“India, that is Bharat”

Thus begins Article 1 of the Constitution of the largest nation in the Indian subcontinent. Both names are ancient; one is foreign, while the other is local. There are other names, too, but they have no legal relevance currently.

India gets its name from the River Sindhu, which the Persians changed to Hindush and the Greeks to Indus. This river and its valley lie in the northwestern region of the subcontinent. But the name got extended on to the landmass the valley was part of, in a way similar to how the continents Asia and Africa both got their names as well. Bharat is a name of local mythological significance.

The subcontinent is separated from Asia by the mountains formed by the Indian plate colliding into the Eurasian plate. The Himalayas and the Karakoram in the north contain most of the highest peaks in the world. To the west, there is the Hindu Kush, and to the east, there are the Indo Burman Ranges.

Popular history tends to give the impression that these mountain ranges made for a formidable defensive barrier against invasions, at least until the Ghaznavids came calling in the early 11th century.

But this view is completely wrong.

For most of history, the subcontinent has seen encroachments, either as invasions or migrations, consistently for millennia both on its western and eastern frontiers.

The Porous Western Frontier

The oldest urban civilization on record in the Indian subcontinent lies in the Indus Valley. Situated on the western frontier of the subcontinent, this region had played host to many inflows from across the Hindu Kush for centuries.

The Persians, while giving the River Sindhu its new name, also controlled large parts to the west of the river from 6th century BC. When the Persians fell to Macedon, the region came to be controlled by the Macedonian general, Seleucus Nicator, and his descendants. But the Seleucids were unable to hold to the entirety of their vast empire as regional satraps broke away in the periphery.

One such satrap founded the Greco Bactrian kingdom, which included the Indian provinces of the former Persian empire. They were followed by various dynasties of apparent mixed origin referred by historians as Indo Greeks, Indo Scythians (Sakas), and Indo Parthians, all having Central Asian influence.

All of these eventually fell under the influence of the mighty Kushanas, another tribe with Central Asian connections, whose empire stretched from Central India in its east to well beyond the Hindu Kush on its west. The Kushanas played an important role in the spread of the Indian religion of Buddhism to Central Asia and China. With the emergence of the Sassanians in third century Persia, Kushanas began their long decline. But the rule of the second Persian dynasty in the Indus Valley did not last long.

The next centuries saw multiple waves of Central Asian nomads make the Indus Valley their home, beginning with the Kidarites in 4th century, Alchon Huns in 5th century and the Nezak Huns in the 6th century. These waves also attempted to make deeper inroads into the subcontinent as well, clashing with the Guptas and Malwa. More importantly there was also a mixing of cultures as they adopted the religions more prominent in the subcontinent in a manner similar to their predecessors, the Kushanas.

During the same time, Europe also faced multiple waves of nomadic dispersal from their eastern frontiers, not that far from Central Asia. The Roman Empire in Western Europe collapsed on the weight of the routine incursions of the Germanic tribes like Franks, Goths and Lombards who went on to populate Western Europe after Rome’s fall. Later periods saw the arrival of the Avars, the Slavs, the Bulgars, the Magyars and others who also took part and adopted the religion, the language and the culture of the Romans in a way similar to their counterparts in the Indus Valley.

The seventh century saw both Europe and India tackle the same foe – The Arabs. Just as Constantinople and Poitiers managed to keep Arabs limited to the Iberian Peninsula, Arab presence in the subcontinent was limited to Sindh, the basin of the River Sindhu. But the Arab incursions precipitated into the fall of the Nezak Huns, who were replaced by the Turk Shahis. A century and half later, as the Turk Shahis struggled to hold their own against the Persian Saffarids, they were replaced by the Hindu Shahis. Despite their name, their ethnicity is not clear, though they did have close connections with the Hindu kingdoms of the subcontinent later on. It was to the Ghaznavids that the Hindu Shahis would eventually fall.

From the days of Kurush (Cyrus) of Persia* to the days of Kanishka of Kushanas or Mihirakula or Pravarasena of the Alchon Huns and later, the Indus Valley was home to Central Asian settlers who shared a culture with the subcontinent, either by history or through assimilation. Thanks to this centuries long interaction, be it through invasions, migrations or trade, they would have considerable impact deep into the subcontinent.

Just as Latin was displaced by the Romance languages thanks to the cross-cultural society of Germans and Romans borne out of the collapsed shell of the Roman empire, the Indian subcontinent also saw a linguistic shift from Sanskrit / Prakrit to the languages Indians are familiar with today. While the adopters of the Romance languages were the Germanic tribes, to what extend the Central Asian tribes utilized these new Indian languages or influenced its creation cannot be easily ascertained. But given their assimilation of religion and culture, it would not be surprising to see linguistic assimilation as well.

The Unknown Eastern Frontier

While the Indo Burman Ranges form a geographical boundary for the Indian subcontinent, where it actually ends is an open question. Initial versions of the Vedic Aryavarta put its eastern boundary at the Kalaka forest, but this appears to have extended east over time. Nevertheless, even today the northeastern part of the Indian subcontinent appears separate from the rest of the subcontinent due to both physical and political geography.

However, long before the Persians emerged in the Indus Valley, the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent was home to people from beyond the eastern frontier. The Austro Asiatic speaking Munda people have been a mainstay in the subcontinent for close to four thousand years, while Sino Tibetan speakers had also made their presence felt in the region for a long time.

More recently, seven centuries ago, the Ahom dynasty, who originated from the east of the Indo Burman Ranges (present day Myanmar), had established their base in the northeast of the Indian subcontinent. This brought in new a linguistic family to the subcontinent – the Kra-Dai family. The Ahom remained in power for six centuries, but like their western or European counterparts, over time they also adopted the religion, language and culture of the people they ruled.

