Gates of Egypt

Female Pharaohs

noreply@blogger.com (secblog) — Fri, 26 Sep 2008 00:30:00 +0000

Queen Nefertiti

The unknown Neithikret (c.2148-44 BC) was the first female king in ancient Egypt, The later sources said that she was the most beautiful woman in here age'. The second female pharaoh you can meet an the Egyptian history was queen Sobeknefru (1787-1783 BC). She appeared wearing her royal headcloth with the kilt over her cloths. After about 3 centuries later came to the throne the most famous woman in the ancient history and the third female pharaohs the queen Hatshepsut. In the first years of her reign (1473-1458 BC) she ordered with one military campaign. In her life she built number of great building projects the most remains and famous temple, the temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahari in Upper Egypt.

The fourth female pharaoh was the queen Nefertiti, her reign is still have more Discussions between the historians, especially With respect to here her statue which show her dewy-eyed. She shared with her opinions with her husband Akhenaten in the state affairs, she appeared wearing kingly regalia. For some scholars, after the death of her husband she ruling Egypt as the independent king. Queen Tawosret, after the death of her husband king Seti II 1194 BC, she took the throne and put herself as the pharaoh. After about 1000 years later, the great Cleopatra VII came to the throne as the last queen and the last female pharaohs in the ancient Egyptian history which arrived to the end with the arrival of the Roman power to the water of the mediterranean Sea.

In the hellenistic and roman times The women developed more than the last periods. From the evidences which Confirmation that, the woman who called Hermione, that woman worked as a teacher for the Greek grammar. In the hellenistic also , Cleopatra VII confirmed that the woman in ancient Egypt can play a high role in the in the political affairs and in the culture. Cleopatra VII established the Great Library of Alexandria which becam the cultural capital for Egypt and for all the ancient world where at this time. In the age of Christianity, the woman lost the equality which had existed for hundreds years before.

The New Kingdom (1550-1069 BC) considered the Golden Age of the Egyptian history and also the golden age for the woman. In the new kingdom the brave queen Ahhotep stand as the kings in the military field. And later, the great woman Tiy, the wife of Amenhotep III (1390-1352 BC), become great royal wife. She played a wondeerful role in the political affairs with neighbouring states of Egypt.

In fact, The work in the religious field was the second goal for the woman after her role as a housewife and mother. If there is a female gods, why the woman didn't share in the priesthood. For the ancient Egyptians the wife of the pharaoh was the wife of the god, so she can participate in the political power with the pharaoh.

References:

Joann Fletcher, From Warrior Women to Female Pharaohs: Careers for Women in Ancient Egypt
Samson.J., Nefertiti and Cleopatra, (London, 1985)
Robins G., Women in Ancient Egypt, (London, 1993)

Children in Ancient Egypt

noreply@blogger.com (secblog) — Thu, 25 Sep 2008 22:49:00 +0000

The Ancient Egyptians loved and joined with their families. The families worked to see their children grew up strong and big. There are some differences between Children of the poorer families and those of rich families. In the poorer families The children were taken care of by their mothers, but the Children in the wealthy families were taken care of by the family's servants or slaves.

The Children must be learned any things in trade or agriculture or craft. The young children learned a craft or trade from their fathers or from a teachers. The kinds of industries or crafts divided into make weapons or ships or produce some kind of foods or learned the famous craft in this age which was the pottery.

In fact, the Young children of the wealthy families often went to school to learned read and write exactly math, because of math often used in different fields in the ancient Egyptians life like scribing and architecture which used in building tombs and temples or pyramids. That is an example for some boys who are set to learning writing in the school.

Schools in ancient Egypt

From their mothers the Young girls worked and learned more of the daily life fields and the house duties. Their training was how to take care of the children and how to take care of family. Also they learned how to clean and how use the open fires to cook. The girls learnrd how to use clay ovens to bake. Beside all of that the girl learned, from here mather how to be good and opey wife. In ancient civilizations that is considered the great role for the young girls.

