<?xml version='1.0' encoding='UTF-8'?><rss xmlns:atom="http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom" xmlns:openSearch="http://a9.com/-/spec/opensearchrss/1.0/" xmlns:blogger="http://schemas.google.com/blogger/2008" xmlns:georss="http://www.georss.org/georss" xmlns:gd="http://schemas.google.com/g/2005" xmlns:thr="http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0" version="2.0"><channel><atom:id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5736962017647399800</atom:id><lastBuildDate>Fri, 08 Apr 2016 18:33:31 +0000</lastBuildDate><category>English issues / Temas de inglés</category><category>Spanish issues / Temas de español</category><category>Accents</category><category>Pronunciation</category><category>Vocabulario</category><category>Vocabulary</category><category>Podcasts</category><category>learning Spanish</category><title>English / Spanish Exchange</title><description>This blog is co-authored by native Spanish and English speakers. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xa;&#xa;Learn with us Spanish/English vocabulary, idiomatic expressions, grammar tips, and hints to speak (or write) like a native! And who knows? You may learn a lot about your own language too!</description><link>http://es-xchange.blogspot.com/</link><managingEditor>noreply@blogger.com (Karin)</managingEditor><generator>Blogger</generator><openSearch:totalResults>19</openSearch:totalResults><openSearch:startIndex>1</openSearch:startIndex><openSearch:itemsPerPage>25</openSearch:itemsPerPage><item><guid isPermaLink="false">tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5736962017647399800.post-6742316760970522618</guid><pubDate>Tue, 16 Sep 2008 20:37:00 +0000</pubDate><atom:updated>2008-09-16T14:38:21.532-06:00</atom:updated><title>We have moved!</title><description>We are pleased to announce that &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.es-xchange.com&quot;&gt;es-xchange&lt;/a&gt; now has a new home.  The Blogger site will stay here as an archive, but we won&#39;t be updating it.  You&#39;ll find copies of all the existing articles at the new site, and that is where new content will be published in the future.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Please check out our new location and update your bookmarks:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.es-xchange.com/&quot;&gt;http://www.es-xchange.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;</description><link>http://es-xchange.blogspot.com/2008/09/we-have-moved.html</link><author>noreply@blogger.com (Graham)</author><thr:total>1</thr:total></item><item><guid isPermaLink="false">tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5736962017647399800.post-706857448770038284</guid><pubDate>Sun, 27 Apr 2008 18:54:00 +0000</pubDate><atom:updated>2008-04-29T13:38:21.852-06:00</atom:updated><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">Accents</category><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">Pronunciation</category><title>¿El español es tu idioma materno...</title><description>&lt;div style=&quot;font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica; font-size: 10 pt; color: #606060; width: 400px;&quot;&gt;y te gustaría participar en el &lt;a href=&quot;http://es-xchange.blogspot.com/2008/03/seseo-ceceo-and-ye-or-some-major.html&quot; target=&quot;new&quot;&gt;proyecto de acentos&lt;/a&gt;? ¿Quieres que tu ciudad figure en el mapa de acentos? Entonces escríbenos a &lt;a href=&quot;mailto:es-xchange@bumerang180.com&quot;&gt;es-xchange@bumerang180.com&lt;/a&gt; para más información.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Haz clic en los botones que aparecen a continuación para ver los mapas que muestran las ciudades ya incluidas en el proyecto.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;table cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Images/maps/mapa1.jpg&quot; target=&quot;new&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Images/maps/mapa1boton.jpg&quot; title=&quot;Haz clic aquí para ver el mapa&quot; border=&quot;0&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Images/maps/mapa2.jpg&quot; target=&quot;new&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Images/maps/mapa2boton.jpg&quot; title=&quot;Haz clic aquí para ver el mapa&quot; border=&quot;0&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Images/maps/mapa3.jpg&quot; target=&quot;new&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Images/maps/mapa3boton.jpg&quot; title=&quot;Haz clic aquí para ver el mapa&quot; border=&quot;0&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Images/maps/mapa4.jpg&quot; target=&quot;new&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Images/maps/mapa4boton.jpg&quot; title=&quot;Haz clic aquí para ver el mapa&quot; border=&quot;0&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Images/maps/mapa5.jpg&quot; target=&quot;new&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Images/maps/mapa5boton.jpg&quot; title=&quot;Haz clic aquí para ver el mapa&quot; border=&quot;0&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</description><link>http://es-xchange.blogspot.com/2008/04/el-espaol-es-tu-idioma-materno.html</link><author>noreply@blogger.com (Graham)</author><thr:total>4</thr:total></item><item><guid isPermaLink="false">tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5736962017647399800.post-982208741089438602</guid><pubDate>Sat, 29 Mar 2008 15:57:00 +0000</pubDate><atom:updated>2008-09-16T14:52:13.904-06:00</atom:updated><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">learning Spanish</category><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">Podcasts</category><title>Podcasts as an aid to learning Spanish</title><description>&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #c00000; padding: 2px 10px 10px 10px;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 style=&quot;margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 2px;&quot;&gt;This article has moved!&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Please update your bookmarks with its &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.es-xchange.com/2008/03/29/podcasts-as-an-aid-to-learning-spanish/&quot;&gt;new location&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Thank you.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica; font-size: 11pt; color: #606060; width: 400px;&quot;&gt;Listening to podcasts is an extremely useful way to supplement your language learning studies.  When it comes to Spanish, there is a huge choice of freely available audio resources that you can download.  These range from lessons aimed at absolute beginners through to more advanced learners.  Also for the more advanced, another great way to practise your listening skills is to download Spanish language podcasts produced for native speakers.  Choosing one of these dealing with a topic that especially interests you will help to keep you motivated.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;The list below provides an initial selection to get you started.  All of the resources mentioned below are free.  Additional material, such as transcripts and supplementary premium-content podcasts, can also be purchased for some of these.&lt;h2&gt;Language learning podcasts&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Coffee Break Spanish&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.radiolinguamedia.com/cbs/www/lessons/library.html&quot;&gt;http://www.radiolinguamedia.com/cbs/www/&lt;br&gt;lessons/library.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Scots Mark, the teacher, and Kara, the student, host this series of podcasts teaching beginners&#39; Spanish in manageable 15-20 minute lessons.  The series is organised into units of 10 lessons each, and is currently on Unit 6.  Some of the units feature dialogues recorded with native speakers from Spain, and there is also a companion series of occasional podcasts, &lt;I&gt;Café Cortado&lt;/I&gt; (&lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.thecafecortado.com/&quot;&gt;http://www.thecafecortado.com/&lt;/a&gt;), dealing specifically with listeners&#39; queries (although the latter not been updated since August 2007).  Last year Coffee Break Spanish won a European Award for Languages and has recently hit #2 in the iTunes US chart of all podcasts.&lt;h3&gt;Notes in Spanish&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.notesinspanish.com/&quot;&gt;http://www.notesinspanish.com/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Ben, an Englishman living in Madrid, and native speaker Marina present these podcasts featuring discussions and interviews in Spanish on a wide range of topics.  There are three separate series available:  Inspired Beginners, Intermediate and Advanced.&lt;h3&gt;Voces en español&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://spanish-podcast.com/es/&quot;&gt;http://spanish-podcast.com/es/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Eleena, an American living and teaching English in Spain, hosts this excellent conversational series aimed at intermediate to advanced learners.  Each podcast features a guest, usually a native speaker.  Recent topics have included: extracts from novels, an interview with a teacher of Spanish pronunciation from Buenos Aires, yerba mate, and intercambios, to name just a few. &lt;h3&gt;Argot Tango&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.briteach.com.ar/&quot;&gt;http://www.briteach.com.ar/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;This is a weekly series of short, bilingual podcasts from Briteach, a company providing English classes in Argentina.  This podcast explains various terms and expressions used in the region, such as &lt;I&gt;che&lt;/I&gt;, &lt;I&gt;bondi&lt;/I&gt;, and &lt;I&gt;subte&lt;/I&gt;.  The latest edition was produced at the end of January.&lt;h3&gt;Desde el baño&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://desdeelbano.blogspot.com/&quot;&gt;http://desdeelbano.blogspot.com/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;In another interesting podcast series from Argentina, Sofía discusses, entirely in Spanish, a variety of features of the Rioplatense dialect.  Although this series seems to have stopped (the last episode was in September 2007), there is an archive of around 40 previous episodes available to download.&lt;h3&gt;SSL4YOU&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://ssl4you.blogspot.com/&quot;&gt;http://ssl4you.blogspot.com/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Teresa Sánchez, a teacher from Zamora in Spain, produces these Spanish-only podcasts.  In each show she presents a short monologue and then follows this up with a discussion of some of the language points inherent in the first part.  A transcript of the monologue in both Spanish and English is also freely available on the site.  Language learning opportunities aside, these vignettes not only provide an insight into Spanish culture, they also contain some delightful observations on life in general.  In 2006 SSL4YOU won a Castilla y León prize for the promotion of Spanish in the Information Society.&lt;h2&gt;Podcasts in Spanish&lt;/h2&gt;The following list provides some suggestions from just a few of the very many genres available, namely podcasts devoted to current affairs, travel, cinema and photography.  A good place to start for finding more is the directory of Spanish language podcasts at &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.hispanocast.com/&quot;&gt;http://www.hispanocast.com/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;h3&gt;Hispanorama&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.rtve.es/programas/intercambios&quot;&gt;http://www.rtve.es/programas/intercambios&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;(click on &#39;Podcast&#39; at the bottom of the left-hand navigation bar)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Radio Exterior de España produces this weekly show, which lasts around an hour and is split into about 10 individual reports.  Each of these covers a topical subject from the realms of culture and current affairs relevant to the Spanish-speaking world.&lt;h3&gt;Viajes a tu aire&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.viajesatuaire.com/wp/&quot;&gt;http://www.viajesatuaire.com/wp/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Viajes a tu aire is a travel guide series with reports on trips to places such as Helsinki, Athens, Orlando, London and New York.  Although the latest episode is dated September 2007 there are 27 podcasts available to download.&lt;h3&gt;Pasajeros con destino&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.frecuenciacero.com.mx/pasajeroscondestino/&quot;&gt;http://www.frecuenciacero.com.mx/&lt;br&gt;pasajeroscondestino/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;This is another travelogue series and comes from Frecuencia Cero in Mexico and is hosted by Marco Ávalos.  As well as describing places and experiences, these reports also provide advice and information for prospective travellers.  Recent destinations have included Rome, Bratislava, Cadiz and Naples.&lt;h3&gt;Hablemos de cine&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://hablemosdecine.com/&quot;&gt;http://hablemosdecine.com/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;With the help of a team of contributors, hosts Jordi Mariscal and Ricardo Cárdenas present this &lt;I&gt;fusión de cine y actualidad&lt;/I&gt;.  Through discussion of international cinema, &lt;I&gt;Hablemos de cine&lt;/I&gt; examines a wide range of topical subjects.  It also explores the contrasts and similarities in the way these themes are depicted by film makers from around the world.&lt;h3&gt;Podcast fotografía digital&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.memoflores.com/podcast/&quot;&gt;http://www.memoflores.com/podcast/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;This podcast from professional photographer Guillermo Flores from Guadalajara in Mexico is aimed at owners of digital SLR cameras.  If, however, you are interested in photography and want to practise your aural comprehension then this is an ideal way to learn a bit more about photography and to pick up some specialist vocabulary along the way.  You&#39;ll soon know your &lt;I&gt;diafragma&lt;/I&gt; from your &lt;I&gt;disparador&lt;/I&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;&lt;I&gt;By Graham A Stephen and Karin Sequ&amp;eacute;n &amp;copy; 2008&lt;/I&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</description><link>http://es-xchange.blogspot.com/2008/03/podcasts-as-aid-to-learning-spanish.html</link><author>noreply@blogger.com (Graham)</author><thr:total>3</thr:total></item><item><guid isPermaLink="false">tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5736962017647399800.post-7527234185962438629</guid><pubDate>Fri, 21 Mar 2008 16:52:00 +0000</pubDate><atom:updated>2008-09-16T14:59:24.218-06:00</atom:updated><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">Accents</category><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">Pronunciation</category><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">Spanish issues / Temas de español</category><title>Seseo, ceceo and yeísmo (or, some major variations in Spanish pronunciation)</title><description>&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #c00000; padding: 2px 10px 10px 10px;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 style=&quot;margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 2px;&quot;&gt;This article has moved!&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Please update your bookmarks with its &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.es-xchange.com/2008/03/21/seseo-ceceo-and-yeismo/&quot;&gt;new location&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Thank you.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica; font-size: 11pt; color: #606060; width: 400px;&quot;&gt;As with any language, Spanish is subject to variations across geographic areas and social strata.  These variations include differences in accent, vocabulary and grammatical structures.  In this article we will have a look at some of the major differences in its pronunciation.  A number of audio clips of native speakers from around the Spanish-speaking world all reading the same piece of text are included for comparison.&lt;h2&gt;Vocal apparatus&lt;/h2&gt;The diagram below illustrates the major components of the human vocal apparatus.  This will be useful to refer to when the production of various sounds is described below.&lt;br&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Images/vocalApparatus.jpg&quot; title=&quot;Vocal apparatus&quot; width=&quot;400&quot; height=&quot;521&quot; vspace=&quot;10&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;h2&gt;Distinci&amp;oacute;n, seseo and ceceo&lt;/h2&gt;The sound [&amp;#952;] occurs in English as, for example, the &lt;I&gt;th&lt;/I&gt; in &lt;I&gt;&lt;U&gt;th&lt;/U&gt;in&lt;/I&gt; and is described in phonetic terms as a voiceless interdental fricative&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;1&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;.  This means that it is produced by restricting the flow of air with the tongue between the teeth and with no sound produced by the vocal folds.  (Compare this with its voiced counterpart [&amp;#240;]&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;, occurring as the &lt;I&gt;th&lt;/I&gt; in &lt;I&gt;&lt;U&gt;th&lt;/U&gt;e&lt;/I&gt;.)&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;The sound [s] occurs as the &lt;I&gt;s&lt;/I&gt; in &lt;I&gt;&lt;U&gt;s&lt;/U&gt;un&lt;/I&gt; and is described as a voiceless alveolar fricative&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;, which means that the air flow is restricted between the tongue and the upper alveolar ridge (the gum ridge behind the upper teeth).&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;In some varieties of Spanish these two distinct sounds both occur, with [&amp;#952;] corresponding to the letter &lt;I&gt;z&lt;/I&gt;, or &lt;I&gt;c&lt;/I&gt; before an &lt;I&gt;e&lt;/I&gt; or an &lt;I&gt;i&lt;/I&gt;.  This is termed &lt;I&gt;distinci&amp;oacute;n&lt;/I&gt;.  In other dialects the two sounds have merged together, giving &lt;I&gt;seseo&lt;/I&gt; where they have become [s] and &lt;I&gt;ceceo&lt;/I&gt; where they have become [&amp;#952;].&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Broadly speaking, distinci&amp;oacute;n is found in northern and central Spain, seseo in the Canaries, parts of southern Spain and virtually all of Latin America, and ceceo in certain areas of southern Spain&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;In accents exhibiting distinci&amp;oacute;n, &lt;I&gt;cien&lt;/I&gt; and &lt;I&gt;sien&lt;/I&gt;, for example, are pronounced differently, whereas in seseante and ceceante accents they are not.&lt;h2&gt;Lle&amp;iacute;smo and ye&amp;iacute;smo&lt;/h2&gt;The sound [&amp;#654;], which does not naturally occur in English, is termed a palatal lateral approximant&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;.  This means that it is produced by air escaping sideways over the tongue when the middle (&lt;I&gt;lamina&lt;/I&gt;) or back (&lt;I&gt;dorsum&lt;/I&gt;) is brought close to the hard palate.  Traditionally this sound corresponded to the letter &lt;I&gt;elle&lt;/I&gt;, or &lt;I&gt;doble l&lt;/I&gt;, (&lt;I&gt;ll&lt;/I&gt;) in Spanish: a pronunciation known as &lt;I&gt;lle&amp;iacute;smo&lt;/I&gt;.  Replacing the sound with that associated with the letter &lt;I&gt;y&lt;/I&gt;, however, is known as &lt;I&gt;ye&amp;iacute;smo&lt;/I&gt;, and this is prevalent in most of Latin America and parts of Spain.  In Spain ye&amp;iacute;smo is widespread among the younger generation, even in traditionally lle&amp;iacute;sta areas.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Note that in Spanish [&amp;#654;] should not be pronounced as [li]&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;.  There is some regional variation in the way that &lt;I&gt;y&lt;/I&gt; (and &lt;I&gt;ll&lt;/I&gt; in ye&amp;iacute;sta accents) is pronounced in Spanish:&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;[&amp;#669;]&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;voiced palatal fricative&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;7&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;.  Produced by a restricted airflow down the centre of the tongue with its middle or back raised against the hard palate and the vocal folds vibrating.&lt;li&gt;[j]&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;palatal approximant&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;8&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; — &lt;I&gt;y&lt;/I&gt; in &lt;I&gt;&lt;U&gt;y&lt;/U&gt;es&lt;/I&gt;.  Produced by an airflow down the centre of the tongue with its middle or back raised against the hard palate and the vocal folds vibrating.  The airflow is not restricted to the same extent as it is with [&amp;#669;].&lt;li&gt;[&amp;#643;]&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;voiceless postalveolar fricative&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;9&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; — &lt;I&gt;sh&lt;/I&gt; in &lt;I&gt;&lt;U&gt;sh&lt;/U&gt;irt&lt;/I&gt;.  Produced with the tip (&lt;I&gt;apex&lt;/I&gt;) of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge directing the airflow over the edge of the teeth without the vocal folds vibrating.&lt;li&gt;[&amp;#658;]&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;voiced postalveolar fricative&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;10&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; — &lt;I&gt;s&lt;/I&gt; in &lt;I&gt;trea&lt;U&gt;s&lt;/U&gt;ure&lt;/I&gt;.  Produced in a similar manner to that of [&amp;#643;] but with the vocal folds vibrating.&lt;/ul&gt;Pronunciation of &lt;I&gt;y&lt;/I&gt; / &lt;I&gt;ll&lt;/I&gt; as [&amp;#643;] or [&amp;#658;] is known as &lt;I&gt;she&amp;iacute;smo&lt;/I&gt; and &lt;I&gt;zhe&amp;iacute;smo&lt;/I&gt;, respectively, and is characteristic of Rioplatense Spanish&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;11&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; (spoken mainly in the River Plate regions of Argentina and Uruguay).&lt;h2&gt;Aspirated ‘s’&lt;/h2&gt;Another feature characteristic of certain accents is where the letter &lt;I&gt;s&lt;/I&gt; at the end of a syllable is pronounced as [h] or even dropped completely.  [h] is known as the voiceless glottal fricative&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;12&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;, and corresponds to the &lt;I&gt;h&lt;/I&gt; in &lt;I&gt;&lt;U&gt;h&lt;/U&gt;at&lt;/I&gt;.  In Spanish this pronunciation of &lt;I&gt;s&lt;/I&gt; is called the &lt;I&gt;ese aspirada&lt;/I&gt;, and the phenomenon ‘&lt;I&gt;comer las eses&lt;/I&gt;’.  This is common, for example, in Caribbean, Rioplatense and Southern Spanish accents.&lt;h2&gt;‘x’&lt;/h2&gt;When the letter &lt;I&gt;x&lt;/I&gt; occurs at the start of word (e.g. &lt;I&gt;xilof&amp;oacute;n&lt;/I&gt;) it is normally pronounced as [s]. In other positions it is pronounced as [ks] in Latin America, but in informal speech in Spain this is usually softened to become [s].&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Note that in certain Mexican place names, such as &lt;I&gt;M&amp;eacute;xico&lt;/I&gt; and &lt;I&gt;Oaxaca&lt;/I&gt;, the letter &lt;I&gt;x&lt;/I&gt; represents a voiceless velar fricative&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;13&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;, [x].  This is the sound now associated in Spanish with the letter &lt;I&gt;j&lt;/I&gt; (although in certain dialects, such as Caribbean Spanish and those of parts of southern Spain, for example, this is pronounced as [h]).  This spelling comes from Spanish transcription of the Náhuatl language at a time when the letter &lt;I&gt;x&lt;/I&gt; represented the sound [&amp;#643;].  During the sixteenth century, however, this sound shifted to [x] and later revisions to Spanish spelling introduced the rules that the latter be represented by &lt;I&gt;j&lt;/I&gt; and [ks] by &lt;I&gt;x&lt;/I&gt;.  