, UNEP

21 Feb 2011 - 24 Feb 2011
Nairobi, Kenya

Launch of UN Women, UN Women

Feb 2011 (To be confirmed)
New York, USA

Meeting of the High-level Panel on Global Sustainability, UN Secretariat

24 Feb 2011 - 25 Feb 2011
Cape Town, South Africa

Intergovernmental Preparatory Meeting (IPM) of CSD-19

28 Feb 2011 - 4 Mar 2011
New York, USA

High-Level Meeting of ECOSOC with Bretton Woods Institutions, WTO and UNCTAD

Mar 2011 (To be confirmed)
New York, USA

How the Green Economy depends on Water

7 Mar 2011 - 7 Mar 2011
Conference Room 4, New North Lawn Building, UNHQ, New York

Green Economy in the framework of Sustainable
(by: Germany)

7 Mar 2011 - 7 Mar 2011
German House, 871 UN Plaza (1.

Special Event on the Transition to a Green Economy
(by: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA))

8 Mar 2011 - 8 Mar 2011
New York, USA, Conference Room 6, North Lawn Building, the United Nations

Statistics for policymaking: Europe 2020. Parallel session on Sustainable growth: indicators for green growth.

10 Mar 2011 - 10 Mar 2011
Brussels, Belgium. Eurostat

Interactive Dialogue with the Secretary-General's High-level Panel on Global Sustainability, President of the General Assembly

16 Mar 2011 - 16 Mar 2011
New York, USA

World Water Day 2011

22 Mar 2011 - 22 Mar 2011
Cape Town, South Africa

Water for Energy, Energy for Water Side Event

22 Mar 2011 - 22 Mar 2011
New York, USA, Conference room 6, NLB

World Water Day "Urban Water Management", UN HABITAT

23 Mar 2011 - 23 Mar 2011
Worldwide

Workshop 2: Green Economy Opportunities and Concerns

23 Mar 2011 - 23 Mar 2011
New York, USA, Conference room 6 NLB

The UN Development Agenda beyond 2015
(by: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA))

23 Mar 2011 - 23 Mar 2011
New York City (UNHQ Conference Room A, NLB)

5th International Conference on Community Based Adaptation

24 Mar 2011 - 31 Mar 2011
Dhaka, Bangladesh

China Bio-Agriculture Industry Summit

30 Mar 2011 - 31 Mar 2011
Pudong-Shanghai, China

Meeting of UN System Chief Executives Board for Coordination

1 Apr 2011 - 2 Apr 2011
Kenya, Nairobi

Fifth Session of the Preparatory Commission for the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) and First Session of the Assembly of IRENA

3 Apr 2011 - 5 Apr 2011
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

2nd Preparatory Committee Meeting for UN Conference on Least Developed Countries, UN-OHRLLS

4 Apr 2011 - 8 Apr 2011
New York, USA

Green Jobs Learning Forum
(by: International Labour Organization (ILO))

4 Apr 2011 - 22 Apr 2011
ITC Turin, Italy

23rd Session of the Governing Council of UN-HABITAT, UN-HABITAT

11 Apr 2011 - 15 Apr 2011
Nairobi, Kenya

Spring Meeting of the Bretton Woods Institutions, World Bank and IMF

16 Apr 2011 - 17 Apr 2011
Washington D.C., USA

Workshop 3: Green Economy Pathways

19 Apr 2011 - 19 Apr 2011
New York, USA, Conference room 7 NLB

Interactive Dialogue of the General Assembly on Harmony With Nature

20 Apr 2011 - 20 Apr 2011
Conference Room 3, North Lawn Building, New York

Roundtable discussion for foundations on the UN Conference on Sustainable Development

20 Apr 2011 - 20 Apr 2011
DC2-2330 Conference room, Two UN Plaza on 44th Street

5th Conference of the Parties to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, UNEP/Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention

25 Apr 2011 - 29 Apr 2011
Geneva, Switzerland

OECD Ministerial council Meeting, OECD

May 2011 (To be confirmed)
To be confirmed

Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD-19: transport, chemicals, waste, mining, sustainable consumption and production), DESA

2 May 2011 - 13 May 2011
New York, USA

17th annual conference of the International Sustainable Development Research Society (ISDRS)

8 May 2011 - 11 May 2011
New York

Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction, Third Session
(by: United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR))

8 May 2011 - 13 May 2011
Geneva, Switzerland

4th UN Conference on Least Developed Countries UN-OHRLLS

9 May 2011 - 13 May 2011
Istanbul, Turkey

102nd session of the Executive Board, Governing Bodies, IFAD

11 May 2011 - 12 May 2011
Rome, Italy

Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, DESA/PFII Secretariat

16 May 2011 - 27 May 2011
New York, USA

Meeting of the High-level Panel on Global Sustainability, UN Secretariat

16 May 2011 - 17 May 2011
Helsinki, Finland

WMO XVI Congress, WMO

16 May 2011 - 1 Jun 2011
Geneva, Switzerland

From WSIS to Rio+20: The role of ICTs to promote sustainable development and the green economy transition
(by: International Telecommunication Union (ITU))

18 May 2011 - 18 May 2011
Geneva, Switzerland

Expert Group Meeting on “Supporting National Governments in the Transition to a Low-Carbon Development Pathway
(by: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA))

19 May 2011 - 20 May 2011
New York City (UNHQ)

GEF Council, GEF

23 May 2011 - 26 May 2011
Washington D.C., USA

International Day of Biodiversity, "Focus on forests, CBD

24 May 2011 - 24 May 2011
Worldwide

4th Meeting of the Mediterranean Commission on Sustainable Development
(by: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP))

30 May 2011 - 31 May 2011
Budva, Montenegro

G-8/G20 Meeting

Jun 2011 (To be confirmed)
Nice, France

World Economic and Social Situation report, “Technological Revolution for a Green Economy”, DESA
(by: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA))

Jun 2011 (To be confirmed)
New York, USA

Thematic Debate on the Green Economy: A Pathway to Sustainable Development (United Nations General Assembly)

2 Jun 2011 - 2 Jun 2011
New York City (UNHQ)

World Environment Day, "focus on Forests", UNEP

5 Jun 2011 - 5 Jun 2011
worldwide

5th Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Rotterdam Convention, Rotterdam Convention Secretariat

20 Jun 2011 - 24 Jun 2011
To be confirmed

39th Session Industrial Development Board, UNIDO

20 Jun 2011 - 24 Jun 2011
Vienna, Austria

12th Meeting of the UN Open-ended Informal Consultative Process on Oceans and the Law of the Sea

20 Jun 2011 - 24 Jun 2011
New York, USA

Vienna Energy Forum

21 Jun 2011 - 23 Jun 2011
Vienna, Austria

Vienna Energy Forum 2011
(by: United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO))

21 Jun 2011 - 23 Jun 2011
Vienna, Austria

Ministerial Meeting on Energy and Green Industry
(by: United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO))

21 Jun 2011 - 22 Jun 2011
Vienna, Austria

OECD DAC Green Growth and Development Workshop

28 Jun 2011 - 28 Jun 2011
Paris, OECD Headquarters

4th session of the Meeting of the Parties to the Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (Aarhus Convention)
(by: United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE))

29 Jun 2011 - 1 Jul 2011
Chisinau, Republic of Moldova

MDG Report 2011 Launch

Jul 2011 (To be confirmed)
Geneva, Switzerland

Proposal for One-day High-level event on “Addressing Desertification, Land Degradation and Drought to achieve Global Sustainability”, UNCCD Secretariat
(by: United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD))

Jul 2011 (To be confirmed)
New York, USA

ECOSOC and Annual Ministerial Review, Focus on Education, UN Secretariat

4 Jul 2011 - 29 Jul 2011
Geneva, Switzerland

UNECE/FAO Workshop: Payments for Ecosystems Services: What role for a green economy?

4 Jul 2011 - 6 Jul 2011
Geneva, Switzerland

Economic and Social Council Substansive Session, 2011 High Level Segment

4 Jul 2011 - 8 Jul 2011
Geneva, Switzerland

Sixth Symposium on ICTs, the Environment and Climate Change
(by: International Telecommunication Union (ITU))

7 Jul 2011 - 8 Jul 2011
Accra, Ghana

Workshop on Indigenous Peoples, Marginalized Populations and Climate Change, UNU
(by: United Nations University (UNU))

19 Jul 2011 - 21 Jul 2011
Mexico, City

High-Level Meeting on Youth

25 Jul 2011 - 26 Jul 2011
General Assembly Hall , New York

Pacific platform for disaster risk management 2011
(by: United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR))

1 Aug 2011 - 5 Aug 2011
Auckland, New Zealand

Global Model UN Conference on Sustainable Development, DPI

10 Aug 2011 - 14 Aug 2011
Incheon, Republic of Korea

2011 World cities scientific development forum (WCSDF)
(by: United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR))

11 Aug 2011 - 13 Aug 2011
Chengdu, China

MDG Gap Task Force Report Launch, UNDP/DESA

Sep 2011 (To be confirmed)
New York, USA

General Assembly High-level Events on Forests, President of the General Assembly

Sep 2011 (To be confirmed)
New York, USA

Review of National and Subregional Activities and Processes in preparation Rio+20
(by: Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP))

1 Sep 2011 - 2 Sep 2011
Seoul, Republic of Korea

64th Annual DPI/NGO Conference, Theme: Sustainable Societies, Responsive Citizens, DPI

3 Sep 2011 - 5 Sep 2011
Maritim Hotel, Bonn, Germany

ITU Green Standards Week

5 Sep 2011 - 9 Sep 2011
Rome, Italy

Greening the Economy with Agriculture
(by: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO))

5 Sep 2011 - 7 Sep 2011
Paris, OECD Headquarters

ITU Green Standards Week
(by: International Telecommunication Union (ITU))

5 Sep 2011 - 9 Sep 2011
Rome, Italy

2nd International Energy Efficiency Forum
(by: United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE))

12 Sep 2011 - 14 Sep 2011
Dushanbe, Tajikistan

66th session of the General Assembly, UN Secretariat

13 Sep 2011 - 13 Sep 2011
New York, USA

103rd session of the Executive Board, Governing Bodies IFAD

14 Sep 2011 - 15 Sep 2011
Rome, Italy

African Energy Ministerial
(by: United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO))

15 Sep 2011 - 16 Sep 2011
Johannesburg, Republic of South Africa

WTO Public Forum
(by: World Trade Organization (WTO))