After the death of the parents. Usually the sons inherited the land and The daughters inherited the household goods like the jewelry and furniture and. But when the family didn't have sons, the daughters of the family inherited the all things such as the land, jewelry and furniture.

Tourist Guide to Egypt

noreply@blogger.com (secblog) — Sat, 20 Sep 2008 00:18:00 +0000

In this post we will mention about some facts about Egypt weather and climate, temperature, geographical location, wonderful monuments, area, Cairo hotels, the majors wonderful Egyptian cities and more.

Egypt (the gift of the Nile) enjoys with a meditteranean weatherin the summer. In the winter, it is cold sometimes with little rains in the north cities. The temperatures average between 20 or 21 degree in the morning, but in the evening it is about 7 or 8 degree, That is in the North. In the south the temperatures average between 25 or 26 degree in the morning, and in the evening about 18 degree.

Egypt area in square km about one million. The people settled in about 5 percentage of the total area. The population number is 63.4 in 2000. Egypt location in the map in the North Eastern corner of Africa. The mediteranean sea lies in the North border and the red sea in the East border. Sudan in the North border and Libya in the West border.

Egypt have more wonderful monuments from many historical ages from the pre-history to the modern age, and the pyramids is still standing to become the witness to the history circles. The most famous monuments found in Luxor, Karnak, Hawara, Aswan, Aswan, Amarna, Amarna, Abydos and Giza.

Travel guide for Cairo Hotels:

Al Nabila Cairo Hotel
Helnan Shepheard
Pyramisa Cairo
Cosmopolitan Hotel
President Hotel
Golden Tulip Hotel
Atlas Zamalek Hotel
Cairo Sheraton
Salam hotel
Gazira Sheraton hotel
Joliville hotel
Mariott Zamalek hotel
Mina house hotel
Meridian heliopolis
Nile hilton
Siyag pyramids hotel
Ramses hilton hotel
Safir Cairo in Dokki
Conrad hotel
Four seasons hotel
and more beautiful hotels

The Fatimid (The Fatimid Caliphate)

noreply@blogger.com (secblog) — Sat, 06 Sep 2008 05:15:00 +0000

The Fatimid conquered Egypt in 969, after half a century of expansion from present day Tunisia and after 330 years of the Arabic conquest to Egypt. The Fatimids appropriated the title of the caliph and sponsored an Ismaili missionary movement throughout the Islamic world to further their own ambitions for a universal Muslim empire. These missions had little success, and the Fatimid regime remained an Egyptian state with African, Syrian, and Hejazi possessions. The Fatimid state was supported by Berber and other foreign armies, buttressed by a powerful centralized administration.

After a century or so, the Fatimids lost portions of their African and Syrian possessions, and they were undermined in their Egyptian capital by strife among their various army regiments. Deprived of effective power by their generals, divided by schisms within the Ismaili movement, and threatened by European crusaders, in 1171 the Fatimids were easily removed from power by Saladin, a Kurdish general serving a Turkish ruler in Syria. It should be pointed out that notions of national identity did not exist at this time, and loyalty was based upon a variety of other factors.

Fatimid gold coins
from http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/
in pdf type. Compare between that coins and the Byzantine gold coins

The Fatimids controlled southern Syrian and Damascus until 1076. The Byzantine Empire, three centuries after the Arab conquests, reconquered Antioch and northern Syrian, and the stand-off between the major contenders allowed small tribal states, independent cities, and sectarian communities to flourish. The Seljuks, invading in the latter half of the 11th century, brought Syria under their rule, but they were unable to provide any lasting unity, as the territory was divided among Seljuk princes. Princes who were too young to rule might be provided with a tutor/regent (atabeg) who would marry their widowed mother and rule in their place. Thus, the province of Syria remained divided and exposed to further invasions.