Nevertheless, the original spelling was retained in certain proper nouns.  And in fact the original [&amp;#643;] sound is still present in a number of Central American place names, such as &lt;I&gt;Xela&lt;/I&gt;, &lt;I&gt;Xetulul&lt;/I&gt; and &lt;I&gt;Xocomil&lt;/I&gt; in Guatemala.&lt;h2&gt;‘b’ and ‘v’&lt;/h2&gt;In English the letter &lt;I&gt;v&lt;/I&gt; is pronounced as a voiced labiodental fricative&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;14&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;, [v] (e.g. the &lt;I&gt;v&lt;/I&gt; in &lt;I&gt;&lt;U&gt;v&lt;/U&gt;et&lt;/I&gt;).  This means that it is formed with the bottom lip under the upper teeth.  It is normally stated that this sound does not exist in Spanish and also that the letters &lt;I&gt;b&lt;/I&gt; and &lt;I&gt;v&lt;/I&gt; are pronounced identically, a phenomenon known in Spanish as &lt;I&gt;betacismo&lt;/I&gt;.  Their pronunciation depends on the position of the letter: after a pause or after &lt;I&gt;m&lt;/I&gt; or &lt;I&gt;n&lt;/I&gt; (the latter then being pronounced as an &lt;I&gt;m&lt;/I&gt;), the pronunciation is [b], which is a voiced bilabial plosive&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;15&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; (&lt;I&gt;b&lt;/I&gt; in &lt;I&gt;&lt;U&gt;b&lt;/U&gt;ad&lt;/I&gt;, for example, in English); otherwise the pronunciation is [&amp;#946;], which is a voiced bilabial fricative&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;16&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;.  (Note that in some dialects it is only pronounced as a fricative when it occurs between vowels.)  This sound does not occur in English and is made in a similar manner to [v] but with the both lips in front of the teeth and brought close together but not quite touching.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;The standard pronunciation is therefore [b] in words such as &lt;I&gt;tambi&amp;eacute;&lt;/I&gt;n and &lt;I&gt;enviar&lt;/I&gt;, and [&amp;#946;] in words such as &lt;I&gt;abeja&lt;/I&gt; and &lt;I&gt;llave&lt;/I&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;This is, however, an area where there is some debate, as the sound [v] does occur in certain dialects of Spanish (a pronunciation known as &lt;I&gt;labiodentalismo&lt;/I&gt;).  The reasons for its existence are said to include:&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Survival in certain areas of pronunciation from old Spanish&lt;li&gt;Influences of other languages, such as Catalan, French and English&lt;li&gt;Hypercorrection as a reaction against popular styles of speech&lt;li&gt;Teaching children that [v] is the ‘correct’ pronunciation of &lt;I&gt;v&lt;/I&gt; in order to make spelling easier.&lt;/ul&gt;It has been noted, for example, that in the Dominican Republic there is no distinction made in popular speech between the pronunciation of the letters &lt;I&gt;b&lt;/I&gt; and &lt;I&gt;v&lt;/I&gt;, whereas in formal speech, such as that employed in the media, there is&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;17&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;One study&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;18&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;, analysing the speech of a number of Cuban students, found occurrences of [v] (together with [&amp;#946;] and [b]) corresponding to the letter &lt;I&gt;v&lt;/I&gt; and also occasionally the letter &lt;I&gt;b&lt;/I&gt;.  Another more recent study&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;19&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; involved a group of native speaking instructors of Spanish from a variety of countries at the University of Southern California.  In that study it was found that in the speech samples analysed &lt;I&gt;b&lt;/I&gt; was never pronounced [v], but overall the letter &lt;I&gt;v&lt;/I&gt; was pronounced as [v] 40% of the time.  This pronunciation was not systematic, and, among other factors, a correlation was found between its prevalence and the speakers’ number of years of residence in an English-speaking country.&lt;h2&gt;Speech samples&lt;/h2&gt;Audio clips of a number of native Spanish speakers all reading the same piece of text are provided below for comparison.  Listen carefully and see how many of the features described above you can detect.  Note, however, that as the recordings are of a text being read, the speech is very likely to be more formal than that used in everyday conversation.  One contributor commented, for example, that she was conscious of forcing the s at the end of words that in spontaneous speech she would have dropped.&lt;h3&gt;Sample text&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;El cazador de libros se sent&amp;iacute;a feliz al encontrar en una casa se&amp;ntilde;orial de Zaragoza una colecci&amp;oacute;n de cien publicaciones cient&amp;iacute;ficas ins&amp;oacute;litas.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;—Yo no veo ning&amp;uacute;n caballo —le dije a ella al llegar a la llanura lluviosa.  Yo s&amp;eacute; que viajar instruye mucho pero ayer en la calle de Nueva York, con el billete en el bolsillo, nunca me lo habr&amp;iacute;a imaginado as&amp;iacute;.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Todos los tesoros oscuros de las islas estaban en la sala de subastas.  En el primer lote hab&amp;iacute;a dos cisnes negros, unos sigilosos gatos de dimensiones gigantescas y tres mu&amp;ntilde;ecos enmascarados.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;El boxeador extra&amp;ntilde;o se exasper&amp;oacute; al tomar el examen exigente en Extremadura.  Se consideraba un excelente experto, pero a su parecer fueron muy ortodoxos y exudaron una exquisita inflexibilidad.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Veintinueve vacas hambrientas vuelven a comer hierba, mientras las abejas zumban por todas partes.  Bebiendo un vaso de vino y sentado en un banco cercano, el hombre descubre la clave.  Desde ahora sabe qu&amp;eacute; hacer en verano y en invierno tambi&amp;eacute;n.&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Audio clips&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;B&gt;Instructions&lt;/B&gt;: use the map below to navigate the audio clip collection.  You can click and drag to pan the map and use the control on the left to zoom.  Clicking on a map marker will bring the list of associated recordings into view in the panel below the map.  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 }}function pinPoint(title){ document.getElementById(title).scrollIntoView();}window.onunload = GUnload;load();&lt;/script&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;divDetails&quot; style=&quot;overflow: scroll; width: 400px; height: 250px; border: solid 1px #c0c0ff; padding: 0px 0px 0px 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;ul&gt; &lt;li&gt;Argentina  &lt;ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Buenos Aires&quot;&gt;Buenos Aires&lt;/div&gt;    &lt;ul&gt;      &lt;li&gt;&lt;b&gt;Buenos Aires&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br&gt;      &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Argentina_Buenos_Aires_Analia.mp3&quot;&gt;Analia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;      &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Argentina_Buenos_Aires_Mariano.mp3&quot;&gt;Mariano&lt;/a&gt;      &lt;li&gt;&lt;b&gt;Lan&amp;uacute;s&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br&gt;      &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Argentina_Buenos_Aires_Lanus_Carolina.mp3&quot;&gt;Carolina&lt;/a&gt;    &lt;/ul&gt;    &lt;ul&gt;      &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;La Plata&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;La Plata&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;      &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Argentina_Buenos_Aires_La_Plata_Mariano.mp3&quot;&gt;Mariano&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;    &lt;/ul&gt;  &lt;/ul&gt; &lt;li&gt;Chile  &lt;ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Regi&amp;oacute;n del Biob&amp;iacute;o    &lt;ul&gt;     &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Concepcion&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Concepci&amp;oacute;n&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Chile_Biobio_Concepcion_Christian.mp3&quot;&gt;Christian&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Chile_Biobio_Concepcion_Fabian.mp3&quot;&gt;Fabian&lt;/a&gt;    &lt;/ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Regi&amp;oacute;n Metropolitana    &lt;ul&gt;     &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Santiago&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Santiago&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Chile_Metropolitana_Santiago_Cinthya.mp3&quot;&gt;Cinthya&lt;/a&gt;    &lt;/ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Regi&amp;oacute;n de O&#39;Higgins    &lt;ul&gt;     &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Rancagua&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Rancagua&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Chile_OHiggins_Rancagua_Luis.mp3&quot;&gt;Luis&lt;/a&gt;    &lt;/ul&gt;  &lt;/ul&gt; &lt;li&gt;Colombia  &lt;ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Cundinamarca    &lt;ul&gt;     &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Bogota&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Bogota&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Colombia_Cundinamarca_Bogota_Ariel.mp3&quot;&gt;Ariel&lt;/a&gt;    &lt;/ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Santander    &lt;ul&gt;     &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Bucaramanga&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Bucaramanga&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Colombia_Santander_Bucaramanga_Oscar.mp3&quot;&gt;&amp;Oacute;scar&lt;/a&gt;    &lt;/ul&gt;  &lt;/ul&gt; &lt;li&gt;Cuba  &lt;ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Granma    &lt;ul&gt;     &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Bayamo&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Bayamo&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Cuba_Granma_Bayamo_Martin.mp3&quot;&gt;Mart&amp;iacute;n&lt;/a&gt;    &lt;/ul&gt;  &lt;/ul&gt;  &lt;ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Sancti Sp&amp;iacute;ritu    &lt;ul&gt;     &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Sancti Spiritus&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Sancti Sp&amp;iacute;ritus&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Cuba_Sancti_Spiritus_Sancti_Spiritus_Juan.mp3&quot;&gt;Juan&lt;/a&gt;    &lt;/ul&gt;  &lt;/ul&gt; &lt;li&gt;Ecuador  &lt;ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;El Oro    &lt;ul&gt;     &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Machala&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Machala&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Ecuador_El_Oro_Machala_Javier.mp3&quot;&gt;Javier&lt;/a&gt;    &lt;/ul&gt;  &lt;/ul&gt; &lt;li&gt;Guatemala  &lt;ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Guatemala    &lt;ul&gt;     &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Mixco&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Mixco&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Guatemala_Guatemala_Mixco_Karin.mp3&quot;&gt;Karin&lt;/a&gt;    &lt;/ul&gt;  &lt;/ul&gt; &lt;li&gt;Mexico  &lt;ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Chihuahua   &lt;ul&gt;    &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Chihuahua&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Chihuahua&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;    &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Mexico_Chihuahua_Chihuahua_Laura.mp3&quot;&gt;Laura&lt;/a&gt;   &lt;/ul&gt;  &lt;/ul&gt;  &lt;ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Mexico DF   &lt;ul&gt;    &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Mexico DF&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Mexico DF&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;    &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Mexico_Mexico_Distrito_Federal_kyber.mp3&quot;&gt;&#39;kyber&#39;&lt;/a&gt;   &lt;/ul&gt;  &lt;/ul&gt;  &lt;ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Nayarit   &lt;ul&gt;    &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Tepic&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Tepic&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;    &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Mexico_Nayarit_Tepic_Cecilia.mp3&quot;&gt;Cecilia&lt;/a&gt;   &lt;/ul&gt;  &lt;/ul&gt;  &lt;ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Puebla   &lt;ul&gt;    &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Puebla&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Puebla&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;    &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Mexico_Puebla_Puebla_Guillermina.mp3&quot;&gt;Guillermina&lt;/a&gt;   &lt;/ul&gt;  &lt;/ul&gt;  &lt;ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Sonora   &lt;ul&gt;    &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Hermosillo&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Hermosillo&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;    &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Mexico_Sonora_Hermosillo_Erica.mp3&quot;&gt;Erica&lt;/a&gt;   &lt;/ul&gt;  &lt;/ul&gt; &lt;li&gt;Nicaragua  &lt;ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Managua    &lt;ul&gt;     &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Managua&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Managua&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Nicaragua_Managua_Managua_Michael.mp3&quot;&gt;Michael&lt;/a&gt;    &lt;/ul&gt;  &lt;/ul&gt; &lt;li&gt;Peru  &lt;ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Lambayeque    &lt;ul&gt;     &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Chiclayo&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Chiclayo&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Peru_Lambayeque_Chiclayo_Roberto.mp3&quot;&gt;Roberto&lt;/a&gt;    &lt;/ul&gt;  &lt;/ul&gt;  &lt;ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Lima    &lt;ul&gt;     &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Lima&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Lima&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Peru_Lima_Lima_Eduardo.mp3&quot;&gt;Eduardo&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Peru_Lima_Lima_Martin.mp3&quot;&gt;Mart&amp;iacute;n&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Peru_Lima_Lima_Natalia.mp3&quot;&gt;Natalia&lt;/a&gt;    &lt;/ul&gt;  &lt;/ul&gt;  &lt;ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Tacna    &lt;ul&gt;     &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Tacna&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Tacna&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Peru_Tacna_Tacna_Wilson.mp3&quot;&gt;Wilson&lt;/a&gt;    &lt;/ul&gt;  &lt;/ul&gt; &lt;li&gt;Spain  &lt;ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Andaluc&amp;iacute;a    &lt;ul&gt;     &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Granada&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Granada&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Spain_Andalucia_Granada_Paula.mp3&quot;&gt;Paula&lt;/a&gt;    &lt;/ul&gt;    &lt;ul&gt;     &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Sevilla&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Sevilla&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Spain_Andalucia_Sevilla_Barbara.mp3&quot;&gt;Barbara&lt;/a&gt; (Professional voice artist.  Recorded reading without Andalucian accent.)    &lt;/ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Arag&amp;oacute;n    &lt;ul&gt;     &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Zaragoza&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Zaragoza&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Spain_Aragon_Zaragoza_Ismael.mp3&quot;&gt;Ismael&lt;/a&gt;     &lt;/ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Baleares    &lt;ul&gt;     &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Palma de Mallorca&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Palma de Mallorca&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Spain_Baleares_Palma_Daniela.mp3&quot;&gt;Daniela&lt;/a&gt; (Natively bilingual Spanish/English.  Accent not typical of the area.)&lt;br&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Spain_Baleares_Palma_Maria.mp3&quot;&gt;Mar&amp;iacute;a&lt;/a&gt;    &lt;/ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Castilla y Le&amp;oacute;n    &lt;ul&gt;     &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Zamora&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Zamora&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Spain_Castilla_y_Leon_Zamora_Teresa.mp3&quot;&gt;Teresa&lt;/a&gt;    &lt;/ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Catalu&amp;ntilde;a    &lt;ul&gt;     &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Barcelona&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Barcelona&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Spain_Cataluna_Barcelona_Anna.mp3&quot;&gt;Anna&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Spain_Cataluna_Barcelona_Pilar.mp3&quot;&gt;Pilar&lt;/a&gt;    &lt;/ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;La Rioja    &lt;ul&gt;     &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Logrono&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Logro&amp;ntilde;o&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Spain_La_Rioja_Logrono_Fermin.mp3&quot;&gt;Ferm&amp;iacute;n&lt;/a&gt;    &lt;/ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Madrid    &lt;ul&gt;     &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Madrid&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Madrid&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Spain_Madrid_Madrid_Alberto.mp3&quot;&gt;Alberto&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Spain_Madrid_Madrid_Juanjo.mp3&quot;&gt;Juanjo&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Spain_Madrid_Madrid_Luis.mp3&quot;&gt;Luis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Spain_Madrid_Madrid_Maria.mp3&quot;&gt;Mar&amp;iacute;a Jes&amp;uacute;s&lt;/a&gt;     &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Mostoles&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;M&amp;oacute;stoles&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Spain_Madrid_Madrid_David.mp3&quot;&gt;David&lt;/a&gt; (has been living in Murcia for the past five years)    &lt;/ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Navarra    &lt;ul&gt;     &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Pamplona&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Pamplona&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Spain_Navarra_Pamplona_Jesus.mp3&quot;&gt;Jes&amp;uacute;s&lt;/a&gt;    &lt;/ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Valencia    &lt;ul&gt;     &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Alicante&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Alicante&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Spain_Valencia_Alicante_Ana.mp3&quot;&gt;Ana&lt;/a&gt;    &lt;/ul&gt;  &lt;/ul&gt; &lt;li&gt;Uruguay  &lt;ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Montevideo    &lt;ul&gt;     &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Montevideo&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Montevideo&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Uruguay_Montevideo_Montevideo_Estefania.mp3&quot;&gt;Estefan&amp;iacute;a&lt;/a&gt;    &lt;/ul&gt;  &lt;/ul&gt; &lt;li&gt;Venezuela  &lt;ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Bol&amp;iacute;var    &lt;ul&gt;     &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Upata&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Upata&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Venezuela_Bolivar_Upata_Jatniel.mp3&quot;&gt;Jatniel&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;    &lt;/ul&gt;   &lt;li&gt;Vargas    &lt;ul&gt;     &lt;li&gt;&lt;div id=&quot;Catia La Mar&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Catia La Mar&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Venezuela_Vargas_Catia_La_Mar_Jahnava.mp3&quot;&gt;Jahnava&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;     &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Accents/Audio/Venezuela_Vargas_Catia_La_Mar_Radha.mp3&quot;&gt;Radha&lt;/a&gt;    &lt;/ul&gt;  &lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h2&gt;Further resources&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;I&gt;&lt;B&gt;International Phonetic Association&lt;/B&gt;&lt;/I&gt;&lt;br&gt;Downloadable PDF chart of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).&lt;br&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/fullchart.html&quot;&gt;http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/fullchart.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;I&gt;&lt;B&gt;Paul Meier Dialect Services&lt;/B&gt;&lt;/I&gt;&lt;br&gt;Interactive IPA chart with audio samples for all of the sounds.&lt;br&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.paulmeier.com/ipa/charts.html&quot;&gt;http://www.paulmeier.com/ipa/charts.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;I&gt;&lt;B&gt;Spanish Pronunciation 101&lt;/B&gt;&lt;/I&gt;&lt;br&gt;A blog on Spanish pronunciation, aimed primarily at native English speakers and written by Mart&amp;iacute;n Ventola, a teacher of Spanish Pronunciation from Buenos Aires.&lt;br&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.spanishpronunciation101.com&quot;&gt;http://www.spanishpronunciation101.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;I&gt;&lt;B&gt;Universit&amp;eacute; de Lausanne — Introduction to Phonetics&lt;/B&gt;&lt;/I&gt;&lt;br&gt;Introductory online course on phonetics.  Includes comprehensive descriptions of how all sounds in the IPA are produced together with accompanying audio clips.&lt;br&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.unil.ch/ling/page30184.html&quot;&gt;http://www.unil.ch/ling/page30184.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;I&gt;&lt;B&gt;The University of Iowa — F&amp;oacute;netica: Los sonidos del Espa&amp;ntilde;ol&lt;/B&gt;&lt;/I&gt;&lt;br&gt;Animated anatomical diagram showing production of the various sounds in Spanish by the vocal apparatus, with accompanying sound samples and descriptions of how the sounds are articulated.&lt;br&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.uiowa.edu/~acadtech/phonetics/spanish/frameset.html&quot;&gt;http://www.uiowa.edu/~acadtech/phonetics/spanish/frameset.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;I&gt;&lt;B&gt;The University of Iowa — Dialectoteca del Espa&amp;ntilde;ol&lt;/B&gt;&lt;/I&gt;&lt;br&gt;Audiovisual library with speech samples from a diverse range of native Spanish speakers.