19 Sep 2011 - 21 Sep 2011
Geneva, Switzerland

General Assembly High-level Event on Desertification, President of the General Assembly

20 Sep 2011 - 20 Sep 2011
New York, USA

UN Private Sector Forum: Access to Energy For All

20 Sep 2011 - 20 Sep 2011
New York City (UNHQ)

Annual Meetings of the Bretton Woods Institutions, World Bank and IMF

24 Sep 2011 - 26 Sep 2011
Washington, D.C., USA

General Assembly High-level Dialogue on Financing for Development, UN Secretariat

26 Sep 2011 - 26 Sep 2011
New York, USA

World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) General Assembly : Fortieth (20th Ordinary) Session, WIPO
(by: World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO))

26 Sep 2011 - 5 Oct 2011
Geneva, Switzerland

2nd Committee of the 66th General Assembly, PGA, UN Secretariat

3 Oct 2011 - 23 Dec 2011
New York, USA

Water in the Green Economy in Practice: Towards Rio+20

3 Oct 2011 - 4 Oct 2011
Zaragoza, Spain

First Plenary Meeting of IPBES
(by: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP))

3 Oct 2011 - 7 Oct 2011
Nairobi, Kenya

2nd Committee Meeting
(by: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA))

3 Oct 2011 - 3 Oct 2011
New York, USA

3rd Committee Meeting
(by: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA))

3 Oct 2011 - 3 Oct 2011
New York, USA

Contributions of Forests to a Green Economy

4 Oct 2011 - 7 Aug 2011
Bonn, Germany

Greenbuild 2011
(by: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP))

4 Oct 2011 - 7 Oct 2011
Ontario, Canada

UNCCD 10th Conference of the Parties (COP-10), UNCCD Secretariat
(by: United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD))

10 Oct 2011 - 21 Oct 2011
Changwon, Republic of Korea

Green Economy and Sustainable Development: Bringing Back the Social Dimension
(by: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD))

10 Oct 2011 - 11 Oct 2011
United Nations, Geneva

10th meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Basel Convention (COP 10), Basel Convention Secretariat

17 Oct 2011 - 21 Oct 2011
Cartagena, Colombia

37th Committee on World Food Security
(by: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO))

17 Oct 2011 - 22 Oct 2011
Rome, Italy

Finance Initiative Global Roundtable, UNEP
(by: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP))

19 Oct 2011 - 20 Oct 2011
Washington D.C., USA, Ronald Reagan Building

Launch of United Nations Office for Sustainable Development (UNOSD)

19 Oct 2011 - 19 Oct 2011
Seoul, Republic of Korea

Rediscovering Wood, the Key to a Sustainable Future
(by: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO))

19 Oct 2011 - 22 Oct 2011
Bangalore, India

66th session of the General Assembly - 2nd Committee Special Event on Means of Implementation for Sustainable Development

25 Oct 2011 - 25 Oct 2011
UNHQ New York, Economic and Social Council Chamber (NLB)

African Economic Conference 2011

26 Oct 2011 - 28 Oct 2011
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Building ocean and coastal sustainability and greening the Blue Economy
(by: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO))

1 Nov 2011 - 1 Nov 2011
Room IX, Unesco, Paris

Seventh Meeting of the Intergovernmental Forum on Mining, Minerals, Metals and Sustainable Development
(by: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD))

1 Nov 2011 - 3 Nov 2011
Geneva, Switzerland

UNDP launch of the 2011 Human Development Report - “Sustainability and equity: A better future for all”
(by: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP))

2 Nov 2011 - 2 Nov 2011
Copenhagen, Denmark

G20 Summit, France

4 Nov 2011 - 5 Nov 2011
France

2nd Expert Meeting on Trade Implications of the Green Economy, UNCTAD

8 Nov 2011 - 10 Nov 2011
Geneva, Switzerland

UNCTAD Expert Meeting on the Green Economy: Trade and Sustainable Development Implications
(by: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD))

8 Nov 2011 - 10 Nov 2011
Geneva, Switzerland

23rd Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal, Protocol on Ozone Layer Protection, UNEP
(by: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP))

14 Nov 2011 - 18 Nov 2011
Bali, Indonesia

ADB Urban Forum 2011: Financing Future Cities

15 Nov 2011 - 17 Nov 2011
Manila, Philippines

Tokyo Green Industry Conference 2011
(by: United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO))

16 Nov 2011 - 18 Nov 2011
Tokyo, Japan

UNEP High-Level International Forum on Ecosystem Management and Green Economy
(by: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP))

18 Nov 2011 - 18 Nov 2011
Beijing, China

The Future We Want - Launching a Global Conversation

22 Nov 2011 - 22 Nov 2011
Dag Hammarskjold Auditorium, New York

Building a Green Society – The Role of Education, Science, Culture and Communication
(by: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO))

25 Nov 2011 - 25 Nov 2011
Jakarta

14th Session UNIDO General Conference, UNIDO

28 Nov 2011 - 9 Dec 2011

UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (COP-17), UNFCCC

28 Nov 2011 - 9 Dec 2011
South Africa

17th United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

28 Nov 2011 - 9 Dec 2011
Durban, South Africa

International Conference on Groundwater Resources Management: Adaptation Measures to Water Scarcity Science and Policy Responses
(by: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO))

30 Nov 2011 - 3 Dec 2011
Irvine, California

Report of the High-level panel on Global Sustainability, Executive Office of the Secretary-General (EOSG)

Dec 2011 (To be confirmed)

3rd Intergovernmental Review of the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment form Land-Based Pollution (GPA), UNEP/GPA
(by: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP))

Dec 2011 (To be confirmed)
To be confirmed

General Assembly High-level Dialogue on Financing for Development, DESA

7 Dec 2011 - 8 Dec 2011
New York, USA

Rio+20 Secretariat - Side event at COP17: Briefing on Rio+20 preparations

7 Dec 2011 - 7 Dec 2011
Room: Amanzimtoti River, Durban, South Africa

104th session of the Executive Board, Governing Bodies, IFAD

13 Dec 2011 - 14 Dec 2011
Rome, Italy

EMG-UNDG green economy Side-event
(by: United Nations Environment Management Group (EMG))

14 Dec 2011 - 14 Dec 2011
NEW York

Workshop on Partnerships Best Practices and their Contribution to Rio+20

14 Dec 2011 - 14 Dec 2011
New York, UNHQ

Regional Workshop on Trade and Environment, ESCWA and partners
(by: Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA))

15 Dec 2011 - 16 Dec 2011
Beirut, Lebanon

VRO/VRA STUDY MATERIAL

2012-01-03T09:40:00.002+05:30

FOR VRO/VRA RURAL AREAS STUDY MATERIAL CLICK HERE

VRO SPECIAL - RURAL AREAS

2012-01-03T09:25:00.000+05:30

VRO GENERAL STUDIES STUDY MATERIAL

2011-12-25T22:07:00.000+05:30

VRO GENERAL STUDIES STUDY MATERIAL

2011-12-25T21:59:00.000+05:30

General Studies

VRO STUDY MATERIAL

2011-12-25T21:56:00.000+05:30

VRO / VRA SYLLABUS RELEASED BY CCLA

2011-12-25T08:54:00.005+05:30

VRO MODEL PAPERS

2011-12-25T08:54:00.003+05:30

VRA MODEL PAPER

2011-12-25T08:52:00.000+05:30

2008 Group-I Question Papers

2011-12-12T12:05:00.002+05:30

APPSC-Group-1-Mains General English 2008 Paper

APPSC-Group-1-Mains-General-Essay-Paper-1-2008-Paper

APPSC-Group-1-Mains-Paper-2-2008-Paper

APPSC-Group-1-Mains-Paper-3-2008-Paper

APPSC-Group-1-Mains-Paper-4-2008-Paper

APPSC-Group-1-Mains-Paper-5-2008-Paper

VRO/VRA EXAM GUIDANCE

2011-12-12T11:23:00.000+05:30

APPSC GROUP-I EXAM SUCCESS PLAN

2011-12-05T08:21:00.000+05:30

APPSC JUNIOR LECTURERS EXAM SOLVED PAPER (EXAM HELD ON: 03-12-2011)

2011-12-04T08:25:00.000+05:30

INDIAN HISTORY NOTES

2011-11-09T22:42:00.000+05:30

Andhra Satavahanas

ORIGIN :

(a) Aitrareya Brahmana puts the Adhras beyond the pale of Aryanism.

(b) Nasik Prasasti lays claim to Gautmi as a brahamana.

(c) Puranas called them their services to Aryanism they were - admitted to the Aryan folk after their services to Arynanism - there is a reference to them in the Asoka inscriptions as well as by Megasthenes.

(d) Some call them Brahmins - some, mixed Brahmins of Naga origin, aqnd some, protectors of Brahmins,

(e) Numismatic evidence points to the origin in Western Deccan and Madhya Pradesh. Epigraphic and literary evidence points to their western origin - the figure of the founder of the dynasty is found in paition in western Deccan.

(f) Epigraphic evidence refers to them as Satavahanas, not as Andhras.

(g) Possibly, Andhra is the Tribal name : Satavahana, the dynastic name, and satakarni, the Surname.

SOURCES :

(a) Puranas - mention 30 kings,.

(b) Aitrareya Brahmina.

(c) Literary sources -- Gunadhya's Brihatkatha. And Leelavati, which deals with the military exploits of Hala.

(d) Nasik inscription of Gautami Balsari.

(e) Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela for inferring the date of the first ruler.

(f) Sanchi inscription extent of the Satavahanas kingdom till Malwa.

CHORONOLOGY:

(a) The founder war one Simukha - probably the first century B.C. - supplanted the lingering Sunga and Kanva rulers - rule of the dynasty was for 300 years. Simuka was succeed by Krishna or Kanha.

(b) The next known king was Satakarni - the kingdom expanded - probably defeated by Kharavela - performed Ashvamedha Pratishthana was the capital - confusion after him. Kshaharatas or sakas occupied parts of Maharashtra.

(c) Hala is the 17th in the list of Puranas - his book is saptasataka - deals with both erortic and philosophical themes. Gundhaya's Brihatkatha deals with the rivalry between Prikrit and Sanskrit.

(d) Beginning from 25 A.D. to 75 A.D. there was confusion - saka eruption.

