COMPUTER BASICS FOR HUMAN RESOURCES PROFESSIONALS

THE KEYBOARD BASIC FUNCTION

2012-03-16T23:00:00.000-07:00

The keyboard is one of the most important components of a personal computer because it is the primary device through which a person communicates with a computer. The keyboard attaches to the system with a coiled cable. On many machines this cable stretches about six feet, which permits the keyboard to be positioned wherever it will be the most functional or comfortable, even on a person’s lap. Many manufacturers build two forms of feedback into keyboards: tactile and audio. Tactile feedback occurs when you press a key and feel the slight pressure that builds up and then releases, indicating that the keystroke has registered and the character or command has been sent to the computer. As this happens, the audio feedback, a soft click like the click of a typewriter key, is heard. This feedback helps make the keyboard easier to use when a person is reading from notes while entering data.

IBM and many IBM compatibles feature keyboards with 83 keys that access 256 characters. You don’t always see every character displayed on the keys themselves, but they are there, stored in 11w l.OM. For example, if you looked at the letter ‘I” on the keyboard, you would only see it displayed in uppercase. It will also lowercase, of course, but it can also display the symbol “L,” which denotes England’s currency.

The keyboard as seen in Figure 33 has a standard typewriter layout in the middle, a numeric keypad to the right (which doubles as a set of cursor-control keys), and 10 special function keys to the left

FIGURE 33. Standard Keyboard Layout.

One important point: There is no way a person can damage the computer by using the wrong keys: As discussed in Chapter One, many people are afraid that if they touch the wrong key something terrible will happen. This simply isn’t so. A person may not get the results he or she was expecting, but striking a wrong key will not hurt the system itself.

Function keys

There are usually 10 special function keys (see Figure 34), which are found either on the left-hand side of the keyboard, or across the top of it. These have programmable functions that change with the software program. For example, in a word processing package they might govern how a page of text appears on a screen depending on the software package, these can have different uses.

Note: Not all keys will be used with all programs. Check the reference manuals provided with your software to be sure.

Important Usage Keys:

Enter Key Tells the computer to process the

Information YOU have been working on

ESCAPE Performs different functions, but

Usually allows you to exit a program.

TAB Moves cursor eight spaces at once

CONTROL Used in connection with other

keys to modify their

ALTERNATE Used with other keys.

SHIFT Enters upper case letters and

top ‘symbol’ of dual character keys.

BACK SPACE Moves cursor back one space, and

erases each character it passes.

CAPS LOCK Locks in upper case characters.

SPACE BAR Locks in upper case characters

The numeric keys are really dual purpose keys that allow you to either enter numeric data or to perform special uses. The “Numlock” key serves as a ‘toggle switch)” that allows you to change the keypads function.

Note: not all keys will be used with all programs. Check the reference materials provided with your software to be sure.

(Known as formatting), or the movement of text within a document. In another program, they can perform a completely different set of comman4s. In BASIC they can compress commands that are 15 characters long into one kçy. Instructions for the function keys are usually found at the front of the software programs manual. Many products also include templates that fit over these keys for easy reference.

Numeric keypad

The numeric, calculator-like keypad on the right side of the keyboard performs two functions:

1. It can serve as a calculator.

2. It controls the movements of, the cursor.

These functions are controlled by the “num lock” key, which acts like a toggle switch. Press it once and the numeric keypad can be used to enter numbers. Press it again and the same set keys control the cursor. The cursor can be moved up, down, left, right, to the top of the screen, or to the end of a file. Two cursor-control keys, labeled “Pg Up” and “Pg Dn,” work with word processing and other programs to view previous succeeding sections of a document. Other keys provide the ability In delete or inwii characters into an existing body of text.

Control key combinations

‘The control key is used in combination with other keys to perform

a variety of functions:

Combination Keys Results

Ctrl + Scroll lock Causes a break in the program.

Ctrl + Num Lock Causes a pause in the program.

Ctrl + Alt + Del Causes a system reset (a warm boot).

Ctrl + left arrow Causes the cursor to move back one word.

Ctrl + right arrow Causes the cursor to move forward one word.

Ctrl + PrtS Sends output to both the screen and printer

Simultaneously. This is called a print echo, or a screen

dump. This is a good way of making a copy of one

Particular screen without printing anything e1se.

Ctrl + End Erases the screen beginning with the current cursor

Position to the end of the line.

Ctrl + PgDn Erases the screen from the current cursor position to the

End of the screen.

Ctrl + Home Clears (blanks) the screen and sends the cursor to the

home position.

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SOME BASIC ESSENTIALS FOR COMPUTERS

2012-02-14T07:12:00.000-08:00

There is no better place to begin, than the beginning

This chapter is designed to accomplish two things:

1. Provide a basic understanding of how to work with a personal computer.

2. Serve .is guidelines for materials to include in personal computer training programs.

The information in this chapter assumes no prior knowledge of or experience with a personal computer. Anyone who has a comfortable working relationship with a personal computer may wish to skim over this section to get ideas of how to structure an introductory training course. For others starting from scratch, however, the chapter will focus on building a working knowledge of:

The keyboard

The operating system

Working with diskettes

Security and backups

GETTING STARTED

As noted earlier, the two most common types of personal computers that will be encountered in most organizations are machines containing two diskette drives, and those with one diskette drive and a hard disk.

Diskette drives refer to the number of slots on the microprocessor for inserting diskettes. Two-drive systems have one slot for the program diskette and one for working on and storing the results (see Figure 30).

Since hard disks offer the storage equivalent of 30 diskettes, they require only one diskette drive for entering information (see Figure 31), although they may be configured with two drives for more sophisticated applications. In either case, the loading process is the same. The diskette drive(s) has an opening through which diskettes are inserted into the computer. Each opening has a device similar to a door that can be opened and closed using what is called a lift load lever. Once a diskette is inserted, the door is closed behind it by pushing the load lever down. While the system reads your program, a small red light on the front of your disk drive will come on. Do not open the drive door while this light is on. Doing so may permanently damage the program, and under some circumstances the system unit itself.

FIGURE 31. Proper way of loading a diskette. Courtesy of International Business Machines.

To make things more comfortable, it is possible to make minor adjustments to the height of the keyboard and the brightness and contrast of the display monitor. If the display monitor is near a source of bright light, such as a window, or has a high degree of glare, an anti glare screen might be appropriate.

Depending on the model, most keyboards have two to three possible positions. These range from, flat to a five-degree to 15 degree angle. To adjust the height, pick up the keyboard and, make the necessary adjustment using the knobs at each end.

Brightness and contrast can be adjusted using the control knobs generally found on the front of the monitor. On systems that share multiple users, this will probably have to be done every time a person sits down to work. Everything a computer does is governed by operating sys tern, which is a software program that manages many of the computer’s basic functions. It acts as an intermediary between hardware and software and performs such tasks as controlling the input output devices, assigning spaces in memory to programs and data, and controlling how the system processes information. -

For IBM and IBM-compatible machines the operating system is called DOS (Disk Operating System), MS-DOS, or PC-DOS. They all perform the same basic functions.

The operating system must be present whenever a system is on in order for anything to be accomplished. In addition, it must be copied to all software before that software can be installed or used. Most software is generic in nature and written to be run on more than one brand of machine. Copying the operating system onto a software program allows it to become compatible with a particular system. Instructions accompany most software programs.

Booting is the process of actually loading DOS into a system. Booting clears the memory, loads the operating system, and gets the computer ready to process its work. If this is done when a machine is first turned on, it is called a cold boot. If the operating system is loaded after a system is already up and running, it is called a warm boot.

To perform a cold boot, simply put a copy of DOS or its equivalent in Drive A, and turn the computer on. The on—off switch that controls the system unit or microprocessor is located at the rear of the unit. On IBM machines, the switch will always be on the right-hand side (see Figure 32).

This is the recommended way to activate an entire system:

First, turn on the printer

Second, turn on the monitor

Third, turn on the CPU

Follow this sequence because one of the first things a system unit does is to check what is connected to it, and whether or not they are working properly. Turning the system on as described

FIGURE 32. Locations of on/off switch on IBM system unit. Courtesy of International Business Machines.

is the most effective way to accomplish this. If a unit is connected to multisocket electrical power strip or surge suppressors check to see that it is turned on as well. Many people control the power to all their system components through such devices, using them to turn everything on simultaneously.