The Fatimids, a ruling dynasty that had settled in modern day Tunisia. The founder of the Fatimids, Ubayd-Allah, had earlier been driven out of Syria to establish the Fatimid state in North Africa in 909 AD. The Fatimids were Shia’at muslim rulers who posed a major challenge to the authority of the Abbasids in the middle eastern parts of the Islamic nation. In 969, Jawhar Al-Siqeli, the ex-slave, ex-Christian young general of Al-Moez, the fourth Caliph of the Fatimid, headed an army of 100,000 strong in a conquest of Egypt, taking it and building a city modelled on a plan similar to that of the Al-Mansuriyya, the North African capital of the Fatmids, and even giving the new city the same name as its model “Al-Mansuriyya”. The city was re-named Al-Qahira (corrupted later by travellers to “Cairo”) only after Al-Moez, the Fatimid Caliph arrived to visit it, and planned a palace for himself and the gates to the walled city. Cairo quickly became the centre of a considerable empire. As well as being the location of the oldest university in the Islamic world (Al-Azhar, founded 970 AD), it was a seat of the finest craftsmanship of the Islamic world: fine jewellery, woodwork, ceramics and glass were all features of the city. The urban logic of Cairo was dominated by that of the symbolic and ritualistic variety (Hillier, 1996), mainly to accommodate the palace of the caliph and establishing a formal relationship between his troops and statesmen.

In contrast to the highly ordered plan of early Cairo, the modern day city gives a feel of a less ordered, albeit structured urban layout. This significant shift is quite curious, and this research used Space Syntax tools and techniques to investigate this shift in urban logic and characterise the urban evolution of this part of Cairo from its 10th century Fatimid origin to its modern day, highly functional, logic. We analyse six urban layouts to trace the urban evolution of Fatimid Cairo and its similarities and differences with the more modern surrounding urban context. One novel aspect of describing urban layouts is what we term the congruence factor, to denote the degree of correspondence between local and global integrators. This factor was found particularly useful in characterising Fatimid Cairo and its configurational evolution.

In 1168 Shirkuh became grand vizier to the Fatimid caliph, and upon his death in 1169 Saladin (The Shirkuh’s nephew) took the title. Within two years, all traces of Fatimid leadership dissolved and a new dynasty, the Ayyubids, emerged.

The Mamluks

noreply@blogger.com (secblog) — Sat, 06 Sep 2008 04:34:00 +0000

The word Mamlouk is the particle passive of the word malac, to possess, and means a slave (But exactly means the white slaves who came from the middle of Asia)

After the decline of the Fatimid Caliphate in 1171, Egypt throne turn to the Aioub Dynasty (the surname of Saladin the princes of Egypt, his successors have the title and the Aioubite dynasty).

Syria had scarcely revived from the desolation which the Crusaders had made, when these fair countries became the theatre of the most sanguinary calamities which the history of conquerors has recorded. From the Jihon to the Tigris the land was filled with blood. The Mogul Tartars, under Zingis and his successors, weary with slaughter, had crowded their camp with thousands of Tartarian slaves of both sexes, whom they sold to the merchants of Asia. The feeble Egyptians could afford no defence to the throne, and the successors of Saladin, for protection from foreign and domestic foes, purchased twelve thousand Turks, and educated them for military service. Like the praetorian guards at Rome, these Mamlouks, or military slaves, soon became masters.

At the end of twenty years from their first introduction into Egypt, they murdered the last successor of Saladin, and placed one of their own chiefs, with the title of Sultan, on the throne. For more than two centuries and a half the Mamlouks reigned in Egypt. There were two races of them ; the Baharites, who enjoyed supremacy till till the middle of the fourteenth century, and the Circassians, who flourished till their dethronement by Selim.

These two dynasties furnished forty-seven Sultans, and the average period of each reign being only five years, and hereditary succession being disregarded, it is not difficult to conceive how sanguinary must have been the annals of Egypt during this period. The government was aristocratic, and the turbulent nobility elected a Sultan, who enjoyed the civil and military authority of the state, or was deposed and murdered, according to the preponderance of the different .factions. Happily for Egypt, a change of masters terminated this scene of anarchy and bloodshed. Among the conquests which illustrated the reign of Selim the Second, Emperor of Constantinople, the subjugation of the Mamlouk kingdom was not the least memorable. Egypt then became a province of the Othman empire.