(e) The greatest ruler was Gautamiputra Satakarni. He was the 23rd according to Pupranas - around 72 A.D. the Nasik inscription of his mother talks of his being the destroyer of Sakas, Yavanas and Kshaharata - also says that he crushed the pride of Kshatrias - overran konan, Saurashtra, Bihar and Malva. A Philanthropist, he maintained Arya Dharma - put an end to Varna - Sankara - some regard him to be Vikramaditya. Built the city of Benakataka and assumed the titles of Raja Raja and Svamin.

(f) The next known ruler was Pulumayi II around 96 A.D. - first ruled Andhra country - Vaijyanti and Amaravati famous cities - Satavahanas a naval power - probably overseas colonisation - large number of inscription.

(g) The next know ruler was Vasishtiputra Batakarni of sri Pulumayi - married the daughter of Rudradaman, a Saka ruler -- however Rudradaman twice defeated him. Also, Sri Pulumayi lost to Chastana, son of Bhosmotika.

(h) Next known ruler was Yajna Sri Satakarni - around 160 A.D. - Malva, Kathiawad and North Konkan - inscription found in Konkan and Krishna - coints found in Gujarat and Kathiawad - defeated Kshatapas.

(i) After the declined Salankeyanas ruled over the Satavahana territory.

IMPORTANCE :

(1) The Very area over which they ruled was important connecting link between link between northern and southern India - Andhras were instrumental in spreading Aryan culture to the south.

(2) Their colonizing activities spread to South-East Asia - influence of Amaravati sculptures on South-East Asian sculptures.

(3) They did maintain contact between India and the Western world in matters of trade.

(4) They were instrumental in curbing the penetration of Sakas further into south.

(5) Some of the later southern dynastic like Ikshvakus, Kadambas, Tarikutakas and Abhiras continued the Satavahan tradition and the Pallsvas and the Chalukya claimed the tradition of Satavahanas.

SATAVAHANA ACHIEVEMENTS

The government if the Satavahana kingdom was organized on the traditional lines. The kingdom was divided into Janapadas, which were further sub-divided into aharas. Each ahara was under an Amataya. The basic unit of the ahara was the grama with the village headman called gamika. Central control was maintained over the provices. Princes were generally made viceroys. And the kings did not assume high-sounding titles. They were expected to maintain dharma. Taxation was not burden some. The state derived its income from crown lands, court fees, fines and ordinary taxes on lands. The extraordinary taxes of the Mauryan period were not imposed. In general, Central control was not high because feudal traits emerged in the Satavahana period. The feudal chiefs like maharathas mahasenapatis and mahabhojas issued their own coins.
The area under the satavahanas in general witnessed considerable prosperity. There was brisk trade. Broach was the most important port and it had a vast and rich hinterland. Pratishthana produced cotton cloth. Tagara and Ujjain produced muslin. The chief imports were wines, copper, tin, lead and gold and silver coins. Another important port was kalyan mentioned in the Perilus. The other ports were Sopara, Goa and pigeon islands. Within the kingdom there were important cities like Tagara, Prathishthana, Nasik, Junnar and Dhanyakataka. Koddura and Chinnaganjam were the important ports on the east. The general life led by the people was similar to the one portrayed in Vatsayana's Kama-Sutra.
Evidence also shows that a good number of people emigrated from the Deccan to colonize the regions in South-East Asia
The Satavahanas and Shiva were worshiped. Saptasataka reveals the worship of many Hindu deities. Vaishnavasim and Shavism grew popular. Gautamiputra-Satakarni claimed himself to be the protector of brahmins. The Naisk prasasthi states that Varnashrama Dharmawas maintained.
Buddhism too was popular. Both the sakas and Satavahanas encouraged Buddhism. Ushavadata mare several grants to Buddhist monks. Some of these grants were renewed by Guatamiputra Satakarni. Buddhist momuments and stupas came into existence at Nasik, Vidisa, Bhattiprolu, Goli, Ghantasala and Amaravati. It was at the last plece that most probably human figures were carved out for the first time. And the stupa at this place had a marble railing with relief sculptures. A vaijayanti merchant was responsible for enriching Karle and Kanheri Buddhist caves. Merchants from Nasik contributed to the caves at Vidisa and Bharhut. In brief cave architecture and building of stupas witnessed certain development under the auspices of the satavahanas; and the donations or the merchants belonging to the guilds prove the commercial prosperity of the area.
Emcouraged by wealth the kings patronized literature and architecture. Hala was an authority on the Puranas. He was the author of Sapta-Sataka. It is said that Hala paid as much as 40 million pieces of gold for four kavyas. Leelavati deals with the military campaigns of Hala.
The kings encouraged architecture. The five gateways at Sanchi the rock-cut Chaity-halls of Bhaja, Karle, Nasik and Kanheri and the stupas at Amaravati, Bhattiprolu, Goli and Ghantasala were built in this period. The capitals of the pillars in Karle caves are elaborately sculptured. The dome and the base of the Amaravati stupa is elaborately sculptured. Jataka stories were incised on marble slabs. The upper part of the dome is a beautiful floral design. It is generally said that its construction began during the t8ime of Gautamiputra Satakarni and was completed during the time of Yajna Sri Satakarni. Most probably two Ajanta Frescoes (9th and 10th) came into existence during this period.
The satavahanas weregreat excavators of cave temples and the magnificent temples of Ellora and Ajanta were the continuation of the Satavahana tradition to which all Middle Indian dynasties in succeeding ages claimed historic relationship. The basic tradition in Middle India is of the Satavahana empire. As in the north it is of the Mauryan. From the point of view of historic continuity it is important to remember this primary fact as up to quite recent times the traditions flowing from the satavahanas were living factors in Indian history.

Satavahana Administration

The Satavahana administration was very simple and was according to the principle laid down in Dharmashastras. The king laid no claim of divine right. They had only the most modest title of rajan. They had no absolute power. Their power was checked in practice by customs and shastras. The king was the commander of war and of threw himself into the thickest of the frays.

A peculiar feature of the Satavahana administration was the presence of feudatories of different grade. The highest class was that of petty princes bearing the kingly title raja and striking coins in their own names. Next in rank was the maharathi and mahabhoja. Both titles from the beginning were hereditary and restricted to a few families in a few localities. Probably mahabhoja ranked higher than that of maharathi.

The mahabhojas were the feudatories of Satavahanas. They were primarily located in western Deccan. They were related by blood to the feudatory maharathi. It is definitely known that the maharathis were the feudatories of Satavahanas. They also granted in their own name villages with physical immunities attached to them. The maharathis of the chitaldrug enjoyed the additional privilege of issuing coins in their own name.

Towards the close of the Satavahana period two more feudatories were created Mahasenapathi and them mahataralavara.

Barring districts that were controlled by feudatories, the empire was divided into janapadas and aharas, the latter corresponding to modern districts. The division below that of ahara was grama. Non-hereditary governors were subject to periodical transfers. There were other functionaries like great chamberlain store-keepers treasurers and dutakas who carried royal orders.

The government lived from hand to mouth. The taxes were neither heavy nor many. The sources of income were proceeds from the royal domain, salt monopoly ordinary and extraordinary taxes both soldiers and officials were paid in kind. The Satavahana administration was very simple and was according to the principle laid down in Dharmashastras. The king laid no claim of divine right. They had only the most modest title of rajan. They had no absolute power. Their power was checked in practice by customs and shastras. The king was the commander of war and of threw himself into the thickest of the frays.

Towards the close of the Satavahana period two more feudatories were created Mahasenapathi and them mahataralavara.

Significance Of The Satavahanas

(1) It was the emergence of Vakataka power in the Vindhya area some where about the middle of the third century that brought about the downfall of the Satavahanas. But an empire so firely established in its home domains does not break down with the fall of a dynasty. The Rastrakutas and the Chalukyas in the Godavari valley and the Pallavas in the south originally the viceroys of the Satavahanas, claimed successtion to the empire with in their own territorial limits as the Vakatakas claimed it to the north of the Vindhyas. The Gangas and the Kadambas were also the inheritors of the tradition and as the Vijayanagar emperors claimed in time to be Chalukya Chudamanis, or the crest jewels of the Chalukya dynasty and as the great kings of Gujarat equally claimed succession from the Chalukyas, the imperial tradition of the Satavahanas may be said to have been carried forward at least to the beginning of the seventeenth century.

(2) The rise of the Satavahanas signified that the economic revolution of the Gangetic region was repeated allover India. Added to this because of the peculiar geographical terrain of the Deccan peninsula a number of small kingdoms came into existence but not any big empire.

(3) Since the Satavahanas had controlled part of the Deccan and part of northern India, they acted as the couriers of Aryanism to southern India.

(4) It is intriguing to note that the Satavahana inscriptions were primarily in pali but not in Sanskrit indicating it look long time to establish Sanskrit language as the language of the elite although people professed Aryanism much earlier.

(5) The administrative structure of the Satavahana is a revealing one because it was not a highly centralized administration and it conceded the emergence of feudalism. Feudal chiefs like Mahara this mahasenapatis and mahabhojas issued their own coins.

(6) The artistic excellence that was achieved under the aegis of the Satavahanas had a tremendous significance. Buddhist mouments came into existence at Nasik, Vidisha, Bhattiprolu, Goli, Ghantasala and amaravati. Most probably human figure was first carved out at Amaravati and Amaravati's sculptures influenced South-east Asian sculptures.

(7) Under the aegis of the Satavahanas trade was given a boost. The important pores were Koddura and Chinnaganjam on the east and Kalyan, Sopara, Goa and Pigeon islands on the West coast. And some of the important commercial centers were Tagara, Pratishthana, Nasik, Junnar and Dhanyakataka.