When the power is switched on, the first sound heard will be the motor humming as the computer checks to see how much memory it has take from 3 to 90 seconds, depending on how much memory has been installed. Memory will be counted in units which can be seen blinking by at the top left—hand corner of a monitor.

When the memory check is completed, the computer will emit a short beep, and then display the following message:

Current date is 01-01-1980

Enter new date:

At this point, a person may simply hit the “enter” key, or may provide the current date. If he or she is working with file materials, or materials that may require future reference, a date should be entered. To enter a date, the computer must be given the month, 1-12, day, 1-31, and year, 80-99. A correct entry might be: 10-14-1986.

The operating system will then ask for the time. Again, the choice is to simply hit “enter,” or supply the current time. Since a 24-hour clock is used, any time past noon should carry one of the following values:

1:00 = 1300 hr

2:00 = 1400 hr

7:00 = 1900 hr

8:00 = 2000 hr

3:00 = 1500 hr 9:00 = 2100 hr

4:00 1600 hr

5:00 1700 hr

6:00 = 1800 hr

10:00 = 2200 hr

11:00 = 2300 hr

12:00 = 2400 hr

The time is expressed in hours: minutes: seconds: and hundredths. Colons (:) must be used between• hours, minutes, and seconds. Any value that is omitted will be assumed to be a zero. For example, if it is 2:30 in the afternoon, you would enter 14:30 hrs. And the system would record 14:30:00.

To perform a warm boot, the system must be restarted by using the “Cntrl,”“Alt,” and “Del” keys simultaneously. The operating system disk should be in drive A, unless the system has a hard disk on which it has already been installed. As in a cold boot, the operating system will again ask to have the date and time entered.

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WORD GUIDE TO CHAPTER THREE

2012-02-14T06:24:00.000-08:00

Bootstrap:

A program that starts a computer.

Cursor:

A patch of light or other visual indicator that shows where a person is working in a body of text.

DOS:

Disk Operating System. This is IBM’s version of the operating system1 which controls many of the functions of the computer.

Directory:

Tables of contents that lists programs and files that are stored sequentially on a diskette or hard disk. In short, a directory that describes the layout of records within a file.

Operating System:

A program or collection of programs that manages the hardware, output devices, logic operations and a number of other management functions. it provides a link between software and the computer’s internal language.

Security:

The protection of information against disclosure, transfer, modifications, or destruction.

Write Protect:

The process of protecting information stored on a diskette by sealing off the read/write notch with a tab or special tape. Some diskettes, such as those containing the operating systems, are permanently sealed to prevent writing over their contents.

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SUMMARY OF COMPUTERS

2012-02-11T10:23:00.000-08:00

While computers trace their lineage back several hundred years, most of the advances that led to modern computers have taken place since the late 1940s.

Most people think of computers as large cabinets with spinning tapes and blinking lights, which are locked behind security doors. This describes mainframe units—the large machines that process high volumes of information for businesses and governments. Since the invention of the microchip (very small transistors), a new generation of computers has become available. Known as personal or microcomputers, these machines have taken the same computing power that once required an entire room, and placed it in units that can sit on top of a desk or in a person’s lap.

Whether large mainframe units or the small micros, all computers operate in basically the same fashion. Computers are composed of the following functional sections:

Input

Central processing unit

Memory

Output

Input consists of the data to be processed, and the software program that provides the instructions and commands necessary for the computer to perform a specific job. These programs may be written by the computer’s operator, using a programming language that translates human instructions into a machine language the computer understands. Software programs that perform just about any task imaginable can also be purchased off the shelf.

The CPU is where the computer performs its arithmetic and logic functions, and where the operation of all the hardware is controlled.

Memory is where information (data) and instructions are stored. These are transferred between memory and the CPU by means of electrical conduits called registers.

There are two kinds of memory:

1. ROM

2. RAM

Read Only Memory can be read only by the computer itself. The computer operator has no control over it. It is the computer’s own software program, imprinted at the factory, to tell the computer how to work its own system.

Random Access Memory is under the operator’s control and is used to store information and instructions. The amount of RAM available (i.e., 64K, 256K, 640K), signifies the amount of filing-. cabinet space the computer has built into it, in which data can be filed, retrieved, and manipulated on a random basis. When the computer finishes processing the information it has been given, it returns it in the form of output. Output is made available through a printer, the video display unit, or by communicating it to another computer system. How does it all come together? The process starts by identifying a job that the computer can perform. A program is then chosen or created that will accomplish the tasks desired. The program will be written in a language the computer can understand, and that it converts to binary codes to actually carry out its assignment. All of this is governed by an operating system that tells the computer how to best perform the job, manages the filing system for storing the information, and operates the hardware needed to produce the work.

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Software

2012-02-10T05:38:00.000-08:00

As noted earlier, there are software products for just about anything and everything imaginable. From games to programs designed to enhance professional development or monitor diet and nutrition, the list of possibilities seems almost limitless. Business software falls into the following categories:

Database management

Decision support

Word processing

Communications

Specialized use programs

Integrated software programs

DATABASE MANAGEMENT

Database management software allows for recording, modifying, and retrieving information without writing customized programs. Most database programs are designed to help users decide what type of information they want to record. They provide the means to enter, manipulate, and integrate the information to produce summaries, reports, or specific displays of items of interest. Most are set up to handle spur-of-the-moment inquiries, and allow records to be sorted and selected according to specific criteria. Examples of database software include PFS: File and Report and dbase III.

DECISION SUPPORT

The basic function of all decision support software, also known as financial modeling software, is to provide:

A quick and easy way to create mathematical models

Ways to enter information into the models

Reports of the results

These products can be broken down into three major categories: spreadsheets (VisiCa lc), financial modeling (IFPS), and integrated systems, which contain a database and graphing system (Lotus 1-2-3). All these products are designed to operate like an electronic multicolumnar accounting worksheet, except these worksheets have variable column widths with built-in math and financial models. Decision support software can be used to J)r1 pare budgets, analyze sales figures, calculate cash flow, or tiny other application where the information can be presented in a row or column.

WORD PROCESSING

Word processing packages allow for the creation, editing, and printing of documents, including correspondence and reports, form letters, legal papers, mailing labels, bills, and even book- length manuscripts. This book, for example, was written on a personal computer using one of the more popular word processing programs. The combination of word processing and personal computers offers more sophistication than can be found on a memory typewriter, and costs a fraction of the amount of a dedicated word processing system. The most fundamental component of any word processing package is its text editor. These editors are designed to edit a screenplay of text at a time, rather than line by line. They allow the user to scroll backward and forward through the text, rearrange it, copy it, delete words and phrases, add to an existing document, and, on some, check for spelling. Among the more popular programs are MultiMate, Word Star and the Volkswriter series.

COMMUNICATIONS

Personal computers that are linked together directly, or tied into host system, require the use of protocol software designed to allow two machines to talk with each other. A protocol is a standard that has been agreed to by hardware and software manufacturers so that different devices can transfer data between them. Without such a standard, two machines could not send or receive information at the same time or perform either function out of synchronization. A protocol provides a way for one machine to recognize that a line is tied up to the host, and that it must wait its turn. Protocols also provide the various sets of rules for controlling the transmission of information over any communications channel or cable.

Among the many functions protocol software programs perform are:

Establish and terminate the connection between two systems Maintain the integrity of the transmission through error detection procedures and requests for retransmissions Identify the sending and receiving machines handle a variety of special control functions, such as status checks, to make sure everything is working properly. Some software programs also provide a means to scramble and unscramble data communicated over telephone lines in order to protect the security of the information.

Among the more popular of these products are PC-Talk, Smart com II, and Crosstalk.

SPECIALIZED USE PROGRAMS

Specialized use packages fall into several groups:

Programs that support other software packages or enhance their use

Software that provides a specialized service, sometimes run- fling concurrently with another program

Graphics programs

Among the various packages available for specialized use are those that:

Run desktop organizers, which feature calculator, message board, telephone dialing, and appointment calendar functions that appear as windows similar to those shown in Figure 28, that overlay whatever software you may be working on. Print spreadsheet applications sideways so that they fit into reports more naturally. Increase the computer’s processing speed. Enhance keyboard operations by memorizing keystroke sequences and consolidating commands. With a program such as this, commands that normally take six or seven keystrokes can be reduced to one.