After 1000

1000 AD marked the initial foray of Ghaznavids into the Indus Valley. However, it took another two decades and half for Mahmud of Ghazni to overcome the Hindu Shahis completely. Another century and half later saw the arrival of the Ghurids who established a Sultanate in the northern part of the subcontinent. The 13th century saw the arrival of the Mongols, later followed by Timur towards the end of the 14th century. Timur’s descendants, the Mughals, invaded in early 16th century, displacing Ghurid successors Delhi. The Mughals allied with the Safavids of Persia to their west, perhaps giving a brief respite to the porous western frontier. But the fall of the Safavids led their successors, the Afsharids (Nader Shah) invade the subcontinent pushing the Mughals into a permanent decline. Nader Shah was soon followed by the Durrani of Afghanistan as the final prominent invader from the west on land.

Unlike their predecessors, the invaders after 1000 pushed their own religion onto the subcontinent. Some of them like Ghazni and Nader Shah came mostly to raid. But others like the Mughals and the successors of the Ghurids became Indians over time as they settled down in the subcontinent.

* It is likely there were incursions to the Indus Valley before the Persians, since we can see similar movement of nomads into Europe and the Levant. I have covered my views on these in my earlier post on the Indus Valley Civilization.

What do the Franks have to do with Indus Valley Civilization? Nothing directly, but the Franks were neither the first nor the last people to switch over to a foreign religion or language while in a position of power. Much before the Franks, the Greek Ptolemies who ruled Egypt had gone native. Closer to India, the Greco Bactrian and the Indo Greek kingdoms had adopted versions of Indian religions and languages as well. In fact, one of the earliest Hindu monuments still standing, the Heliodorus Pillar, was constructed by an Indo Greek ambassador to the court of the Sunga Emperor.

The major debate over the provenance of the Indus Valley Civilization, or Meluha as some of their western neighbours apparently called it at the time, is whether it was Vedic or Dravidian in character. But a simple explanation of a later switch of language and religion can clear this confusion and make it at peace with the current status of the subcontinent.

The Language Debate

Distribution of Language Families around the world. Source: Wikipedia

The Indo European language family is the most widespread language family in the world today. But it was not always the case. Turn the clock back four thousand years and we will struggle to find the language family anywhere on the map.

World in 2000 BC. Source: Wikipedia

Among the complex societies of early second millennium BC, not many wrote in Indo European languages. Those who left behind evidence of their language include the Hittites, the Luwians and the Mitanni of West Asia and the Mycenaean Greeks. There were certainly many more speakers of the Indo European languages during this time period, but if they had written it down, either the samples haven’t survived the test of time (or are yet to be discovered) or it is among the scripts discovered but not decoded like the ones of Meluha.

One of the earliest documents of Vedic Sanskrit, the Rig Veda, is normally attributed to this time period. But since it was passed down orally and not in writing, we are left to infer its time period from its text. There was a set of Indo European speakers arriving near Meluha towards the end of second millennium BC though, the Medes and the Persians. But before we get to them, let us see what we know about the journey of the Indo European languages.

The evolution of Indo European languages as per the Kurgan hypothesis. Source: Wikipedia

Due to lack of actual recorded statements it is difficult to determine the origins of Indo European languages. But the academic consensus leans towards an origin in the Eurasian steppes. There are those who believe it originated in Meluha with Vedic Sanskrit as well. We can, however, infer a path based on genetic studies though.

A recent study concluded that the Indo European Anatolians, the Hittites, shared ancestry with the Yamnaya culture, both having descended from a group in the steppes between North Caucasus and Lower Volga around 4,400 and 4,000 BC, which perhaps is where the language family originated. The Hittites moved into Anatolia around the same time eventually forming an empire around 1750 BC.

From the Yamnaya, the genes moved west to the Corded Ware culture in around 3000 BC and the later Bell Beaker culture (From around 2800 BC) further west. A study from 2015 found high Yamnaya ancestry among the Corded Ware people. The same study also found lesser level of Yamnaya ancestry in Bell Beaker culture, both indicating mixing with local population. A more recent study, still in preprint, trace the genes of Yamnaya culture moving to Greece and Armenia leading to Graeco Armenian languages and Bell Beaker culture moving to Western Europe and Northern Italy leading to Celtic and Italic languages. The genes of the Corded Ware culture are shown moving northward to Germany and Scandinavia, as well as back east to Central Asia. The eastern migration had already been confirmed in a 2015 study which showed that the Sintashta culture (Until around 1900 BC) and the later Andronovo culture (Until around 1150 BC) had Corded Ware ancestry. Another recent study also tracked the much more recent move by Germanic tribes (like the Franks) and Scandinavians in Europe in first millennium AD.

We have run through most of the travels of the Indo European languages from 4500 BC to 1150 BC, but we still have not reached India or Iran. I also skipped two of the Indo European speakers in Anatolia – the Luwians and the Mitanni. The Luwians and the Hittites have a much older history and it is likely that the Luwians got their language from the same source as that of their neighbours, the Hittites. But the origin of Mitanni was much more different – They were Vedic.

Horses

One of the complicated parts of Rig Veda is the presence of horses. There is pretty much no archaeological evidence to show that horses were important in Meluha. But that was certainly not the case for the Vedic people. Horses have a strong connection with the Indo Europeans as well. It was initially believed that the quick pace of Indo European promotion in Europe has to do with the familiarity the Yamnaya people had with horses.

But it wasn’t the case.

There is some evidence that the Botai people, who lived around the same time as Yamnaya and not that far from them, had domesticated horses, but these horses are not related to modern horses. It is quite possible, however, for multiple societies to have domesticated horses at different times. Present day domestic horses carry the DOM2 lineage and these first appear around 2000 BC.

And guess which people lived in the same region around the same time and had a lot of dealings with horses – the Sintastha.