INDIAN HISTORY NOTES

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Geographical knowledge of the vedic period:

The geographical evidence as to be found in the hymns of Vedas thros some light on the course of Indo-Aryan migration and the origin of Hinduism. Whether the Indo-Aryans came from Central Asia or not depends largely on the interpretation of the geographical allusions in the Rig and Yajur Vedas. The hymns in praise of rivers in the 10th blcok are interesting. The author while singing the greatness of the Sindhu enumerates at least 19 rivers including the Ganges. The fifth Stanza gives a list of 10 streams, small and great-Ganges, Yamuna, Saraswati, Satluj, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum, Maruwardwan (in J&K), Sushoma (Rowalpindi District) and probably Kanshi in the same district. This system of rivers did not remain the Saraswati. The existing delta of the Indus has been formed since the time of Alexander the Great.
The Vedic hymns reveal the initial Aryan settlements in India : western tributaries of the Indus, the Gomti (modern Gomal) the Krumu (modern Kurram) and the Kubha (modern Kabul). The one river mentioned in the North of Kabul is Suvastu (modern swat).
But the main focus of the Rig Vedic settlements was in the Punjab and the Delhi region. When the Rig-Vedic hymns were compiled the focus of Aryan settlement was the region between the Yamuna and the Sutlaj, south of modern Ambala and laong the upper course of river Saraswati. The most frequently mentioned rivers are the Sindhu (Indus), the Sarasvati (modern Sarsuti), the Drishadvati (modern Chitang), and the five streams of the Punjab.
Regarding the other geographical features, the Vedic poets knew the Himalayas but not the land south of Yamuna, since they did not mention the Vindhayas, In the east also the Aryans did not expand beyond Yamuna; for the river Ganga is mentioned only once in one late hymn.
And possibly, the Aryans had no knowledge of the oceans since the word 'samudra' in the Vedic period meant a pool of water. But the later Vedic knowledge shows that the Aryans knew the two seas, the Himalayas and the Vindhyan mountainas and generally the entire Indo-Gangetic plain.
The Aryans used various kinds of pottery and the sites where the painted grey were are found, confirm the Aryan settlements. The Vedic texts show that the Aryans expanded from the Punjab over the whole of western Uttar Pradesh covered by the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. The Bharatas and Purus known as Kuru people first lived between Sarasvati and Drishadvati just on the fringe of the Doab. Soon the Kurus occupied Delhi and the Upper portion of the doab, that is the area called Kurukshetra, After this event, the Kurus joined with the people called Panchalas who occupied the middle portion of the Doab or the moder districts of bareilly Dadaun and Farrukabad. It was the Kuru-Panchalas who had set up their capital at Hastinapur situated in the district of Meerut. Later the Kauravas and the Pandavas belonging to the same Kuru clan fougth out a battle which led to the extinction of the Kuru clan.
And by 600 B.C. the Aryans spread from the Doab further east to Kosala in Eastern U.P. and Vedeha in north Bihar. The former town is associated with the story of Ramchandra, but it is not mentioned in Vedic literature.

Indus And Vedic Civilisation:
There is muc to be contrasted between the cultures of the Harappans and the Aryans. There are indeed a few points of similarities, but they are not of any significance. Why the points of contrast are more is primarily because of geographic location, economic activity and the religious practices followed by both the cultures. Far more important is the fact that the Aryans, with a plasticity of mind, made life vibrant; whereas, the Indus life looks more like stylized puppet show.
The plasticity of the Aryan mind was shown in the language as well as the way in which they adapted agricultural and settled life. The seals of the Indus Valley show that the pictographs remained statis, whereas, the Aryan language in the Rig Veda at places rises to musical levels. The success with which the Aryan writings were composed reveals the ability of the Aryan mind to grasp the mulitiple dimensions of human life. And language which exhibits immense potentialities in its vocabulary reveals that the community is full of potentialities. On the other hand, out of nearly 400 characters known to the Harappans only a few were repeated time and again.
The other manifestation of Aryan civilization, that is, its capacity to change and adapt itself, has given a continuity to Indian Civilization despite the absence of mighty empires. On the other hand, the Indus Valley people reached a blind alley and the never learnt anything from other civilizations like the Sumerian. Adaptability or ability to respond to challenges is the hallmark of any youthful civilization. The Indus civilization reached its senilithy by 2000 B.C. whereas the Aryan Civilization was full with creative dynamism.
Archaeology is the only source of our knowledge of the Harappan civilization, but information concerning the Vedic Aryans depends almost entirely on literary texts, which were handed down by the oral tradition. It is clear from the material remains that the Harappan civilization was in certain respects superior to that of the Aryans. In Particular it was a city civilization of a highly developed type, while by contrast city life was unfamiliar to the Aryans. The superiority of the Aryans lay in the military field. In which their use of the light horse chariot played a prominent part, or in literary exuberation.
Harappans were peace loving city-dwellers and good planners as is evident by grid pattern towns, elaborate drainage system, street lights, kelp-burnt brick houses, fortifications, granaries, baths and wells. The early Aryans were not city builders. Their way of life, nomad-pastoralists as theywere, was dominated by war like stock-breeding (they practiced a little agriculture) and migrations. City buildings etc. as a large-scale socio-economic activities is only much later mentioned in the later Vedic texts, epics and the Puranas.
The Harrapa culture is located in the Indus Valley and western India and its urbanization is based on a chalcolithic system with and absence of iron. Later Vedic society centering on the Ganges Valley from which the Harappan culture is largely absent owes its gradual urbanization to iron technology, the widespread domestication of the horse and the extension and intensification of plough agriculture. (Iron, horse and plough being nearly absent - some evidence in later Harappan sites).
The expansion and budding off of the Harappan system in the east as far as Alamgirpur (U.P.) and to the neighbouring areas was neither 'colonisation' nor was it 'political expansion' of any from, it was rather the expansion in terms of the permeations of the socio-economic and socio-cultural systems of Harappan society whereas, the Aryan advance towards eastern region - the Doab of the Ganges and Jamuna - was no doubt facilitated by their horse chariots and effective weapons and can be viewed as 'colonisation' or 'political expansion' though not all the Aryan culture contacts and expansion need have been of a violent kind.
The focal centers of the Harappan culture remained for a long time the twin cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro and it is from these centers that Harappan culture budded off, whereas the focus of attention of the Rig Veda was the Punjab and in the later Vedic period it shifted to the Doab of the Ganges and Jamuna rivers. The Punjab seems gradually to fade into the background and was regarded even with disapproval.
The Harappan society had a very complex social stratification, division of labour and multiplicity of crafts and industries, urbanism was its marked feature with Harappans enjoying a settled and sedentary life, and in this society the priest and the merchant played dominant roles perhaps constituting a 'ruling' elite. On the other hand, in the early period the Aryans were organized into a social organization which may be described as 'tribal' or rural' one with a minimal of division of labour and sedentariness. It was sed fully with more pronounced and increased division of labour when specialized trades and crafts appeared. But in this society it was not the priests and the merchants (Vaishyas) but the Priests and the Kshtriya who constituted the rule in elite (though with a tendency to rivalry).
In the Harappan society the Priestly class was of great importance as the central authority. Though there is little evidence in the Rig Veda of any special importance of the priests, however in later Vedic society, the priests as a class assumed a form of institutional authority. The institutions of slavery and prostitution were common to both the societies.
The entire Harappan civilization was the product of an available food surplus (wheat and barley), a fairly high level of craft industry, a script and most important of active commercial intercourse by which it was able to obtain its different and varied material from places far and near both in India (the sub-continent outside the Harappan sphere was not terra-incognita) and outside (i.e. Sumerian towns, Baluchistan and Central Asia). Both northern and southern India was connected in Harappan period by ties of brisk trade. But the early Aryans did not fully emerged out from the food-gathering and nomadic pastoral stage. They hated the panis, i.e. those who indulged in trade. Though by the end of the Vedic age trade contracts and commercial inter-course did not reach the Harappan level. It was only by the end of the Vedic period that the Aryans had some familiarity with the sub-continent.
The religion of the Harappan differed widely from that of the Vedic people. The Harappan practiced the cults of Sakti (mother Goddess) and Pasupati (Proto-Shiva) of animal-tree and stone worship and of Phallus and Yoni, i.e. fertility cult. The early Aryans condemned many of these cults. Harappans worshiped Mother Goddess but the Female deities played a minor part in Vedic religion though the Aryans provided spouses to their gods by later Vedic times. But the fear of the Phallus worship was replaced in the Yajur veda by its recognition as an official ritual. Siva also gained increased importance in the later Vedas. The Aryans anthropomorphized most of the forces of nature and prayed to them as Indra, Varuna, Agni, Mitra, Rudra, Soma, Surya, and Asvins. The fire of sacrificial cult was common to both. Vedic Aryans worshipped the cow while the Harappans reserved their veneration for bulls. The Harappans were iconic and the Aryans aniconic. Ascetic practices were known to both.
That the Harappan had a ruling authority or elite and / or an administrative organization cannot be doubted. Almost uniform planning of the cities and presence of sanitary system, standard weights and measures, assembly halls, huge granaries and citadels point to the existence of an authority, but what it was like as the later Vedic period the Aryan tribes had consolidated in little kingdoms with capitals and a sedimentary administrative system with important functionaries the Purohit and the twelve ratrins playing dominant role in support of the monarchy, the prevalent form of government.
The food habits of the Harappans were almost identical with those of the later Aryans if not early Aryans. The Harappans unlike the Aryans, preferred indoor games of outdoor amusements (chariot racing and hunting) though dice was popular past time with both. Playing music, singing and dancing were common to both. But about the musical instrument of the Harappan little is known or not known while the Aryans had the drum, lute and flute with cymbals and the harp as later additions. The Harappans buried their dead - the Aryans largely created their dead. The Harappans used a script, which remains undeciphered to date in spite of many claims for its deco din, where as references to writing in Vedic society came at a much later stage.
In art the Harappans made considerable progress. Their works of art add tour comprehension of their culture. In fact, the earliest artistic traditions belong to them. In sculpture (beareded man from Mohenjo-daro and two sand stone statuettes from Harappa), though a very few sculptures survive, in metal (bronze dancing girl) and ivory works, in terracotta's (small images and figures of animals, birds or human or animal and inscription a 9 Harappan script on them), and in their pottery (painted red and black, at times glazed), the Harappan show vigor, variety and ingenuity. On the other hand, Rig Vedic age is devoid of any tangible proof of Aryan achievements in these directions. In fact the Rig Veda says nothing of writing, art and architecture. The art of ceramics made Harappan, the Vedic pottery was a simple one.
The Harappans lacked that plasticity and dynamism of mind which is very essential for further growth and survival and they refused to learn from others, on the other hand, the Aryans possessing what the Harappans lacked, were youthful enough to be receptive, adaptive and assimilative, transforming themselves into a comprehensive civilization which in due course of time became essentially composite in character.
In the end we have to say that apart from the minor causative factors causing difference like the close mindedness of the Harappans and contrasted to the Plasticity of the Aryan mind, formalized and ritualized religion of the Harappans as contrasted to the animals and the metaphysical traits of the Aryans and the geographical locale were entirely different. The differences in socio-economic matrices between the two civilizations primarily account for the contrast between the two.