FIGURE 28. Monitor showing window display.

Produce presentation quality charts and graphs as shown in Figure 29.

Prepare line drawings, schematics, blueprints, and high resolution reproductions. The list of these specialized programs could go on. Most are available at a reasonable cost, usually for under $100, and many are offered free of charge through local personal computer user groups, or electronic bulletin boards.

INTEGRATED SOFTWARE

Integrated software programs offer several major functions in one package. Some of these offerings, for example, combine word processing, database management, and spreadsheets along with some form of communications. This is a one-stop-shopping approach, where you get everything in one place at one price. These are large programs that require substantial memory requirements on the order of 640K. Since they offer so much, they also have to scrimp in places to get everything in. This generally means that they can’t offer all the sophisticated features available in those programs that specialize in just doing word processing or spreadsheets. Two examples of integrated software are Symphony and Framework.

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CONFIGURING A SYSTEM

2012-02-05T02:31:00.000-08:00

The best way to configure, or have a personal computer assembled to meet specific needs, is to single out those jobs that are appropriate for such a machine to perform. After a list of

FIGURE 26. Compaq Portable Personal Computer. Courtesy of Compaq Computer Corporation.

FIGURE 27. Lap-top personal computer. Drawing Courtesy of Data General Corporation.

These tasks has been established, the next step is to take a look at what software products are available that will best meet those needs. When the most appropriate software has been selected, the personal computer itself can be designed and ordered. Following this approach ensures that enough memory will be installed to run the software, and that the personal computer will be tailored with such things as fixed disks, and given whatever capabilities are needed to perform such tasks as: displaying and printing color charts and graphs, communicating with other computers, having access to over-the-phone services via a modem, and printing letter-quality documents. If machines are dedicated to training programs or departments, they should be configured as closely as possible to those placed elsewhere in the organization. Most systems being installed in organizations contain between 256K and 640K of memory, are equipped to handle color graphics and displays, and have a printer. For training purposes, a dot-matrix is generally all that is necessary.

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THE DIFFERENT STYLES OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS

2012-02-05T02:18:00.000-08:00

The world of personal computers is one of Apples, Lisa’s, Macintosh's, Compaq’s, Commodores, Eagles, Data Generals, and half a hundred others. While they all function much the same, not all are suitable for the needs of business, industry, or government. For example, many computers found in homes may be fine for video games or for handling a basic budget, but they often lack the capabilities and memory needed to handle most business applications. In business and industry, the IBM Personal Computer (IBM PC) has emerged as the primary machine for desktop computing. The IBM PC, also known as the Model One, is that company’s first entry into the personal computer market. The Model One, shown in Figure 23 with a monochrome monitor, has two disk drives, which means that it offers no internal long-term storage and is dependent on diskettes for its instructions and for storing work. The disk drives are the two open slots on the front of the microprocessor as pictured in Figure 23. The diskette containing the software program is placed in the left-hand drive and the diskette on which the work will be stored is put in the drive on the right. The system identifies the disk drives as:

FIGURE 23. Dual disk drive system. Courtesy of International Business Machines.

Drive A (the disk drive on the left)

Drive B (the disk drive on the right)

When the machine is turned off, it loses everything that was stored on it

The IBM XT, pictured in Figure 24 with a color monitor, has a hard disk installed, which makes internal long—term storage possible. This machine has one disk drive unit and a hard fixed disk. Diskettes containing the software or data to be worked on are loaded through the disk drive and then copied to the hard disk, which generally has a storage capacity of 10 megabytes.

The system identifies each of these units as:

Drive A (the disk drive on the left)

Drive C (the hard fixed disk)

A fixed disk drive makes it easier to switch from one program to another. It is also easier to integrate information from various

FIGURE 24. IBM hard disk system. Courtesy of International Business Machines.

Programs and files into a single document. An example would be to merge sections from an electronic spreadsheet program into a report being prepared under a word processing program. Un- like the PC, the XT will retain anything stored on its hard disk whenever the power is turned off. While each system can be equipped with up to 640K of short- term memory (RAM), there are some differences in the mother boards, which contain the main circuitry for a personal computer. The XT has the ability to add or expand the system by five additional devices or functions over what the PC can handle. Hard disks also operate faster than diskette drives. This allows access to more information at greater speeds. Another version of the PC is the AT, which can process information two or three times faster than an XT and has a fixed disk storage capacity of 20 megabytes. Figure 25 is a 3270 personal computer. Essentially, this is an XT that has been modified to also act as if it were a terminal connected to a mainframe. While this capability can exist in any personal computer in which an emulation board has been installed, a 3270 has everything built right in.

FIGURE 25. IBM 3270 Personal Computer. Courtesy of International Business Machines.

The 3270 personal computer also has a feature called windowing, which allows the display screen to be divided into as many as seven separate work areas. An analogy would be putting a report together from different piles of information. Instead of stacking everything on a desk, the computer can display data from up to four different sources simultaneously. There are also windows on which notes or reminders can be written and displayed. Portable computers such as the Compaq and Data General/One Laptop (see Figure 26) are also popular. These machines are often equipped the same way a desktop system is, and can perform identical functions and run the same software programs. Portable computers are totally self-contained and come with built- in monitors, disk drives, and, on some models, fixed disks (see Figure 27).

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Modems

2012-02-05T01:46:00.000-08:00

Modems allow long-distance communication to take place between two computers by way of telephone lines or signals. Modems for personal computers may be one of two kinds: an internal modem (installed within the computer itself), or an external (a piece of hardware that connects to the computer). In addition to a modem, an active telephone outlet and a communications software package are needed.

Modems are used to produce signals compatible with telephone equipment. The equipment used in the telephone system requires that digital signals from a computer be converted to analog signals for transmission. Without a modem, telephone system amplifiers and filters would alter the digital signals and turn them into gibberish before they reach any other computer. Modems are grouped according to speed, features, and by their abilities to store dialing directories and make direct dial calls. Once equipped with a modem and the appropriate software, personal computers can dial any other system equipped to receive their calls; anywhere in the world. The various services that can be accessed include:

Up-to-the-minute stock prices

Movie reviews

Airline schedules and reservation services

Hotel and car rental reservation services

Public service bulletin boards, containing everything from free

Software to consumer tips and want ads

Shop-at-home service

Some of these services require the payment of a subscription fee, while others charge only the cost of the telephone call.

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COMMUNICATING WITH A MAINFRAME

2012-02-05T01:34:00.000-08:00

Personal computers first found their way into most organizations for uses that generally required little additional information beyond what was readily available. People were quick to realize, however, that the real power in computing came from having access to the large volumes of information that were found on mini or mainframe systems. This information wasn’t available to personal computers because of their inability to exchange files with, or access software from, these larger computers. To get around this, terminal emulators were developed to allow a personal computer to act as if it were a part of the terminal network for a larger system. An emulator (sometimes called an emulation, or Irma, board) essentially fools the computer into thinking it is dealing with another dedicated terminal. A dedicated terminal is one that can be used only to put information into and take information out of a mainframe or minicomputer (the host). A dedicated terminal has no computing power of its own, and cannot process information it receives from the host. This is what makes personal computers so valuable and data processing departments so nervous. Personal computers equipped with emulators can access the main storage banks on the larger systems and then download, or remove information, from the host and place it in the personal computer’s memory, so that computing can actually take place on a worker’s desk. This essentially sidesteps data processing altogether under some circumstances. When the worker has finished whatever manipulation of the data is needed, it can be returned to the host through a process known as uploading. In order to accomplish these tasks, personal computers need to have: An emulation board installed Cabling, or another form of connection, such as a telephone line to the host Software, to make it work it is estimated by some data processing professionals that by 1990 as many as 25 percent of all mainframes installed in large companies in the United States will have personal computer-to- mainframe communications.

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Networking

2012-02-05T01:24:00.000-08:00

Up to this point, most of the information in this book has been written from the standpoint of the personal computer as a standalone machine. One power of computing, however, is in linking several computers into what is called a local area network (LAN).