The connection between Indo Europeans and horses is well documented as well. The Mitanni, who emerged in West Asia in second millennium BC knew a lot about horses. Kikkuli, a Mitanni horse trainer, left behind a text on training horses in Hattusa, the capital of the Hittites. The Medes and the Persians, though from a later time period, were also engaged in domestication of horses. While they retained their pastoral lifestyle after moving to Iran from Central Asia, it was their prowess over horses that, among other things, enabled them to displace the Assyrians and the Babylonians and carve out their own empire. It was initially the Medes who made it big only to be displaced by the Persians later.

The Persian Empire was unlike anything the world had ever seen until then. Their earliest mention is in 9th century BC having moved to present day Southern Iran from Central Asia, but within centuries their empire stretched from Asia to Europe and Africa.

Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones writes in his book “Persians” that they had a perceivable advantage due to their nomadic lifestyle. In Iran, they lived with the Elamites, an ancient people who had been living in the region for many centuries. But settling down brought the Elamites disadvantages in difficult times. Crop failures or raids could destroy this urban life. The Persians were immune to such things, relying more on their pack animals and foraging for trade and food.

Further east was Meluha. Another people like the Elamites living in towns and cities with agriculture, crafts and trade, as archaeology shows. The Vedic people, however, were largely nomadic and pastoral, just like the Persians. It won’t be surprising if Meluha consisted of urban Dravidians and pastoral Vedic people living side by side just like the Elamites and the Persians.

If it only were that simple.

The Third Wheel

It is ironic that at a time when humans were dependent on river deltas for livelihood, one of the most densely populated river deltas in today’s world didn’t have much to show for. While Indus Valley got off to a good start, its eastern counterpart, the Ganga Brahmaputra delta hardly got a mention. Perhaps unsurprisingly, after the collapse of Meluha, it is from the eastern city of Pataliputra that the subcontinent began its recovery. But who was it that lived there?

India is home to four language families – Indo European, Dravidian, Austro Asiatic and Sino Tibetan. Interestingly, the Rig Veda contains influence of three of these four families. While based primarily in Indo European Sanskrit, Rig Veda also contains loan words from Dravidian and Austro Asiatic languages, and it was in the east of India that the Austro Asiatic speakers had made their home.

The presence of loan words from the Austro Asiatic Munda language in Rig Veda indicate, at the very least, an interaction between the Vedic people and the Munda community. A genetic study in 2019 showed that they have close historic genetic linkages with certain communities in present day Malaysia and the Paniya and Pulliyar communities in South India. It is likely that they came to the subcontinent around 2000 BC and played an important role in rice cultivation as well, especially since many of the Vedic loan words from the Munda language are related to rice and agriculture.

But what else did they bring to the table?

Genetic Legacy of Austro Asiatic speakers in Indian subcontinent. Source: Nature

The Religion Debate

The Vedic religion is generally seen as a precursor to Hinduism which dominates the Indian subcontinent today. But it takes a longer stride to reach from the Vedic religion to Hinduism, than needed for say Judaism to reach Islam. While many dates earlier than 2000 BC have been given for the Rig Veda, there is written evidence for Vedic religion (Not the language) in the treaties by the Mitanni in 14th century BC. The mirror of asuras and devas in the Persian Zoroastrian religion and the Indian Hindu religion has been noted elsewhere.

All these point to a likely scenario where the Vedic religion represented a period of unity of the Vedic people of Meluha and the Persians (and perhaps the Medes as well) as shown by the asura / deva pantheon in the Rig Veda and Mitanni literature. However, at a date after Rig Veda was prepared in Meluha and the Mitanni had left for Anatolia, the two either drifted apart or split in battle leading to a negation of each other’s deities.

While this takes care of the Vedic pantheon, how does the Hindu pantheon emerge from it? The prominent deities of Rig Veda were Indra, Agni, Varuna and Mitra, while those of the later Hindu pantheon are Vishnu and Shiva.

As River Saraswathi weakened, the people of Meluha, both Vedic and Dravidian, moved inwards into the subcontinent which likely already hosted Austro Asiatic and other Dravidian communities. What were their religious beliefs? We also do not know what were the beliefs of the Dravidians in Meluha either.

Now for some speculation.

South East Asia has considerable literature, architecture and culture dedicated to Hinduism, especially Vishnu and Rama. While it is generally accepted to be a result of interactions of Indians in South East Asia, what if it wasn’t? Even when Rig Veda was being recorded, a South East Asian population was already influencing it through loanwords.

The first millennium BC saw Magadha with its capital in Pataliputra rise to pre-eminence in North India. While the initial rulers may have been Jains, before Asoka turned them Buddhist, it is likely that Hinduism came into prominence only after Pushyamitra Shunga took over the power in 185 BC. It was to the court of the Shungas that the Indo Greek ambassador we saw earlier had come and built the Heliodorus pillar.

But that doesn’t mean that the Vedic religion was forgotten in the midst of the Magadhan hegemony. Away from power and prominence, Vedic religion evolved taking on local flavours to become what we call today as the Hinduism.

With Pataliputra sitting very much in Eastern India, it is possible that the Austro Asiatic communities had a role in this evolution. Present day Eastern India is also known for its popular worship of Goddess Durga. Could that be another Austro Asiatic influence as well, although there are parts of Rig Veda that favour the Devi? Incidentally, the Paniya community mentioned earlier as kin to the Munda also worship Durga, among other deities. It is also likely that the emergence of Krishna, the other popular avatar of Vishnu, also happened during this time period.

As the Vedic and the Dravidian people moved east and merged with the existing populace, the Vedic religion mixed with the Austro Asiatic pantheon and the Dravidian pantheon to formulate the new Hindu pantheon. Was Shiva the contribution of the Dravidians? Or did they add on something else? And what about the Jains?

Hinduism wasn’t the only prominent religion in first millennium BC Indian subcontinent. Buddhism and Jainism also had their time in the sun. While the origin of Buddhism to the same time period is better attested, the origin of Jainism is not. In fact, Jains claim a much older origin, perhaps preceding even Meluha. So, what if along with being Shaivite, another section of Dravidians of Meluha and the larger Indian subcontinent were Jains? This makes sense given the reach of Jains in first millennium BC was throughout the subcontinent.