Egypt Mosques

The Assyrians

noreply@blogger.com (secblog) — Sun, 31 Aug 2008 07:05:00 +0000

Assyrian theology does not differ much from Babylonian. This is due to their common land (Mesopotamia), their common race (Semitic), and their common language (Akkadian).34 Not withstanding the conspicuous replacement of Marduk with Ashur (the Assyrian national god which different than the Ancient Egyptians gods), the Assyrians worshiped the same pantheon as did the Babylonians. They also shared many of the same epics and myths,35 an example of which is the Creation Epic, Enuma Elish, where the Assyrians made only slight changes to the text but replaced Marduk with Ashur.

The history of these two great empires may best be characterized as a “bitter struggle for supremacy.” At some times the Assyrians held political power and at others the Babylonians were supreme. For Assyria, this struggle reached its zenith under Ashurbanipal (c. 668-626 B.C.).38 The Babylonian empire reached its peak under Nebuchadnezzar (c. 605-563 B.C.).39 With the exception of the supreme high god (Ashur over against Marduk), this struggle does not seem to have affected their shared religious beliefs. The Assyrians continued to pray to the Babylonian gods.

The Babylonians

noreply@blogger.com (secblog) — Sun, 31 Aug 2008 07:03:00 +0000

Both the Babylonians and the Assyrians grew out of Sumerian culture. Scholars recognize Babylonian history as beginning with the reign of Hammurabi (c. 1792-1750), “A Semitic state built on a Sumerian foundation.”

Babylonian theology can be described as syncretistic.22 Although a large number of the Sumerian gods lost their significance, the Babylonians took up many others and merged them into their religious system. “In the national cults the great gods of the Sumerian pantheon were equated with parallel Semitic gods. The polytheistic view of the ancients allowed them to accept the gods of other nations.”23 For example, the Sumerian god Utu (the sun god) came to be known as Shamash to the Babylonians, who continued to worship him as the god of law and justice.24 Enki transferred over as Ea, who continued as the god of wisdom. Eventually, Marduk, the local god of Babylon, rose to prominence among the Babylonian pantheon.

The Babylonians continued to believe in a divine order inherent in the creation as well as governing the actions of man. The words, “parsu, mesaru and kittu” expressed this equivalent of me.

The ancient epics and myths of Babylonia provide many examples of this divine ordering. The Epic of Atrahasis (Atrakhasis), which survives in fragmentary form,26 relates the story of the creation of mankind and the ensuing flood that destroyed all but one man’s family (Atrahasis). The story opens with the lesser gods (the Igigi) complaining about having to labor on behalf of the greater gods. To solve this problem, man is created from clay composed of a mixture of the flesh and blood of a slain god. In time, man and his noise start to vex the gods so they send a great flood to destroy mankind. One of the gods, Enki, warns Atrahasis who then builds a great boat (an ark) to preserve the life of his family and the animals (clean and common alike).

Another example presenting the sovereignty of the gods is the Babylonian Creation Epic, Enuma Elish. There are three main parts to this epic. The story begins with a short theogony (origin of the gods). The gods come forth from the primeval waters Apsu and Tiamat. Soon Apsu (now viewed as a god) wants to destroy the other gods because they are disturbing him. This leads to the second main part of the story——a theomachy (war among the gods) and the rise of Marduk.

The fact that these laws pertain to the minutia of human interaction (e.g., robbery, cheating, bearing false witness, protection of soldiers, agricultural and animal management, marriage, sex, miscarriages, inheritance, dowries, adoption, lex talionis, physicians, construction accidents, goring, etc.) demonstrates that the control of the gods is all encompassing.

As with the Sumerian worldview, so too the Babylonians believed the gods to be sovereign over the universe. The gods created mankind to serve their purposes, even twisting nature (e.g., the flood) to ensure the divine desire. The Babylonians also acknowledged that the gods did more than just order the natural realm; they also regulated the moral sphere.