Personal computers can be linked directly to one another through a terminal network connected to a mainframe computer, or though smaller minicomputers that link personal computers within specific offices or departments. These minicomputers, in turn, might be tied into a larger mainframe (or host) computer. Generally, all connections are made either by direct cabling or through existing telephone lines.

In order to allow personal computers to communicate with one another, three things are needed:

1. A communications card, which is plugged into a computer to connect it to the network

2. Cabling and some control machinery to keep everything functioning in harmony

3. Software

The software is perhaps the most important ingredient, because it will have the biggest effect on the results a network is able to achieve.

Networks are valuable because they allow people to share information almost instantly. Let us say that a worker has a memorandum or some budget files that he or she would like to share with someone else on another floor. Using the network concept, 11w information could be put together on one personal computer and then sent directly to the second system. In many networks, the sender may even direct something straight to the recipient’s printer to produce a paper copy. It is important for those who plan to use a LAN to first decide what they want the network to do. Options range from sharing files easily and allowing many people to access them, to simple communications such as electronic mail. Other considerations include deciding what should be sent (voice, video, and data communications are all possible), and determining whether or not every personal computer in the network needs such capabilities. These considerations are what make the software so important, because programs differ substantially in terms of the services they can deliver.

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OUTPUT: PRINTERS, NETWORKING,AND TRANSFERRING DATA

2012-02-03T05:31:00.000-08:00

Printers

A number of things can happen to information after a user has finished working with it. In some cases, it may be enough to just see it on a monitor, or send it to a storage device. In most situations, however, it will probably be shared with other people.

The most common means of sharing computer information is to make a printed copy of it. While there are many brands of printers available in the marketplace, three kinds are generally available for personal computers: dot-matrix, letter quality, and nonimpact. The following comparison of these three kinds of printers originally appeared in Microcomputers for Insurance Professionals, written by Kenneth and Christina McClung, and John Guarneri

Dot-Matrix Printers

The dot-matrix printer gets its name from the way it produces characters. The print head has a set of wires that produce tiny dots according to a specific matrix pattern. For instance, an 8 x 9 dot- matrix printer produces dots in a matrix 8 dots wide by 9 dots high. The positioning of the dots determines the character formed. This method of printing is quick and inexpensive, but the quality of the characters produced is not as good as that of a letter-quality printer. (See Figure 22.)

A rule of thumb regarding dot-matrix printers is that the greater the number of dots in the matrix, the higher the quality of printed output: For example, a 9 x 23 matrix will produce higher quality print than will an 8 x 9 matrix. Some dot-matrix printers can approach letter quality by overprinting each character a second time with a light offset. This increase in the quality of appearance must be weighed against the reduction in output speed incurred by having each character printed twice.

Figure 22. Dot matrix printer. Courtesy of International Business Machines.

The Letter-Quality Printer

The letter-quality printer produces the same high quality, fully formed characters as a typewriter. These printers give your correspondence a more professional appearance. In addition you can change the type style of your output with most letter-quality, printers. Letter-quality printers usually use removable typing elements available in most popular type styles. Depending on the brand of printer, this element may take the shape of a daisy wheel, a thimble, or the familiar IBM-style ball. (See Exhibit 6.)

Non impact Printers

Non impact printers are fast, quiet and generally the most expensive type of printers, with the cost often starting at $1,000. Some non impact printers also offer greater resolution and color graphics for users who need to produce sharp charts, reports and presentations. There are three kinds of non impact printers available: laser, ink-jet and thermal-transfer.

Laser: A laser printer uses a laser beam to write an image onto the photo conducting drum of a photocopier mechanism where the patterns pickup toner that is then transferred to a sheet of paper.

Ink-jet: Ink-jet printers spray ink at the paper at high speed, driving the ink into the surface with the impact.

Thermal-transfer: Thermal-transfer printers melt an image onto the paper by using precision heating elements and either a thermal ribbon or a transfer sheet.

EXHIBIT 6. Comparison of text created by different types of printers. Reprinted with permission from Microcomputers for Insurance Professionals, McCluny, Guerriesi, and McCluny, John Wiley and Sons, 1984.

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Records and files OF Programs

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Computers store and process information in records and flies (see Figure 19). A record is a collection of related items that are stored in memory. A file is a collection of related records that are treated as a single unit. For example, you have sent a group of letters to a company called Jim’s Shoes and PC Emporium. Within the computer, the file becomes “Jim’s Shoes.” Each letter sent (and stored) represents one record of that file, as can be seen in Figure 20.

When you create a file, you may tall it almost anything you like, as long as it does not exceed eight characters in length. There

FIGURE 19. Computers manage data much the same as you handle files. Drawing courtesy of International Business Machines.

FIGURE 20. Drawing by Gina Bean.

are, however, certain characters that cannot be used in file names because the operating system reserves them to refer to system components. These include:

CON

AUX

COMI

LPT1

PRN

NUL

A complete list of all file names in either the program you are using, or the files you create, are available in a directory. A directory shows the file name, how much space (in bytes) it takes up. And the date it was created. Diskettes are capable of holding up 1e 112 files each.

When setting tip a file, try to make the file name as descriptive of a file's contents as the eight character limitation will allow (see Figiure28).

EXAMPLES OF FILE NAMES

Good Bad

Inventory Inventory (has more than eight characters)

Table (contains a space that isn’t allowed)

FIGURE 21. Courtesy of International Business Machines.

File name extensions

A file name extension is a brief three-character addition to a file name used to help identify or categorize the type of file it is. Extensions appear after the file name and are separated from them by a (.). One example might be book.fic, which would identify a series of sub files within the main file. In this case, the primary file identifies books, and the file name extension further breaks that down to works of fiction.

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Programming Languages

2012-02-01T05:55:00.000-08:00

As noted earlier, computers work only with binary information. This machine language is really nothing more than a series of Os and Is strung together. Machine language, however, is a difficult way for most people to communicate with a computer. To simplify things, a number of high-level programming languages were created. These are much simpler to use and understand because of their similarity to the everyday language of human communications. These programming languages are translated into a code the computer understands, using the firmware installed in it by the manufacturer.

Among the most widely used languages are:

FORTRAN: (Formula Translator). It is used primarily in medical, scientific, and technical applications.

COBOL: (Common Business Oriented Language). It is one of the most popular business and accounting languages.

BASIC: (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code). This is as close to English as current programming languages come. BASIC is supplied with many personal computers, by the manufacturers.

PASCAL: (Named for the Seventeenth-Century French Mathematician Blaise Pascal). This is a popular programming language with many microcomputer users, who consider it easy to learn.

No matter which language a program is written in, the languages generally share four fundamental activities. They:

1. Provide a method for getting something into the computer, and getting it out again

2. Make comparisons

3. Decide what activities need to be performed

4. Repeat tasks until a particular job is completed

With the wide variety of software packages on the market that meet the needs of most users, it is probably not as important to learn a programming language as it once was for the average user.

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PROGRAMS

2012-01-30T06:31:00.000-08:00

All the activities a computer performs are guided by a program. A program is simply a set of instructions or commands that tells

FIGURE 17. A personal computer with a 10 megabyte hard disk can store the equivalent of 3333 pages of text.

FIGURE 18. Three types of computer memory and storage devices. A microchip (64K). Diskette (320K) and hard disk (10 megabytes +).

The computer how to perform a specific job. You may write your own programs using a programming language, or by purchasing a preprogrammed software package. Such packages will do spreadsheets, word processing, database management, communications, tax preparation, inventory, project management, games, household budgets, and hundreds of other tasks. While a person working with a personal computer might only make a single entry, like entering an amount into a checkbook register, the program that pulls everything together into something meaningful might actually have several steps. From the computer’s point of view, the program of instructions might look something like this:

I - Take the contents of memory location 5.

2. Add this to the contents of memory location 15.

3 Compare this to the contents of memory location 17.

4. If the contents are the same, store the results in memory location 21.

5. If the contents are not the same input a warning to the system monitors.

Programming languages

Among the most widely used languages are:

FORTRAN: (Formula Translator). It is used primarily in medical, scientific, and technical applications.

COBOL: (Common Business Oriented Language). It is one of the most popular business and accounting languages.

BASIC: (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code). This is as close to English as current programming languages come. BASIC is supplied with many personal computers, by the manufacturers.