To sum up, urban Dravidians who either worshipped Shiva and/or were Jains lived a life immersed in agriculture, crafts and trade in Meluha, along side pastoral Vedic people. They interacted with Austro Asiatic rice farmers in Eastern India. As Meluha decayed, they moved inwards and merged with the Austro Asiatic people sharing their beliefs and cultures. Over time the Indo European languages of the Vedic people came to dominate in the north while the Dravidian language came to dominate in the south. These may have been largely coincidental or due to who dominated initially, either politically or numerically, in the merged society. It is possible that the numbers of Austro Asiatic people were never that high, or many switched to Indo European or Dravidian languages and went with the religious beliefs of the merged society.

The Googly

As mentioned earlier both the Yamnaya and the Botai culture were familiar with horses and may have attempted to domesticate them. While the Yamnaya migrated south and west, the Botai appears to have disappeared over time. So, when the descendants of Yamnaya migrated back to Central Asia centuries later, would they have found people already familiar with horses living there?

The Vedic pantheon with its asura and deva deities has the appearances of the aftermath of a societal change. When societies with different beliefs merge, their pantheons may also merge. Or when they go through upheaval, everything may go for a toss. Like the Greek Titanomachy or the Æsir–Vanir War. Speaking of Æsir, the Corded Ware culture which contributed to the Sintastha culture also contributed to the Germanic and Nordic cultures. Did the Æsir and the asuras have the same origin from the Corded Ware culture? Did the Hittite Tarḫunna and the Germanic Wōden share the same origin? Stretching the guess even further, was Æsir connected to the Ashur of the Assyrians?

The Sintastha and the Andronovo cultures may have provided the gathering point for the believers of the asuras and the devas to share notes on horses, languages and beliefs, before they split up and reverted to earlier belief structures. In the process, the deva worshippers may have adopted the Indo European tongue of their partners from the west.

We will never know, until better evidence comes along. Until then, we can always speculate.

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So, where did anti-trust come from? For that we need to go back to the last quarter of the 19th century.

The Gilded Age

The period from the 1870s to end of the 19th century was one of remarkable economic advances for the United States of America. Recovering from the Civil War in the 1860s, US grew rapidly, far away from the global powers of Europe that dominated the world at the time. While the period has also been linked with blatant corruption, it set the stage for US to become the major global power of the 20th century.

This economic progress was driven by the hands of few industrialists that became the dominant forces in their field. Their descendants continue to be among the wealthiest families in US even now, more than a century later. It was a time when US was getting connected from the Atlantic to the Pacific. It was in the railway lines that many made their money, chief among them were the likes of Cornelius Vanderbilt and Leland Stanford. Steel, an industry linked to rail construction, also developed well with Andrew Carnegie emerging as the strongest player in the industry, until he sold off his business to financier JP Morgan in 1901 to create US Steel. JP Morgan also had made more than enough money from the railway network as well.

While the railroad companies grew unabated and unregulated setting their own prices, calls to rein them in began to rise. The US federal structure was such that the states had limited ability to regulate outside their borders. But in 1887, US federal government stepped in with the Interstate Commerce Act to regulate business that went beyond state borders, and the railroad industry was the first to face regulation.

Three years later came the Sherman Anti-Trust Act to outlaw monopolistic business practices. But the new Act proved ineffective in 1895 when it failed against EC Knight Company that took over American Sugar Refining Company to dominate 98% of the US sugar refining business. It was only in 1911 that the Sherman Anti-Trust Act finally made its mark by bringing down one of the biggest companies of the world at the time, a company that was once a trust.

Standard Oil

Standard Oil was founded in 1870 by John D Rockefeller, along with his brother William Rockefeller, Samuel Andrews, Henry Fagler and Stephen Harkness. They started out in the US state of Ohio as Standard Oil Company of Ohio and went on to reach a dominant position in the market partly through favourable rates from railroad companies. By 1882, they had formed many Standard Oil companies in other US states, which is when Rockefeller formed the Standard Oil Trust.

In this context, stockholders in several companies transferred their shares to a single set of trustees. In exchange, the stockholders received a certificate entitling them to a specified share of the consolidated earnings of the jointly managed companies. It turned out to be an effective workaround against state laws that hindered Standard Oil’s growth. Using the trust structure, Rockefeller consolidated his dominant position in the market. Though the trust did not last, Standard Oil mutated into a tangled ownership structure with Rockefeller and the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey in control.

Ironically, this was a time before automobiles were common. Standard Oil made money from kerosene that was used to light homes. Nevertheless, it helped Rockefeller become one of the richest men in the world back then.

The trust structure Standard Oil used was not unique by any means. Others also used it to gain prominence in their own industries as well. It was these trusts that US Senator John Sherman targeted with the Anti-Trust Act since many were abusing their position in the market.

Trust Busters ?

Despite its initial failures, the Anti Trust Act made new ground when Theodore Roosevelt became the US President in 1901. In 1904, Roosevelt held on to dissolve Northern Securities Company, which controlled three rail networks in western US. More such breakups followed with US eventually targeting Standard Oil Company towards the end of Roosevelt’s second Presidency.

It was finally in 1911 that Standard Oil was broken up into 34 different companies. The same day American Tobacco Company was broken up into 4 different companies as well. The Anti-Trust Act had finally made its mark. It was later bolstered with the Clayton Anti-Trust Act of 1914 and was crucial in the dismantling of AT&T in 1982 and weakening Microsoft’s internet browser dominance in 1998.

Though Standard Oil got broken up, it also created more companies that went on to dominate the oil industry. Standard Oil Company of New Jersey came to be branded as Esso, becoming Exxon in 1973 later merging with Standard Oil Company of New York (Mobil in 1963) in 1999 to create ExxonMobil. Standard Oil Company of California acquired Standard Oil of Kentucky in 1961 and rebranded as Chevron later. These two are among the biggest companies in the world today. Other Standard Oil Companies were taken over by BP (formerly known as British Petroleum) and Royal Dutch Shell as well, as Standard Oil and the Rockefeller family continue to make money from their broken up former trust.