The Sumerians (Near East)

noreply@blogger.com (secblog) — Sun, 31 Aug 2008 06:52:00 +0000

The ancient Sumerian culture is believed to be one of the “earliest high civilizations.” Along with several Semitic peoples, the Sumerians settled in the ancient land of Mesopotamia. They believed in an immense polytheistic system of gods. The four chief gods of the Sumerians were An, the sky/heaven god; Enlil, the god of the air/atmosphere/wind; Enki, the god of water also the god of wisdom; and Ninhursag, the goddess of the stony ground (the mother-goddess).

These chief gods of the Sumerians along with others of their incestuous, anthropomorphic pantheon were believed to control and order the universe (the an-ki)10 through means of a divine power known as me. Me was infused into the various elements of creation and controlled them according to the divine plan;11 thus, “Maintaining and protecting the cosmic and earthly order.”

In addition, these early people had a concept of sin and transgression against the gods. One even finds long lists of sins (Šurpu, “burning”).18 This reflects the idea that as Sumerian religion developed, so did the belief that the gods placed greater ethical restraint upon mankind.19 In fact one of the lesser gods, Utu the sun god, came to hold a prominent place in the minds of the people as having the responsibility of upholding divine law and justice.

One can see, then, that several different components of the Sumerian worldview combine to demonstrate a belief in cosmic order. The gods rule over creation, order it, and maintain it by divine decree.

Kheprer or Khepri

noreply@blogger.com (secblog) — Sun, 31 Aug 2008 06:44:00 +0000

Kheprer, whose emblem is pictured. This interpretation sees the insect as a scarab (a flying, biting beetle), which was Kheprer’s symbol. Kheprer was the god of resurrection in ancient Egypt. Scarabs cleaned up dung from various places in temples, etc. They would form the dung into round balls, which would then be rolled back into their holes. From this, the Egyptians inferred that a giant beetle rolled the sun back into its hole. Thus the scarab became an emblem of the sun, and of the resurrection that the sun enjoyed every day. Kheprer was this god, depicted as a beetle.

Kheprer

In one version of the Heliopolis creation story Atum (or Atum- Kheprer), the creator god, speaks of his primacy and sovereignty, “I am Atum when I was alone in Nun; I am Re in his (first) appearance, when he began to rule that which he had made.”

Women in Ancient Egypt

noreply@blogger.com (secblog) — Sat, 30 Aug 2008 21:54:00 +0000

While women worked with the men, played with the men, achieved positions of power in common with the men and, in many ways, proved that they were the equals, if not the superiors, of the men, the majority of the women, for most of the time, appear to have been considered as adjuncts to, and objects of delight for the men.

When a lord and lady were being entertained, they sat together, both richly dressed, both waited upon by servants and both enjoying the spectacles, the music and the food. However, in most cases the servants were usually women, nude or scantily-clad women; the entertainers were most often women, again scantily-clad or naked, and the setting seems designed more for the delectation of the men than of the pair.

There is little evidence of the ladies indulging in strenuous sports such as hunting and when shown in pictures of fishing or fowling, the fairer sex is always shown in a secondary role, helping, assisting, supporting her lord, while he, depicted as being several times the size of his womenfolk, is shown performing the physical acts involved in catching fish or fowl.

Taken in total the evidence points to the women of ancient Egypt being more important as sex-objects than as equal partners in the life of the community.

Important References:

Tyldesley, J., "Daughters of Isis: Women in Ancient Egypt"

Robins, G., "Women in Ancient Egypt"

Watterson, B., "Women in Ancient Egypt"

Monastery of Saint Catherine

noreply@blogger.com (secblog) — Thu, 01 May 2008 16:34:00 +0000

During the Middle Ages, the monastery of Saint Catherine of Mount Sinai was a pilgrimage center of great importance for the Christian world. The 6th century foundation by Justinian (after the decline of Rome) was established in the environs of the place where, according to the Scriptures, Moses had seen the burning bramblebush, received the Tables of the Law and made water spring forth for the people of Israel. But for Christians it stood out, above all, as the place to which angels had taken the body of Saint Catherine after her martyrdom in the city of Alexandria. The importance of that cult was such that towards the 11th century the monastery changed its original name of the Transfiguration (Metamorphosis) to that of Saint Catherine. More about tables of the law here

The interest awoken by the miraculous saint and the relative closeness of her monastery to the Holy land of Palestine favoured its inclusion in the routes of pilgrims to the Holy place. But while the Orthodox Christians frequented it from the beginning, the Christians of the Roman obedience only did so significantly after the Crusades and, above all, after the enormous diffusion of devotion to the saint throughout the West from the end of the 11th century.