PASCAL: (Named for the Seventeenth-Century French Mathematician Blaise Pascal). This is a popular programming language with many microcomputer users, who consider it easy to learn.

No matter which language a program is written in, the languages generally share four fundamental activities. They:

1. Provide a method for getting something into the computer, and getting it out again

2. Make comparisons

3. Decide what activities need to be performed

4. Repeat tasks until a particular job is completed

With the wide variety of software packages on the market that meet the needs of most users, it is probably not as important to learn a programming language as it once was for the average user.

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A QUICK REVIEW ON COMPUTERS COMPONENTS

2012-01-29T01:38:00.000-08:00

One very simple way of thinking about how computers work is to make a comparison between a personal computer’s components and corresponding human functions:

PC Components Human Functions

) CPU) Brain

Memory Ability to recall things

Software Intelligence

Input (i.e.: keyboard) Five senses

Output (i.e.: printer) Speech, writing

Unlike humans, computers need to be told exactly what to do before they will perform any task. Computers also work only with binary (numeric) information. In order to perform, a computer first converts all programs and data into this numeric form that it can understand. Once this is done, it will perform any task assigned it. All of these activities are accomplished by the operating system. Essentially, the operating system is a group of programs that have the responsibility of telling the computer what to do, and the most efficient way of doing it. The operating system for IBM personal computers and IBM compatible systems is the Disk Operating System (DOS), which performs a number of jobs that can be broken down into three main functions:

1. Handles and manages files

2. Oversees the use of operating hardware

3. Interprets and executes commands (see Figure 15)

Memory and storage

While humans think of memory in terms of words or amounts of information that can be remembered, computers think of memory in terms of bits, bytes, K, and megabytes. The smallest unit of memory is the bit. A bit is a binary digit of information. Eight hits equal one byte, which is considered the standard unit for computing information. While the bit is too small a unit of information to spend much time worrying about, a byte can be thought of as one character, such as a letter, number, symbol, or space. For example, the phrase: “Tom, come here” contains 17 characters (4 symbols, 11 letters, and 2 spaces). This means the phrase also has 17 bytes. The symbol K represents 1000 bytes (1024 to be precise). A megabyte (Meg) contains one million bytes. One way to think about this is to compare it to a standard page of typed text that contains around 3000 characters, or 3K of information. Using this analogy, one megabyte would be roughly equal to 333 pages.

FIGURE 15. The disk operating system is an indispensable part of a personal computer, governing everything from file management to the hardware.

Obviously, the more memory capacity a personal computer has, the more it can accomplish. A 5.25-inch double-sided diskette, for example, can provide over 320K of long-term memory (or about 107 pages of standard text). (See Figure 16.) Many personal computers have hard disk memories, designed to hold 10 megabytes (see Figure 17) (about 3333 pages of equivalent text) or more. Diskettes and hard disks (sometimes called Winchester disks) allow for the long-term storage of programs or data. Unlike the

FIGURE 16. A diskette can hold the equivalent of 107 pages of text.

Internal working memory, the information stored in these outside sources isn’t lost when a computer is shut off. Both sources also offer mass storage capabilities that the computer’s internal memory isn’t large enough to deal with. Other types of storage devices include cassette tapes (which are rarely found in business systems), cartridge tape systems, which can be plugged directly into the personal computer or be kept as a separate piece of equipment, external hard disks (sometimes called expansion units) connected to the system but physicality separate from it, mass storage devices designed to support several systems, and hard disks that can be plugged directly into .1 personal computer (Figure 18) and then removed to be stored elsewhere.

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TYPES OF MEMORY STORED WITHIN A SYSTEM

2012-01-29T01:00:00.000-08:00

There are two types of memory stored within a system:

1. Read Only Memory (ROM)

2. Random Access Memory (RAM)

Read Only Memory is permanently imprinted in your computer when you get it. It is called ROM because it is meant to be read only by the computer itself. The person operating the computer has no control over it. The computer uses this memory to tell itself how to start up when you turn it on. Read Only Memory processes the electrical data flow from the keyboard to the CPU and from the CPU to the video display screen or to any other peripheral equipment you have attached, such as a printer. The decoders that translate numbers and characters into binary information that the computer understands are found in ROM. These programs are called firmware, or nonvolatile, because they are always there, and are not erased or destroyed when the power is turned off.

The other memory a system works with is called, Random Access Memory (RAM). This is what some people also call Read/ Write Memory, and is considered volatile because the information stored here is lost whenever the computer is shut off, or when power is lost. Random Access Memory is controlled by the person working with a system, and is where the instructions and information needed to get a job done are temporarily stored. Personal computer systems are often described by the amount of short- term (RAM) memory available (i.e., 64K, 256K, 640K). Most software programs also list the amount of memory they require to be stored in RAM. Most systems allow the user to increase the amount of memory available by installing additional single memory chips or expansion boards containing multiple chips. Even with these, however, there are finite limits to the amount of memory a personal computer has to work with. This is one reason why it is important to decide what kinds of work you would like to perform on a personal computer and the software most appropriate for accomplishing those tasks, before you purchase the system. This allows a computer to be configured to meet anticipated uses and eliminates the problem that a lot of people encounter of trying to install a software program that requires more memory than their system has available. In these situations the only recourse is to purchase and install more memory. A person using a computer comes in contact with all of its working parts. When a system is first turned on, the operating system takes over and makes sure everything under its control is functioning properly. Information is put into the system, where it is stored in memory according to an address code assigned by the computer, as seen in Figure 14. When the program (or list of instructions) is loaded, data are taken from the memory. Following the program instructions, the

FIGURE 14. The flow of information processing. Illustration by Gina Bean. Data are then worked on in the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU). When all the instructions have been carried out, the information is returned to memory or to an output device.

Output can be delivered through any of several sources:

.Video Monitor (CRT)

.Printer

.Voice synthesizer

.Modem for transferring information over telephone lines

.Storage device (diskette, hard disk, etc.)

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HOW A COMPUTER OPERATES

2012-01-29T00:56:00.000-08:00

What goes on inside a computer is a mystery to most people, and even a little frightening to some. Actually, it is a fairly simple process - Whether we are talking about a supercomputer or one that can sit on top of a desk, all function in the same general way.

To understand how computers operate, we first have to break them down into several basic elements:

1. Input

2. Central processing unit (CPU)

3. Memory or storage

4. Output

Information is put into the computer through any of several different sources:

1. Keyboard

2. Data diskette (which can contain the program of instructions

What Are The Components Of A Personal Computer

The hardware components (those things you can see and touch), for a personal computer include:

A microprocessor (or system unit)—This is the Central Processing Unit (CPU) for a personal computer. While it looks like a box, it contains the memory systems (RAM and ROM) and is really the heart of the system. This unit also contains the disk drives. Since the memory is wiped clean each time you turn the machine off, you need a more permanent storage system. This is provided by keeping separate memory diskettes.

• A keyboard that lets you communicate with the system.

• A video display monitor (like a TV screen) that lets the system communicate with you.

• A printer that can produce a paper copy of whatever you are working on.

Diskettes—The software containing the programs you wish to run or on which to plan your work. A diskette is a small magnetic record that contains the storage space for your memory. When a diskette is inserted into a disk drive, it is spun much like a record on a turntable, and “read” electronically. A single sided diskette can hold the same amount of information as 110 pages of single-spaced text.

You will be working with, or the information you will be working on)

1. Cassette tape

2. Graphic tablets and electronic pens

3. Light pens, which can be used by directly touching the screen of a monitor

One key point to remember is that a computer will do exactly as it is told, and only what it is told. This can lead to what programmers call GIGO or Garbage In, Garbage Out. If the user doesn’t give the computer the correct information to work with, and precise’ instructions on what to do with that information, he or she will get back incorrect or meaningless answers and results.

Data is entered into the CPU. The CPU is where all the logical and control functions of a computer are carried out. The CPU is actually divided into two areas: a control unit, and the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU). The control unit spends its time figuring out what the computer is supposed to do next, and the ALU actually does it.

Memory is where information and instructions are stored. How does a computer memorize? A series of on/off switches lead an electrical current to a particular location, or address. Information is moved between the CPU and its memory banks by electronic pathways or conduits, called registers.

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WHAT IS A COMPUTER?