Even though anti-trust made its headlines breaking big companies, in the long run it could not prevent the accumulation of wealth with certain companies or individuals. Just like Standard Oil, AT&T also emerged stronger after its breakup in 1982. Divided into seven regional “Baby Bells,” four of them merged to re-form AT&T, while two others merged to become Verizon. In fact, big businesses often find value in breaking themselves up to unlock more value for its shareholders, as can be seen by the more recent division of food conglomerate Kraft into Kraft and Mondelez, after its acquisition of Cadbury. Kraft itself had been bought out by cigarette manufacturer, Philip Morris in 1988 before being spun off in 2007 as an independent company.

In that sense, the anti competition law and big business have evolved together since the Sherman Anti-Trust Act to give the optimum results for both the shareholders as well as the general public.

(An edited version of this article was published in Thrissur Management Association’s in house bulletin, Management Voice in May 2023)

Initially, hunting, agriculture and forages generated resources, but that could be taken away if it was not fully secured. Humans could raid and battle others to take away hard earned resources, but this was soon countered by buildings, cities and eventually states, all funded in the end through taxes. Though trade, commerce and industry formed an important part of the society, it was war that dominated the affairs and brought in maximum resources for many centuries.

From the fifteenth century, the age of exploration (and global colonization by Europe) led to the gradual displacement of war by the more profitable international trade. The explosion of population from the nineteenth century went a long way in improving the role of business in the world around us, since it opened many more lucrative opportunities for people to engage themselves.

Not that war went away completely. It still dominates many national budgets, albeit under the milder guise of defence.

However, a mainstay in a war driven economy continues on in the business driven economy as well.

“In the long run, we are all dead”

Wealth can outlast the living, but like genes, it can also be inherited. As states began to prosper, power came to be centred around its leaders, and soon dynasties emerged. Though democracy has become the norm in many parts of the world today, we still have royal dynasties thriving after lasting for many centuries. The Japanese royal family are among the world’s oldest, while the current monarchs of Spain and Luxembourg belong to a family that first became kings in France in late 9th century.

Just like royal dynasties, we also have business dynasties now, some of which like the Rockefellers or the Tatas are over a century old. But amidst these long lasting dynasties, there is another feature that business dynasties have in common with their royal counterparts, and that is their internal rivalries.

A divided nation or a divided business

In the 1920s, two brothers, Rudolf and Adolf, formed their own shoe manufacturing company. The company was widely successful, but after the Second World War, their relationship soured. The two split and formed their own companies. The split carried on to the next generation with Rudolf’s son, Armin, and Adolf’s son, Horst, but the two companies also became the world’s leading athletic footwear manufacturers. The company Rudolf formed was Puma, while the one Adolf created was Adidas.

Centuries earlier, two sisters, Urraca and Teresa, fought each other for their own country. Both were the daughters of Alfonso VI, King of León, Castile and Galicia, regions of present day Spain. Alfonso had only one legitimate son, who had predeceased him, and so Urraca succeeded her father as queen in 1109. Teresa, who was illegitimate, ruled a part of Galicia with her husband Henri, but as a subordinate to her sister. However, Teresa rebelled against her sister and eventually her son, Afonso, managed to break away from Galician control. In 1139, Afonso was recognised as the first king of Portugal, the region that broke away from Galicia. Castile would try to regain control of Portugal many times, briefly ruling Portugal from 1580 to 1640, but all the time, with mainly English help, Portugal managed to keep themselves away from Castilian and later Spanish control.

Amicable pacts that went awry

One way to resolve family differences is to have a family pact beforehand. But even these can go awry. At times, siblings arrive at a mutual pact after years of rivalry. Recently, we saw the Ambani brothers divide their father’s business empire after years of bitter feud. Long long time ago, three brothers, Lothair, Louis and Charles, also set out to divide their father’s empire amongst themselves.

Lothair, Louis and Charles were the surviving sons of Louis the Pious, the Frankish emperor who ruled a region that covered present day France, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Monaco, Andorra, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Northern Italy and parts of Northern Spain. When Louis the Pious died in 840, the three brothers began to fight each other. After three years of war, the three finally agreed to peace with the Treaty of Verdun. The eldest, Lothair, succeeded as emperor, taking the middle portion of the empire, stretching from Netherlands across the Alps to Northern Italy. Charles got the western part, while Louis got the eastern part. Lothair died in 855, leading to another division and further divisions followed in 870 and 880.

Unfortunately, the treaties did not end the rivalry, and their dynasty soon died out. However, the 843 pact is still relevant today. The western part became France, while the eastern part became Germany and the region in between has been contested for centuries. One of the key components of the middle region, Alsace-Lorraine has changed hands multiple times the past two centuries.

Evolving inheritance

In 2022, we saw King Charles III take over as monarch from his mother, Queen Elizabeth II. Although the official coronation is yet to happen, succession may look seamless. But this process has been build upon many years of civil war and internal strife. In fact, England has seen sons rebelling against their father, cousins fighting each other and even a case of a queen expelling her husband from kingship and putting her son in his place. But with monarchies becoming more constitutional than autocratic, succession planning has become far simpler.

This can be seen in businesses as well.

Many family owned businesses rely on professional management to run their business. For example, the German FMCG major, Henkel, which is family owned and into their fifth generation of the founder’s descendants, has family representatives not in management, but in a shareholding committee and supervisory board that monitors the management. This may not be ideal for every family owned business though. Each business should find its own culture and develop their own pacts to ensure peaceful transition of ownership from one generation to another.