&lt;br&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.uiowa.edu/~acadtech/dialects/&quot;&gt;http://www.uiowa.edu/~acadtech/dialects/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;I&gt;&lt;B&gt;Ceceo&lt;/B&gt;&lt;/I&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceceo&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceceo&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;I&gt;&lt;B&gt;Ye&amp;iacute;smo&lt;/B&gt;&lt;/I&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ye%C3%ADsmo&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ye%C3%ADsmo&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;I&gt;&lt;B&gt;Spanish dialects and varieties&lt;/B&gt;&lt;/I&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_dialects&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_dialects&lt;/a&gt;&lt;h2&gt;Acknowledgements&lt;/h2&gt;Many thanks to all those who very kindly provided voice recordings for this project:&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;Alberto Aparicio, Ana Toral Garc&amp;iacute;a, Analia Laserna, Anna Navarro, Ariel Leonel Melo, Barbara P&amp;eacute;rez, Carlos Mart&amp;iacute;n Llatas P&amp;eacute;rez, Carolina Conde, Cecilia Medina, Christian Bidart S&amp;aacute;nchez, Cinthya Castro, Daniela Huguet, David Nogales &amp;Uacute;beda, Eduardo Miyahira, Erica Neith Ruiz Duarte, Estefan&amp;iacute;a Ganduglia Barrios, Fabian Alejandro Abarz&amp;uacute;a D&amp;iacute;az, Ferm&amp;iacute;n Palacios, Guillermina Ram&amp;iacute;rez Orozco, Ismael, Jahnava, Jatniel Villarroel Ruiz, Javier Alejandro Solano Solano, Jes&amp;uacute;s Miguel Gaztambide Ganuza, Juan Brito, Juan Jos&amp;eacute; del Coz Velasco, Karin Sequ&amp;eacute;n, &#39;kyber&#39;, Laura Pilar Ch&amp;aacute;vez G., Luis Angulo Verdugo, Luis Francisco Garc&amp;iacute;a Ag&amp;uuml;ero, Mar&amp;iacute;a Jes&amp;uacute;s R, Mar&amp;iacute;a L&amp;oacute;pez Puertas, Mariano Marandino, Mariano Talanchuk, Mart&amp;iacute;n, Michael Ren&amp;eacute; Mart&amp;iacute;nez Huete, Natalia F, &amp;Oacute;scar Leonardo Acevedo Pab&amp;oacute;n, Paula, Pilar Trabal, Radha Villalobos Ruano, Roberto Carlos Mu&amp;ntilde;oz Tuesta, Teresa S&amp;aacute;nchez, Wilson Mamani.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 8pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;1&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; See &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andalusian_Spanish&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andalusian_Spanish&lt;/a&gt; for a map showing ceceante regions of Andaluc&amp;iacute;a.&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatal_lateral_approximant&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatal_lateral_approximant&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;I&gt;Diccionario panhispánico de dudas&lt;/I&gt;, &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://buscon.rae.es/dpdI/SrvltConsulta?lema=ll&quot;&gt;http://buscon.rae.es/dpdI/SrvltConsulta?lema=ll&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;7&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_palatal_fricative&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_palatal_fricative&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;8&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatal_approximant&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatal_approximant&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;9&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;10&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;11&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rioplatense_Spanish&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rioplatense_Spanish&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;12&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;13&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;14&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;15&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;16&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;17&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;B&gt;Saborit, J, Est&amp;eacute;vez, I&lt;/B&gt;, &lt;I&gt;El espa&amp;ntilde;ol de la Rep&amp;uacute;blica Dominicana&lt;/I&gt;, &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.geocities.com/saborit72/fonetica.html?200813&quot;&gt;http://www.geocities.com/saborit72/fonetica.html?200813&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;18&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;B&gt;Isbasescu, Cristina&lt;/B&gt; (1968), “Sobre la existencia de una fricativa labiodental sonora [v] en el espa&amp;ntilde;ol cubano”, &lt;I&gt;Actas del III Congreso de la Asociaci&amp;oacute;n Internacional de Hispanistas&lt;/I&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://cvc.cervantes.es/obref/aih/pdf/03/aih_03_1_054.pdf&quot;&gt;http://cvc.cervantes.es/obref/aih/pdf/03/aih_03_1_054.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;19&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;B&gt;Stevens, John J&lt;/B&gt; (2000), “On the Labiodental Pronunciation of Spanish /b/ among Teachers of Spanish as a Second Language”, &lt;I&gt;Hispania&lt;/I&gt;, Vol. 83, No. 1, 139–149&lt;br&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2133(200003)83:1&amp;lt;139:OTLPOS&amp;gt;2.0.CO;2-J&quot;&gt;http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2133(200003)83:1&amp;lt;139:OTLPOS&amp;gt;2.0.CO;2-J&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;&lt;I&gt;By Graham A Stephen and Karin Sequ&amp;eacute;n &amp;copy; 2008&lt;/I&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</description><link>http://es-xchange.blogspot.com/2008/03/seseo-ceceo-and-ye-or-some-major.html</link><author>noreply@blogger.com (Graham)</author><thr:total>6</thr:total></item><item><guid isPermaLink="false">tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5736962017647399800.post-5983121479058277332</guid><pubDate>Sat, 19 Jan 2008 20:00:00 +0000</pubDate><atom:updated>2008-09-16T15:01:53.310-06:00</atom:updated><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">English issues / Temas de inglés</category><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">Spanish issues / Temas de español</category><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">Vocabulario</category><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">Vocabulary</category><title>Vocabulary: document preparation / Vocabulario: preparación de documentos</title><description>&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #c00000; padding: 2px 10px 10px 10px;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 style=&quot;margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 2px;&quot;&gt;This article has moved!&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Please update your bookmarks with its &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.es-xchange.com/2008/01/19/document-preparation/&quot;&gt;new location&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Thank you.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;table width=&quot;400&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;15&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;Presented below is a selection of terms related to document preparation together with their Spanish equivalents.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;The words are given in thematic sections.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;A continuación presentamos una selección de términos relacionados a la preparación de documentos junto con sus equivalentes ingleses.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Los vocablos se agrupan en bloques temáticos.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;table width=&quot;400&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Physical&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Físico&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;paper&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;papel &amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;page&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;página&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;sheet / leaf&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;hoja&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;quire (1/20th of a ream)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;mano (de papel)&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; (vigésima parte de la resma)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;ream (500 sheets of paper)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;resma&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; (500 hojas de papel)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#EBF1E4&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#EBF1E4&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;lined paper&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;papel&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; con líneas&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;graph paper&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;papel&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; cuadriculado / milimetrado&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#EBF1E4&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#EBF1E4&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;leaflet / flier&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;hoja&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; / folleto&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; / volante&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;brochure / booklet / pamphlet&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;librito&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; / folleto&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; / panfleto&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;book&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;libro&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;paperback&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;libro&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; en rústica&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;hardback&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;libro&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; de tapa/pasta dura&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#EBF1E4&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#EBF1E4&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;ink&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;tinta&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;toner&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;toner&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;cartridge&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;cartucho&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;printer&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;impresora&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;laser printer&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;impresora&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; (de) láser&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;ink jet printer&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;impresora&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; (de) chorro (de) tinta / impresora&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; de inyección de tinta &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;table width=&quot;400&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Textual organisation&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Organización del texto&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;letter&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;letra&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;word&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;palabra&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;, voz&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;, vocablo&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;phrase&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;frase&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;, sintagma&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;sentence&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;oración&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;paragraph&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;párrafo&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;section&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;apartado&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;subsection&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;inciso&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;chapter&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;capítulo&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;volume&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;tomo&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;, volumen&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#EBF1E4&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#EBF1E4&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;line&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;línea&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;, renglón&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;, verso&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;stanza&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;estrofa&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;verse&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;verso&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#EBF1E4&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#EBF1E4&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;title page / front page / cover&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;portada&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;right-hand page (recto)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;página&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; impar, recto&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;left-hand page (verso)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;página&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; par, verso&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;back (of a sheet of paper)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;dorso&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;table width=&quot;400&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Typographic&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Tipográfico&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;font&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;tipo&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; de letra, fuente&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;lower case&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;caja&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; baja, minúscula&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;UPPER CASE&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;CAJA&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; ALTA, MAYÚSCULA&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;, VERSAL&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;S&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;MALL CAPS&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;V&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;ERSALITAS&lt;/font&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;boldface&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;negrita&lt;/b&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;Roman type&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;redonda&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;italics&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;cursiva&lt;/i&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;i&gt;itálica&lt;/i&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;underlined&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;(texto) &lt;u&gt;subrayado&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;del&gt;strikethrough&lt;/del&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;(texto) &lt;del&gt;tachado&lt;/del&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;superscript&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;superíndice&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;sup&gt;(texto) volado&lt;/sup&gt;, &lt;sup&gt;letra voladita&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;sub&gt;subscript&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;sub&gt;subíndice&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://gastephen.googlepages.com/fontSmall.gif&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;table width=&quot;400&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;font size&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; (e.g. 12pt)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;cuerpo&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; (tamaño del tipo)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;x height&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;altura&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; x&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;shoulder&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;hombro&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;, rebaba&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;serif&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;remate&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;, gracia&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;, serifa&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;ascender&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;(asta&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;) ascendente&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;descender&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;(asta&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;) descendente&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;base line&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;línea&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; de base&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;point (1/72 inch)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;punto&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; tipográfico (1/72 de pulgada)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;stroke&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;trazo&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;sans serif font&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;tipo&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; (de letra) paloseco&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;serif font&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;tipo&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; (de letra) romano, con serifas&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;fixed pitch, monospaced, non-proportional font&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;tipo&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; de espaciado fijo&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;proportional font&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;tipo&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; de espaciado proporcional&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;leading (spacing between lines)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;interlineado&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;tracking (space between characters)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;prosa&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; (espaciado interletrado)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;kerning (adjustments in spacing between letters in certain pairs)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;interletraje&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; (ajustes visual sobre ciertos pares de carácteres)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#EBF1E4&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#EBF1E4&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;left aligned&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;alineado a la izquierda&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;right aligned&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;alineado a la derecha&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;justified&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;justificado&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;centred&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;centrado&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;margin&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;margen&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;indent&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;sangrado&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;to indent a line&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;sagrar una línea&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;blockquote&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;metido&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;footnote&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;nota&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; al pie&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;text figures&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;200&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;números&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;m&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; elzevirianos&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;, cifras&amp;nbsp;&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/font&gt; de estilo antiguo&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; In text figures 0, 1, 2 have x-height size; 3, 4, 5, 7, 9 have descenders; 6, 8 have ascenders.&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;En los números elzevirianos el tamaño de las cifras 0, 1, 2 es la altura x; 3, 4, 5, 7, 9 tienen astas descendentes; 6, 8 tienen astas ascendentes.&lt;br&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://gastephen.googlepages.com/elzevirianos.gif&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;By Graham A Stephen and Karin Sequén © 2008&lt;/p&gt;</description><link>http://es-xchange.blogspot.com/2008/01/vocabulary-document-preparation_19.html</link><author>noreply@blogger.com (Graham)</author><thr:total>1</thr:total></item><item><guid isPermaLink="false">tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5736962017647399800.post-5840513755629550896</guid><pubDate>Fri, 02 Nov 2007 13:37:00 +0000</pubDate><atom:updated>2008-09-16T15:05:06.399-06:00</atom:updated><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">English issues / Temas de inglés</category><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">Spanish issues / Temas de español</category><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">Vocabulario</category><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">Vocabulary</category><title>Punctuation marks / signos de puntuación</title><description>&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #c00000; padding: 2px 10px 10px 10px;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 style=&quot;margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 2px;&quot;&gt;This article has moved!&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Please update your bookmarks with its &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.es-xchange.com/2007/11/02/punctuation-marks/&quot;&gt;new location&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Thank you.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;table width=&quot;400&quot; cellspacing=&quot;10&quot; border=&quot;0&quot;&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;190&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;We probably all take it for granted: when we write not only do we employ letters to form words and figures to stand for numbers, but we also take advantage of a range of other little marks, which —when used well— can make our intended meaning clear. Used badly, on the other hand, they can lead to ambiguity and can even totally change the intended meaning. We are of course talking about punctuation marks.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The names of these symbols are something that is very often not covered in vocabulary exercises when learning a second language. This article therefore presents a cross-reference table giving the names in both English and Spanish of punctuation marks together with some other commonly used typographic symbols.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Incidentally, the topic of the art of punctuation in Spanish is covered in a highly readable way in the book &lt;em&gt;Perdón, imposible&lt;/em&gt;[1]. Another useful guide to the correct use of punctuation marks in Spanish can be found in the &lt;em&gt;Signos ortográficos&lt;/em&gt;[2] section of the &lt;em&gt;Diccionario panhispánico de dudas&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Symbols_es-xchange.blogspot.com.pdf&quot;&gt;continued...