2012-01-28T06:59:00.000-08:00

Thanks to Madison Avenue, Hollywood, and a horde of science fiction writers, some people have come to believe that computers have minds of their own and are capable of thinking for themselves. While there is some interest and developmental research in the field of artificial intelligence (the so-called fifth generation of computers, which would be able to learn from experience and improve their own performance on any given task), computers. We know them today are basically stupid.

This is an important point to remember, particularly when dealing with someone who has a fear of computers. Essentially, a computer can be thought of as a very fast, very large calculator that can manipulate or process a lot of information, under its own control. It will execute any command it is given with precision and speed, but won’t go beyond that point. In short, it will do exactly what it is told, and no more. It has no way of telling 4vliether the information it is working on is good or bad, unless it receives further instructions and is given some basis for comparison. The intelligence and control belong entirely to the person who is working with it. Turn it off and its memory can be wiped clean. It is important to think about computers as one of many tools (such as telephone, calculators, and electric typewriters and pencil sharpeners) that people have at their disposal to help make life a little easier. Like a calculator, a computer can add and subtract quickly and with a high degree of accuracy. When a person uses a calculator, however, a button has to be pushed for each function to be performed. A computer has the capacity to store a series of instructions that, in effect, tell it what buttons to push, and in what order to push them. Most of what computers can do is based on their ability to:

Add two numbers together

Subtract one number from another

Compare numbers or symbols to see if they are the same

The power computers possess comes from their ability to perform multiple functions simultaneously and process tremendous amounts of information in what amounts to the blink of an eye. They are at their best when used for large volume, highly defined tasks.

In order to function effectively; a computer requires:

An input device, so that information can be given to it Information (or data)

A program to tell it what to do, or how to work, with that data An output device so that it can display or print out whatever is requested of it

These computer concepts can be found at work in any number of things with which most of us have daily contact. For example:

Scanners such as that pictured in Figure 11, used in the checkout stands at the supermarket (including some that have voice synthesizers)

FIGURE 11. Computerized scanner at a grocery store. Photo by author.

Cash registers at fast-food and other restaurants that not only keep track of cash and sales but that also tie into inventory control and reordering. Automatic tellers programmed to transfer money from your account on demand, or perform other services (see Figure 12) Household appliances, such as microwave ovens and televisions. Automatic gasoline pumps (pictured in Figure 13), that record a purchase, turn on the pump and keep track of how many total gallons a station is using Automobile systems that calculate miles per gallon, trip times, and distance. Computers are able to do all these things because they make no distinction between numbers and symbols. Rather, they translate everything into electrical impulses, which form patterns that have meaning for the computer. These patterns form the basis of the computer’s numbering system by taking the electrical pulses and converting them to a binary system. Binary consists of exactly two numbers: 1 (a pulse of electricity) and 0 (no pulse). By stringing is and Os together, the computer converts whatever data it is given into terms it can understand. For example, the binary equivalent of the number 10 is 1010. Binary codes are also assigned to the characters on the keyboard, so that letters, symbols, and spaces are treated the same way numbers are. This is accomplished through an international conversion code called the American Standard Code for International Interchange (ASCU). Under this code for example, the letter “B” on a keyboard is given the numeric value 66, which the computer can convert to its binary equivalent of 01000010. When the computer is finished processing the information it is given, it translates everything back into numbers and symbols that we understand. For most of us, there is no reason to ever use binary in communicating with a computer because this is already on the software. The decoding instruction the computer needs to interpret everything is programmed into it by the manufacturer.

FIGURE 12. Computers help make breaking more convenient through the automated tellers.

FIGURE 13. Computerized gas pumps calculate sales customer’s account.

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Supercomputers

2012-01-27T08:17:00.000-08:00

Specially designed systems (usually several computers tied together). Used primarily in government or research. These are the most expensive and largest systems available, and they possess tremendous computing power. The cost of operating and maintaining them makes them prohibitive hit most organizations. One example of a supercomputer Is 11w one operated by the National Security Agency. Built at a cost

FIGURE 9. Cray Supercomputer shown here with designer Seymour Cray of Cray Research, Inc.

Of approximately $15 million, it is rumored to be capable of 150 to 200 million calculations per second, and has a memory capable of transferring 320 million words per second. This system is reported to be so powerful that the heat is generates would melt is down were it not for a specially designed cooling system.*

At present, there are some 150 supercomputers (similar to that in Figure 9), in operation around the world, with most located in the United States. The latest models have a memory capacity some two billion bytes and processing speeds 40,000 to 50,000 times faster than a personal computer. Tasks that once took a year to accomplish on a second-generation computer can be done in about a second with a supercomputer.* Mainframes. These are the large machines that come to mind when most people think of computers. Costing hundreds of thousands of dollars, and requiring specially built facilities and large supporting staffs of operators, programmers, and analysts, they are designed to handle large volumes of work or complex calculations.

Minicomputer. Smaller than a mainframe and generally costing under $200,000, these systems are ideally suited for a medium- sized organization. They require smaller facilities and less staff than the mainframes, but have enough, power to process a wide range of commercial or scientific jobs.

Microcomputer. This is where the personal computer fits in. Designed to sit on the top of a desk, and within the financial reach of most organizations and many individuals, these systems represent the latest evolutionary stage. While not yet in the same league as their larger cousins, they can easily match or outperform the computing power of their first- and second- generation ancestors.

Lap-Top Computers. An offshoot of the personal computer, these small systems (many are complete with printer and liquid crystal displays) can offer the same type of power and functionality as a desktop model. Designed for portability, they can travel inside an attach case as seen in Figure 10, and can be used just about anywhere.

While personal computers can trace their lineage back several centuries (see Exhibit 5), they are a relatively new phenomenon. The personal computer revolution really got underway in 1969 with the invention of the Intel 4004 microprocessor, which contained 2250 transistors on a single microchip. At first, these were available only to large manufacturers, but in 1971 Intel decided to clear out its stocks by offering the 4004 microprocessor for

*Philip Elmer-Dewitt, “A Sleek, Super powered Machine,” Time (June 17, 1985). 53.

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Comparison of Computers Then and Now

2012-01-27T06:59:00.000-08:00

Figure 8. Comparison of computers then and now. Courtesy of International Business Machines

This process has spanned three generations of growth:

The First Generation: The 1950s. Marked by the arrival of the UNI VAC, first-generation machines are identified by their use of electronic tubes. They were generally capable of executing about 1000 instructions per second and could store no more than 20,000 characters of information. It was during this time that Admiral Grace Hopper, a pioneer of the modern computer age, began what is generally considered the first career as a computer programmer. Hopper also pioneered the development of COBOL; perhaps the most common of all computer languages. The Second Generation: 1960 to 1965. First-generation computers were considered obsolete by 1960, as transistors replaced tubes. The second-generation computers were considerably smaller than their predecessors and handled in the range of one million instructions per second. The solid state technology ad these systems increased their storage capabilities and reliability, making them more attractive to business and industry. Computer concepts, such as operating systems, time sharing, and data communications, were -refined and gained a greater use. The Third Generation: 1965 to the Present. Advances in integrated and printed circuits have spawned the current generation of computers, which are smaller, faster, have more storage capacity, and are more affordable than ever before. There are, of course, many different types of computers available for modern use.

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THE WORLD OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS

2012-01-27T06:53:00.000-08:00

Clearly, the machine no longer belonged to its makers.

TRACY KIDDER,

The Soul of a New Machine

Computers have been around a lot longer than most of us would like to believe. As a matter of fact, the computer’s lineage can be traced back to 1642 when Blaise Pascal, a French mathematical genius, invented the first real calculating machine. Pascal’s machine used a combination of rotating wheels and gears to perform simple problems of addition and subtraction.

In 1833 Charles Babbage, an English inventor, designed the great-grandfather of modern computers with the introduction of his analytical engine a forerunner of which is pictured below in Figure 3. The engine was composed of five parts:

(1) A calculating unit (the mill),

(2) The store (memory),

(3) An input device,

(4) A control section, and

(5) A printer, the system was driven by punched cards that fed the basic information into the engine, where it could be processed. Babbage also fathered the basic principles on which the first adding machine was constructed.