One a closing note, around 1015, Vladimir, the Grand Prince of Kiev, who ruled all of the Rus’ state died. His domain was divided between his twelve sons with the eldest as the nominal family head ruling Kiev. It didn’t take long for the brothers to start fighting each other. For the next five centuries, the descendants of Vladimir continued to fight each other, while they were being defeated by the Mongols and the Lithuanians. They paid tribute to the Mongols for two centuries, while the Lithuanians conquered Kiev and Minsk, leaving only a small state based out of Moscow. It was only in the 17th century that the Rus’ could finally take back Kiev, while Minsk took another century. But by then, the culture of the three regions had become so vastly different that we now have three nations where there was only one – Russia (Moscow), Ukraine (Kiev) and Belarus (Minsk).

Mainly because family could not get along with each other.

(An edited version of this article was published in Thrissur Management Association’s in house bulletin, Management Voice, available here)

An everlasting empire finally crumbles.

Alas, all things that begin will eventually end.

But with every ending, there is scope for a new beginning.

Murad was born in 1404 to Mehmed. Mehmed was the son of Bayezid, the Ottoman Sultan who was captured by Timur in 1402. This led to a period of anarchy in the Sultanate. By 1413, Mehmed had managed to defeat his brothers and take over as Sultan of the entire Sultanate. 1/10

The Ottoman had Sultanate emerged in late 13th century after the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm was defeated by the Mongols. Many beyliks rose up in the Anatolian peninsula, one among which was ruled by the ancestors of Bayezid, Mehmed and Murad. 2/10

In the 14th century, the Ottomans were able to take advantage of civil war in Constantinople to develop a base in Europe, eventually making Edirne in Europe their capital. Bayezid expanded into Europe defeating the Bulgars and enforced vassalage on Slavic principalities. 3/10

Sultan Bayezid also expanded into the Anatolian peninsula annexing other beyliks. Though his capture and death in captivity led to a brief reversal of fortunes, it began to stabilize once Mehmed overcame his brothers. However, Mehmed died in 1421. 4/10

Murad succeeded his father as Sultan, but it was not an easy succession. The Emperor of Constantinople, Manuel Palaiologos, intervened in Ottoman affairs by backing competitors to the throne. However, by 1425, Murad had overcome them and reimposed tribute on Constantinople. 5/10

Next, Sultan Murad beseiged Thessalonica. The Greek city had fallen to the Ottomans earlier but had been retaken by Constantinople after the disaster of 1402. By 1430, Thessalonica was back in Ottoman hands. However, the Ottomans now had other threats to face. 6/10

The Karamanids of Anatolia allied with the Serbs and the Hungarians in Europe against the Ottomans. The Ottomans were initially successful, but after the Holy Roman Empire and Poland came to back their fellow Europeans, Sultan Murad had to deal with defeats. 7/10

By 1443, Niš and Sofia had been retaken by the Europeans. After another defeat at Jalowaz in 1444, Sultan Murad made peace with his opponents and abdicated from the throne, leaving his 12 year old son, Mehmed, in charge. 8/10

Christendom amassed at Varna to push the Ottomans out of Europe. Led by the young Polish king Władisław and the Hungarian general János Hunyadi, the Christians got the initial advantage. But a rash assault by the king eventually led to a comprehensive victory for Murad. 9/10

Murad returned as Sultan in 1446. He led the Ottomans to victory against the Hungarians at Kosovo in 1448 and overcame the Timurids and the Karamanids in the east. He died in 1451 and was succeeded by his son, Mehmed, who went on to conquer Constantinople in 1453. 10/10

Originally tweeted by Ranjith Kollannur (@Arby_K) on December 30, 2022.

Murad, Ottoman Sultan (1421-1444, 1446-1451) – A period of consolidation for Ottoman presence in Europe and the setup of its eventual conquest of Constantinople, its capital for over 450 years.

When the Romance sustained the fallen empire of the Latins, there were a few who sought a different script.

Rastislav was born in early 9th century. His father may have been Wistrach and his uncle Mojmír, the Duke of Moravia. Little is known about Rastislav’s youth, until 846 when Franks invaded Moravia and installed Rastislav as the Duke of Moravia. 1/10

Moravia emerged as a semi independent state in Central Europe not long after the Franks had defeated the Avars in late 8th century. Moravia was not the first power in the region though. The Slavic states of Samo and of Nitra had lasted briefly during various times as well. 2/10

Mojmír led the Moravians from the 820s, but the Franks exerted a dominant influence over the region. However, the Frankish control loosened during the Frankish civil wars after the death of the Frankish Emperor Hludowic in 840. 3/10

Mojmír attempted to free Moravia from Frankish control but was eventually forced out of power by Hludowic's son, Hludowic, who got the eastern part of the Frankish realm (Including Moravia) when the brothers made peace in 843. 4/10

Hludowic installed Rastislav as the Duke of Moravia. Rastilav worked to stabilize his control over Moravia and began to expand into the neighbouring regions. As he grew stronger, he also sought to get rid off his Frankish overlords, just like his predecessor. 5/10

Faced with a Frank-Bulgar alliance on its borders, Rastislav looked to Constantinople for an alliance. Among other things, Constantinople sent them two brothers, Constantine (Better known as Cyril) and Methodius, to spread Christianity in Moravia. 6/10

The brothers used Slavonic language and devised the Glagolitic alphabet for fulfilling their responsibilities. The alliance between Moravia and Constantinople, however, was not fruitful, since Hludowic besieged his wavering vassal and deposed him in 869. 7/10

Rastislav was captured and imprisoned, where he later died. The Franks replaced him with his nephew, Svatopluk, who had to come terms with the Franks initially. But with Frankish power weakening and Bulgars occupied with Constantinople, Svatopluk was able to expand Moravia. 8/10

After Methodius died in 885, Svatopluk expelled his disciples from Moravia. They later ended up with the Bulgars, who had by then had come to terms with Constantinople. The Glagolitic alphabet eventually evolved to become the Cyrillic alphabet used to the present day. 9/10

After Svatopluk's death, the state of Moravia collapsed with their vassals in Bohemia displacing them. The name of Moravia continued as a Margraviate within Bohemia for many centuries. 10/10

Originally tweeted by Ranjith Kollannur (@Arby_K) on December 22, 2022.