In the kingdom of Aragon, as everywhere in Christian Europe, the cult of Saint Catherine acquired great importance. This is revealed by the high number of churches, monasteries, chapels and altarpieces that were consecrated to her, especially in the 14th and 15th centuries, but is also reflected in the appearances of her name, mainly in Majorca. That devotion was the principal promoter of visits to the monastery. In the 14th century, many Catalan pilgrims, who had been visiting Palestine for centuries, went to Saint Catherine’s. In fact at the end of the century the port of Barcelona strongly entered the competition for transportation of pilgrims to the Holy Land, which was clearly dominated by Venice, and this coincided with a decisive moment in Catalan-Aragonese Crown commercial relations with Syria and navigation to the East. Until the 1520s, Barcelona was an important port of embarkation for pilgrims from Catalonia, Castile, Gascony, Béarn, Bordeaux, Guyenne, Britain and so on, who sailed to the East in Catalan vessels, as well as Castilian and Basque ones.

The interest awoken in the Catalan-Aragonese in the saint and her monastery was so great that the kings took special care of the monastery, given that the kings of Aragon were also the protectors of other holy places –the chapel of the Virgin Mary in Bethlehem since the time of James II– and had always shown great concern for monastic life in the Orient and the maintenance of service in the churches, even in those which were not subject to the Latin rite, like the monastery of Sinai. This attitude, however, did not only spring from strictly personal religious impulses. There was also a strong component of individual and dynastic prestige: to manifest the role of the Kings of Aragon as champions of the faith. Beyond merely diplomatic intervention with the power of Mameluke authorities, the royal favour also focused on direct patronage, through economic donations which became regular with Ferdinand II the Catholic and his successors, and direct support to those who worked in the service of the monastery or for its benefit, such as the obscure Order of the Knights of Saint Catherine. However, this support was even more evident with the monks of Sinai who traveled to the Iberian Peninsula and their travel to Balearic Islands in search of economic aid for the sustenance of their monastery. They always had the help of the king in organising the collections of subsidies. Of special note was the journey made by three monks of that monastery in the years 1406-1407.5 Or the one which years later, in 1419, would take Brother Peter of Damascus, the Igumenos of the monastery, and Brother John of Pamphylia to Barcelona and through various parts of Catalonia, where they remained for some four years. See Mary, Mother of Jesus

Whether owing to the policy of royal support, the written or oral accounts of pilgrims, or the visit of monks and other people related with the monastery, the fact is that the monastery of Saint Catherine became very present in the kingdom of Aragon and inseparably associated with the memory of its patron. We see this recorded, for instance, in the painting by Francesc Comes, from El Puig de Pollença, in Majorca, consecrated to Santa Caterina del Munt Sinay, on which the saint is shown within ramparts representing those of the Egyptian monastery. A witness to the special link established between the Crown of Aragon and the monastery at Mount Sinai is the altarpiece offered to the monastery by the Consul of the Catalans in Damascus, Bernat Maresa, in 1387, representing the titular saint of the monastery. It is a work of great quality, in which Saint Catherine appears represented in the classical form of Western art, standing, crowned, with the instrument of her torment, the toothed wheel, and the palm leaf that signifies her rank of martyr. Of special note is the delicate work of the cloak that covers her, close to the textile models of luxurious Italian manufacturing that imitated Persian productions, and the sinuosity of her figure, as well as the filigree work of the engraving that surrounds the whole piece and decorates the halo of the saint. It is a beautiful late work of Italianising Gothic, close to the postulates of Sienese painting, but in the modelling of the clothing already betraying the arrival of certain features of the international style.