In 1842, Lady Augusta Ada Lovelace, a friend of Babbage, wrote the first computer documentation in her paper ‘‘Observations of Mr. Babbage Analytical Machine.' A mathematical prodigy,

FIGURE 3. Babbage’s differential machine, a forerunner of his analytical engine, marked a major step towards the future development of computers. Smithsonian Institution photo number 53190.

Ada established herself as the world’s first computer programmer and provided the software for Babbage’s engine. In recognition of her contributions, the U.S. Department of Defense named its so-called super language after her and Ada became a registered trademark of the U.S. government. The 1840s saw the publication of several papers and theses by the English mathematician George Boole. Boole’s theories detailed how logical problems can be solved like algebraic equations. Boolean logic set the stage for the advent of computer science. In 1890, the first electronic calculating machine was invented Known as the Hollerith tabulator, it used punched cards for the first time. The United States used the Hollerith tabulator (Figure 4) to compute the census, and completed the job in a mere six weeks. Up to that time, it had taken as long as 10 years to prepare the census calculations. The era of modern computing began in 1925 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. There, a team of engineers led by Vannevar Bush developed a large-scale analog calculator since it was capable of storing number values electronically; this is considered the advent of-all that was to follow.

Figure 4 .Hollerith's tabulator provided a taste of future computing power when first used in figuring the results at the 1890 United States Census. Smithsonian Institution photo number 64563.

The 1930s and 1940s saw a number of advances in computer development, with the development of two of the more famous systems: ENIAC (electronic numerical integrator and computer) in the United States, and Colossus, the world’s first electronic computer, in England. Colossus was placed into operation to decipher the signals of Enigma, the German code machine. Colossus was credited with breaking Enigma’s code, which provided the necessary information to help the allies win the war. Colossus was SO secret that it was dismantled at the end of the war and only one piece is known to survive today. At the end of 1945 ENIAC arrived on the scene and solved its first problem in December of that year. The problem dealt with the hydrogen bomb, and is still considered a classified secret. The ENIAC, a portion of which is shown in Figure 5, was composed of 40 panels, each two feet wide and four feet deep, and housed some 18,000 vacuum tubes. It was capable of handling more than

FIGURE 5. ENIAC, one of the world’s first computers. Courtesy of International Business Machines.

One problem, although it had to be manually programmed by resetting switches, a process that could take up to two days.

Perhaps as a harbinger of things to come, ENIAC was obsolete almost as soon as it was running. A newer generation of stored program computers, which could be programmed electronically (instead of by recabling everything by hand), arrived in 1946 and quickly replaced ENIAC. For all its importance as one of the world’s first electronic computers, ENIAC had neither the power nor the speed of many of today’s hand-held calculators.

At that time, however, the sheer number of vacuum tubes needed to operate these early computers limited their use. Vacuum tubes were always burning out, so only short programs could be run. These machines literally filled entire rooms and were programmed at very low levels, often by a person setting and resetting row after row of switches and by recabling the system. Little wonder that a post-war government report saw little use for such machines and predicted that there might be a need for no more than three or four in the entire country. That might have been true, if the vacuum tube had remained the standard electronic core of a computer. The invention of the transistor in 1947 by Bell Laboratory scientists superseded the vacuum tube. The transistor was compact, used low voltages, and small amounts of power. It freed computers from the need be vacuum tubes and revolutionized the computer industry, setting the stage for today’s smaller computer systems. In 1951, the world’s first commercial computer, UNIVAC (Figure 6), was delivered to the Census Bureau. The UNIVAC set the trends for years to come and laid down standards that are followed even today. The original UNIVAC still blinks away at the Smithsonian Institute. Throughout the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, improvements in the construction of transistors opened new doors for computer man- manufacturing. The first transistors gave way to the integrated circuit, in which a number of transistors and the wiring that connects them were constructed in a single piece. Integrated circuits, turn, led to the development of wafer—thin silicon chips on which thousands of transistors can be packed into an area about one quarter of an inch square as in Fig7.

FIGURE 6. UNIVAC, the world’s first commercial computer. Smithsonian Institution photo number 72-2616.

The development of transistors and microchips led to the creation of bigger and more powerful computers. It also allowed smaller and cheaper machines to come into existence... In short, these developments led to the evolution of several distinct families of computers, as well as to a continuing decrease in the cost of computing power. In fact, since the mid-1970s, the cost of computing power has dropped by an average of 50 percent per year. A comparison of computing power then and now can be seen in Figure 8.

FIGURE 7 . Line drawing of a microchip. Illustration by Gina Bean .

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THE HUMAN FACTORS (COMPUTER)

2012-01-26T02:06:00.000-08:00

As we saw in the section on fear of computers, technology can have a profound effect on people. Fear, however, is not the only element that should be considered. People can also be affected by:
The physical demands placed on them by the technology.
The way that personal computers can impact job performance.
As more people spend increasing amounts of their day in front of video display terminals (VDT), more concern is being expressed for their physical well-being. This has increased interest in ergonomics, the study of the relationship between the human body and the machines we use.
One reason for the heightened interest is the growing concern over issues of health, comfort, and stress associated with the growing use of personal computers. Studies by several groups have concluded that there are a number of comfort issues related to the use of personal computers and computer terminals. Among the most cited problems is poor lighting and inadequate furniture that was often designed before anyone ever heard of office automation. According to a 1984 study released by the Administrative. Management Society Foundation, the most commonly reported problems associated with VDTs include pain in the shoulders, neck, buck, arms, and hands. Visual problems include burning eyes, headaches, focusing problems, and stress. These are brought about in part by poor lighting, problems of brightness contrast I twin characters and background, and flickering. Stress is also a factor that needs to be considered. Research landings indicate that some users show anxiety, depression, irritability, anger, confusion, and fatigue when working with terminals Jobs content can also play a factor. According to the Administrative Management Society study, clerical users complain more about discomfort than professional users. This seems to be a result of how personal computers fit into various jobs. For professional workers, they are often problem-solving tools, while data entry left to the clerks. In short, professional workers often use computers to perform tasks that result in something they can take pride in. Clerks, on the other hand, end up doing the simple repetitive jobs in which the end results are not as visible or meaningful. These are all issue that need to be conveyed to managers and owners, Training program can certainly help make the various levels of an organization aware of the complexities of office automation tools, such as the personal computer, an can help educate people on the human needs in working with such a technology.

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Fear oF Damaging The Computer

2012-01-26T02:04:00.000-08:00

When they first begin working with a personal computer, many people hardly touched the keyboard for fear of doing something that would cause damage to the computer. People who don’t think twice about slamming down a telephone receiver, or driving their car to its very limits, suddenly grow passive when confronted with a keyboard. From secretaries to corporate executives to the folks down on the loading dock, there is something about a computer keyboard that can turn each into a shrinking violet.
There are two basic reasons for this initial passivity
1. The perception that despite their power, computers are extremely fragile devices.
2. The feeling that computers are on a somewhat different plane than other types of tools, the "gift of the God" syndrome.
Let's take a closer look at each of these observations. The first is a result of the day-to-day contacts that most people have with computers and the limited knowledge they possess about them. From the average person’s vantage point, computers are like newborn infants that need special handling and protection. Most people never see the large mainframe systems where they work. These computers are typically locked away behind security doors, in guarded environments with their own air conditioning, heating, electrical, and humidity control systems. From the outside looking in, it would appear that computers require a lot of care and attention. This particular point of view is often strengthened by day-today experiences that may often be punctuated by periods when the computer isn’t available. In the jargon of data processing, people are told of down time, system failure, or crashes, without any idea what those things might really relate to. Small wonder that when they suddenly come face to face with a personal computer some people are somewhat reluctant to touch it. After all, if the big ones come tumbling down from time to time, despite the care and attention of experts, what will happen when they start touching one? The second observation is that some people view computers in a somewhat different light than they do other office tools, maybe because of the sheltered environment that most people associate with the large systems. Computers operate in an almost mystical realm. Movies and popular works of fiction have pictured them as extending human powers beyond those of the body and mind. We think computers can solve complex problems almost in the blink of an eye. What could take a human hours, days, years, or even decades to work through might be processed in a matter of seconds or minutes by a computer. A mystique has grown up around not only the systems themselves, but also around the people who work with them. In a society that is growing increasingly dependent on technology, many who lack education or insight into computers look on those who can make them work in much the same way that ancient cultures viewed their high priests. As computers have become increasingly insulated, their operations cloaked in jargon and acronyms foreign to most people, many ascribe a certain reverence and awe to everything associated with them. Computers, and those who run them, have come to occupy a special niche beyond the province of the average person. With the arrival of the personal computer, all this is suddenly changing. Now individual workers are being given access to the same power and magic previously associated with the large systems. For some, this sharing of the technology can be likened to the Greek gods descending from the mountain top to share their secrets with their mortal followers. Against these backgrounds, it’s easy to understand why many men and women are apprehensive when it comes to touching a personal computer for the first time. As computers are extended through organizations, it is important for people to see them in the same light as they do other fixtures of the office, such as telephones and copiers. Some of this will certainly occur over time and with increased usage, and can be facilitated through introductory training programs that emphasize or demonstrate the difficulty actually damaging a system. The message that should come across is that while a lot of things. Can occur to the information they are working with, simply banging away on the keyboard won’t do much to actually harm the computer itself.