Rastislav, Duke of Moravia (846-869) – The origin of the Cyrillic alphabet in present day Slavic languages.

An ancient empire, formally united but informally fractured, is torn apart after a foreign invasion.

Decades later, it is revived but without a few missing pieces.

Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck was born in 1815 to Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand von Bismarck and Wilhelmine Luise Mencken. Hailing from Schönhausen, the Bismarcks were a prominent noble family of the Kingdom of Prussia, with connections in Pomerania. 1/10

Prussia became a kingdom in 1701, but its major part was Brandenburg in the centuries old Holy Roman Empire. Invasion by the French in early 19th century led to the dissolution of this empire, with many of its regions joining Napoleon backed Confederation of the Rhine. 2/10

The Germany that Bismarck grew up in was a divided one. After Napoleon was defeated, the broken empire became a loose confederation of states led by the Empire of Austria and the Kingdoms of Prussia, Bavaria, Hanover, Württemberg and Saxony. 3/10

Bismarck moved to Berlin, the capital of Brandenburg, for his studies, with a brief stint at Göttingen in Hanover. A stint in the Prussian civil service did not last (apparently because he got bored), and he returned home to manage his family estates. 4/10

In 1847, Bismarck attended the Prussian legislature. He contributed to "Neue Preußische Zeitung" and quickly gained the reputation of being a conservative royalist. He also favoured use of force to counter the liberal revolutions that swept through Europe the following year. 5/10

He also opposed an attempt to reunite Germany since he expected Prussia to get sidelined. As a staunch royalist, Bismarck soon became Prussia's representative in Frankfurt, where German unification was discussed, and later as ambassador to Russia and France. 6/10

In 1862, the Prussian king Wilhelm recalled Bismarck to resolve his conflict with the Prussian legislature. Bismarck became the Minister President of Prussia but was unable to get the military budget the king wanted. But events elsewhere changed things in favour of Bismarck. 7/10

In 1863, Denmark attempted to bring Schleswig under a joint Constitution, which was a violation of an earlier agreement with Prussia and Austria. Bismarck took the lead in war with Denmark which ended with most of Schleswig becoming Prussian and Holstein Austrian. 8/10

In 1866, it was Holstein's turn to face Prussia. Austria allied with Hanover, Hesse-Kassel and Nassau, but were defeated by Prussia. Bismarck had allied with Italy, who sought Venetia and Friuli ruled by the Austrian Habsburgs. The divided Austrian force lost both wars. 9/10

North German Confederation was formed in 1867, with Prussia at its centre. In 1870, Bismarck manoeuvred the French into a war against Prussia, leading to other German states supporting Prussia. German victory eventually led to the reunification of Germany (without Austria). 10/10

Originally tweeted by Ranjith Kollannur (@Arby_K) on December 18, 2022.

Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck, Chancellor of Germany (1871-1890), Minister President of Prussia (1862-1873, 1873-1890) – His contributions were crucial towards the reunification of Germany in 19th century.

The republican who united a kingdom.

Camillo Benso was born in 1810 to Michele Benso, Marquis of Cavour, and Adélaïde Suzanne de Sellon. The Bensos were prominent nobility of Savoy. Camillo also had a distinguishing French connection thanks to his mother and his godmother Pauline, sister of Emperor Napoleon. 1/10

The early 18th century saw the French under Napoleon occupy Savoy. But the Bensos managed to see through it in a favourable manner eventually. Young Camilo's career prospects improved with his appointment as page to Carlo Alberto, Prince of Carignano in 1824. 2/10

Prince Carlo Alberto belonged to a cadet branch of the House of Savoy that ruled the Duchy of Savoy and the Kingdom of Sardinia. In 1824, he was also next in line to the ducal and royal titles, since King Carlo Felice had no children. 3/10

But Benso was neither keen on the post, nor got along with the prince. In 1826, he ended up as a lieutenant in the engineering corps. However, this period saw him exposed to liberal and republican values that contradicted with his state. He resigned his commission in 1831. 4/10

He lived in Savoy managing his family estate in Grinzane, taking an interest in the agriculture and the economy of his region. He also travelled extensively in Europe and developed on his earlier views. His written works also gained popularity in Europe. 5/10

In 1847, Benso began Il Risorgimento, a newspaper with a liberal theme and directed at Italian nationalism. Italy, which had been divided for centuries, was in the hands of Savoy, the Pope, the Bourbons of Two Sicilies, the Habsburgs of Lombardy Venetia and many more. 6/10

1848 was a year for revolutions across Europe and Italy was not immune. Savoy went to war against the Habsburgs but lost in the end. King Carlo Alberto abdicated soon after the defeat and his son, Vittorio Emanuele, became the king of Sardinia. 7/10

In the new ministry formed under Massimo d'Azeglio as Prime Minister of Sardinia, Camillo Benso became the Minister of Agriculture and Trade. Later, he also added Finance. But by 1852, Benso had displaced d'Azeglio as Prime Minister. 8/10

Benso, who had come to be known as Count of Cavour, was able to diplomatically manoeuvre the French, ruled by his godmother's nephew Emperor Napoleon III, into an alliance against the Habsburgs. This eventually led to the annexation of Lombardy by Sardinia. 9/10

The war led to revolutions across central Italy, helping Cavour annex central Italy for Sardinia, despite the loss of Nice and Savoy to France. With Garibaldi acquiring southern Italy, the Italian peninsula (except for Rome) was reunited by the time Cavour died in 1861. 10/10

Originally tweeted by Ranjith Kollannur (@Arby_K) on December 15, 2022.

Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, Prime Minister of Italy (1861), Prime Minister of Sardinia (1852-1859, 1860-1861) – His contributions were crucial towards the reunification of Italy after 13 centuries of division.