FOREIGN RELATIONS OF ASOKA

Diplomacy and geographical proximity primarily determined the foreign relations maintained by Asoka. Particularly, the century in which, Asoka lived was one of continued interactions between the Eastern Mediterranean and South Asia. That is why most of Asoka's contacts were with South Asia and the West. It appears that this interest was not one sided. A fair number of foreigners lived in Pataliputra to necessitate a special committee under the municipal management to look after the needs of welfare of the visitors. Apart from these major factors determining the foreign relations of Asoka, one more parameter was the desire of Asoka to spread his policy of dhamma to distant lands.
To begin with, Asoka in his foreign relations was a realist defeat and annexation of Kalinga. Also his realism is to be seen in Asoka not annexing the southern kingdoms (Cholas, Pandvas, Satyaputras and Keralaputras) while being satisfied with theirac knowledgement of his suzerainty. He probably felt that it was not worth the trouble to annex the small territories too.
In other foreign relations Asoka reveals as an idealist or a monarch who wore the robes of a monk. He sent various missions, though not embassies, to various countries. Their main purpose was to acquaint the countries they visited with his policies, particularly that of dhamma. They may be compared to modern goodwill missions helping to create an interest in the ideas and peoples of the country from which they came. Also, the fact that they are quite unheard of in contemporary literature or in later sources would suggest that they made only a short-lived impression.
In spite of the above reservations, the missions must have opened a number of channels for the flow of Indian ideas and goods. It is unlikely that Asoka expected all the kings who had received missions to put the policy of dhamma into practice, although he claims that his did happen. It is curious to observe that there is no reference to these missions in the last important public declaration of Asoka, the seventh pillar edict. In this edict Asoka mentions the success he had with his welfare services and the widespread propagation of dhamma but all within the empire.
The territory immediately adjoining the empire of Asoka on the West and that Antiochus. There is ample evidence of contacts of similarity in cultures. The use of Kharoshti in the Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra edicts in the north is evidence of strong contact with Iran. The fragmentary Aramaic inscription at Taxila and another of the same kind from Kashmir point to continue inter communication between the two areas.
Apart from contacts with Iran, Asoka Empire was close to various Greek kingdoms. There are references to the Greeks in the rock edicts of Asoka. On certain occasions the word used refers to the Greek settlements in the north-west and on others to the Hellenic Kingdoms. Antiochus II these of Syria is more frequently mentioned. He other Hellenic Kings where missions were sent were Ptolemy-II Philadephus of Egypt, Magas of Cyrene, Antigonus gonatas of Messedonia, and Alexander of Eorius.
Apart from these western contacts, tradition maintains that Asoka visited Khotan. This cannot be substantiated. On the other hand, Asoka maintained close relations with modern Nepal. Tradition states that his daughter, Charumati was married to Devapala of Nepal.
On the East, the Mauryan empire included the provice of Vanga, Since Tamralipti was the principal port of the area, Indian missions to and from Ceylon are said to have traveled via Tamaralipti.
The extent of the influence of Asoka's power in South India is better documented than in north India. The edicts of Asoka are found at Gavimathi, Palkignuda, Brahmagiri, Maski, yerragudi and Siddapur, Tamil poets also make references to the Mauryas.
More Important were the contacts with Ceylon. Information is available in the Ceylonese Chronicles on contacts between India and Ceylon. Coming of Mahindra to Ceylon was not the first official contact. Earlier, Dhamma missions were sent. A Ceylonese king was so captivated by Asoka that the top called himself as Devanampiya. Asoka maintained close relations with Tissa, the ruler of Ceylon. Relationship between Asoka and Tissa was based on mutual admiration for each other.
What interests of the country or the aims of Asoka were served through his missions? Asoka primarily tried to propagate his dhamma and may be incidentally Buddhims. He claimed that he made a spiritual conquest of all the territories specified by him as well as a few more territories beyond them. This claim definitely appears to bean exaggeration. There is no historical evidence to show that Asoka missions did succeed in achieving their aim particularly when the dhamma happened to be highly humanistic and ethical in nature. After all, Asoka was neither a Buddha nor a Christ to appeal to various people. Neither a St. Peter nor an Ananda to successful spread the message of their Masters. Not did he possess fighting men to spread his message just as the followers of prophet Mohammed. Thus, when there is no follow up action after the missions visited the various parts of the world, it is understandable that no one paid any heed to his message.
Evertheless, there is one intriguing point about the success of his foreign missions. In likelihood, the history of the Buddha and his message must have spread to the various parts. What did they need to? Although it is difficult to answer this question, it is of importance to observe that there are certain similarities between Christianity and Buddhism - suffering of man, Mara & Satan, Sangha Monasteries with Bikshus and Monks, and the use of rosary by Buddhist and Christian's monks.

Asoka's Dhamma

NEED OF DHARMA

1. There was considered intellectual ferment around 600 B.C. healthy rivalry was apparent among the number of sects such as the Charvaks, Jains and Ajivikas, whose doctrines ranged from bare materialism to determinism. This intellectual liveliness was reflected in the elected interests of the Mauryan rulers. It was claimed by the Jainas that Chandragupta was supporter and there is evidence that Bindusara favoured the Ajivikas.
Thus, the Empire of Asoka was inhabited by peoples of many cultures who were at many levels of development. The range of customs, beliefs, affinities, antagonisms, tensions and harmonies were galore. True, Magadha and the fringes of these areas. The north was in close contact with the Hellenized culture of Afganisthan and Iran. The far south was on the threshold of a creative efflorescence of Tamil culture. The ruler of such as Empire required the perceptions were addressed to the public at large. It is in these inscriptions that the king expounds his ideas on dhamma.
It appears, Asoka aimed at creating an attitude of mind among his subjects in which social behavior was accorded the highest place. The ideology of dhamma can be viewed as a focus of loyalty and as a point of convergence for the then bewildering diversities of the Empire. In a way, Asoka's dhamma was akin to the preamble in the constitution of India.
2. A centralized monarchy demands oneness of feeling on the part of its people. The ethics of the dhamma was intended to generate such a feeling, comparable to the preamble of the Indian Constitution.
3. The Mauryan Society with its heterogeneous elements and with economic, social and religious forces working against each other posed the threat of disruption. Asoka, therefore, needed some binding factor to allow the economic activity to proceed on an even keel and thereby ensure the security of his state.
4. Also as the commercial classes gained economic importance and resented the inferior social status as per the sanctions of the Brahmins, they want over to Buddhism, which preached social equality. Their support to the Mauryan king was very vital for the peace and prosperity of the Empire. Asoka thought that he could attract them by the propagation of this dhamma by weaning them away from too closely identifying themselves with Buddhism.
5. Asoka felt that the aforesaid forces of contrary pulls would threaten the peace of the realm not in the general interest of his Empire. Asoka's dhamma therefore, was intended to serve a practical purpose.
The dhamma was not meant to be a religion but what behooves a man of right feeling to do, or what man of sense would do. Such being the nature of his dhamma, it is primarily an ethic of social conduct.
Asoka's Moral code is most concisely formulated in the second Minor Rock Edict.
Thus saith His Majesty:
'Father and mother must be obeyed; similarly respect for living creatures must be enforced, truth must be spoken. These are the virtues of the law of Duty (or "Peity". Dhamma) which must be practisd. Similarly, the teacher must be reverenced by the pupil, and proper courtesy must be shown to relations.
This is the ancient standard of duty (or "Piety") - leads to length of days and according to this men must act.
The three obligations - of showing reverence, respecting animal life, and telling the truth - are inculcated over and over again in the edicts.
Besides, it was meant for all - Buddhists, brahmins, Jains and Ajivikas, In the way, it was the sara or the essence of the good principles of all religions. Also, while pleading on behalf of his dhamma, Asoka passionately appealed for toleration towards all religions and a reverence for each other.
Had this dhamma got anything to do with Buddhist principles, Asoka would have openly stated so in his edicts since he never southt to hid/his support for Buddhism. For that matter, Asoka did not incorporate any of the fundamental tenets of Buddhist faith such as the Four Noble Truths, the chain of casualty the sacred eight-fold path, and the Nirvana. The omissions, also with repeated reference to the concept of svarga or heaven (a Hindu belief) show that his dhamma cannot be identified with Buddhism.
Since Asoka's dhamma was not intended for the cause of Buddhims during his dharama-yatras, he not only visited various places of Buddhist importance, but also gave gifts to sramanas and Brahmins. Most of all, even after entrusting the propagation of dhamma to the Dharma Mahamatras, Asoka continued to style himself as the beloved of the devas, a Hindu concept, since there were no Gods in Buddhism at that time.

SUCCESS OF HIS DHARMA

Asoka specifically states that his missions were sent to various places (Ceylon and various Western countries) and maintains that they were all successful. It is difficult to accept this claim because historical evidence shows that his officials overshot the mark. Definitely, there was resentment against their way of doing things. It is known from evidence that Asoka presumed that not only he was a seeker of truth but also he did reach the truth. Such convictions are always harmful. Most of all, it is important to note that there is no authentic proof that his missions were a success. Significantly, none of Asoka's successors continued the propagation of dhamma. Far worse is the fact that in the later ages, his pillar inscriptions came to be misunderstood as symbols of phallus.

The splendour of the 'Dark Centuries'

The five centuries which passed between the decline of the first great Indian empire of the Mauryas and the emergence of the great classical empire of the Guptas has often been described as a dark period in Indian history when foreign dynasties fought each other for short-lived and ephemeral supremacy over Northern India. Apart from Kanishka's Indo-Central Asian empire which could claim to be similar in size and importance to has china, the parthians of Persia and to the contemporary Roman empire this period did lack the glamour of large empires. But this 'dark period' particularly the first two centuries AD was a period of intensive economic and cultural contact among the various parts of the Eurasian continent. Indian played a very active role in stimulating these contacts. Buddhism which has been fostered by Indian rulers since the days of Ashoka was greatly aided by the international connections of the Indo-Greeks and the Kushanas and thus rose to prominence in Central Asia. South India was establishing its important links with the West and with Southeast Asia in this period. These links especially those with southeast Asia, proved to be very important for the future course of Asian history.