&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt; José Antonio Millán, &lt;em&gt;Perdón, imposible&lt;/em&gt;, RBA Libros (Barcelona), 2005.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://perdonimposible.com/&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;http://perdonimposible.com/&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt; “Signos ortográficos”, &lt;em&gt;Diccionario panhispánico de dudas&lt;/em&gt;, Real Academia Española, 2005.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://buscon.rae.es/dpdI/SrvltConsulta?lema=puntuacion&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;http://buscon.rae.es/dpdI/SrvltCo&lt;br&gt;nsulta?lema=puntuacion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;190&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;p&gt;Probablemente no le prestamos mucha atención: al escribir no sólo empleamos letras para formar palabras y cifras para representar números, sino también nos aprovechamos de una serie de otros pequeños signos, que —al utilizarse bien— pueden hacer claro lo que queremos expresar. Mal usados, en cambio, pueden conducir a la ambigüedad e incluso cambiar por completo el sentido deseado. Estamos hablando, por supuesto, de los signos de puntuación.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Los nombres de estos signos son algo que muy a menudo no figura en los ejercicios de vocabulario al aprender otro idioma. Por lo tanto en este artículo presentamos una tabla de referencia que cuenta con los nombres tanto en inglés como en español de los signos de puntuación junto a algunos otros símbolos tipográficos comunes.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Por cierto el tema del arte de la puntuación en inglés lo trata de una manera muy asequible el libro &lt;em&gt;Eats, Shoots &amp;amp; Leaves&lt;/em&gt;[3]. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/Symbols_es-xchange.blogspot.com.pdf&quot;&gt;continúa...&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt; Lynne Truss, &lt;em&gt;Eats, Shoots &amp;amp; Leaves&lt;/em&gt;, Profile Books (London), 2003.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://eatsshootsandleaves.com/esl.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;http://eatsshootsandleaves.com/&lt;br&gt;esl.html&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;em&gt;By Graham A Stephen and Karin Sequén © 2007&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;</description><link>http://es-xchange.blogspot.com/2007/11/punctuation-marks-signos-de-puntuacin.html</link><author>noreply@blogger.com (Graham)</author><thr:total>1</thr:total></item><item><guid isPermaLink="false">tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5736962017647399800.post-6346899802970871678</guid><pubDate>Sat, 21 Jul 2007 13:09:00 +0000</pubDate><atom:updated>2008-09-16T15:06:24.160-06:00</atom:updated><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">Spanish issues / Temas de español</category><title>El hecho de que... indicative or subjunctive?</title><description>&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #c00000; padding: 2px 10px 10px 10px;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 style=&quot;margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 2px;&quot;&gt;This article has moved!&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Please update your bookmarks with its &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.es-xchange.com/2007/07/21/el-hecho-de-que-indicative-or-subjunctive/&quot;&gt;new location&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Thank you.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The general guidance given to learners of Spanish with regards to choosing between the indicative and subjunctive moods usually centres on the notion of the speaker’s model of reality: when dealing with certainties (from the speaker’s point of view), the indicative is used; whereas the subjunctive is normally used in situations involving factors such as uncertainty, denial, emotional reaction, desire, and influence.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;This article looks at one particular example that appears to run counter to the above: namely the use of the subjunctive following &lt;em&gt;el hecho de que&lt;/em&gt; where the phrase is used to state an objective fact and where no emotional reaction is involved.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Let’s start by taking a closer look at some typical descriptions of the general rules involved in the use of the subjunctive mood.  We will then go on to take a look at so-called &lt;em&gt;factive clauses&lt;/em&gt; and follow this up by examining the choice of mood in such clauses.  This mentions previous investigation in this area and presents some observations based on a statistical analysis undertaken for this article.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/ElHechoDeQue_es-xchange.blogspot.com.pdf&quot;&gt;Read more...&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;By Graham A Stephen and Karin Sequén © 2007&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</description><link>http://es-xchange.blogspot.com/2007/07/el-hecho-de-que-indicative-or.html</link><author>noreply@blogger.com (Graham)</author><thr:total>1</thr:total></item><item><guid isPermaLink="false">tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5736962017647399800.post-494465897324042012</guid><pubDate>Mon, 04 Jun 2007 15:55:00 +0000</pubDate><atom:updated>2008-09-16T15:08:00.947-06:00</atom:updated><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">English issues / Temas de inglés</category><title>El orden de los adjetivos</title><description>&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #c00000; padding: 2px 10px 10px 10px;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 style=&quot;margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 2px;&quot;&gt;This article has moved!&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Please update your bookmarks with its &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.es-xchange.com/2007/06/04/el-orden-de-los-adjetivos/&quot;&gt;new location&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Thank you.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Hemos visto anteriormente como se usan en inglés los modificadores compuestos&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt;. Esta vez, examinaremos algo relacionado: el orden de los adjetivos cuando usamos dos o más delante de un sustantivo.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;En inglés el uso de un adjetivo puede ser atributivo (‘attributive’) — califica al sustantivo directamente sin un verbo intermediario — o predicativo (‘predicative’) — es parte del predicado y hay un verbo entre éste y el sujeto. En el primer caso para modificar el sentido del sustantivo se coloca el adjetivo en una posición adyacente al mismo, y en el segundo aparece el adjetivo como complemento de una cópula, es decir, va después de un verbo tal como ‘is’. Por ejemplo, en la frase &lt;i&gt;the green door &lt;/i&gt;(la puerta verde), &lt;i&gt;green&lt;/i&gt; es un adjetivo atributivo (‘attributive adjective’); y en &lt;i&gt;the door is green &lt;/i&gt;(la puerta es verde), es un adjetivo predicativo (‘predicative adjective’). La mayoría de los adjetivos ingleses pueden funcionar de ambos modos, aunque hay unos cuantos que sólo se pueden usar de una de las dos maneras. Por ejemplo, se dice &lt;i&gt;the lone ranger &lt;/i&gt;(el llanero solitario) y &lt;i&gt;the ranger is alone &lt;/i&gt;(el llanero está solo), pero nunca *&lt;i&gt;the alone ranger &lt;/i&gt;o *&lt;i&gt;the ranger is lone&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;En cuanto a los adjetivos con función de atributo, hay ciertas ocasiones en las cuales se pone el adjetivo después del sustantivo, es decir cuando es un adjetivo pospositivo (‘postpositive’ o ‘post-positioned adjective’). Primero, tenemos el caso en que un adjetivo califica un pronombre, así como &lt;i&gt;someone&lt;/i&gt; (alguien), &lt;i&gt;something&lt;/i&gt; (algo), &lt;i&gt;those&lt;/i&gt; (éstos), etcétera. Ejemplos:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;someone &lt;u&gt;clever&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/i&gt; (alguien listo) &lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;something &lt;u&gt;unexpected&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/i&gt; (algo inesperado) &lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;those &lt;u&gt;eligible&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/i&gt; (los que reúnen los requisitos necesarios)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;p&gt;Luego, muchas veces se usa un adjetivo pospositivo junto con un superlativo o un cuantificador.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;the latest date &lt;u&gt;possible&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/i&gt; (la última fecha posible) &lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;the most awkward position &lt;u&gt;imaginable&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/i&gt; (la posición más incómoda que se puede imaginar) &lt;i&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;the only seat &lt;u&gt;available&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/i&gt; (la única plaza disponible) &lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;the first letter &lt;u&gt;opened&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/i&gt; (la primera carta que se abra)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;p&gt;Toma nota que normalmente es también posible poner el adjetivo antes del sustantivo en tales casos, donde recibe un poco más énfasis, por ejemplo &lt;i&gt;the latest &lt;b&gt;possible&lt;/b&gt; date&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Hay unos cuantos adjetivos que suelen ser pospositivos, tales como: &lt;i&gt;aplenty&lt;/i&gt; (en abundancia), &lt;i&gt;elect&lt;/i&gt; (electo), &lt;i&gt;emeritus&lt;/i&gt; (emérito), &lt;i&gt;extraordinaire&lt;/i&gt; (sin igual), y &lt;i&gt;galore&lt;/i&gt; (en abundancia). Hay asimismo ciertos sustantivos compuestos y frases hechas que emplean este orden de vocablos. Ejemplos:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;court &lt;u&gt;martial&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/i&gt; (consejo de guerra) &lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;knight &lt;u&gt;errant&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/i&gt; (caballero errante) &lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;Attorney &lt;u&gt;General&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/i&gt; (= Ministro de Justicia) &lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;Princess &lt;u&gt;Royal&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/i&gt; (título otorgado a la hija mayor de un monarca británico) &lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;heir &lt;u&gt;apparent&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/i&gt; (heredero forzoso)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;p&gt;Y por fin también encontramos adjetivos pospositivos en muchos nombres de productos. He aquí unos pocos ejemplos:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;Carrera &lt;u&gt;Cabriolet&lt;/u&gt; &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;Pepsi &lt;u&gt;Max&lt;/u&gt; &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;Outlook &lt;u&gt;Express&lt;/u&gt; &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;Windows XP &lt;u&gt;Professional&lt;/u&gt; &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;iPod &lt;u&gt;Mini&lt;/u&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/i&gt;Estos tipos de caso, esbozados arriba, son las excepciones; lo normal es que un adjetivo atributivo va antes del sustantivo.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Un sustantivo junto con las otras palabras adyacentes que lo califican forman una &lt;i&gt;frase o sintagma nominal&lt;/i&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[2]&lt;/sup&gt;, es decir una frase que funciona como un sustantivo — puede ser el sujeto o el complemento de un verbo, por ejemplo. Cuando tenemos una frase nominal que cuenta con más de un adjetivo solo delante del sustantivo, puedes separarlos con comas cuando modifican independientemente el sustantivo. Por ejemplo, &lt;i&gt;the big, green door &lt;/i&gt;se refiere a una puerta que es grande y que también es verde. No obstante, si hay dos puertas verdes, una de gran tamaño y la otra pequeña, en &lt;i&gt;the big green door&lt;/i&gt;, la frase nominal &lt;i&gt;green door &lt;/i&gt;funciona más como una unidad y &lt;em&gt;big&lt;/em&gt; restringe el ámbito de las puertas verdes, o en otras palabras, sirve para identificar cuál de las dos se trata. En este caso no ponemos una coma entre los adjetivos. Sin embargo, parece que eso de la coma es algo estilístico y no todos los escritores siguen las mismas normas.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ahora estamos frente al punto central de este artículo: en una frase nominal con múltiples adjetivos, ¿cuál es el orden en él que deberíamos ponerlos? La verdad es que los angloparlantes nativos no tienen presente ninguna regla al conjuntar varios adjetivos; es que sencillamente un orden sonará natural mientras otros sonarán mal. No obstante, sí se han analizado las reglas subyacentes, y aunque existen varias opiniones distintas entre los estudiosos de la gramática&lt;sup&gt;[3]&lt;/sup&gt;, a continuación presentamos una jerarquía de los componentes de una frase nominal&lt;sup&gt;[4]&lt;/sup&gt; con algunos ejemplos de cada categoría de palabra.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Determinante&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;h4&gt;Artículo&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;i&gt;a/an, the&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(un, una, el, la)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h4&gt;Demostrativo&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;i&gt;this, that, these, those&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(este, ese, estos, esos)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h4&gt;Posesivo&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;i&gt;my, your, his, her, its, our, their, Bob’s&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(mi, tu, vuestro, su, nuestro, de Bob)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h4&gt;Cuantificador extensivo&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;i&gt;any, some, few, enough, much, other, another, each, every&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(algún, pocos, bastante, mucho, otro, cada, todo)&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Cuantificador ‘ordinal’&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;i&gt;first, second, last, initial, final, next, middle&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(primer, segundo, último, inicial, final, siguiente, medio)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Cuantificador ‘cardinal’&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;i&gt;five, twenty-three, many&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(cinco, veintitrés, muchos)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Opinión o juicio (sobre calidad o condición)&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;i&gt;nice, happy, interesting, beautiful, sad, soft&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(agradable, feliz, interesante, hermoso, triste, blando)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Tamaño / Peso&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;i&gt;big, short, wide, heavy, light&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(grande, corto, ancho, pesado, ligero)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Edad&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;i&gt;old, young, new, antique&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(viejo, joven, nuevo, antiguo)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Forma&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;i&gt;spherical, square, pentagonal, triangular&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(esférico, cuadrado, pentagonal, triangular)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Color&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;i&gt;red, green, blue, black, white, golden&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(rojo, verde, azul, negro, blanco, dorado)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Nacionalidad&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;i&gt;Australian, Scottish, Spanish, Japanese&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(australiano, escocés, español, japonés)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Religión&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;i&gt;Muslim, Christian, Jewish&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(musulmán, cristiano, judío)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Materia&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;i&gt;wooden, metallic, glass, stone, cardboard&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(de madera, metálico, de vidrio, de piedra, de cartón)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Propósito&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;i&gt;swimming (swimming costume), walking (walking boots), racing (racing car)&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(traje de baño, botas para caminar, coche de carrera)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Sustantivo en función de adjetivo&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;i&gt;university (university course), home (home cooking), newspaper (newspaper headline)&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(carrera universitaria, cocina casera, titular de periódico)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Sustantivo (núcleo del sintagma)&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ejemplos:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;the big new Islamic Geometry book&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(el nuevo gran libro de geometría islámica)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;a few interesting, heavy, antique, spherical, blue, metallic bowling balls&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(literalmente: unas cuantas bochas metálicas, antiguas, interesantes, esféricas, azules y pesadas)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;my first five delightful, small, golden, Japanese, wooden pencil boxes&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(en este caso se trata de ‘mis primeras cinco cajas de madera para lapiceros’, y además las cajas las califican también los siguientes adjetivos atributivos: preciosas, pequeñas, doradas y japonesas) &lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Aunque sí es posible concatenar muchos adjetivos así, no se considera buen estilo agrupar demasiados juntos. A menos que quieras conseguir cierto efecto raro, es recomendable que separes una descripción larga en frases distintas.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Y por fin, cabe decir que, desde luego, hay excepciones — cuando se trata por ejemplo de combinaciones de palabras muy comunes, sobre todo los sustantivos compuestos, así como &lt;i&gt;fast food &lt;/i&gt;(comida rápida), &lt;i&gt;black box&lt;/i&gt; (caja negra), &lt;i&gt;compact disc&lt;/i&gt; (disco compacto, CD). Según lo anterior, parecería que la frase *&lt;i&gt;short new story&lt;/i&gt;, verbigracia, fuera correcta, pero el hecho de que el cuento corto sea un género literario y por eso haya pasado a ser un sustantivo compuesto supone que más bien tenemos que decir &lt;i&gt;new short story&lt;/i&gt; para evitar introducir otras palabras en medio de las que forman el sustantivo compuesto.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://es-xchange.blogspot.com/2007/04/los-adjetivos-compuestos.html&quot;&gt;http://es-xchange.blogspot.com/2007/04/los-adjetivos-compuestos.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sintagma_nominal&quot;&gt;http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sintagma_nominal&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;3 &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjective&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjective&lt;/a&gt; (en inglés)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Se describen otras posibilidades en las páginas siguientes (todas en inglés):&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjective&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjective&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English/Adjectives&quot;&gt;http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English/Adjectives&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CiLL/exercises/adjectiveorder.htm&quot;&gt;http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CiLL/exercises/adjectiveorder.htm&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www-users.cs.york.ac.uk/~susan/cyc/a/adj.htm&quot;&gt;http://www-users.cs.york.ac.uk/~susan/cyc/a/adj.htm&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://academic.gallaudet.edu/handbooks/writers.nsf/eb87244793e2d3088525660c006be817/5e937432647654bb8525688c004ed14d?OpenDocument&quot;&gt;http://academic.gallaudet.edu/handbooks/writers.nsf/eb87244793e2d3088525660c006be817/5e937432647654bb8525688c004ed14d?OpenDocument&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;By Graham A Stephen and Karin Sequén © 2007&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</description><link>http://es-xchange.blogspot.com/2007/06/el-orden-de-los-adjetivos.html</link><author>noreply@blogger.com (Graham)</author><thr:total>1</thr:total></item><item><guid isPermaLink="false">tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5736962017647399800.post-6178086025871155555</guid><pubDate>Wed, 18 Apr 2007 14:52:00 +0000</pubDate><atom:updated>2008-09-16T15:09:12.633-06:00</atom:updated><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">English issues / Temas de inglés</category><title>Los Adjetivos Compuestos</title><description>&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #c00000; padding: 2px 10px 10px 10px;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 style=&quot;margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 2px;&quot;&gt;This article has moved!&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Please update your bookmarks with its &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.es-xchange.com/2007/04/18/los-adjetivos-compuestos/&quot;&gt;new location&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Thank you.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Un adjetivo compuesto&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt; es una combinación de dos o más palabras con una descripción única para el sustantivo que califican.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ahora bien, existen tres formas de tratar con las palabras compuestas&lt;sup&gt;[2]&lt;/sup&gt;  en inglés:&lt;ol type=&quot;a&quot;&gt;&lt;li&gt;Escribiéndolas como una sola palabra, como &lt;i&gt;housewife&lt;/i&gt; (ama de casa) y &lt;i&gt;wallpaper&lt;/i&gt; (papel tapiz).&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Uniéndolas con guiones como &lt;i&gt;merry-go-round&lt;/i&gt; (carrusel) y &lt;i&gt;mother-in-law&lt;/i&gt; (suegra).&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Escribiendo las palabras separadas, como &lt;i&gt;school bus&lt;/i&gt; (bus escolar) y &lt;i&gt;distance learning&lt;/i&gt; (aprendizaje a distancia).&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;Las primeras son llamadas “cerradas” o “sólidas” (&lt;i&gt;closed/solid compounds&lt;/i&gt;), las segundas son “enlazadas por guiones” (&lt;i&gt;hyphenated compounds&lt;/i&gt;) y las últimas son “abiertas” o “espaciadas” (&lt;i&gt;open/spaced compounds&lt;/i&gt;).