A principality in the middle of a civil war becomes a haven for refugee princes.

Many new monarchs arose from among these princes, while the civil war in the principality continued intermittently for centuries.

Iaroslav Vladimirovich was born around 980 to Vladimir Sviatoslavich, Grand Prince of Kiev, and Rogned of Polotsk. Vladimir was initially supposed to rule only in Novgorod, but he had taken Kiev and Dereva from his brothers by 980. 1/10

Iaroslav was given an early charge of Rostov and, later, of Novgorod by 1010. But he sought Kiev and rebelled against his father, when he saw that one of his many brothers may be given Kiev. However, Vladimir died in 1015 and his domain got divided between his sons. 2/10

Eventually, it was Sviatopolk who got hold of Kiev. But Iaroslav soon invaded Kiev and expelled Sviatopolk, with the help of the Rus' of Novgorod and Scandinavian mercenaries. Sviatopolk returned with Polish help and recovered Kiev. 3/10

The Polish help did not last and Iaroslav was able to expel Sviatopolk again in 1019. Iaroslav's troubles were not over though. In 1024, he was defeated by his brother, Mstislav of Chernigov. But the two made up and decided to divide the Rus' state between themselves. 4/10

Iaroslav cultivated strong ties with his neighbours. While his father had allied with Constantinople, Iaroslav allied with Sweden, marrying Ingegerd, daughter of the Swedish king. Mercenaries from Scandinavia were also useful for service in Constantinople. 5/10

The Swedish connection also brought him refugees fleeing the Danish invasion of Norway, including the later king of Norway, Harald "Hardrada" Sigurdson. Princes of Hungary and England also found refuge in Iaroslav's court, escaping from rivals taking over their home nation. 6/10

Harald "Hardrada" Sigurdson became King of Norway in 1046, after years in service of the Emperor of Constantinople, while Prince András became king of Hungary the same year, after the Hungarians expelled the Venetian Pietro Orseolo, who had become their king in 1038. 7/10

They were both married to Iaroslav's daughters and so was the French king, Henri. Iaroslav's sons, meanwhile, married Polish and Byzantine princesses. After Mstislav's death in 1036, Iaroslav acquired his territory reuniting most of his father's vast realm. 8/10

Iaroslav developed Kiev taking Constantinople as an inspiration. He managed to acquire Halych from Poland and relieve Kiev from a Pecheneg siege. But his plans for Constantinople were met with failure. He died in 1054 ruling for almost 40 years. 9/10

He divided his domain between his many sons, with Iziaslav, his eldest surviving son, succeeding in Kiev and nominal head. However, Iziaslav was deposed by the people of Kiev in 1068 and soon fraternal rivalries emerged keeping the Rus’ state divided for centuries. 10/10

Originally tweeted by Ranjith Kollannur (@Arby_K) on December 10, 2022.

Iaroslav Vladimirovich, Grand Prince of Kiev (1019-1054), Prince of Rostov (996-1010), Prince of Novgorod (1010-1034) – The emergence of Rus’ state as a European nation with ties across Europe.

A kingdom sought by two dynasties.

But both die out in quick succession in the male line.

Another emerges, with a noble ruling as king in all but title, on behalf of his son crowned as king.

Birger Magnusson was born around 1210 to Magnus “Minnesköld” Bengtsson and Ingrid Ilva. Magnus was the grandson of the powerful Scandinavian noble, Folke, while Ingrid may have been a descendant of Sverker, King of Sweden in mid 12th century. 1/10

The kingdom of Sweden claimed land on the western and eastern coasts of the Baltic Sea in the 13th century. However, the crown itself was held between two dynasties since Sverker's death in 1156; by Sverker's family and that of Erik who became king after Sverker. 2/10

Birger's family retained an influential position in Sweden during the rule of both dynasties. His paternal uncle, Birger "Brosa" Bengtsson, was the Jarl of Sweden when Knut Eriksson was king. The senior Birger also retained strong marital ties with the family of Sverker. 3/10

In 1222, the family of Sverker died out in the male line with the death of King Johan. His sister, Helena, was married to Sune Folkason, a grandson of Birger Brosa. Erik Eriksson, from the family of Erik, became the new king. 4/10

In 1243, King Erik married Katarina, daughter of Sune Folkason and Helena, in 1243 connecting the two royal dynasties. Birger Magnusson, by the meantime, had married King Erik's sister, Ingeborg. 5/10

Birger was appointed Jarl of Sweden by 1248. His predecessor, Ulf, was likely a son of Birger's uncle, Karl "Döve" Bengtsson. Two years later, King Erik died without any children. As the king's brother-in-law, Birger may have been a potential candidate for the throne. 6/10

Instead, Birger's eldest son, Valdemar, born around 1237, was elected as king. But given the new king's minority, it was the Jarl Birger who really ruled Sweden. He cultivated strong ties with his neighbours, Denmark and Norway, though not in Finland. 7/10

There had been intermittent warfare between the different tribes on either coast of the Baltic Sea, but by the time Birger died in 1266, Sweden had consolidated its hold over Finland. Finland remained part of Sweden until 1809, when it was conquered by Russia. 8/10

It was only after 1266 that Valdemar could rule independently. However, he was soon deposed by Birger's younger son, Magnus "Ladulås" Birgersson, in 1275. The subsequent kings of Sweden were descendants of King Magnus. 9/10

The dynasty peaked under another Magnus, a grandson of the first Magnus, who ruled both Sweden & Norway. His grandson, Olav, was the last of Birger's house, dying young, but as king of Denmark and Norway, setting the stage for his mother to unite Scandinavia under her rule. 10/10

Originally tweeted by Ranjith Kollannur (@Arby_K) on December 8, 2022.

Birger Magnusson, Jarl of Sweden (1248-1266) – The Swedish conquest of Finland which led to Swedish rule in Finland for close to six centuries