But India it self experienced important social and cultural changes in this period. For centuries Buddhism had enjoyed royal patronage. This was partly due to the fact that the foreign rulers of India found Buddhism more accessible than orthodox Hinduism. The Vedic Brahmins had been pushed into the background by the course of historical development all though Hinduism as such did not experience a decline. On the contrary new popular cults arose around gods like Shiva, Krishna and Vishnu-Vasudeva who had played only a marginal role in an earlier age. The competition between Buddhism which dominated the royal courts and cities and orthodox Brahminism which was still represented by numerous Brahmin families every where left enough scope for these new cults to gain footholds of their own, of great importance for the further development of Hinduism and particularly for the Hindu idea of kingship was the Kushana rulers identification with certain Hindu gods - they were actually believed to attain a complete identity with the respective god after their death.

Religious legitimation was of greater importance to these foreign rulers than to other Indian kings. Menander's ashes had been distributed according to the Buddhist fashion and Kanishka was identified with Mithras but wima kadphises and Huvishka were closer to shiva as shown by the images on their coins. Huvishka's coins provide a regular almanac of the iconography of the early Shiva cult. The deification of the ruler which was so prevalent in the Roman and Hellenistic world as well as among the Iranians was thus introduced into India and left a mark on the future development of Hindu Kingship.

Another future of crucial importance for the future political development of India was the organization of the Shaka and Kushana Empires had been, but were based on the large-scale incorporation of local rulers. In subsequent centuries many regional Empires of India were organized on this pattern.

The most well-known contribution of the 'dark-period' was a course, to Indian art. After the early sculptures of the Mauryas which were greatly influenced by the Iranian style, a new Indian style, a new Indian style has fist emerged under Shungas and their successors in the Buddhist monuments of Bharhut and Sanchi which particularly showed a new style of relief sculpture. The merger of the Gandhara school of art, with its Graeco-Roman style and the Mathura school of art which included 'archaic' Indian elements and became the center of Indo-Kushana art, finally led to the rise of the Sarnath school of art. This school then set the pattern of the classical Gupta style.

Less-well-known, but much more important for the future development of Hindu society, was the compilation of the authoritative Hindu law books (dharmasastra), the foremost of them being the code of Manu which probably originated in the second or third century AD. After the breakdown of the Maurya and Shunga Empires, there must have been a period of uncertainty, which led to renewed interest in traditional social norms. These were then codified so as to remain inviolate for all times to come. If we add to this the resurgence of Sanskrit, as testified by Rudradaman's famous rock inscription of the second century AD. We see that this 'dark-period' actually contained all the element of the classical culture of the Gupta age, Thus the many splendoured and much maligned 'dark-period' was actually the harbinger of the classical age.

POST-MAURYAN PERIOD

(20BC - 300AD)

ECONOMY AND SOCIETY

In the post-Mauryan era (200 BC. To 300 A.D.) the economy moved at an accelerated tempo. Society witnessed structural reorientation as significant groups of foreigners penetrated into India and chose to be identified with the rest of the community.
The occupation of craftsmen was an important segement of the day's socio-economic milieu. The craftsment were not only associated with the towns but also villages like Karimnagar in the Telengana region of Andhra Pradesh. The categories of craftsmen who were known in this period bear out the truth that there was considerable specialization in mining and metallurgy. A large number of iron artifacts have been discovered at various excavated sites relating to the Kushan and Satavahans Periods. It is surprising to notice that the Telengana region appears to have made special progress in iron artifacts - not only weapons but also balance rods, sickles, ploughshares, razors and ladels have been found in the Karimnagar and Nalgonda districts. Also, cutlery made out of iron and steel was exported to the Abyssinian ports.
Equally significant was the progress made in cloth-making and silk-weaving. Dyeing was a craft of repute in some south Indian towns like Uraiyur, a shurb of Tiruchirapalli, and Arikamedu. The use of oil was also high because of the invention of oil wheel. The inscriptions of the day mention weavers, goldsmiths, dyers, workers in metal and ivory, jewelers, sculptors, fishermen, perfumers and smiths as the donors of caves, pillars, tablets, cisterns etc. Among the luxury items the important ones were ivory and glass articles and beed cutting. At the beginning of the coristian era the knowledge of glass-blowing reached India and attained its peak. Coin minting also reached a high level of excellence made out of gold, silver, copper, bronze, lead and potin. A coint mould of the Satavahans period shows that through it half a dozen coins could be turned out a time.
In urban handicrafts the pride of place goes to the beautiful pieces of terracotta produced in profuse quantities. They have been found in most of the sites belonging to the Kushan and Satavahans periods. In particular, terracotta figures of great beauty have been found in the Nalgonda district of Telengana. The terracotta figures were mostly meant for the use of upper classes in towns.
This immense manufacturing activity was maintained by guilds. At least to dozen kinds of guilds were there. Most of the artisans known from inscriptions hailed from the Mathura region and the western Deccan which lay on the trade routes leading to the ports on the western coast.
The guilds, coming from the days of the Mauryan period, became a more important factor in the urban life both in being instrumental to increase in production and moulding public opinion. The primary guilds of the day were those of the potters, metal workers and carpenters. Some guilds organized their own distribution system while owning a large number of boats to transport goods from various ports on the Ganges.
The guilds of the day fixed their own rules of work and the standards of the finished products. They exercised care regarding price also to safeguard the interest of both the artisan and the customer. They controlled the price of the manufactured articles. He conduct of the guild members was regulated through a guild court. The customary uses of the guilds had the same force as those of laws.
The extensive activity of the guilds can be known from their seals and emblems. The banners and insignia of each guild were carried in procession of festive occasions. These prosperous guilds in addition, donated large sums of money to religious institutions and charitable causes.
Since the activity of the guilds was so buoyant, it appears that they attracted the attention of kings too. It is said that kings had financial interests in guilds. Royalty invested its money in commercial activities. This naturally led to protection being provided by State to the guilds. Regarding the activities of guilds, it appears from inscriptions that they acted asbankers, financiers and trustees although these activities were carried out by a separate class of people known as sresthins. Usury was a part of banking and the general rate of interest was around 15% loans extended to sea-trade carried higher interest rate. An authority of the day states that the rate of interest should vary according to the caste of the man to whom money is lent.
Interestingly, apart from the guilds, there were workers bodies also. The workers co-operative included artisans and various crafts associated with a particular enterprise. The classic example of this activity was the co-operative of builders, which has its members drawn from specialized workers such as architects. Engineers, bricklayers etc.
The immense commercial activity was bolstered by the thriving trade between India and the Easter Roman Empire. With the movement of Central Asian people like Sakas, Parthians and Kushans, trade came to be carried across the sea. Among the ports, the important ones were Broach and Sopara on the western coast, and Arikamedu and Tamralipti on the eastern coast. Out of these ports Broach was the most important as not only goods were exported from here but a also goods were received. Across land, the converging point of trade routes was Taxila, which was connected with the Silk Route passing through Central Asia. Ujjain was the meeting point of good number of trade routes.
The trade between India and Rome mostly consisted of luxury goods. To begin with Rome got her imports from the southern most portions of the country. The Roman imports were Muslims, pearls, jewels and precious stones from Central and South India. Iron articles formed an important item of export to the Roman Empire. For certain articles India became the clearing house, as for example, silk from China because of impediments posed by the Parthian rule in Iran and the neighboring areas.
The Romans, in return, exported to India various types of potters found in excavations at places like Tamluk in West Bengal, Arikamedu nevar Pondicherry and a few other places. Probably lead was important from Rome. It is also presumed that the Kushans had brisk trade with the Romans as they conquered Mesopotamia in 115 A.D. At a place close to Kabul, glass jars made in Italy, Egypt and Syria have come to light, apart from small bronze statues of Greko-Roman style, And the most significant Roman export to India was the gold and silver coins - nearly 85 finds of Roman coins have been found. There is nothing surprising in the lamentation of the Roman writer Pliny in the 1st century A.D. that Roman was being drained of gold on account of trade with India.
Indian kingdoms sent embassies to Rome the best known being the one sent about 25 B.C. Which included strange collection of men and animals-tigers, snakes, tortoises a monk and an armless boy who could shoot arrows with his toes. This mission reached Rome during the days of Emperor Augustus in 21 B.C.
In the southern kingdoms maritime trade occupied the pride of place. The literature of the day refers to harbours, docks, light houses and custom offices. Large variety of ships were built, both for short distance as well as long distance voyages. According to pliny the largest Indian ship was 75 tons. Other sources mention higher figures.
In the self-same period there was a boom in trade with south-East Asia. This was first occasioned by the Roman demand for spices. Gradually this trade grew in dimensions.
The growing number of strangers in the port towns and trade centers led to their absorbing Indian habits as their numbers grew, social laws of the day became rigid as to be seen from the law code of Manu. Further as conversions to Hinduism was technically impossible the non-Indian groups gradually grew into separate sub-castes. After all the conversion of a single individual was a problem but the device of caste made such absorption easier. Moreover the foreigners found it easier to become Buddhists instead of Aryans. Faced one theoretical knowledge confined to brahmins and the other practical and technical knowledge which became the preserve of the professionals.
It was during this period Dharmashastras came to be written. These Shastras made the social structure to be rigid. Apart from these writings poetry and drama were also popular. The outstanding poem in Tamil was Shilappadigaram. Another poem in Tamil was Manimegalai. In Sanskrit, Asvaghosa and Bhasa were the two great dramatists. The manuscripts of Asvaghosa were found in a monastry in Turdan in Central Asia. Both of his plays deal with Buddhist themes. Bhasa appeared a couple of centuries later. His plays are based on the incident from the spics or historical romances around the exploits of king udayan in Avanti.
In the field of plastic art. Great were the achievement of this period like the stupas at Sanchi and Bar hut the caves at Karlellora and Ajanta. At Amravati the great age of painting began. Also the sculptures at Amravati show a mastery of stone sculpture and with the mathura school of sculpture the Indian tradition of sculpture began.
The booming trade and commerce of the period was at the base of the urban settlements that came into existence. The important towns of northern India were Vaishali, Pataliputra, Varanasi, Kausambi, Sravasti, Hastinapur, Mathura and Indraprastha. Most of the towns flourished in the Kushan period as revealed by excavations. The excavations at Sonkh in Mathura show as many as seven levels of the Kushan are but only one of the Gupta period. Again in Jalandhar, Ludhiana and Ropar also several sites show good Kushan structures. The Satayahans kingdown also witnessed thriving towns like Tagar, Paithan, Dhanyakataka, Amravati, Nagarjunakonda, Broach, Sopara, Arikamedu and Kaveripattanam.