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Los adjetivos compuestos generalmente pertenecen a uno de los dos últimos grupos, aunque hay algunos casos que, con el tiempo y el uso, han pasado a pertenecer al primer grupo. Por ejemplo, &lt;i&gt;goodnight&lt;/i&gt; y &lt;i&gt;online&lt;/i&gt; (originalmente &lt;i&gt;good-night&lt;/i&gt; y &lt;i&gt;on-line&lt;/i&gt;): &lt;i&gt;a goodnight kiss&lt;/i&gt; (un beso de buenas noches), &lt;i&gt;an online dictionary&lt;/i&gt; (un diccionario en línea). Es recomendable buscar primero el término en un diccionario actualizado, pero si la palabra no se encuentra, aquí hay algunas reglas para ayudarte a decidir la forma más apropiada de escritura.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:130%;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;#1 – Generalidades&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Por lo general, cuando un adjetivo compuesto aparece &lt;u&gt;antes&lt;/u&gt; del sustantivo se enlaza con guiones. Sin embargo, cuando el mismo adjetivo aparece &lt;u&gt;después&lt;/u&gt; del sustantivo se escribe con palabras espaciadas. Por ejemplo, escribimos con guiones &lt;i&gt;The green-eyed girl&lt;/i&gt; (La niña de ojos verdes), pero escribimos separado &lt;i&gt;The girl was green eyed&lt;/i&gt; (La niña tenía ojos verdes).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Esto lo hacemos para facilitar la comprensión y la lectura, y para evitar posibles confusiones. Por ejemplo, si escribimos &lt;i&gt;American-football player&lt;/i&gt; nos referimos claramente a un jugador de fútbol americano. Pero si escribimos &lt;i&gt;American football player&lt;/i&gt; no sabemos si &lt;i&gt;American&lt;/i&gt; califica al jugador o al deporte y por tanto podríamos interpretarlo como un jugador estadounidense de fútbol.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Veamos algunos otros ejemplos en donde los guiones evitan posibles confusiones:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;i&gt;We need more-qualified workers.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Necesitamos trabajadores más –o mejor–  calificados)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;i&gt;We need more qualified workers.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Necesitamos más trabajadores calificados)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;i&gt;A man-eating shark&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Un tiburón carnívoro que come seres humanos)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;i&gt;A man eating shark&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Un hombre comiendo tiburón)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;i&gt;Small-animal hospital&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Hospital para animales pequeños)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;i&gt;Small animal hospital&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Pequeño hospital para animales)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Por otra parte, no debemos abusar del uso de guiones. Es importante distinguir si se trata de un adjetivo compuesto o de dos o más adjetivos. Es muy común usar varios adjetivos para describir algo y, en caso de necesitar enumerarlos, recurriremos al uso de comas&lt;sup&gt;[3]&lt;/sup&gt;. En el inciso #6, explicaremos mejor cómo poder realizar esta distinción.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:130%;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;#2 – Adjetivos enlazados por guiones&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Los siguientes adjetivos compuestos se escriben usualmente con guiones:&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Aquellos formados con un adjetivo o sustantivo y un verbo en pasado participio, como &lt;i&gt;rose-tinted glasses&lt;/i&gt; (gafas/lentes pintados de color rosa) y &lt;i&gt;helium-filled balloons&lt;/i&gt; (globos llenos de helio).&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;li&gt;Aquellos formados con un adjetivo y un sustantivo al que se le ha agregado &lt;i&gt;–d&lt;/i&gt; o &lt;i&gt;–ed&lt;/i&gt; para crear una construcción de pasado participio, como &lt;i&gt;blue-blooded prince&lt;/i&gt; (príncipe de sangre real –lit. de ‘sangre azul’) y &lt;i&gt;old-fashioned lady&lt;/i&gt; (señora anticuada)&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;li&gt;Aquellos formados con un adjetivo, adverbio y un verbo en presente participio (terminado en &lt;i&gt;–ing&lt;/i&gt;). Por ejemplo, &lt;i&gt;long-lasting battery&lt;/i&gt; (batería de larga duración) y &lt;i&gt;good-looking man&lt;/i&gt; (hombre bien parecido).&lt;sup&gt;[4]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;li&gt;Aquellos que empiezan con &lt;i&gt;high&lt;/i&gt; o &lt;i&gt;low&lt;/i&gt;, como &lt;i&gt;high-quality product&lt;/i&gt; y &lt;i&gt;low-risk action&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;li&gt;Aquellos que se refieren a colores, como &lt;i&gt;dark-red dress&lt;/i&gt; o &lt;i&gt;green-blue eyes&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;li&gt;Aquellos compuestos que incluyen dos modificadores geográficos: &lt;i&gt;Anglo-Saxon, Afro-Asiatic&lt;/i&gt;. Sin embargo, escribimos separados:&lt;i&gt;Central/South/North American&lt;/i&gt; y algunos otros. Es recomendable consultar un diccionario.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Según el Manual de Estilo de Chicago&lt;sup&gt;[5]&lt;/sup&gt;, hay algunos puntos a considerar respecto al uso de guiones:&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Si un sustantivo compuesto es un elemento de un adjetivo compuesto, el compuesto completo debe ser enlazado por guiones para aclarar la relación entre las palabras. Por ejemplo, &lt;i&gt;diplomatic&lt;/i&gt; (adjetivo) + &lt;i&gt;arm-twisting&lt;/i&gt; (sustantivo compuesto) -&gt; &lt;i&gt;a diplomatic-arm-twisting expert&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;li&gt;Si hay más de un adjetivo compuesto modificando el sustantivo, el uso de guiones es especialmente importante. Por ejemplo, &lt;i&gt;an easy-to-use cutting-edge technology.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;li&gt;Si dos adjetivos compuestos tienen un elemento final común, dicho elemento debe aparecer únicamente en el segundo compuesto, y debe usarse un guión de suspensión en el primero para indicar la relación con el final del segundo. Por ejemplo, &lt;i&gt;the choral- and instrumental-music programs&lt;/i&gt; y &lt;i&gt;five- to ten-minute intervals&lt;/i&gt;. Sin embargo, si dos compuestos empiezan con un elemento común, ambos deben escribirse completos aunque el elemento se repita. Por ejemplo, &lt;i&gt;left-handed and left-brained executives&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:130%;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;#3 – Adjetivos abiertos&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Los siguientes adjetivos compuestos se escriben espaciados:&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Aquellos que empiezan con un adverbio terminado en &lt;i&gt;–ly&lt;/i&gt; o la palabra &lt;i&gt;very&lt;/i&gt;. Por ejemplo, &lt;i&gt;freshly painted wall&lt;/i&gt; (pared recién pintada), &lt;i&gt;hotly debated subject&lt;/i&gt; (un tema muy controversial, lit. “muy debatido”). Es necesario puntualizar que no existe unidad de criterios respecto al uso u omisión de guiones en compuestos formados con otros adverbios, tales como &lt;i&gt;well&lt;/i&gt;. Queda a tu discreción elegir algún diccionario o guía de estilo y seguir sus directrices.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;li&gt;Aquellos compuestos que involucran comparativos (&lt;i&gt;–er, more, less&lt;/i&gt; y otros) o superlativos (&lt;i&gt;–est, most, least&lt;/i&gt; y otros). Por ejemplo, &lt;i&gt;the least expected event&lt;/i&gt; (el evento menos esperado) y &lt;i&gt;the most respected member&lt;/i&gt; (el miembro más respetado)&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;li&gt;Aquellos que son términos químicos, como &lt;i&gt;carbon monoxide poisoning&lt;/i&gt; (envenenamiento por monóxido de carbono). Sin embargo, usamos guiones si existe un riesgo de ambigüedad. Por ejemplo: &lt;i&gt;acetic acid solution&lt;/i&gt; se refiere a una solución ácida producida por vinagre (acético), mientras que &lt;i&gt;acetic-acid solution&lt;/i&gt; es claramente una solución de ácido acético.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Aquellos compuestos que usan una letra en la segunda parte del compuesto: &lt;i&gt;type A personality&lt;/i&gt; (personalidad tipo A).&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;br /&gt;También escribimos los compuestos espaciados:&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Cuando el uso de mayúsculas elimina la ambigüedad. Por ejemplo, &lt;i&gt;old English scholar&lt;/i&gt; es una persona de edad avanzada que es un estudioso de inglés, pero &lt;i&gt;Old English scholar&lt;/i&gt; es un estudioso de inglés antiguo.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;li&gt;Cuando el adjetivo compuesto es modificado por un adverbio de intensidad. Por ejemplo, escribimos &lt;i&gt;an old-fashioned lady&lt;/i&gt; pero es posible escribir &lt;i&gt;an extremely old fashioned lady.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:130%;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;#4 – Adjetivos con números&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Se escriben con guiones aquellos compuestos que están formados por un número (escrito con letras o números) en la primera parte del compuesto, como &lt;i&gt;five-sided polygon&lt;/i&gt; (polígono de cinco lados), &lt;i&gt;three-dimensional figure&lt;/i&gt; (figura tridimensional) y &lt;i&gt;20th-century&lt;/i&gt; art (arte del siglo veinte).&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;li&gt;En cuanto al uso de números en compuestos, es importante notar que el sustantivo que lo sigue se debe escribir en singular. Por ejemplo, decimos &lt;i&gt;four wheels&lt;/i&gt; (4 llantas), pero al usarlo como adjetivo se convierte en  &lt;i&gt;four-wheel drive&lt;/i&gt; (doble tracción o tracción en las 4 llantas). Otros ejemplos: &lt;i&gt;ten-page report&lt;/i&gt; (reporte de 10 páginas) y  &lt;i&gt;ten-thousand-year-old rocks&lt;/i&gt; (rocas de 10 mil años de antigüedad). Sin embargo, el plural se sigue usando cuando el número es una fracción: &lt;i&gt;a two-thirds majority&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;li&gt;Se escriben espaciados si el número está en la segunda parte del compuesto, como section 8 seat (asiento de/en la sección 3).&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;li&gt;Los compuestos que terminan en &lt;i&gt;–fold&lt;/i&gt; se escriben con guiones cuando usamos números, pero se escriben como palabras sólidas cuando escribimos los números con letras. Por ejemplo, &lt;i&gt;2-fold&lt;/i&gt; y &lt;i&gt;twofold&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;li&gt;Los compuestos que terminan en &lt;i&gt;–odd&lt;/i&gt; siempre se escriben con guiones. Por ejemplo, &lt;i&gt;sixteen-odd, 16-odd&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;li&gt;Las fracciones usadas como modificadores se escriben con guiones: &lt;i&gt;five-eighths inch&lt;/i&gt;. Sin embargo, si el numerador o el denominador ya tienen guiones, la fracción no toma parte en el enlace: &lt;i&gt;a thirty-three thousandth part&lt;/i&gt;. Y no olvides que las fracciones usadas como sustantivos no utilizan guiones.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;li&gt;Un compuesto que consiste en un número y un sustantivo posesivo no se escribe con guiones. Por ejemplo, &lt;i&gt;one week’s pay&lt;/i&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[6]&lt;/sup&gt; (el pago de una semana).&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:130%;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;#5 – Frases&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Las frases usadas como modificadores generalmente se escriben enlazadas: &lt;i&gt;a take-it-or-leave-it deal, a do-it-yourself&lt;sup&gt;[7]&lt;/sup&gt; manual&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;li&gt;Si la frase se escribe entre comillas, itálicas o usando mayúsculas, los guiones ya no son necesarios. Por ejemplo, &lt;i&gt;a &quot;don&#39;t you dare&quot; look&lt;/i&gt; y &lt;i&gt;Phantom of the Opera tickets&lt;/i&gt;. Esto dependerá del estilo empleado por el escritor.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;li&gt;Por otro lado, las frases extranjeras (en idiomas distintos al inglés) se escriben como compuestos abiertos (espaciados), a menos que los guiones aparezcan en la frase en el idioma original. Por ejemplo, &lt;i&gt;a carpe diem attitude&lt;/i&gt; y &lt;i&gt;a bona fide offer&lt;/i&gt;. Generalmente las locuciones extranjeras se escriben en itálica y por tanto es fácil identificarlas. Por ejemplo escribimos “&lt;i&gt;à la carte&lt;/i&gt;  menu”.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:130%;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;#6 – Identificando adjetivos compuestos&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Cómo mencionamos anteriormente, es importante identificar si estamos ante una serie de adjetivos que califican individualmente al sustantivo o si se trata de un adjetivo compuesto para poder decidir entre el uso de comas o guiones. Ahora bien, ¿cómo identificar un adjetivo compuesto? Es muy fácil: coloca &lt;i&gt;“and”&lt;/i&gt; entre los adjetivos y si no pierde su significado muy probablemente te encuentras ante una serie de adjetivos independientes. Por ejemplo, si decimos &lt;i&gt;a big black car&lt;/i&gt;, podemos decir &lt;i&gt;big and black&lt;/i&gt;. Se trata de dos adjetivos, pues estamos describiendo a un automóvil como &lt;i&gt;big&lt;/i&gt; (grande) y &lt;i&gt;black&lt;/i&gt; (negro).  Pero en el caso de &lt;i&gt;dark-red car&lt;/i&gt;, no podemos decir &lt;i&gt;dark and red&lt;/i&gt;, porque &lt;i&gt;dark-red&lt;/i&gt; es una sola descripción (rojo oscuro) y por tanto, se trata de un adjetivo compuesto.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Otra forma de comprobar si estamos ante un adjetivo compuesto es probar cada una de las partes del compuesto con el sustantivo que califican y comprobar si no hay pérdida de significado. Por ejemplo, &lt;i&gt;first-aid kit&lt;/i&gt; (un equipo de primeros auxilios) no puede escribirse &lt;i&gt;first kit&lt;/i&gt; o &lt;i&gt;aid kit&lt;/i&gt; porque perdería su significado y por tanto se trata de un adjetivo compuesto.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Los adjetivos compuestos también se conocen como adjetivos frasales (&lt;i&gt;phrasal adjectives&lt;/i&gt;) y modificadores compuestos (&lt;i&gt;compound modifiers&lt;/i&gt;).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; También existen sustantivos y verbos compuestos. Si te interesa conocer más acerca de ellos, puedes leer este artículo (en inglés).&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_compound&quot;&gt; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_compound&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; Para más información sobre el uso de comas en la enumeración de adjetivos, lee el siguiente artículo (en inglés): &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.grammar-monster.com/lessons/commas_lessons.htm#en&quot;&gt;http://www.grammar-monster.com/lessons/commas_lessons.htm#en&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Los compuestos formados por un sustantivo y un verbo en presente participio generalmente se escriben espaciados, como &lt;i&gt;rabbit hunting season&lt;/i&gt;. Sin embargo, algunos de estos han pasado a ser sólidos, como &lt;i&gt;housekeeping facilities&lt;/i&gt;. Para mayor seguridad, consulta primero un diccionario.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; El Manual de Estilo de Chicago (&lt;i&gt;Chicago Manual of Style, CMS o Chicago&lt;/i&gt;) es una guía de estilo de escritura para el inglés americano publicada por la Universidad de Chicago Press (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.press.uchicago.edu/&quot;&gt;http://www.press.uchicago.edu&lt;/a&gt;), de donde toma su nombre. Es ampliamente reconocida y utilizada en la industria editorial. Este manual se encuentra en línea en la siguiente dirección: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/&quot;&gt;http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; Toma nota: Uno de los errores más comunes en inglés es omitir el apóstrofe en casos como estos. (Por ejemplo, &lt;i&gt;one weeks pay&lt;/i&gt;)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; Hoy en día, es muy común usar el acrónimo DIY para referirse a la frase &lt;i&gt;do-it-yourself&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;Por Karin Sequén y Graham A Stephen © 2007&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</description><link>http://es-xchange.blogspot.com/2007/04/los-adjetivos-compuestos.html</link><author>noreply@blogger.com (Karin)</author><thr:total>1</thr:total></item><item><guid isPermaLink="false">tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5736962017647399800.post-3779076680730372860</guid><pubDate>Wed, 07 Mar 2007 00:28:00 +0000</pubDate><atom:updated>2008-09-16T15:11:10.620-06:00</atom:updated><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">English issues / Temas de inglés</category><title>El uso de other y another</title><description>&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #c00000; padding: 2px 10px 10px 10px;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 style=&quot;margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 2px;&quot;&gt;This article has moved!&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Please update your bookmarks with its &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.es-xchange.com/2007/03/07/el-uso-de-other-y-another/&quot;&gt;new location&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Thank you.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Hoy aprenderemos el uso de &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;other &lt;/span&gt;y &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;another&lt;/span&gt;. Ambas palabras pueden traducirse como otro(a) u otros(as) y funcionan como adjetivo o pronombre en el contexto adecuado. Por eso, es necesario saber cuándo debemos usar cada uno.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Usamos &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;another &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;+ un sustantivo singular &lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[a,b]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;para introducir a alguien o a algo por primera vez en la conversación. Es decir, el interlocutor no está familiarizado con él o eso. ej. &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;Another man booked into the hotel last night.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;para indicar que es uno más de varios.  ej. &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;Tikal is one of Guatemala’s most beautiful locations. Another one&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[c]&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;is Atitlán.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;para indicar que es uno adicional. ej. &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;I’ll have another drink&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;para referirnos a uno distinto. ej. &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;This plate is dirty. Can I have another (one)?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Usamos &lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;the other &lt;/span&gt;+ un sustantivo singular &lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[d]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;para indicar que nos referimos al único restante. ej. &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;Write it down on the other side of the page.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Nota que &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;another &lt;/span&gt;es una palabra compuesta de la unión del artículo indefinido ‘&lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;an&lt;/span&gt;’ y ‘&lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;other&lt;/span&gt;’. Si recuerdas las reglas de uso de los artículos definidos e indefinidos, será muy fácil recordar cuándo usar &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;another&lt;/span&gt; y &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;the other&lt;/span&gt;. Por ejemplo, dices &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;‘Give me the other book’&lt;/span&gt; si solamente hay otro libro más o si el interlocutor sabe a qué libro te refieres.  Pero dices &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;‘Give me another book’&lt;/span&gt; para pedir uno (cualquiera) de los muchos libros que hay.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Usamos &lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;other&lt;/span&gt; + un sustantivo plural&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;para indicar algunos de los restantes, pero no todos. ej. &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;Some friends of mine called me to wish me a happy birthday. Other friends sent an email.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;Usamos the &lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;other &lt;/span&gt;+ un sustantivo plural &lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[d]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;para referirnos a todos los restantes. ej. &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;Two soldiers died in the mission. The other ones are still hospitalized.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;Ahora bien, &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;other &lt;/span&gt;se convierte en &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;others&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[e]&lt;/sup&gt; cuando se omite el sustantivo plural o el pronombre &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;ones&lt;/span&gt;. ej. &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;The others are still hospitalized.&lt;/span&gt; En este caso, &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;the others &lt;/span&gt;puede traducirse como ‘los otros’ o como ‘los demás’.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Usamos la construcción &lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;# + other + sustantivo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;cuando queremos especificar y/o enfatizar el número de elementos a los que nos referimos. ej. &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;He didn’t come alone. Three other guys are waiting outside.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;Observa que esta construcción admite únicamente el uso de &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;other&lt;/span&gt;, incluso cuando se trata de un sustantivo singular. Por ejemplo, &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;Only one other person knows about it.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[f]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Podemos combinar &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;other &lt;/span&gt;con los determinantes &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;some&lt;/span&gt; y &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;any&lt;/span&gt;,&lt;sup&gt;[g]&lt;/sup&gt; y con el adjetivo &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;no&lt;/span&gt;. Generalmente usamos &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;some&lt;/span&gt; en enunciados positivos y &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;any&lt;/span&gt; en preguntas y enunciados negativos.&lt;sup&gt;[h]&lt;/sup&gt; Por ejemplo, puedes decir &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;I’d like to consider some other options. &lt;/span&gt;(Positivo) – &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;Are there any other options?