Various types of materials are used for constructing the foundation. for example materials such as stone, brick, concrete, steel, reinforced concrete, etc. Generally two types of foundations can be identified in the field of construction depending on the depth.

1. Shallow Foundations 

Shallow foundation transmits the weight on to immediate subsoil. Shallow foundation may be of following types.

• Strip foundation
• Mat foundation or Raft foundation
• Pad foundation / Footings
• Spread footings
• Combined foundation
• Strap footings or Cantilever

2. Deep Foundations 

A deep foundation will transmit the load on to inner hard soil or bedrock. It is usually at depths of 3 meters below finished ground-level. The deep foundation may be classified following types.

• Pile foundation
• Pier foundation
• Caissons or Well foundation

Factors are considered before choosing foundation types

1. Bearing Capacity of the soil.
2. The load applied from structure to the foundation.
3. Type of Superstructure is going to construct.
4. The depth of the soil at which safe bearing strata exists.
5. The Condition of the soil.

Strip Foundation

Strip foundation is suitable for subsoils and light structural loadings like low and medium-size buildings where mass concrete can be used. For medium loads, strip foundation may be provided reinforcement, along with special design features where induced tension exceeds concrete’s own tensile resistance.

When the ground condition is good, strip foundation can be used because it is less expensive. The trench depth is variable but in most cases should be at least 1m with a width of 600mm.

The concrete should have a minimum depth of 300mm, but special factors in your site may require more depth and a greater use of steel reinforcing bars in the concrete.

Raft Foundation or Mat Foundation

A raft foundation is fundamentally a large combined slap foundation designed to cover large part of the building. When a soil is weak and columns are so closely spaced in both direction or carry high loads, Mat foundation may be used in this situation.

Cantilever or Strap Footings

Consist of two single footings connected with a beam or a strap and support two single columns. A strap footing may be used where the distance between the column is so great that trapezoidal footing becomes quite narrow.

Combined Footing

A combined footing commonly upholds 2 posts (columns). In case there’s a wall or barrier at or near the boundary of an external post (column), a footing is placed differently beneath this support and it is be probable to gradient. External footing changing is ceased by assisting the 2 supports on a universal footing.

Pile Foundation

Pile foundation is a common type of deep foundation. A pile can be defined as a long vertical load transferring elements made by steel, timber, concrete or a combination of them. Heavy loads are transferred into the soil by two mechanisms that are:

• By the friction between the pile and surrounding
• By the bearing of pile on a hard rock bed at certain depth.

To build up a quality, durable and strong structure, the concrete that is used should contain standard quality. A good quality concrete should be stable, condensed, workable and cost-effective.

The following properties should be maintained to produce a good quality concrete

The following precautions should be taken during preparation of good quality concrete:

To build up a quality, durable and strong structure, the concrete that is used should contain standard quality. A good quality concrete should be stable, condensed, workable and cost-effective.

The following properties should be maintained to produce a good quality concrete

1. The quality of aggregate should have been rigid and long-lasting.
2. The grading of the aggregates should be done perfectly and consistently.
3. Adequate quantities of cement should included in concrete to maintain necessary strength and water-resistance capability.
4. The water does not contain any organic or deleterious materials.
5. The quantity of water should be maintained in such a manner so that the uniformity is retained properly.
6. The proportion of water-cement should keep as minimum as possible.
7. To keep up conformity, mixing of concrete should be performed systematically.
8. To eliminate air bubbles and voids, the freshly arranged concrete should be compacted properly.
9. While transmitting the concrete to the job site, no segregation of or separation of materials should happen in concrete.
10. Concrete that is provided at the point of placing should have been homogeneous & contain right symmetry.
11. Ensure that the concrete is not thrown from a distance of high point to prevent segregation.
12. Curing of concrete should be done perfectly for minimum 28 days.
13. The temperature of concrete should be retained over the freezing point unless it gets rigid enough.
14. It should be stored in even horizontal layer having invariable thickness. Concrete should fill each section in this form.