HISTORY AND IMPACT OF Indo-Greeks

After Alexander the Great, the greed seleukidan dynasty of Persia held on to the trans-Indus region. After seleukos Nikator was defeated by Chanragupta Maurya in 303 B.C. the trans-Indus region was transferred to the Mauryas. In mid third century B.C. the seleukidan rule was ended by two peoples. In Iran the parthiar became independent and their sassanians in 226 A.D. In like manner the greeks of Bactria rose in revolt under the leadership of Diodotus. These Greeks were later known as Indo-Greeks when they gained a foot-hold in the Indian sub-continent.
Bactria situated between the Hindu Kush and the oxus, was a fertile region and it controlled the trade routes from Gandhara to the West. The greek settlement in Bactria began in the 5th century B.C. when Persian emperors settled the Greek exiles in that area.
Bactria figured in history with the revolt of diodotus against Antiochus the seleukidan king. This breakaway of Bactria was recnised by the seleukidans when the grandson of Diodotus, Enthymemes. Was given a seleukidan bride in about 200 B.C.
About the same time the seleukidan king defeated king subhagasena after crossing the Hindu Kush in 206 B.C. This defeat reveals the unguarded nature of northwestern India.
Thus begins the history of Indo-Greeks. The history of the Indo-Greeks is mainly gathered from their coins. This evidence is very often confusion because many kings had identical names.
The son of Euthydemos, Demetrios, Conquered modern southern afghanistion and the Makran area he also occupied some parts of Punjab. Then around 175 B.C. the homeland of Bactrians came to be ruled by Eukratides, another branch of the Bactrians. His son Demetrios-II penetrated deep into the Punjab proceeding along the Indus, he penetrated till kutch.
The most known Indo-Greek was Menander, whose claim rests on the Buddhist treatise the Questions of king Milinda-discussion between menander and the Buddhist philosopher, Nagasena and he ruled the Punjab from C.160 to 140 B.C.
Menander not only stabilized his power but extended his frontiers. His coins are to be found in the region extending from Kabul to Mathura near Delhi. He attempted to conquer the Ganges valley but in vain. Probabley he was defeated by the Sungas.
After menander one Strato ruled. At that time Bactaria was rule by a different group of Bactrians. Probably Mitrhadates - I of Persia annexed the region of Taxila during the third quarter of the second century B.C.
A little later, Antialkidas ruled from Taxila as known from the inscription from besnagar near Bhilsa. This inscription was incised on the order of Heliodoros, who was the envoy of antialkidas in the court of Besnagar. Heliodoros got a monolithic column built in honour of vasudeva. Thus began the Bhakti cult of Vasudeva.
The last known greek kings were hippostratos and Hermaeus, the former defeated by moga and the latter by khadphisus.
Indo-Greek influence declined from the time Bactria itself was attacked by the nomadic tribes from central Asia, the scythians.
The penetration of Indo-Greeks, as well as of sakas pahlavas and Kushana influenced the government, society, religion literature and art of ancient India. The very fact that India absorbed influences of these foreigners speaks for the then youthful nature of Indian civilization.
The extent of Greek influence of Indian Civilisation is a most point. Whatever the Greek influence that was felt by India came in the wake of Alexander's invasion of the cast and the settlement of Greeks in the Bactrian region. Alexander himself cannot be regarded as the standard bearer of the heritage of ancient Greece. By the time Alexander and his soldiers marched towards the east the culture of Greece was on the decline hence at the most Alexander and his men could have spread a debased version of the great Geek civilization represented by Socrates, Plato, Phidia, Aristotle, Sophocles, Pythagoras and others. Despite the fact that Alexander and his men could not be the true torch bearers of Greek culture to the east, the traces of Greek influence could be definitely found on India civilization.
To begin with, the invasion of Alexander left very little imprint on Indian civilization. Indian rulers did not adopt the military tactics of Alexander, but continued to rely on their forefold organization. Although the region that was beyond the Hindu Kush in the Mauryan period was definitely in close contact with whatever the Greek influence that was there, the Greek influence was not felt in the interior of India. Probably the use of stone in buildings and sculptures by the Mauryas was inspired by the Greek practice of working in stone. Columns of the Ionic order were definitely used in the buildings of Taxila.
To speak point wise, the first influence of the Greeks was on the divine right theory of kingship. The Indo-Greeks took high sounding title e like divine kings, sons of gods, etc. and maintained the myth of Empire. Even before Indo-Greek rulers established themselves in India the services of the Greeks were utilized. Ashoka appointed a Greek as very viceroy of his province. And after the Indo-Greek period, a Greek, during the period of Kushans, was entrusted with engineering work.
Talking of social life, a number of Greeks figure as donors in the inscription of the Karle caves. The Greek mode of wearing hair and the habit of eating in a lying posture came into vogue. Also when some of the Indo-Greeks settled in India, they took to trade and they became affluent merchants. Even Tamil literature refers to Greek ships bringing cargoes, and the Greek section of Kaveripatnam was very prosperous. And some of the Tamil kings kept Greek body-guards.
Regarding science, contemporary writers admit the greatness of the Greek scientists. The Gargi Samhita admits that the Greeks were like gods in science and they penetrated into India as far as Pataliputra. Varahmihira, during the Gupta age was in the know of Greek science and used a number of Greek technical terms in his works, It is also argued that Charaka was influenced by the works of Hippocrates, the father of Medicine, but there is not evidence to confirm this view. Thus it is difficult to conjecture the extent to which ancient scientists of India were influenced by the scientific knowledge of Greeks.
In the field of art, first the Indo-Greeks did contribute to die cutters' art. They showed a remarkable skill in making the portraits of rulers. Also the Greek kings adopt some of the indigenous methods of minting the coins. Although Indians did not fully learn the fine art of die-cutting, the coins of Indian rulers were influenced by the Greeks. Indian adopted the art of striking coins with two dies, the obverse and the reverse. Secondly, the curious open air theatre that came into being in this period was directly a Greek legacy. The term Yavanika for curtain shows that Indian drama, at least on one point, was influenced by the Greek model, Thridly, the Greek form of sculpture influenced the Gandhara art of the Kushan period. The school began in the Kabul valley where the Greek influence was the maximum. Accordingly tone author, the terracottas of toys and plaques were all influenced by the Greeks.
In the religious field too, the Greek influence was felt, as borne out by Millinda-Panho and the Besnagar inscription. Legions of Greeks were converted into Indian religions of the day. One Greek officer, Theodorus, got the relics of the Buddha enshrined in the Swat valley. Besides, Hindu iconography was greatly changed because of the Indo-Greek influences. It is difficult to say how many Babylonian and Iranian Gods were incorporated in Hindu religions. A few deities were taken over by the Parthians and they were adopted by the Kushans. But it is doubtful to say as to which of the Greek dieities were incorporated in the Pantheon of Indian gods.
All told, the Greek influence was mostly felt in art (the Gangdhara sculptures, which probably influenced the later day Mathura sculptures) and in religion (gave a fillip to Mahayana Buddhism and popularized the Bhakti aspect of religion as pioneered by the vasudeva cult).

SUNGAS

The Sunga rule, extending a little over a century, is in interlude in the history of India. There is nothing extraordinary about the political events associated with the Sungas. The significance of their history, on the other hand, primarily consists in the place they occupy in the social and cultural history of India.
The founder of the dynasty, Pushyamitra Sunga, overthrew the Mauryas; either in 187 B.C. or 184 B.C. After him there were nine other rulers. Among them, Agnimitra, Vasumitra, Bhagvata and Devabhumi were the prominent ones. The names of the first two were associated with some events in political history, whereas the latter two were known for their long rule, they being 32 and 10 years respectively.
There is some controversy about the identity of Pushyamitra Sunga. It was stated in a Sutra that he belonged to a family of teachers. Patanjali claims that he was a brahminor the Bhardwaja gotra. Ivyavadana stated that the Sungas were related to the Mauryas. A Malavikagnimitram refers to them as brahmins belonging to Kashyap gotra.
After the overthrow of Brihadrata, Pushyamitra Sunga waged a few wars to consolidate his position. Evidence shows that Pushyamitra Sunga defeated the Yavanas. This is confirmed by Patanjali's Mahabashva. And the claim made in the Hathigumpha inscription that Kharavela of Kalinga defeated Pushyamitra Sunga cannot be sustained because Kharavela ruled in the second half of the first century B.C. Later, Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra Sunga, defeated the Yavanas. This is confirmed by the Malavikaganimtiram and gargi Samhita. Both Agnimmitra and Veerasena fought against Vidarbha rule of the Sungas ended C. 75 B.C.
Some scholars regard that the establishment of Sunga dynasty ws symbolic of the brahminical reaction to the Mauryan bias towards Buddhism. Pushyamitra Sunga performed the vedic sacrifices of asvamedha, and the others like aginstoma, Rajasuya and vajpeiya. But some facts of his region clearly show that he did not persecute Buddhists. The claim of Divyavandana, that Pushyamitra Sunga destroyed 84,000 Buddhist stupas and slaughtered srameans, has no corroborative evidence. Interestingly, the sculptured stone gateway and the massive stone railing aroused Sanchi stupa were executed during the time of Pushyamitra Sunga. Also the Bharhut stupa and the sculpture relating to Jataka stories around it came into existence during the same period. One of the donors of Bharhut stupa was Champadevi wife of the Idisha King, who was a worshipper of Vishnu. This fact bears testimony to the high degree of tolerance prevailing during the period. (And some minor works of Sunga art are to be found at Mathura, Kausambi and Sarnath).
It at all there was anyting like persecution of Buddhists during the days of Pushyamitra Sunga, it could be in the context of Menander's invasion. May be, the Buddhists of India welcomed the invasion of Menander' and this might have resulted in Pushyamitra Sunga wrath falling on the Buddhists. Or, may be withdrawal of royal patronage with the coming of the Sungas apparently enraged the Buddhists and thus the Buddhists writers present an exaggerated account of their troubles.
The importance of the Sungas, therefore, was primarily in the context of cultural and social development. In the social field, the emergence of Hinduism had a wide impact. The Sungas attempted to revive the caste system with the social supremacy of the brahmins. This is more than evident in the work of Manu (Manusmriti) wherein he reassures the position of the brahmins in the fourfold society. Even then, the most significant development of the Sunga era was marked by various adjustment and adaptations leading to the emergence of mixed castes and the assimilation of the foreigners in India society. Thus we notice that Brahminism gradually transformed itself in a direction towards Hinduism.
In the field of literature Sanskrit gradually gained ascendancy and became the language of the court. Patanjali was patronized by Pushyamitra Sunga and he was the second great grammarian of Sanskrit. Patanjali refers to a Sanskrit poet, Varauchi, who wrote in the Kavya style and which was later perfected by Kalidasa. Some Buddhist works of this age were written in Sanskrit.
In the field of art, there was immediate reaction against the Buddhist era of the Mauryas. Nevertheless, there were certain differences. The Sunga art reflects more of the mind, culture, tradition and ideology than what the Mauryan art did. During the Sunga period, stone replaced wood in the railings and the gateways of the Buddhist stupas as noticed at Bharhut and Sanchi. Bharhut stupa is replete with sculptures - apart from floral designs, animal, figures, Yakshas and human figures. Even the stone railing around the Sanchi Stupa is in rich belief work. This age definitely witnessed the increasing use of symbols and human figures in architecture. Besides, the Sungas art is a manifestation of popular artistic genious - the artistic activity was because of the initiative of individuals, corporation or villages. A part of the gateway of Sanchi was constructed by the artisans of Vidisha. Even temple building began in this period. A Vishnu temple was build near Vidisha. There was an increase in the construction of rock-cut temple as noticed in the Chaitya Hall. In the temples and household worship we find the idols of Shiva and Vishnu.
All told the importance of the sunga dynasty lies in the restoration of Real politik while abandoning the asokan approach. In the cultural field the beginnings as well as accomplishments in sculpture and architecture are of tremendous significance. In the field of religion too they not only revived the earlier tradition but also gave an impetus to new approaches combative towards the heterodox sects the cult of katakana the god of war the resurgence of Bhagvata cult and the supremacy of Vasudeva in the Hindu pantheon.