&lt;/span&gt; (Pregunta) – &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;I don’t see any other option but to just go ahead and do it. &lt;/span&gt;(Negativo) En el caso de &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;no other&lt;/span&gt;, lo usamos para enunciados negativos como &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;There’s no other option.&lt;/span&gt; (No hay otra opción); o bien, con el signficado de ninguno(a). ej. &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;She sings like no other&lt;/span&gt; (Ella canta como ninguna (otra) – Es decir, ella tiene un talento único).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Finalmente, al igual que en español, decimos &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;the other day&lt;/span&gt; (el otro día) para referirnos a un día en el pasado cercano y que probablemente no fue ayer. ej. &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;Mike called the other day.&lt;/span&gt; Y decimos &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;another day&lt;/span&gt; (otro día) para referirnos a un día en el futuro y que probablemente no será mañana. ej. &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;I’ll do it another day.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; Al referirse a un grupo y no a elementos individuales, &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;another &lt;/span&gt;también puede utilizarse con la construcción &lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;another &lt;/span&gt;+ # (+ sustantivo plural)&lt;/span&gt;. Debes tener cuidado de colocar el número después y no antes de &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;another&lt;/span&gt;. Por ejemplo, &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;I&#39;ve delivered all the flyers I had.  Can I have another 50 (flyers)? / Can I have another 50 of them?. (i.e. one more ‘group’ of 50).&lt;/span&gt; En este caso, no te refieres a cada uno de los 50 volantes de forma individual, sino a un paquete o grupo de 50.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt; Otra construcción que implica singularidad y por tanto admite el uso de &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;another &lt;/span&gt;es &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;another (one) of &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;+ determinante + sustantivo plural.&lt;/span&gt; Por ejemplo,&lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt; I got another of those calls yesterday. She was to become another of his stars.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt; Puedes utilizar &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;one&lt;/span&gt; o &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;ones &lt;/span&gt;en lugar de un sustantivo.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;d&lt;/sup&gt; Si usas un adjetivo posesivo (&lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;my, your, …&lt;/span&gt;) debes omitir el artículo &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;the&lt;/span&gt;. ej. &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;Compared to math, my other classes are easy.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;e&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;Another &lt;/span&gt;NO tiene plural.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;f&lt;/sup&gt; El único caso en el que un número precede a &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;another &lt;/span&gt;es en la expresión &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;one another&lt;/span&gt;, que es la versión formal y plural de &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;each other&lt;/span&gt;. Para leer más sobre esta expresión, ve aquí:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://es-xchange.blogspot.com/2007/01/dos-o-ms.html&quot;&gt;http://es-xchange.blogspot.com/2007/01/dos-o-ms.html&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;g&lt;/sup&gt; Después de &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;no, some&lt;/span&gt; o &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;any&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;another&lt;/span&gt; cambia a &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;other.&lt;/span&gt; Por ejemplo,&lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;  Can you call me another day? &lt;/span&gt;(¿Me puedes llamar otro día?)→ &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;Can you call me any other day?&lt;/span&gt; (¿Me puedes llamar cualquier otro día?)→ &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;Can you call me some other day? &lt;/span&gt;(Me puedes llamar algún otro día?). Nota que another también puede usarse para formular una pregunta. Esto lo hacemos cuando nos referimos a un solo elemento (como el ejemplo anterior).&lt;sup&gt;[a]&lt;/sup&gt; También lo podemos hacer –aunque aquí también es válido el uso de &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;any other&lt;/span&gt;–  cuando esperamos que la respuesta sea una sola. Por ejemplo, &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;Do you speak another language?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;font-size:85%;&quot; &gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;Do you speak any other language?&lt;/span&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt; Para más información sobre el uso de &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;some&lt;/span&gt; y &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;any&lt;/span&gt;, visita el siguiente enlace (en inglés): &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/adjectives-determiners-some-any.htm&quot;&gt;http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/adjectives-determiners-some-any.htm&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Por Karin Sequén y Graham A Stephen © 2007&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</description><link>http://es-xchange.blogspot.com/2007/03/el-uso-de-other-y-another.html</link><author>noreply@blogger.com (Karin)</author><thr:total>3</thr:total></item><item><guid isPermaLink="false">tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5736962017647399800.post-5944770014842270403</guid><pubDate>Fri, 02 Mar 2007 19:28:00 +0000</pubDate><atom:updated>2008-09-16T15:12:43.702-06:00</atom:updated><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">Spanish issues / Temas de español</category><title>How to type special characters in Spanish</title><description>&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #c00000; padding: 2px 10px 10px 10px;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 style=&quot;margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 2px;&quot;&gt;This article has moved!&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Please update your bookmarks with its &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.es-xchange.com/2007/03/02/how-to-type-special-characters-in-spanish/&quot;&gt;new location&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Thank you.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;If you are new to learning Spanish and you use a computer, then the chances are that you are wondering how to put the accent marks (or diacritics) on vowels — such as &lt;strong&gt;é&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;ü&lt;/strong&gt; — or type the letter &lt;em&gt;eñe&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;strong&gt;Ñ&lt;/strong&gt;) or the special punctuation marks used in the language — such as &lt;strong&gt;«&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;¿&lt;/strong&gt; This article reviews a few of the solutions available for this problem...&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Read more...&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/SpecialCharacters/SpecialCharacters_es-xchange.blogspot.com.pdf&quot;&gt;&lt;img id=&quot;BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5037412008112709154&quot; style=&quot;FLOAT: left; MARGIN: 0px 20px 20px 0px; CURSOR: hand&quot; alt=&quot;Full article&quot; src=&quot;http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_vCKDiwM9FOk/Reh7iDLYXiI/AAAAAAAAAAs/72_Ck1cvt3c/s400/button-article.gif&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Full article, including reference chart&lt;br /&gt;PDF 728KB&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;em&gt;Click&lt;/em&gt; to view; &lt;em&gt;Right&lt;/em&gt; c&lt;em&gt;lick&lt;/em&gt;/&lt;em&gt;Save target as&lt;/em&gt;... to download&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://es-xchange.bumerang180.com/SpecialCharacters/SpecialCharacters_es-xchange.blogspot.com.gif&quot;&gt;&lt;img id=&quot;BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5037413099034402354&quot; style=&quot;FLOAT: left; MARGIN: 0px 20px 20px 0px; CURSOR: hand&quot; alt=&quot;Reference chart&quot; src=&quot;http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_vCKDiwM9FOk/Reh8hjLYXjI/AAAAAAAAAA0/h6z6CvWmeuc/s400/button-chart.gif&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Reference chart only&lt;br /&gt;GIF 170KB&lt;br /&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;em&gt;Click&lt;/em&gt; to view; &lt;em&gt;Right&lt;/em&gt; c&lt;em&gt;lick&lt;/em&gt;/&lt;em&gt;Save target as&lt;/em&gt;... to download&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;By Graham A Stephen and Karin Sequén © 2007&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</description><link>http://es-xchange.blogspot.com/2007/03/how-to-type-special-characters-in.html</link><author>noreply@blogger.com (Graham)</author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_vCKDiwM9FOk/Reh7iDLYXiI/AAAAAAAAAAs/72_Ck1cvt3c/s72-c/button-article.gif" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></item><item><guid isPermaLink="false">tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5736962017647399800.post-8023486811976551591</guid><pubDate>Sat, 03 Feb 2007 19:07:00 +0000</pubDate><atom:updated>2008-09-16T15:14:32.281-06:00</atom:updated><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">English issues / Temas de inglés</category><title>La diferencia entre &#39;fewer&#39; y &#39;less&#39;</title><description>&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #c00000; padding: 2px 10px 10px 10px;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 style=&quot;margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 2px;&quot;&gt;This article has moved!&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Please update your bookmarks with its &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.es-xchange.com/2007/02/03/la-diferencia-entre-fewer-y-less/&quot;&gt;new location&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Thank you.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Hoy vamos a examinar dos palabras que se emplean en las comparaciones en inglés: &lt;em&gt;fewer&lt;/em&gt; y &lt;em&gt;less&lt;/em&gt;. Primero tenemos que tratar un poco sobre el tema de la contabilidad&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt; (&lt;em&gt;countability&lt;/em&gt; en inglés) de los sustantivos. Se dice que un sustantivo es contable (&lt;em&gt;countable&lt;/em&gt;) si se refiere a una unidad y cuando es plural se trata de un número de unidades distintas. Por ejemplo &lt;em&gt;libro&lt;/em&gt; es un sustantivo contable, ya que puedes tener un libro, dos libros, tres libros, etcétera. En cambio, un sustantivo no contable&lt;sup&gt;[2]&lt;/sup&gt; (&lt;em&gt;uncountable&lt;/em&gt;, o &lt;em&gt;mass noun&lt;/em&gt;) se refiere a algo que no es una unidad por sí mismo — tal como una sustancia — y normalmente va con algún cuantificador (&lt;em&gt;quantifier&lt;/em&gt;) que indica una cantidad específica. Por ejemplo, no dices una harina, dos harinas etcétera, sino una taza de harina, medio kilo de harina o algo así.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Y ahora podemos volver a las comparaciones. Si quieres decir en inglés &lt;em&gt;menos de algo&lt;/em&gt;, habrá dos opciones: puedes emplear &lt;em&gt;less&lt;/em&gt; o &lt;em&gt;fewer&lt;/em&gt;. Muchos angloparlantes siempre usan &lt;em&gt;less&lt;/em&gt;, y nunca &lt;em&gt;fewer&lt;/em&gt;. No obstante, los hablantes más cultos consideran importante distinguir entre dos casos: usan &lt;em&gt;fewer&lt;/em&gt; con los sustantivos contables y &lt;em&gt;less&lt;/em&gt; únicamente con los no contables. Por ejemplo:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;em&gt;This bottle has less water in it than the other one.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(&lt;em&gt;Esta botella contiene menos agua que la otra&lt;/em&gt;.)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;em&gt;There were fewer students there today&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;(&lt;em&gt;Hoy había menos estudiantes allí&lt;/em&gt;.)&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Por cierto, sí se usa &lt;em&gt;less&lt;/em&gt; con sustantivos contables plurales cuando sugieran una cantidad que debe tratarse como una unidad o conjunto. Por ejemplo cuando se trata de números, sumas de dinero, o medidas de distancia o tiempo: &lt;em&gt;less than 23 &lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;menos de 23&lt;/em&gt;), &lt;em&gt;less than $100 &lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;menos de $100&lt;/em&gt;), &lt;em&gt;less than 50 metres &lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;menos de 50 metros&lt;/em&gt;), &lt;em&gt;less than three months &lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;menos de tres meses&lt;/em&gt;). Este último, por ejemplo, realmente representa una duración única, y no tres meses individuales.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Y finalmente, nota que para indicar &lt;em&gt;más de algo&lt;/em&gt;, hay una sola palabra para ambos tipos de sustantivos: &lt;em&gt;more&lt;/em&gt;. Por ejemplo:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;em&gt;This bottle has more water in it than the other one&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;(&lt;em&gt;Esta botella contiene más agua que la otra&lt;/em&gt;.)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;em&gt;There were more students there today&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;(&lt;em&gt;Hoy había más estudiantes allí&lt;/em&gt;.)&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Hay más aquí: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_noun&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_noun&lt;/a&gt; (en inglés)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Hay más ejemplos de sustantivos ingleses no contables aquí: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_noun#Some_illustrative_examples_of_English_mass_nouns&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_noun#Some_illustrative_examples_of_English_mass_nouns&lt;/a&gt; (en inglés)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;By Graham A Stephen and Karin Sequén © 2007&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</description><link>http://es-xchange.blogspot.com/2007/02/la-diferencia-entre-fewer-y-less.html</link><author>noreply@blogger.com (Graham)</author><thr:total>1</thr:total></item><item><guid isPermaLink="false">tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5736962017647399800.post-6786387433304473214</guid><pubDate>Wed, 24 Jan 2007 15:00:00 +0000</pubDate><atom:updated>2008-09-16T15:16:04.025-06:00</atom:updated><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">Spanish issues / Temas de español</category><title>El instead of La</title><description>&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #c00000; padding: 2px 10px 10px 10px;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 style=&quot;margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 2px;&quot;&gt;This article has moved!&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Please update your bookmarks with its &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.es-xchange.com/2007/01/24/el-instead-of-la/&quot;&gt;new location&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Thank you.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;One of the first things a beginner Spanish student learns is that the definite article&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt; must agree in gender and number with the noun that it refers to. &lt;i&gt;El&lt;/i&gt; and &lt;i&gt;los&lt;/i&gt; are used for masculine nouns, whereas &lt;i&gt;la&lt;/i&gt; and &lt;i&gt;las&lt;/i&gt; for feminine ones.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;However, there&#39;s a phenomenon you need to know about: when a &lt;b&gt;singular feminine&lt;/b&gt; noun that begins with a stressed &#39;a&#39; sound&lt;sup&gt; [2,3]&lt;/sup&gt; is preceded &lt;b&gt;directly&lt;/b&gt; by a definite article you must use &lt;i&gt;el&lt;/i&gt; instead of &lt;i&gt;la&lt;/i&gt;. For example, &lt;i&gt;el agua&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;el alma&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;el águila&lt;/i&gt;, and &lt;i&gt;el hacha&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;According to the RAE&lt;sup&gt; [4]&lt;/sup&gt;, even though this form is identical to the masculine article, it’s actually a formal variant of the feminine article. In fact, this feminine &lt;i&gt;el&lt;/i&gt; does not have the same origin as the masculine &lt;i&gt;el&lt;/i&gt;. The latter is from the Old Castilian &lt;i&gt;ele&lt;/i&gt;, whereas the former is from &lt;i&gt;ela&lt;/i&gt;, just as is &lt;i&gt;la&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;You must keep in mind that these nouns are feminine, thus everything but the singular article must agree with them, including: adjectives, pronouns and the plural article &lt;i&gt;las&lt;/i&gt;. Therefore, we say &lt;i&gt;&lt;u&gt;el&lt;/u&gt; agua frí&lt;u&gt;a&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;&lt;u&gt;las&lt;/u&gt; hachas&lt;/i&gt;, and &lt;i&gt;&lt;u&gt;el&lt;/u&gt; alma mí&lt;u&gt;a&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/i&gt;. And don’t forget the rule only applies when there’s no word between the article and the noun. So we say &lt;i&gt;&lt;u&gt;el&lt;/u&gt; águila dorad&lt;u&gt;a&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/i&gt; but &lt;i&gt;&lt;u&gt;la&lt;/u&gt; hermos&lt;u&gt;a&lt;/u&gt; águila&lt;/i&gt;. Another observation worthy of remark is that this rule doesn’t take effect on derived words where the stress no longer falls on the initial &#39;a&#39; sound. For example, you must say &lt;i&gt;la agüita&lt;/i&gt;, because the stress is on the second syllable.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;There are few exceptions to this rule:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li&gt;The names of the following letters: &lt;i&gt;la a&lt;/i&gt; and &lt;i&gt;la hache&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;li&gt;Before female proper names when an article is required. e.g. &lt;i&gt;Ya no es la Ana con quien solía divertirme.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;li&gt;When the word is used to refer to both sexes, and the definite article is the only way to tell them apart. e.g. &lt;i&gt;el árabe&lt;/i&gt; (masculine), &lt;i&gt;la árabe&lt;/i&gt; (feminine). &lt;br /&gt;&lt;li&gt;Regarding places names, the names of the continents use &lt;i&gt;el&lt;/i&gt; (&lt;i&gt;el África&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;el Asia&lt;/i&gt;), whereas the names of countries and cities use &lt;i&gt;la&lt;/i&gt; (&lt;i&gt;La Haya&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;La Austria&lt;/i&gt;).&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Although the RAE&lt;sup&gt;[5]&lt;/sup&gt; does not consider incorrect the use of &lt;i&gt;una&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;alguna&lt;/i&gt; and &lt;i&gt;ninguna&lt;/i&gt; in front of these words, most Spanish speakers will usually change them for their apocopated forms&lt;sup&gt; [6]&lt;/sup&gt; –which is also considered correct grammar. Hence, it is common to see constructions such as: &lt;i&gt;un hada madrina&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;algún ave&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;ningún arma&lt;/i&gt;. On the other hand, you must always use the feminine forms of &lt;i&gt;este&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;ese&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;aquel&lt;/i&gt; or any other determiner such &lt;i&gt;todo&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;mucho&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;poco&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;otro&lt;/i&gt;, etc.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Finally, let’s take a look at two unusual words: &lt;i&gt;azúcar&lt;/i&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[7]&lt;/sup&gt; and &lt;i&gt;arte&lt;/i&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[8]&lt;/sup&gt;.  The former  is a very special case. Its &lt;i&gt;a&lt;/i&gt; is unstressed, and yet it can follow the above rule. So, you can say &lt;i&gt;&lt;u&gt;el&lt;/u&gt; azúcar refinad&lt;u&gt;a&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/i&gt; (&lt;i&gt;el azúcar refinado&lt;/i&gt; and &lt;i&gt;la azúcar refinada&lt;/i&gt; are also possible). Now, regarding &lt;i&gt;arte&lt;/i&gt;, the RAE states its gender is ambiguous. However, it’s usually used as a masculine noun in singular and as a feminine one in plural. Thus, we say &lt;i&gt;el arte moderno&lt;/i&gt; but &lt;i&gt;las bellas artes&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; The definite article is a determiner that introduces a noun phrase and implies that the thing mentioned has already been mentioned, or is common knowledge, or is about to be defined. The English definite article is ‘the’.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Stress is the emphasis given to a particular syllable or word in speech, typically through a combination of relatively greater loudness, higher pitch, and longer duration. In written Spanish, accent marks (or the absence of them) let us know which syllable must be stressed.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; The stressed ‘a’ sound (&lt;i&gt;a tónica&lt;/i&gt;) can be written either &lt;i&gt;a-&lt;/i&gt; or &lt;i&gt;ha-&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; El – Diccionario Panhispánico de Dudas de la Real Academia Española. – &lt;a href=&quot;http://buscon.rae.es/dpdI/SrvltGUIBusDPD?lema=el&quot;&gt;http://buscon.rae.es/dpdI/SrvltGUIBusDPD?lema=el&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; Uno – Diccionario Panhispánico de Dudas de la Real Academia Española. – &lt;a href=&quot;http://buscon.rae.es/dpdI/SrvltGUIBusDPD?lema=uno&quot;&gt;http://buscon.rae.es/dpdI/SrvltGUIBusDPD?lema=uno&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; Apocopation is the dropping of the final vowel or syllable of a word. &lt;i&gt;Alguno&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;ninguno&lt;/i&gt; and &lt;i&gt;uno&lt;/i&gt; become &lt;i&gt;algún&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;ningún&lt;/i&gt; and &lt;i&gt;un&lt;/i&gt; respectively. Note that in the case of &lt;i&gt;alguno&lt;/i&gt; and &lt;i&gt;ninguno&lt;/i&gt;, a written accent is added to the apocopated form  to preserve the position of the stress.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; Azúcar – Diccionario Panhispánico de Dudas de la Real Academia Española. – &lt;a href=&quot;http://buscon.rae.es/dpdI/SrvltGUIBusDPD?lema=azucar&quot;&gt;http://buscon.rae.es/dpdI/SrvltGUIBusDPD?lema=azucar&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Arte – Diccionario Panhispánico de Dudas de la Real Academia Española. – &lt;a href=&quot;http://buscon.rae.es/dpdI/SrvltGUIBusDPD?lema=arte&quot;&gt;http://buscon.rae.es/dpdI/SrvltGUIBusDPD?lema=arte&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;Por Karin Sequén y Graham A Stephen © 2007&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</description><link>http://es-xchange.blogspot.com/2007/01/el-instead-of-la.html</link><author>noreply@blogger.com (Karin)</author><thr:total>0</thr:total></item><item><guid isPermaLink="false">tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5736962017647399800.post-8483234057996021988</guid><pubDate>Fri, 19 Jan 2007 23:00:00 +0000</pubDate><atom:updated>2008-09-16T15:17:13.128-06:00</atom:updated><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">English issues / Temas de inglés</category><title>Take long</title><description>&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #c00000; padding: 2px 10px 10px 10px;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 style=&quot;margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 2px;&quot;&gt;This article has moved!