Ingredients for Concrete Mix

Concrete Mix Ratio Table

Here is the standard chart table showing various grades of concrete mix design along with their respective ratios of cement, sand and aggregates required.

In the large construction, quantity surveyor job is complicated because they perform different functions in various stage of the project. According to RIBA plan of work stage preparation and brief, concept design, developed design, technical design, construction stage, handover and close out and post-occupancy evaluation.

The RIBA plan of work

When construction project begins, the quantity surveyor should prepare some works before construction activity commence. If you are a quantity surveying students or trainee quantity surveyor, you need to remember the following works you should do.

1. Study the drawings carefully ( without study drawing we can’t calculate quantity of any structure )

2. Finalize the items of the work with their units of measurements. Prepare the checklist of the items.

3. Write a brief description of each item of the work on the measurement sheet.

4. Calculate length, width & depth of different components for calculation of quantity of concrete & Formwork.

5. Calculate the quantity of formwork for beams, columns.

6. Enter the length, width/breath & depth/height in measurement sheet for concrete & formwork item.

7. Prepare bar bending schedule.

8. Calculate the length of bars of different diameter in different components such as slab, beam, column, footing etc.

9. Calculate the number of bars of different diameter in different components.

10. Enter the number, length & weight of bar for different bars in different components in Bar bending schedule.

• An entire CMP, that is usually employed by clients to fashion out the entire project, the business objectives from the onset to the after-delivery assessment.

• A CMP that outlines the costs and timeframe of the tasks usually created by the contractor and provides extensive details on how to complete the project.

• A CMP that handles the influence of the project on its environment where a particular format will be followed for the content and layout of the plan as established by the municipality in question.

The objectives determine the beginning of the CMP

An excellent plan is usually developed by putting the completed project into consideration. This is majorly the ability to envision the completed project, structure, the surroundings and every procedure of development required to achieve it. The plan is then matched with the objectives to fix missing or repetitive sections. Construction processes are usually complicated. Making sure a plan is in line with the objective and simultaneously achieving the standard of the client is usually an iterative procedure of modifications and evaluation until everything perfectly

Business Plan

A more robust CMP is required depending on how large the project is. It outlines the details and the location of the project and the reason it is carried out (the anticipated advantages), the process required, who will be responsible, the timeframe. The categories in such CMP will be:

• Business benefit
• Project description
• Project design
• Feasibility/planning authorization
• Construction procedure
• Offer and contract procedure
• Assessment after delivery
• Construction manager/team of the client
• Occupation and deficiency liability timeframe.

Even though CMP is usually developed for the client, there are several contributions that a contractor can still make. Since “Design-Build Operate” is recently gaining prominence, the contractor might participate from the onset to indicate the beneficial areas of the business to the client. The records of the contractor that is based on scheduling and costs can be included as references and addendums.

Project Management

For all the stages of the construction and the corresponding activities, a CMP can be developed by the contractor to outline the costs and schedule of the project. This comprises the independent timeframe for each construction task. Complete evaluation of the anticipated costs (as well as the profitability of the project) and the details concerning the tools and the materials that would be utilized.

Several construction software and tools are available to boost and automate the development of this particular CMP. Both the programs operating in the system of the contractor’s offices or the available online cloud services provide the streamlining of:

• CAD (Computer-Aided Design) for developing both 3D and 2D project designs
• Construction task project managementConstruction accounting
• Construction calculation for project expenses

This particular software can be employed by both contractors and clients depending on the complexity of the project for sharing files and data. Building Information Model (BIM) software can efficiently manage all the information for a more robust CMP.

Construction Site

Based on the magnitude and dynamics of the building construction such as excavation and demolition, the development of another CMP might be required by the local municipality for approval. The covered items are:

• The operating periods
• Site security and public safety.
• Re-use of waste and materials.
• Settings to reduce vibration and noise.
• Traffic management
• Appropriate handling of dust, air, sediments, and stormwater.