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THE SPREAD OF APPLICATIONS DEVELOPMENT

2012-01-26T00:39:00.000-08:00

One chief advantage of personal computers is the improved productivity they bring to the applications development process. As anyone who has worked in, or with, data processing knows, the shortage of experienced programmers has led to large backlogs of computer applications. Simply put, people are thinking up more things for the computer to do than there are people to write the programs. The arrival of the personal computer extends the computing power necessary to achieve a lot of these applications and places it directly in the hands of those who are generating the requests,. What these people are looking for is instant productivity as a way to get around all those data processing backlogs. What some of them and their organizations are discovering is that there’s no such thing as a free lunch.
The problems fall into several categories:
People are creating programs without really thinking them through, and without giving consideration as to how their actions may be affecting others. There are a lot of duplicate programs being created, and an explosion in the number of private files and databases that are being created. People are not documenting their programs so that others can use them. Few pay attention to the need for backup and security. There is not much concern over maintaining programs once they have been created. Few people double-check their work to make sure they are doing the right things. Many- people believe that they can handle all their data processing needs simply by plugging some easy to use software into a personal computer and having at it. They tend to see personal computers as a way to avoid the long delays and other headaches of getting what they want from “those people up in data processing.” It is an unfortunate point of view to take, because it almost guarantees that they will have to learn the lessons of computers the same way all those folks in data processing did, by getting burned a few times. For example, a spreadsheet can be used to develop a budget or financial forecast with a fair degree of certainty that the columns and rows will be added correctly. Who checks to make sure that the right numbers were used, or the right formulas were applied? In data processing, people are taught to test the programs before they trust the results. A lot of computer users go with the first thing produced, or make last-minute adjustments just to see what effect they might have. The more complex the database becomes (calculate the commissions of all salespeople in the state, except those in . . .), the greater the probability of a mistake. This is particularly true of spreadsheets, which are almost seductive in nature. Information can look so good on a spreadsheet, and so authoritative, that people tend not to question it. After all, Computers rarely miscalculate anything. This same thought process contributes to other problems, such as not taking the time to prepare the documentation that tells others what the program Is and how it can be used. Employees who are trying to do nothing similar are left in a position of having to tie’ another program from scratch. It also means that when the author, leaves the organization there’s nothing to explain the program to his or her replacement. The problem is compounded as Joe creates something he’ thinks is great and shares it with Jane, who adds something and shares it with Pete, who modifies it for use with something developed by Pat. If all of this occurs without any controls or written guidelines or procedures, a major business failure could occur because of uncontrolled application development. This potential for disaster is enhanced because all too often people are not thinking about such issues as creating backups and security. In fact, most probably never will until they suffer a disaster. What data processing has learned over the past 20 years is about to be relearned by whole new groups of people. For some, learning is going to get expensive. The message won’t really be driven home, however, until someone spills coffee on the diskette containing the budget and discovers there isn’t another usable copy to be found. Maintaining programs once they have been created may also prove to be a bone of contention. A lot of people believe that what they are doing is unique, so they don’t give too much thought to what they are creating beyond producing one or two reports. A lot of people are writing what they believe are one- shot programs, and their organizations will end up living with them for years to come. Professional programmers and systems analysts learned long ago that the one-shot program that will only be used once and then forgotten doesn’t really exist. Once created, such things usually take on a life of their own. Someone has to maintain the program and the information it contains. Perhaps what data processing fears the most, and with some justification, is the creation of hundreds of new data centers throughout an organization. Since it took the data processing community some 20 years to realize the high costs and dangers of having duplicate files, duplicate data centers will remain a potential powder keg for personal computer users for some time to come. Private files and databases are being created every place a personal computer is available. Often the programs and files created exist only on a floppy disk laying on the user’s desk. No one else may know about it because there is no documentation, or they might not have access to it. If something happens to either the person or the diskette, well. One important point that everyone working with a personal computer will have to learn is that none of their actions occur in a vacuum. Everything they do has a potential consequence for someone else. In this regard, the lessons already learned by data.

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OBSERVATIONS ON THE USE OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS BY MANAGERS AND EXECUTIVES

2012-01-26T00:37:00.000-08:00

Many managers and executives who are working with personal computers are doing more of the work they used to delegate to their subordinates or secretaries. Higher ranking managers and executives are doing their own word processing, creating and maintaining mailing lists, assembling organization charts, developing budgets for their operating areas, and working on any Computing number of similar types of application programs and databases. Access to personal computers can actually create more work at higher levels in some organizations, among a group of people who traditionally complain about the constraints they feel on the use of their time. There doesn’t seem to be much doubt that personal computers can be powerful tools to help someone better manages their resources. It seems equally true; however, that they can also take over a person’s schedule and rob them of time. For example, the manager or executive who used to draft memorandums or letters in longhand, or by dictation, and then let a secretary set them up, now does all this work on a personal computer. Some say that it saves time, because they can redo or rearrange written information much more efficiently. Caught up in the magic of word processing, however, a few of these people are spending more time than ever setting up the perfect memorandum. One manager has admitted spending over an hour setting up a memorandum on his personal computer, which previously would have only taken 15 or 20 minutes to write and proof. Or, take the manager who spent several hours each day creating and updating her status files, and formatting (or reformatting) various types of reports, sometimes just to see how differently they could look. It didn’t take long for her staff to begin grumbling about her inaccessibility, and wondering what was going on behind her closed door. Then there was the executive who became so smitten by the possibilities of what a personal computer might do that she began ordering and working on new software packages at the rate of one every two or three weeks, to judge “its usefulness for my staff.” This was at a time when hers was the only personal computer in any of her work areas. In many cases, learning also takes place behind a closed door, as the manager or executive tries to learn how to use the technology on his or her own. This can be a frustratingly slow hunt and peck process for those who never learned to type, and who don’t want to be seen as not knowing something as rudimentary as a keyboard. Many of these people are investing large blocks of time working on teaching themselves or trying to develop program, time taken away from the management process.There are those who would argue that this isn’t necessarily hail, because managers need to know how to work personal computers in order to understand how they can be used to get work Personal computers in order to understand how they can be used to get work done. While that is certainly true, there are other ways to accomplish this without the managers investing their own time in actually performing the work itself. This is where training and management education can play an important role. The key question that needs to be addressed for management ranks and above is whether they should be trained on personal computers, or educated as to how they can be used. Managers and executives should be treated as a separate group. Any personal computers curriculum developed for business, industry, or 1oviinnwnt should include a seminar that addresses the issues III 1ersonal computers from the manager’s point of view, and that gives manages the facts they need to make informed choices.
There are five primary areas of concern that any such seminar should address:
1. What are the uses of a personal computer?
2. What does management really need to know about computers
3. How do managers learn what they need to know?
4. How does the use of a personal computer fit into an individual's management or operating style?
5. What are the organizational issues and human ramifications of placing personal computers in the manager's work areas?
Personal computers have the potential for handling a great variety of tasks quickly and efficiently. They are emerging as a new force in (lie workplace, and their arrival foreshadows changes in the way information is shared, decisions are made, business l conducted, politics are played, and organizations are managed. Vet, they also need to be kept in their proper perspective. For this group of individuals, that means that personal computers should be viewed as extensions of the management process that need the same careful time and attention as any other resource under their control.

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