With reference to the authorship of the work we have the inscription in Latin by the painter on the back of the board: .Martinus de Vilanova. .pinxit. Unfortunately, nothing is known about this painter. As it is a commission of the Consul of the Catalans, as indicated by the inscription in the lower part of the board (.aquest retaula. fe[u] fer .lo honrat. en Bernat Meresa. ciutadà. de Barchinona. Cònsol. de. Cathalans. en Domàs .en l’an. m. ccc. lxxxvii.), it is believed to have been executed in Barcelona, because the Consul of Damascus was elected by the councillors of that city. Others, however, have pointed out a possible Majorcan connection, but it is difficult to say. The name seems to dismiss the possibility of an Italian origin, but the stylistic singularity of the work distances it from the Catalan-Aragonese pictorial world of its time. Thus it seems necessary to incline towards a Catalan or Majorcan who either had been trained in Italy or had learned the Sienese style very well. The former option, however, would serve to explain why he is not mentioned in any painter’s workshop either as an apprentice or an assistant. This temporary absence abroad, moreover, could have condemned him to a later wandering career, which would explain why he has not left any documentary trace and no other works are known.

One feature of the altarpiece may help to clarify where it was painted. The board is decorated with the coat of arms of the King of Aragon, the crowned bars of the House of Barcelona, at the top left of the altarpiece. At the top right there is another coat of arms of ambiguous interpretation. The shield, divided into quarters by a cross, has the second and third quarters decorated with the royal bars. The first and the fourth however are almost completely devoid of paint, making identification difficult. Only traces of blue pigment are preserved, which allows us to dismiss the possibility that it forms part of the coat of arms of Barcelona: a red cross on a white background. Only the coat of arms of the city of Majorca matches that pigmentation, since, besides the two quarters with the royal arms, the other two feature a castle on an azure background. This seems to strengthen a Majorcan connection in the execution of the work. This would not in fact be unusual. The island’s devotion to Saint Catherine and the role of Majorca as a communication crossroads in pan-Mediterranean trade made the island a suitable place for the issuing of such a commission, or at least for its performance. We do not know whether the Consul gave the order directly to a painter of the island or whether it arrived indirectly, but in the latter case it would be explicable that the painter interpreted the commission to represent the arms of the city as those of the city of Majorca, when possibly the Consul was thinking of those of Barcelona although he did not specify this in his commission.

But why did the Consul of the Catalans order a work like this and donate it to the monastery? The pilgrims who visited Saint Catherine’s used to leave diverse offerings or ex-votos such as the armour that the Castilian Pero Tafur donated to the monks of Sinai in 1439. However, this piece goes much further. At bottom left one can see the personal arms of the Consul: a quartered shield with the first and fourth quarters blazoned “vair ancient azure and or”, and the second and third each showing a bird, no doubt a water rain, whose name in Catalan, guatlla maresa, makes allusion to the surname of the principal. This may suggest a private initiative, of personal piety and prestige. But the inclusion of the dedication, which emphasises the public aspect of the person elected Consul in 1385, and the royal coat of arms, point to the idea of a foreign projection of the work and its political meaning, the creation of a very specific public image.

Maresa’s term of office was of key importance in the history of the consulate in Damascus. Soon after his election, the Barcelona councillors, acting with the King, proceeded to an extensive reform of the consulate through the promulgation of a series of stipulations which were to regulate its organisation and functioning. Maresa was to be responsible for their application and the reactivation of the consulate. We can imagine that, as part of the new and ambitious project, the Consul would also display a series of images and promote a series of events that would strengthen his figure both before his countrymen and with the local authorities and certain prestigious institutions. With this in view, the chronology of the commission of the altarpiece and its donation are quite revealing. They occur just before the blossoming of Barcelona as an embarkation port of pilgrims to the Holy place. Could this initiative be an attempt by the Consul to gain the favour of the monastery and manifest the power of the Catalan community? Certainly. It is significant that the following years see a multiplication of mentions of vessels and pilgrims setting sail from Barcelona for, among other places, the port of Jaffa, a place where the pilgrimage to the Holy place was centred and which was under the jurisdiction of the Consul of Damascus. Reports also multiply of Catalan-Aragonese pilgrims passing through the monastery of Saint Catherine, which was moreover closely linked to the Syrian capital.