It is also required that this particular CMP is submitted for approval beforehand at a pre-specified period. The above software programs. The Project Management CMP can assist in handling the procedures (for instance, project management) and offer important details (for example, site plans for CAD construction.)

Bim Design: Realizing The Creative Potential Of Building Information Modelling

Content :
CHAPTER 1 Information Modelling Today
CHAPTER 2 The Master Builder and Information Modelling
CHAPTER 3 The Creative construction Process, Then and Now
CHAPTER 4 New Methods: New Tools
CHAPTER 5 The Digital States and Information Modelling
CHAPTER 6 Strategies for Component Generation
CHAPTER 7 Assemblies and their Simulation
CHAPTER 8 Conclusions: Authorship and Lines of Development

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In this post, we’ve collected seven free construction estimating templates that will useful for quantity surveyors or any other construction industry professionals and students.

Construction work quote template

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Construction proposal contract template

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Detailed construction estimate template

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Construction soft vs. hard costs template

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Construction estimating and budgeting template

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Itemized construction estimate template

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Construction bid tabulation template

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Project Managers should review the project Status Report with the Project Sponsor in advance of submitting into the PMO. The Project Status Report may also be produced at the Project Manager’s discretion as an input to the project’s Steering Committee Meeting.

When saving and submitting the updated status report to the PMO, the name of the project and the ‘as at’ reporting date should be included in the title of the document e.g. “[project name] Project Status Report [YYMMDD]”.

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Brick Masonary

Brick is a basic building unit which is in the form of rectangular block in which length to breadth ratio is 2 but height can be different.

Normal size (nominal size) 9”×4½” ×3?

Architectural size (Working size) 8 1 ?16? x 4????” x 2 1 ?16?

The art of laying bricks in mortor in a proper systematic manner gives homogeneous mass which can withstand forces without disintigration, called brick masonary.

Brick Sizes

A standard metric brick has coordinating dimensions of 225 x 112.5 x 75 mm (9”×4½” ×3“) called nominal size and working dimensions (actual dimensions) of 215 x 102.5 x 65 mm (8.5“ * 4 *2.5) called architectural size.

The coordinating dimensions are a measure of the physical  space taken up by a brick together with the mortar required on one bed , one header face and one stretcher face.

The working dimensions are the sizes to which manufacturers will try to make the bricks.

Methods of manufacture for many units and components are such that the final piece is not quite the size expected but it can fall within the defined limits.

This can be due to the things like shrinkage,distortion when drying out, firing etc.The difference between the working and coordinating dimensions of a brick is 10mm (0.5“)and this difference is taken up with the layer of mortar into which the bricks are pressed when laying.

The working dimensions are also known as the nominal size of a brick.

Mortar Joints

Mortar placed horizontally below or on the top of a brick is called a bed.

Mortar placed vertically between bricks is called a perpend.

Masonry Wall Requirements

The usual functional requirements of a masonry wall include:

• Adequate strength to support imposed loads
• Sufficient water tightness
• Sufficient visual privacy and sound transmission
• Appropriate fire resistance
• Ability to accommodate heating, air conditioning,electrical, and plumbing equipment
• Ability to receive various finish materials Cost.
• Ability to provide openings such as doors and window.

Objectives of Mix Design

• The purpose of concrete mix design is to ensure the most optimum proportions of the constituent materials to fulfill the requirement of the structure being built. Mix design should ensure following objectives.
• To achieve the designed/ desired workability in the plastic stage
• To achieve the desired minimum strength in the hardened stage
• To achieve the desired durability in the given environment conditions
• To produce concrete as economically as possible.

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Recommended Cement Mortar ratio for Plastering:

How to Calculate Cement and Sand Required for Cement Plastering:
To arrive at the quantities of Cement, Sand and Water required for Plastering work, we need to understand on what parameters do these quantities depend.

1. Volume of Plaster required: Volume of Plaster can be determined by multiplying the area of plastering to be done and thickness of plaster (12 mm in this case)
2. Mix Ratio of Plaster: Mix ratio mean the ratio of Volume of Cement to the Sand used in the mixture. Plaster of mix ratio 1:4 mean that it contains one part of cement and 4 parts of sand by volume. Since the amount of cement and sand changes with the change in the mix ratio, it is one of the most important factors in determining the quantities.