KUSHANS

In the post-Mauryan era, central Asia and north-western India witnessed hectic and shifting political scenes. The Great Yuehi-chi driven out of fertile lend in Western china migrated towards the Aral Sea. There they encountered the Sakas near Syr Darya river and evicted them. The Great Yuehi-Chi tribes settled in the valley of Oxus and with the occupation of the Bactrian lands the great hordes were divided into five principalities. A century later the Kushan section or sect of Yuehi-Chi attained predominance over the otheres. Their leader was Kadphises. Thus began the history of Kushans. The unique geographical position of the Kushans empire made it a colossus astride on the spine of Asia uniting the Greco-Roman civilization in the west the Chinese civilization in the east and Indian civilisation in the south-east.
The leader of the Kushans was kadphises and his rule probably began in 40 A.D. He attacked the regions south of Hindu Kush, conquered Kabul and annexed Gandhara including the kingdom of Taxila. Kadphises died in 77 A.D. or 78 A.D. By then the Kushans had supplanted the princes belonging to the Indo-Greek saka and Indo-Parthian communities along the frontiers of India. The successor of kadphises was Vima-Kadphses. He conquered large parts of norther India. His coins show that his authority extended as far as Banaras and as well as the Indus basin. In all likelihood his power extended as far as Narbada and the Saka satraps in Malwa and Western India acknowledged his sovereignty.
By that time the Chinese reasserted their authority in the north and this led to a collusion with the Kushans. The Chinese general pan-chao conquered Chinese Turkistan and established the Chinese authority in parthia that is on the territory south of the Caspian sea.
These advances frightened the Kushans. In 87 AD Kadphises II, claimed the hand of a Chiese princes, an acknowledgement of his equality with the son of Heaven. The proposal was rejected and Kadphises, dispatched a large army, But the army was decimated because of the difficult terrain. And it was easily defeated by the Chinese. The Kushan ruler was compelled to pay tribute the China and the Chinese records so that the Kushans continued to send missions to Cnina till the close of the century. Rossibly the reign of Kadphises II ended C. 110 A.D.
The next ruler, Kanishka probably belonged to the little Yuehi-chi section of the horde. His capital was Purushapura and here he erected a large number of Buddhist buildings. In his early years he annexed Kashmir and consolidated his rule in the Indus and the Gangetic basin. His army crossed the Pamirs and inflicted a defeat on the Chinese. The chief of Khotan, Yarkand and the Ksshgar were made to pay tribute. Tradition states that while Kanishka was on his return from the Chinese Turkistan, he was sothered to death by his officers who had got weary of his campaigns. Most of his time was spent on waging wars.
A large number of inscriptions were incised during the times of Kanishka and his successor. According to evidence, Kanishka became an active partron of the Buddhist Church during the later part of his reign. Althouth the Buddhist records gloat over this fact and regard him as the second Asoka, his coins prove that he honoured a medley of gods - zoroastrain, Greek, Mitraic, and Indian. The prominent Indian duty on the coins was Shiva. The peculiar assembly of deities by the Kushans offers a great deal of speculation. May be Kansihka follwed a loose from of Zorostrianism and freely venerated the deities of other greeds.
Also, Kanishka covened a council of Buddhist theologians to settle disputes relating to Buddhist faith and practices. The conclusions of this council were engraved on copper sheets and preserved in the stupa of the capital. The delgates to the council primarily belonged to the Hinayana sect.
The Buddhism of this period was definitely a lax one. The Mahayana sect was popular. But early Buddhism was an India product and was based on the Indian ideas of rebirth, transmigration of souls and the blessedness of escape from the pains of being. This Buddhism was supported by a practical system of ethics inculcating a stoic devotion to duty for its own sake. Such a teaching needed fundamental changes to attract the sturdy mountaineer, the nomad horseman and the Helloe rized Alexandrian. The veneration for a dead teacher passed into a worship of living seviour.
Soon the Kushan power declined. Within the Kingdom, harm was done to the Kushan Empire by the Nagas and Yaudheyas. A Naga ruler probably performed ten ashvamedha sacrifices. Apart from these two communities, a few other tribes also, like the Malavas and the Kunindas, probably regained their importance at the expense of the Kushan empire.
Apart from the weaknesses to the successors of Kanishka, developments in the Persia influenced the history of North western India. The Parthians were overthrown byArdashir in 226 A.D. who established theSassanian dynasty. His successors annxed Peshawar and Taxila during the middle of the 3rd century. And Kushan kings in the north-west became the vassals of the Sasssanians. The successors of Kanishka, as established today, are the following : Vashiska (102-106), Hyvishka (106-138), and Vasudeva (c. 152-176). The history after this period is extremely vague. Over the ruins of the empire, in Central Asia and the west, rose the Sassanian empire of Persia and in India. The Gupta empire.
Speaking in general about the achievement of the Kushans, the first is the economic prosperity. As the Kushan empire was situated in a crucial geographical region. There was brisk trade. Moreover, the very area covered by the Kushan empire helped the flow of trade between the east and the west. Some trade routes which came into existence in this period continued to serve the future also. Gold coins of great complexity were issued by the Kushans.
These coins speak of the prosperity of the people. The coins of Kanishka usually show the figure of Kanishka standing and sacrificing at altar, and on the obverse, deities belonging to various religions. The coins of the Kushans also show that the Kushans were in contact with the Romans - the weight of the Kushan coins has certain similarities with the Roman coins. According to the author of the Periplus god and silver species were imported at Barygaza (Broach).
As regards art and literature, we have to state that their greatest contribution was the Gandhara art. It was in this period that the stone images of the Buddha and the Bodhisattavas were craved out. The chief of quality of this art is the blending of Buddhist subjects with Greek forms. Images of the Buddha appear in the likeness of Apollo, and theYakshakubera is posed in the fasino of Zeus. The imprint of this school of art is still to be found in Mathura and Amarvati. Indeed, the carving of images and the building of temples was not neglected in earlier days, but under the Kushans they attained a refinement. The Chaitya built at Peshawar was as high as four storeys. Fa-Hien, passing through Gandhara, during the fifth century, praised the images of the Buddha, Bodhisattavas and numerous other deities. The early rulers fostered the Hellenistic art of Gandhara and also the Bhikshu Bela, and from this place artistic products were sent to Sarasvati and Sarnath. Kanishka was a great builder - tower at Peshawar, a new city in Taxila, a town in Kashmir and fine buildings and sculptures at Mathura. It was at the last place a portrait stature of Kanishka has been found but its head is not there. Further, the die-engravers employed by the Kushans were far from negligible. A special note is to be taken of coinage. The Kushan coins became the prototypes for many varieities of coins of Yadheyas, the imperial Guptas, some kings of Nepa and several Kings of Chedi. Eminent Buddhist writers - Nagajuna, Asvaghosha and Vasumitra were the names associated with Kanishka. The first was a poet, musician, scholar and a zealous Buddhist monk. Charaka was the court physician of Kanishka.
The next thing to be noted about the Kushana is their religion. In all likelihood, missionaries propagated Buddhism in central Asia and China in this period. Possibly, it was during the time of Kanishka that Mahayana Buddhism was sanctified. The fourth Buddhist council that was summoned by Kanishka canonized the doctrines of Hinayana and Mahayana. The deliberations of the conference were engraved on sheets of copper and were sealed and deposited in a stupa, but they have not been found so far. But to regard Kanishka as the founder patron of the Mahayana sect, which came into existence under the Kushans, is a disputable point. Even though many scholars regard Kanishka as the second Asoka some writers do not agree with this view. In addition to these things, we must mention that the Kushana kings patronized all kinds of religions, including Hinduism. Kanishka was definitely and eclectic monarch as he honored a medley of gods belonging to the Greek, Zoroastrian and Hindu faiths. Not only Buddhism flourished under the Kushanas but there were definitely stirrings of Hinduism. Many brahminical sects started merging. Along with religion, Sanskrit language received an impetus. In a way the Kushan age constituted the prelude to the Gupta age.
In this ammner, the services rendered by the Kushanas are commendable. A mere evaluation of the personality of Kanishka alone would not help us to estimate the importance of the Kushanas as the empire lasted for three centuries. To a certain extent, the prosperious time of peace during the Gupta period was directly due to the Kushans undertaking the unconscious role of the shield and buckler of Indian civiliszation and culture. The Kushan state was a buffer between the Aryan civilization and the nomadic hordes in central Asia who from time to time, had overrun the civilized worlds with the sweep of avalanches. It was also responsible for the exchange of ideas and goods between different civilization because of the peculiar geographical position occupied by the Kushanas a clearing house for the ideas and goods of different civilization.

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Andhra Satavahanas

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SOURCES :

CHORONOLOGY:

IMPORTANCE :

SATAVAHANA ACHIEVEMENTS

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POST-MAURYAN PERIOD

(20BC - 300AD)