&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Please update your bookmarks with its &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.es-xchange.com/2007/01/19/take-long/&quot;&gt;new location&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Thank you.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Hay un verbo frasal&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt; en inglés &lt;em&gt;to take long&lt;/em&gt;, que quiere decir &lt;em&gt;tardar mucho&lt;/em&gt;. Pero ¡ojo! no puedes usarlo de la misma manera en todas las ocasiones. Puedes decir &lt;em&gt;take long&lt;/em&gt; con tal de que lo uses junto con un verbo auxiliar&lt;sup&gt;[2]&lt;/sup&gt;. Por ejemplo:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;em&gt;It didn’t take long&lt;/em&gt;. (&lt;em&gt;No tardó mucho&lt;/em&gt;.)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;em&gt;Does it take long&lt;/em&gt;? (¿&lt;em&gt;Tarda mucho&lt;/em&gt;?)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;em&gt;It doesn’t take long&lt;/em&gt;. (&lt;em&gt;No tarda mucho&lt;/em&gt;.)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;em&gt;Will it take long&lt;/em&gt;? (¿&lt;em&gt;Tardará mucho&lt;/em&gt;?)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;em&gt;How long will it take&lt;/em&gt;? (¿&lt;em&gt;Cuánto tardará&lt;/em&gt;?)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;em&gt;Is it going to take long&lt;/em&gt;? (¿&lt;em&gt;Va a tardar mucho&lt;/em&gt;?)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;etcétera…&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pero cuando no hay verbo auxiliar tenemos que sustituir &lt;em&gt;long&lt;/em&gt; por &lt;em&gt;a long time&lt;/em&gt;. Por ejemplo, &lt;em&gt;it takes long &lt;/em&gt;o &lt;em&gt;it took long &lt;/em&gt;suena muy extraño. Por otro lado, &lt;em&gt;it takes a long time &lt;/em&gt;suena muy natural.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; En inglés un verbo frasal (&lt;em&gt;phrasal verb&lt;/em&gt;) cuenta con dos partes: es un modismo formado por un verbo seguido de un adverbio, por ejemplo: &lt;em&gt;to throw up &lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;vomitar&lt;/em&gt;), &lt;em&gt;to round off &lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;concluir&lt;/em&gt;). Se puede leer más sobre este tema aquí: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ompersonal.com.ar/omphrasal/acercadeverbosfrasales.htm&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;http://www.ompersonal.com.ar/omphrasal/acercadeverbosfrasales.htm&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Un verbo auxiliar (&lt;em&gt;auxiliary verb&lt;/em&gt;) es uno que ayuda otro y que le imparte un sentido adicional. Por ejemplo para formar tiempos compuestos se usa formas del verbo &lt;em&gt;to have &lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;haber&lt;/em&gt;): &lt;em&gt;I have eaten &lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;he comido&lt;/em&gt;). Otros ejemplos de auxiliares son: &lt;em&gt;do&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;can&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;will&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;be&lt;/em&gt;, etcétera. Ve &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliary_verbs&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliary_verbs&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt; (en inglés).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;By Graham A Stephen and Karin Sequén © 2007&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</description><link>http://es-xchange.blogspot.com/2007/01/take-long.html</link><author>noreply@blogger.com (Graham)</author><thr:total>0</thr:total></item><item><guid isPermaLink="false">tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5736962017647399800.post-6694165403421551006</guid><pubDate>Thu, 11 Jan 2007 23:40:00 +0000</pubDate><atom:updated>2008-09-16T15:18:23.917-06:00</atom:updated><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">English issues / Temas de inglés</category><title>Dos o más</title><description>&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #c00000; padding: 2px 10px 10px 10px;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 style=&quot;margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 2px;&quot;&gt;This article has moved!&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Please update your bookmarks with its &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.es-xchange.com/2007/01/11/dos-o-mas/&quot;&gt;new location&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Thank you.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Uno de los errores más comunes de los estudiantes de inglés es el uso de ciertas palabras o frases que dependen del número de elementos implicados. Para muchos es fácil recordar que &lt;i&gt;both&lt;/i&gt; (ambos) se utiliza únicamente cuando se habla de dos cosas y &lt;i&gt;all&lt;/i&gt; (todos/todas) cuando se habla de tres o más. Sin embargo, no sucede lo mismo con &lt;i&gt;either&lt;/i&gt; (cualquiera de los dos) y &lt;i&gt;neither&lt;/i&gt; (ninguno/a de los dos) que se usan exclusivamente con dos elementos; y con &lt;i&gt;any&lt;/i&gt; (cualquiera) y &lt;i&gt;none&lt;/i&gt; (ninguno/a) que se usa cuando se habla de tres objetos en adelante. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Por ejemplo, si tienes dos posibles respuestas a una pregunta, existen las siguientes opciones:&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;Both are correct&lt;/i&gt; (ambas son correctas)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;Neither is correct&lt;/i&gt; (ninguna &lt;u&gt;de las dos&lt;/u&gt; es correcta)&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pero si hubieran tres o más posibles respuestas, entonces se diría:&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;All of them are correct&lt;/i&gt; (todas son correctas)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;None is correct&lt;/i&gt; (ninguna es correcta) &lt;sup&gt;[1,2]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Es importante aclarar que tanto &lt;i&gt;both&lt;/i&gt; como &lt;i&gt;either&lt;/i&gt; y &lt;i&gt;neither&lt;/i&gt; se pueden usar cuando los dos elementos implicados son grupos, siempre y cuando se haga referencia a ellos de manera colectiva: &lt;i&gt;Who is coming to the party – your friends or your family? Both.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Otro caso es el uso de &lt;i&gt;between&lt;/i&gt; y &lt;i&gt;among/amongst&lt;/i&gt;, pues ambas significan “entre”. &lt;i&gt;Between&lt;/i&gt; siempre se refiere a dos cosas y &lt;i&gt;among&lt;/i&gt; se refiere a tres o más. Por ejemplo, si te ganas un viaje y  tienes que elegir entre tus dos mejores amigos a uno que te acompañe, dices &lt;i&gt;I&#39;ll have to choose between Mary and Peter&lt;/i&gt;. Pero si tienes más de dos amigos para elegir, la frase correcta es &lt;i&gt;I&#39;ll have to choose among my friends (who will go with me)&lt;/i&gt;. ¡Esto es algo que incluso algunos angloparlantes confunden!&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;De nuevo, si uno o ambos elementos se refieren a grupos de forma colectiva, puedes usar &lt;i&gt;between&lt;/i&gt;. Y no olvides que el uso de &lt;i&gt;between&lt;/i&gt; y &lt;i&gt;among&lt;/i&gt; varía dependiendo de la cantidad de personas representadas por los pronombres &lt;i&gt;us/they/you&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;Between you and me&lt;/i&gt; &lt;sup&gt;[3]&lt;/sup&gt; (entre tu y yo) = &lt;i&gt;Between us&lt;/i&gt; (entre nosotros dos)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;Between me and my friends&lt;/i&gt; = &lt;i&gt;Among us&lt;/i&gt; (entre nosotros)&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;i&gt;Each other&lt;/i&gt; y &lt;i&gt;one another&lt;/i&gt; se utilizan para expresar reciprocidad. La primera forma se usa si se habla de dos personas únicamente y la segunda si hay más de dos. Por ejemplo, &lt;i&gt;they help each other&lt;/i&gt; significa “se ayudan el uno al otro”, pero &lt;i&gt;they help one another&lt;/i&gt; quiere decir “se ayudan unos a otros”.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Examinemos ahora el caso de &lt;i&gt;each&lt;/i&gt; y &lt;i&gt;every&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;sup&gt;[4]&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;i&gt;Each&lt;/i&gt; puede utilizarse tanto para dos cosas como para tres o más. Para ilustrar esta flexibilidad, observa la siguiente frase: &lt;i&gt;There are two/three/five leaflets, please take one of each.&lt;/i&gt;  Por otro lado, &lt;i&gt;every&lt;/i&gt; se refiere a más de dos elementos, de lo contrario usaríamos &lt;i&gt;both&lt;/i&gt;. Por ejemplo, &lt;i&gt;the hotel assures every guest of personal attention&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Adicionalmente, las expresiones &lt;i&gt;every single&lt;/i&gt; y &lt;i&gt;every last&lt;/i&gt; se utilizan para enfatizar que algo se aplica a todos los elementos en cuestión. Una frase alterna es &lt;i&gt;each and every&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;sup&gt;[5]&lt;/sup&gt; Éstas son utilizadas cuando el número de elementos en cuestión es considerablemente grande. En caso contrario se usa únicamente &lt;i&gt;all&lt;/i&gt; o &lt;i&gt;every&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Y finalmente, cuando se hace referencia dos objetos que fueron mencionados previamente, se suele emplear &lt;i&gt;the former&lt;/i&gt; para el primero y &lt;i&gt;the latter&lt;/i&gt; para el segundo. Cuando hay más de dos objetos se usan los números ordinales: &lt;i&gt;the first, the second, the third … the last&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;sup&gt;[6]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;Toma nota de que tanto &lt;i&gt;either/neither&lt;/i&gt; como &lt;i&gt;none&lt;/i&gt; deben usarse con el verbo en singular.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;Una forma fácil de recordar esto,  es observar que &lt;i&gt;none = not one&lt;/i&gt;. Por ejemplo, &lt;i&gt;not one is ready&lt;/i&gt; sería &lt;i&gt;none is ready&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;Observa que debes decir &lt;i&gt;“Between you and me”&lt;/i&gt; y no &lt;i&gt;“Between you and I”&lt;/i&gt;. Este es otro error muy común.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;i&gt;Each&lt;/i&gt; tiene un sentido de individualidad y &lt;i&gt;every&lt;/i&gt; expresa una idea de colectividad(&lt;i&gt;on each side&lt;/i&gt; = en cada lado / &lt;i&gt;on every side&lt;/i&gt; en todos lados). Al igual que &lt;i&gt;either&lt;/i&gt; y &lt;i&gt;neither, each&lt;/i&gt; y &lt;i&gt;every&lt;/i&gt; van siempre seguidos por un verbo singular.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;Algunos ejemplos: &lt;i&gt;Instead of taking offense, you should thank each and every one of the people who take the time to complain about something on your site that didn&#39;t work for them.&lt;/i&gt; | &lt;i&gt;That salmon was very expensive so make sure you eat up every (single) bit.&lt;/i&gt; | &lt;i&gt;These paintings may look like the real thing, but every last one of them is a fake.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;Algunos ejemplos: &lt;i&gt;The Russians could advance into either Germany or Austria—they chose the latter option.&lt;/i&gt; | &lt;i&gt;The powers of the former are more comprehensive than those of the latter.&lt;/i&gt; | &lt;i&gt;Of winter, spring, and summer, I find the last most enjoyable.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;Por Karin Sequén y Graham A Stephen © 2007&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</description><link>http://es-xchange.blogspot.com/2007/01/dos-o-ms.html</link><author>noreply@blogger.com (Karin)</author><thr:total>2</thr:total></item><item><guid isPermaLink="false">tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5736962017647399800.post-5041099360512586204</guid><pubDate>Wed, 20 Dec 2006 18:29:00 +0000</pubDate><atom:updated>2008-09-16T15:26:08.502-06:00</atom:updated><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">Spanish issues / Temas de español</category><title>Tips for Spanish pronunciation</title><description>&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #c00000; padding: 2px 10px 10px 10px;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 style=&quot;margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 2px;&quot;&gt;This article has moved!&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Please update your bookmarks with its &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.es-xchange.com/2006/12/20/tips-for-spanish-pronunciation/&quot;&gt;new location&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Thank you.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;One of the main differences between English and Spanish it that the latter is a phonetic language. That is, the spelling is an exact reflection of the pronunciation of the language.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;All the vowels have a unique pronunciation and even though consonants may have two or more, they&#39;re subject to certain strict rules&lt;sup&gt;[a]&lt;/sup&gt; depending on the position of the letter in the word and which letters are around it. Thus, a word is pronounced by adding together the sounds of the individual letters making up the word.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In addition, syllables play an important role in the language. An understanding of syllables is important in order to correctly hyphenate words, and it&#39;s also essential to be able to recognize the stressed syllable in a word in order to pronounce it properly. Accents let you know which syllable must be stressed — but not all words bear an accent mark. However, there are also precise rules for the accentuation&lt;sup&gt;[b]&lt;/sup&gt; of Spanish words and they&#39;re pretty straightforward.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;b&gt;Learning to read and write&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;There are several methods of teaching Spanish-speaking children to read and write.&lt;sup&gt;[c]&lt;/sup&gt; Two of the most widely used are the Syllabic and the Phonetic methods.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;With the syllabic method, children develop literacy by learning the five vowels first of all. Next they combine a consonant with each vowel, and finally they form more complex syllables involving three to five letters. Teachers usually begin with the syllables starting with &#39;m&#39;  (&lt;i&gt;ma, me, mi, mo, mu&lt;/i&gt;). These are enough to form the word &lt;i&gt;&#39;ma-má&#39;&lt;/i&gt; which is one of the first words a baby would learn to say, if not the very first one. The child is also able to write the statements &lt;i&gt;&#39;Mi ma-má me a-ma&#39;&lt;/i&gt;,  (my mom loves me) and &lt;i&gt;&#39;A-mo a mi ma-má&#39;&lt;/i&gt;.  (I love my mom). The next letter would then be &lt;i&gt;&#39;p&#39;&lt;/i&gt;. Naturally, kids would now be able to spell &lt;i&gt;pa-pá&lt;/i&gt; (father). Then they start learning words mixing both consonants, like &lt;i&gt;ma-pa&lt;/i&gt; (map). And they would continue like this with the rest of the letters.&lt;sup&gt;[d]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The phonetic method is based on phonemes&lt;sup&gt;[e,f]&lt;/sup&gt;. Children must associate the sound of each individual letter to its written form and how they interact to make syllables and words. This way, they are taught the sound of &#39;m&#39; alone, and then the combination with the vowels before and after the letter (&lt;i&gt;ma/am, me/em, mi/im, mo/om, mu/um&lt;/i&gt;). This makes it easier to teach words like &lt;i&gt;&#39;al-to&#39;&lt;/i&gt; (with the syllable &lt;i&gt;&#39;al&#39;&lt;/i&gt; instead of &lt;i&gt;&#39;la&#39;&lt;/i&gt;) and complex syllables like &lt;i&gt;&#39;b+r+i+r&#39;&lt;/i&gt; in &lt;i&gt;&#39;a-brir&#39;&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;b&gt;Conclusion&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;So as we&#39;ve seen, there’s no need for a phonetic transcription to determine the right pronunciation of a Spanish word. If you’re studying Spanish, you can follow the methods described above – especially the phonetic one.  Once you’ve learned the sound(s) of each letter and memorized the rules of pronunciation and accentuation, you’ll be able to pronounce brand-new words with no hesitation.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; This site summarizes the rules for Spanish pronunciation.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tomzap.com/sp_key.html&quot;&gt;http://www.tomzap.com/sp_key.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt; This site provides the rules for Spanish accentuation.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://spanish.about.com/od/spanishpronunciation/a/stress_accent.htm&quot;&gt;http://spanish.about.com/od/spanishpronunciation/a/stress_accent.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt; Fore more information regarding methods of teaching reading and writing, visit the following site. (In Spanish).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.down21.org/educ_psc/educacion/lectura_esc_calc/2_metodo.htm&quot;&gt;http://www.down21.org/educ_psc/educacion/lectura_esc_calc/2_metodo.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;d&lt;/sup&gt; Hyphens are not part of the Spanish written system (except to split a word that doesn&#39;t fit at the end of a line). The hyphens in the words above are only to show where the syllables are.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;e&lt;/sup&gt; A phoneme is any of the perceptually distinct units of sound in a specified language that distinguish one word from another, for example p, b, d, and t in the English words pad, pat, bad, and bat.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;f&lt;/sup&gt; This site is a great reference for visualising how all the sounds of the Spanish language are formed in the mouth, and you can also see and hear each sound being pronounced.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uiowa.edu/%7Eacadtech/phonetics/spanish/frameset.html&quot;&gt;http://www.uiowa.edu/~acadtech/phonetics/spanish/frameset.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;By Karin Sequén and Graham A Stephen © 2006&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</description><link>http://es-xchange.blogspot.com/2006/12/tips-for-spanish-pronunciation.html</link><author>noreply@blogger.com (Karin)</author><thr:total>1</thr:total></item><item><guid isPermaLink="false">tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5736962017647399800.post-8151823319777652177</guid><pubDate>Mon, 18 Dec 2006 20:34:00 +0000</pubDate><atom:updated>2008-09-16T15:20:39.425-06:00</atom:updated><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">English issues / Temas de inglés</category><title>El prefijo verbal be-</title><description>&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #c00000; padding: 2px 10px 10px 10px;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 style=&quot;margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 2px;&quot;&gt;This article has moved!&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Please update your bookmarks with its &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.es-xchange.com/2006/12/18/el-prefijo-verbal-be/&quot;&gt;new location&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Thank you.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(102, 102, 102); font-size:85%;&quot; &gt;[Nota: se puede leer más sobre los términos subrayados en el glosario al final del artículo.]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;¿Te has percatado de que ciertos verbos en inglés empiezan con el prefijo &lt;i&gt;be-&lt;/i&gt;? ¿Te has preguntado alguna vez por qué?&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pues el prefijo viene del inglés antiguo (&lt;i&gt;Old English&lt;/i&gt;) &lt;i&gt;bi&lt;/i&gt; y cuenta con varias funciones. Primero, se usaba para convertir los verbos &lt;u&gt;intransitivos&lt;/u&gt; en &lt;u&gt;transitivos&lt;/u&gt;. Por ejemplo, el verbo &lt;i&gt;fall&lt;/i&gt; (&lt;i&gt;caer&lt;/i&gt;) es intransitivo y la forma transitiva era &lt;i&gt;befall&lt;/i&gt; que quería decir &lt;i&gt;fall upon &lt;/i&gt;(&lt;i&gt;caer en&lt;/i&gt;). Nota, sin embargo, que hoy en día no se usa muy a menudo esta palabra y además que ese uso transitivo es arcaico. No obstante sí se puede usar como verbo transitivo en el sentido &lt;i&gt;to happen to &lt;/i&gt;(&lt;i&gt;pasarle algo a alguien&lt;/i&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;[a]&lt;/sup&gt;, o como intransitivo con la acepción de &lt;i&gt;come to pass &lt;/i&gt;(&lt;i&gt;ocurrir, resultar&lt;/i&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;[b]&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;El prefijo también puede intensificar el sentido del verbo. &lt;i&gt;Bedazzle&lt;/i&gt;, por ejemplo, es una forma más enfática de &lt;i&gt;dazzle&lt;/i&gt; (&lt;i&gt;deslumbrar&lt;/i&gt;), aunque hoy en día &lt;i&gt;bedazzle&lt;/i&gt; se usa más en contextos figurados — &lt;i&gt;dazzle&lt;/i&gt; se acepta en el contexto de los faros automovilísticos, por ejemplo, pero &lt;i&gt;bedazzle&lt;/i&gt; no. Y &lt;i&gt;bedrench&lt;/i&gt; es igual que &lt;i&gt;drench thoroughly&lt;/i&gt;, o sea &lt;i&gt;empapar completamente&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Además se usa para prestar al verbo un sentido de &lt;i&gt;alrededor de&lt;/i&gt;, o &lt;i&gt;por todos lados&lt;/i&gt;. Podemos verlo en voces como &lt;i&gt;befog&lt;/i&gt;, que lleva el significado de &lt;i&gt;surround in fog&lt;/i&gt; (&lt;i&gt;rodear de niebla&lt;/i&gt;), y &lt;i&gt;besiege&lt;/i&gt;, que significa &lt;i&gt;lay siege to &lt;/i&gt;o sea &lt;i&gt;surround with armed forces &lt;/i&gt;(&lt;i&gt;rodear de fuerzas armadas&lt;/i&gt;).