Method-1: DLBD method to Calculate Cement, Sand and Water required for Plaster (1:4)

For calculation purposes, lets assume that the area that needs to be plastered is 100 sqft (10 ft X 10 ft wall) and a Plaster of Mix ratio 1:4 (cement:sand) is used.

We shall use DLBD method (Dry Loose Bulk Density) in determining the ratios. This is the most accurate method as it accounts for the variations in the Loose Bulk Density. Loose bulk density might vary based on the location available materials.

Step-1: Calculate the weights of materials required using bulk densities

Plaster of 1:4 Cement : sand (Volume proportion)

Volume of 1 Bag of Cement (50 kg) = 36 litre or 0.036 cum (cement loose density as 1440 kgs/cum)

Volume of Sand required (using 1:4 proportion) = 0.036 x 4 = 0.144 x 1600 = 230 kgs (considering sand dry bulk density as 1600 kgs/cum.)

Usually around 20% of water by weight of the total dry material is mixed in the mixture to achieve the desired workability.

Water required = Weight of total dry material * 20% = (50+230) x 0.2 = 56 liter = 0.056 cum

*(Keep this handy to derive initial water requirement in any cement mortar)

Step-2: Calculate the volumeof wet plaster mixture

Cement = 50 kgs , Sand = 230 kgs and Water = 56 kgs

Total weight of the mixture = 50+230+56 kgs = 336 kgs

Density of Cement sand mortar = 2200 kg/cum (Approximately)

So, Amount of plaster mortar (1: 4) yielded with one Bag of cement (50 kgs) = 336/2200 = 0.153 cum

Step-3: Calculate Plaster volume required

Amount of plaster mortar required for plastering 100 sq.ft. (10 sq.mtr) area of 12 mm thickness

= 10 x 0.012 = 0.12 cum

Thus to do 100 sq.ft.plaster (12mm thick) with 1:4 proportion, the individual material required are

Step-4: CalculateMaterials required for the plaster volume

Cement needed would be = (50/0.153)x 0.12 = 39.21 kgs. or 0.784 bags

Sand needed would be = (230/0.153)x 0.12 = 180 kgs or 5 cft

Bulkage of Sand is not taken into account. A correction for bulkage has to be taken into account.

Water needed would be = (56/0.153) x 0.12 = 44 liters.

Note: Keep wastage allowance of 5% over and above arrived quantities.

Method-2: Empirical method to Calculate Cement, Sand and Water required for Plaster (1:4):

The empirical method is easiest way to calculate the quantities of materials required. Again considering the same parameters (i.e., Area – 100 sqft or 10 Sq meter and thickness 12mm

Step-1:Calculate the dry volume of cement and sand mixture required

Volume of plaster = Area X Thickness = 10 sq.m. X 0.012 = 0.12 cu.m.

The wet volume of the mixture is always less than the dry volume.

Dry volume of motor required for plastering = 1.27 X Dry volume of plaster = 1.27 X 0.012 = 0.1524 cu.m.

Step-2:Calculatethe volume of Sand and Cement required

The mix ratio of plaster mortar is 1:4, So the volumes of materials required would be

Cement required = 1/5 X 0.1524 = 0.03048 cu.m.

Sand required = 4/5 X 0.1524 = 0.12192 cu.m.

Step-3: Get weights of materials required using densities:

To get the weights of materials required in multiply it with its density

Cement required = 0.03048 cu.m. X 1440 kg/cu.m. = 43.89 Kgs

Since Sand is usually measured in cu.ft. = 0.12192 X 35.29 = 4.302 cu.ft. or 195 kgs

You can calculate the cement and Sand requirement for other Thickness of plaster and Mix ratio by just changing the numbers.

Note: Keep wastage allowance of 5% over and above arrived quantities.