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Y, por fin, puede juntarse con ciertos sustantivos o adjetivos para crear verbos. Por ejemplo, &lt;i&gt;befriend&lt;/i&gt; = &lt;i&gt;be&lt;/i&gt;- + &lt;i&gt;friend &lt;/i&gt;(&lt;i&gt;amigo&lt;/i&gt;) y significa &lt;i&gt;entablar una amistad&lt;/i&gt;, y &lt;i&gt;belittle &lt;/i&gt;= &lt;i&gt;be&lt;/i&gt;- + &lt;i&gt;little &lt;/i&gt;(&lt;i&gt;pequeño&lt;/i&gt;) y quiere decir &lt;i&gt;infravalorar&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;menospreciar &lt;/i&gt;o &lt;i&gt;minimizar&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;El sonido de muchos de estos vocablos que comienzan con &lt;i&gt;be&lt;/i&gt;- es muy agradable. Fíjate por ejemplo en los siguientes: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thefreedictionary.com/bedaub&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;bedaub&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thefreedictionary.com/bedew&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;bedew&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thefreedictionary.com/bedraggle&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;bedraggle&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thefreedictionary.com/befuddle&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;befuddle&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thefreedictionary.com/begrime&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;begrime&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a  href=&quot;http://www.thefreedictionary.com/bemuddle&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;bemuddle&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thefreedictionary.com/bescribble&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;bescribble&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thefreedictionary.com/besmirch&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;besmirch&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thefreedictionary.com/bespeckle&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;bespeckle&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thefreedictionary.com/betroth&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;betroth&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thefreedictionary.com/bewilder&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;bewilder&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thefreedictionary.com/bewitch&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;bewitch&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Pero debes estar consciente de que ya algunos de ellos suenan un poco arcaicos y casi nunca se oyen en el habla coloquial. No obstante, el prefijo sí se usa en ocasiones para crear palabras con un efecto algo gracioso: &lt;i&gt;betrousered&lt;/i&gt;, por ejemplo, significa &lt;i&gt;con pantalones puestos&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:130%;&quot;&gt;Glosario&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;b&gt;complemento directo&lt;/b&gt; : un nombre, u otra palabra o frase que funciona como nombre, que recibe la acción del verbo. Por ejemplo en la frase &lt;i&gt;bebo café&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;café &lt;/i&gt;es el complemento directo.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;b&gt;complemento indirecto&lt;/b&gt; : un nombre, u otra palabra o frase que funciona como nombre, que es afectado por la acción del verbo como, por ejemplo, beneficiario. En la frase &lt;i&gt;le diste una manzana al caballo&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;manzana&lt;/i&gt; es el &lt;u&gt;complemento directo&lt;/u&gt; y &lt;i&gt;caballo&lt;/i&gt; es el complemento indirecto.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;b&gt;intransitivo&lt;/b&gt; : un verbo intransitivo es uno que se construye sin &lt;u&gt;complemento directo&lt;/u&gt;, por ejemplo &lt;i&gt;morir&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;b&gt;transitivo&lt;/b&gt; : un verbo transitivo es uno que se construye con &lt;u&gt;complemento directo&lt;/u&gt;, por ejemplo &lt;i&gt;comer guisantes&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot; &gt;&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; ejemplo: &lt;i&gt;Eight British explorers begin a gruelling trek on Friday to try to solve the mystery behind the greatest disaster to &lt;b&gt;befall&lt;/b&gt; a polar expedition&lt;/i&gt;. (BBC News, 18 April 2003 [&lt;a href=&quot;http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2958145.stm&quot;&gt;http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2958145.stm&lt;/a&gt;])&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt; ejemplo: &lt;i&gt;I am now nearing the end of my journey. I hope I still have some service to render. However that may be, whatever may &lt;b&gt;befall&lt;/b&gt;, I am sure I shall never forget the emotions of this day&lt;/i&gt;. (Winston Churchill, al cumplir 80 años en 1954; ve &lt;a href=&quot;http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/30/newsid_3280000/3280401.stm&quot;&gt;http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/30/newsid_3280000/3280401.stm&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;By Graham A Stephen and Karin Sequén&lt;/i&gt; © 2006&lt;/p&gt;</description><link>http://es-xchange.blogspot.com/2006/12/el-prefijo-verbal-be.html</link><author>noreply@blogger.com (Graham)</author><thr:total>1</thr:total></item><item><guid isPermaLink="false">tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5736962017647399800.post-7792966737955432370</guid><pubDate>Mon, 04 Dec 2006 22:27:00 +0000</pubDate><atom:updated>2008-09-16T15:21:49.559-06:00</atom:updated><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">Spanish issues / Temas de español</category><title>El voseo</title><description>&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #c00000; padding: 2px 10px 10px 10px;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 style=&quot;margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 2px;&quot;&gt;This article has moved!&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Please update your bookmarks with its &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.es-xchange.com/2006/12/04/el-voseo/&quot;&gt;new location&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Thank you.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A topic often neglected in courses of Spanish is that of &lt;em&gt;el voseo&lt;/em&gt;, or the use of &lt;em&gt;vos&lt;/em&gt; as a familiar form of address for the second person in the singular. This is used in about a dozen different countries in Central and South America&lt;sup&gt;[a]&lt;/sup&gt;, and it is another subject where there is wide regional variation in its use. In some areas it does not exist at all, in others it completely replaces &lt;em&gt;tú&lt;/em&gt;, and in yet others it coexists with both &lt;em&gt;tú&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;usted&lt;/em&gt;. In some regions the pronoun is used but with the &lt;em&gt;tú&lt;/em&gt; forms of verbs; in others it goes with its own inflected forms. And to further complicate matters, the way that these inflections are formed also varies greatly&lt;sup&gt;[b, c]&lt;/sup&gt;. Given such complexities in its use, we’ll limit ourselves here to illustrating some of the grammatical aspects of only a single form of &lt;em&gt;voseo&lt;/em&gt;, namely that accepted as the standard in Argentina. But before doing that, however, we’ll take a brief look at the interesting history of this feature of the language.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial;font-size:130%;&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;History&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[d]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;em&gt;Vos&lt;/em&gt; was originally the second-person plural pronoun and by the 4th century had come to be used as a highly respectful singular form of address, initially as a way of responding to the royal ‘we’. Its use in addressing authority figures gradually spread and by the 7th century, using &lt;em&gt;vos&lt;/em&gt; to respectfully address a single person had become widespread.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Later social changes in Spain led to its progressive devaluation as a mark of respect and in the 15th century that role was taken over by the rival &lt;em&gt;vuestra merced&lt;/em&gt; (used with verbs in the third person). The latter evolved, via a number of intermediate stages, into &lt;em&gt;usted&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Tú&lt;/em&gt; then settled as the familiar form of address in the singular.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;These changes were reflected in the then viceroyalties of Mexico and Peru, but not elsewhere in Spanish speaking America, where the use of &lt;em&gt;vos&lt;/em&gt; survived.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Note that in Spain &lt;em&gt;otros&lt;/em&gt; was added to &lt;em&gt;vos&lt;/em&gt; (in its original plural sense) in forming the informal second-person plural pronoun &lt;em&gt;vosotros&lt;/em&gt; in order to distinguish it from the formal singular sense. (Compare this with French, where &lt;em&gt;vous&lt;/em&gt; is used for both the second-person plural and the formal second-person singular.)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial;font-size:130%;&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Verb forms&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In the dialect of Spanish spoken in the River Plate region (&lt;em&gt;rioplatense&lt;/em&gt; Spanish&lt;sup&gt;[e]&lt;/sup&gt;), &lt;em&gt;vos&lt;/em&gt; replaces &lt;em&gt;tú&lt;/em&gt; as the familiar second-person singular form of address. It also has its own verbal forms. It is used in speech and in formal writing and is the accepted standard in Argentina. It is this form that is given in the verb conjugation tables in the dictionary of the &lt;em&gt;Real Academia Española &lt;/em&gt;(&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;DRAE&lt;/span&gt;).&lt;sup&gt;[f]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In rioplatense Spanish, the &lt;em&gt;vos&lt;/em&gt; verbal forms differ from those for &lt;em&gt;tú&lt;/em&gt; only in the present indicative and the imperative. In all other cases (including the present subjunctive) the &lt;em&gt;tú&lt;/em&gt; inflection is used.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The inflections for &lt;em&gt;vos&lt;/em&gt; are derived from those for &lt;em&gt;vosotros&lt;/em&gt;, the familiar second-person plural form used in Spain. The present tense conjugation is created by suppressing the weak vowel in the ending of the counterpart for &lt;em&gt;vosotros&lt;/em&gt;, as shown in the examples below.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:trebuchet ms;&quot;&gt;vosotros habláis  —   vos hablás&lt;br /&gt;vosotros coméis   —   vos comés&lt;br /&gt;vosotros vivís    —   vos vivís&lt;br /&gt;vosotros sois     —   vos sos&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;There is therefore a difference in the position of the stress between the &lt;em&gt;tú&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;vos&lt;/em&gt; forms (&lt;em&gt;llano&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;grave&lt;/em&gt; in the former, but &lt;em&gt;agudo&lt;/em&gt; in the latter), e.g.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:trebuchet ms;&quot;&gt;(tú) sabes — (vos) sabés&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In certain (radical changing) verbs, the vowel in the stem becomes a diphthong when the stress falls on that syllable, for example in the inflection for &lt;em&gt;tú&lt;/em&gt;. This does not therefore occur with the equivalent &lt;em&gt;vos&lt;/em&gt; forms, e.g.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:trebuchet ms;&quot;&gt;(tú) puedes — (vos) podés&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The affirmative imperative is formed by dropping the final ‘d’ of the &lt;em&gt;vosotros&lt;/em&gt; command and the final vowel is accented to preserve the original stress, e.g.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:trebuchet ms;&quot;&gt;(vosotros) ¡comprad! — (vos) ¡comprá!&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial;font-size:130%;&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conclusion&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;If you do decide to use &lt;em&gt;el voseo&lt;/em&gt;, be sure to get acquainted with the variation used by the people that you’ll be talking to. As mentioned above, its use instead of &lt;em&gt;tú&lt;/em&gt; is widespread in Argentina, for example. But this is not the case everywhere. In Guatemala, for instance, &lt;em&gt;tú&lt;/em&gt; is an intermediate familiar form, and &lt;em&gt;vos&lt;/em&gt; is extremely familiar, reserved mostly for use between close friends. Nor is it common there to find men addressing women using &lt;em&gt;vos&lt;/em&gt; or vice versa. If you happen to use &lt;em&gt;vos&lt;/em&gt; with the wrong person you may inadvertently cross a line and cause offence. You should therefore be very careful in deciding when to use it.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;____________________________________&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; According to Wikipedia, “&lt;em&gt;Vos&lt;/em&gt; is used extensively as the primary spoken form of the second-person singular in various countries around &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;Latin America&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;, including &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;Argentina&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;Costa Rica&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;Ecuador&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;El Salvador&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;Guatemala&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;Honduras&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;Bolivia&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;Nicaragua&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;Paraguay&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;, and &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;Uruguay&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt; but only in &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;Argentina&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;Uruguay&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;, and increasingly in &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;Paraguay&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt; and &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;Nicaragua&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;, is it also the standard written form. […] &lt;em&gt;Vos&lt;/em&gt; is present in other countries as a regionalism, for instance in the Maracucho Spanish of &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;Zulia State&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;Venezuela&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;, in &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;Chiapas&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;, a state in southern Mexico, and in various states in &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;Colombia&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;.” — &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a title=&quot;blocked::http://en.wikipedia.com/wiki/voseo&quot; href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.com/wiki/voseo&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.com/wiki/Voseo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt; theWikibook (in Spanish) &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://es.wikibooks.org/wiki/Espa%C3%B1ol_/_La_conjugaci%C3%B3n_/_El_voseo&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;http://es.wikibooks.org/wiki/Espa%C3%B1ol_/_La_conjugaci%C3%B3n_/_El_voseo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt; provides a comprehensive comparison of the regional variations of &lt;em&gt;el voseo&lt;/em&gt; and includes details of the differing ways in which the inflections are formed&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sopreproc.org/voseadores2.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;http://www.sopreproc.org/voseadores2.html&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt; provides conjugation tables illustrating ‘pure’, Venezuelan and Argentinian variants of the inflection&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;d&lt;/sup&gt; The article &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.elcastellano.org/artic/voseo.htm&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;http://www.elcastellano.org/artic/voseo.htm&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt; (in Spanish) deals more thoroughly with the history of &lt;em&gt;el voseo&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;e&lt;/sup&gt; See &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rioplatense_Spanish&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rioplatense_Spanish&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt; for more information about rioplatense Spanish. A similar article in Spanish can be found here &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espa%C3%B1ol_rioplatense&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espa%C3%B1ol_rioplatense&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;f&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://buscon.rae.es/draeI/&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;http://buscon.rae.es/draeI/&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt; — search for an infinitive and then click on the blue square next to the definition head word for its conjugation&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;By Graham A Stephen and Karin Sequén&lt;/em&gt; © 2006&lt;/p&gt;</description><link>http://es-xchange.blogspot.com/2006/12/el-voseo.html</link><author>noreply@blogger.com (Graham)</author><thr:total>4</thr:total></item><item><guid isPermaLink="false">tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5736962017647399800.post-140988493761777985</guid><pubDate>Wed, 29 Nov 2006 22:32:00 +0000</pubDate><atom:updated>2008-09-16T15:23:31.241-06:00</atom:updated><category domain="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#">Spanish issues / Temas de español</category><title>Spanish Variations</title><description>&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid 1px #c00000; padding: 2px 10px 10px 10px;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 style=&quot;margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 2px;&quot;&gt;This article has moved!&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Please update your bookmarks with its &lt;a target=&quot;new&quot; href=&quot;http://www.es-xchange.com/2006/11/29/spanish-variations/&quot;&gt;new location&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Thank you.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The main choice facing learners of English is whether to learn American or British English.&lt;sup&gt;[a]&lt;/sup&gt;  It&#39;s not only about the accent… there are  also differences in spelling, grammar and vocabulary.&lt;sup&gt;[b]&lt;/sup&gt; As Oscar Wilde said: &#39;We have really everything in common with America nowadays except, of course, language.&#39;&lt;sup&gt;[c]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Now, if there are such differences between these two countries (US/UK), imagine how many regional variations we can find in Spanish, which is an official language in 21 countries!&lt;sup&gt;[d]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;To mention one of these, one word can have different meanings depending on the country where it is used. Spanish speakers may be acquainted with their country&#39;s  own usage of the word, but be unaware of its connotations in other countries!&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;For example, in Guatemala we call money &lt;i&gt;pisto&lt;/i&gt;.  But in Mexico &lt;i&gt;pisto&lt;/i&gt; is a drunk. And in Spain &lt;i&gt;pisto&lt;/i&gt; is a sauce made of tomato, pepper, egg and onion. Imagine  trying to say &#39;the drunk bought some sauce with the money he had left&#39;!&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The same goes for idiomatic expressions. Consider &lt;i&gt;al chile&lt;/i&gt;, for example. In Guatemala this means &#39;very fast&#39;. In Costa Rica, it means &#39;Really?&#39;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;We&#39;ve got different ways to say the same thing, too. For example, the word for &#39;cheat sheet&#39; or &#39;crib sheet&#39; varies from place to place. It is &lt;i&gt;chuleta&lt;/i&gt; in Spain and Venezuela, &lt;i&gt;torpedo&lt;/i&gt; in Chile, &lt;i&gt;chivo&lt;/i&gt; in Cuba, Puerto Rico and Guatemala; &lt;i&gt;droga&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;droguita&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;bate&lt;/i&gt;, and &lt;i&gt;nota&lt;/i&gt; in Puerto Rico; &lt;i&gt;acordeón&lt;/i&gt; in Mexico, El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua; &lt;i&gt;chafa&lt;/i&gt; in Mexico, &lt;i&gt;chepe&lt;/i&gt; in Honduras, &lt;i&gt;forro&lt;/i&gt; in Cuba and Costa Rica, &lt;i&gt;copia&lt;/i&gt;in El Salvador and Nicaragua, &lt;i&gt;batería&lt;/i&gt; in Panama, &lt;i&gt;pastel&lt;/i&gt; in Colombia, &lt;i&gt;polla&lt;/i&gt; in Ecuador, &lt;i&gt;plagio&lt;/i&gt; and &lt;i&gt;compromido&lt;/i&gt; in Peru, &lt;i&gt;chanchullo&lt;/i&gt; in Bolivia, &lt;i&gt;copiatini &lt;/i&gt;in Paraguay, &lt;i&gt;ferrocarril&lt;/i&gt; and &lt;i&gt;trencito&lt;/i&gt; in Uruguay, and &lt;i&gt;machete&lt;/i&gt; in Argentina. &lt;sup&gt;[e]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Finally, we&#39;ve got some spelling variations. There&#39;s a word that the RAE&lt;sup&gt;[f]&lt;/sup&gt; includes in its dictionary with four possible spellings: &lt;i&gt;ceviche, cebiche, seviche,&lt;/i&gt; and  &lt;i&gt;sebiche&lt;/i&gt;! Spelling varies from country to country, but all of them refer to the same thing: a South American dish of marinated raw fish or seafood, typically garnished and served as an appetizer.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;So, you might be asking yourself, which Spanish should you learn?&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;If you&#39;re going to be using a particular variety of Spanish, pick the one which will be most useful to you. If you&#39;re moving to Puerto Rico, learn Puerto Rican Spanish; if you’ve got Argentinian relatives or friends,  then Argentinan Spanish will be the best to study; if you&#39;re right on the border between the US and Mexico, you&#39;ll probably want to learn a mixture of Chicano and Mexican Spanish;  and if your business frequently takes you to Madrid, then that&#39;s the variety you ought to pay the most attention to.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;If you don’t know  any speakers of a particular variety of Spanish,  you&#39;d be best to stick to standard vocabulary. For example, in all Spanish speaking countries money is &lt;i&gt;dinero&lt;/i&gt;. Forget about &lt;i&gt;pisto&lt;/i&gt; (or &lt;i&gt;lana&lt;/i&gt; or &lt;i&gt;pasta&lt;/i&gt; or &lt;i&gt;plata&lt;/i&gt;!).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; There&#39;s also Australian and Canadian English. To learn more about these, visit the following links.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_English&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_English&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_English&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_English&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt; For more information on this topic, read this article.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_English_and_British_English_differences&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_English_and_British_English_differences&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt; The Canterville Ghost, Oscar Wilde, 1888&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;d&lt;/sup&gt; According to Wikipedia, Spanish is an official language in: Argentina, Bolivia (co-official Quechua and Aymara), Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea (co-official French), Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama , Paraguay (co-official Guaraní), Peru (co-official Quechua and Aymara), Puerto Rico (co-official English), Spain (co-official in some regions with Catalan, Galician and Basque), Uruguay, and Venezuela.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;e&lt;/sup&gt; Taken from: Journey with language, University of Tokyo&lt;a href=&quot;http://ocw.u-tokyo.ac.jp/english/course-list/arts-and-sciences/geographical-variation-of-spanish-language/lecture-notes/e_tb10.pdf&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;http://ocw.u-tokyo.ac.jp/english/course-list/arts-and-sciences/geographical-variation-of-spanish-language/lecture-notes/e_tb10.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;sup&gt;f&lt;/sup&gt; Real Academia Española - &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.rae.es/&quot;&gt;www.rae.es&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;By Karin Sequén and Graham A Stephen © 2006&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</description><link>http://es-xchange.blogspot.com/2006/11/spanish-variations.html</link><author>noreply@blogger.com (Karin)</author><thr:total>0</thr:total></item></channel></rss>