Imagine the impression that finding such a familiar image in that distant area would have on the Catalan-Aragonese pilgrims. Undoubtedly, it would give them a certain security and a kind of community pride, but at the same time it would be a clear reminder of how far the arm of the political and social institutions of their places of origin stretched. Let us also imagine, however, what it meant to the monks of Saint Catherine to find a Consul, a community and a king on the other side of the Mediterranean who were devoted and friendly to their monastery. This powerful image propitiated, without doubt, the future and fruitful understanding between the two parties.

Rome Empire and the Roman invasion

Travel to Sinai's Mount

History of Ancient Egypt

noreply@blogger.com (secblog) — Fri, 30 Nov 2007 19:06:00 +0000

Egypt has often been called “the gift of the Nile”, and with good reason. The Nile, the longest river in the world,13 winds its way north from the mountains in east central Africa on up to the Mediterranean Sea. Every year (until more sophisticated dams and irrigation sluices were built in the mid-19th century), rainfall in the tropical belt and the summer monsoons of Ethiopia14 caused the Nile to flood.

The maximum territorial extent of Egypt

As it flowed, it picked up rich soil from central Africa and deposited it on the banks of its valley in Egypt, and its delta at the Mediterranean. This produced a layer of excellent topsoil which gave the ancient Egyptians their agriculture and thus their life. It is because of this fertile mud that the Egyptians called their country Kemet, “Black Land” (to contrast it with Deshret, “Red Land”, the desert which surrounded it), and why in Egyptian magic and symbolism, black is not a color of death, but of life.

People sometimes say that the ancient Egyptian civilization endured without much change for more than three thousand years. This is only partially true because, in fact, Egyptian ways of life, philosophy, religion, language, and art changed considerably over time. However, the ancient Egyptian culture retained its identity and general character to a remarkable degree over the course of its history a situation due in part to Egypt’s favorable and secure location.

Essentially a river oasis, the country was bordered by deserts to the west and east, by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, and by the first cataract of the Nile at Aswan in the south. Egyptians were not isolated, however. Situated in the northeastern corner of Africa, Egypt was a center for trade routes to and from western Asia, the Mediterranean, and central Africa

Life in the Nile Valley and in the broader Nile Delta was punctuated by the fairly predictable rhythm of the annual flood of the Nile between July and October, which was caused by heavy monsoon rains far south in Ethiopia. When the waters receded, depositing rich soils on the fields, planting and harvesting followed. The growing time was followed by a dry season of low Nile water until the floods rose again the next year. The Egyptians believed the inundation was a gift of the gods, and its regular appearance strengthened their confidence in a divinely regulated cycle of death and life.

Historians divide the history of ancient Egypt into the following periods: Prehistory (up to ca. 3100 B.C.), the Archaic Period (ca. 3100-2650 B.C.), the Old Kingdom (ca. 2650-2150 B.C.), the Middle Kingdom (ca. 2040-1640 B.C.), the New Kingdom (ca. 1550-1070 B.C.), the Late Period (ca. 712-332 B.C.), and the Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) and Roman Periods (332 B.C.-A.D. 395). At these times of prosperity the kings initiated numerous building projects and sent out expeditions to extend Egypt’s borders and expand trade routes. During the so-called First, Second, and Third Intermediate Periods (ca. 2150-2040 B.C., ca. 1640-1550 B.C., and 1070-712 B.C.), the land was politically fragmented, often reverting to local rule in Upper and Lower Egypt.

List of the pyramids

List of Ancient Egyptian Sites

The falcon-headed god, Horus, the God of Kings

Magic in Ancient Egyptian

Travel to [Egypt]

Period of Predynastic

noreply@blogger.com (secblog) — Fri, 30 Nov 2007 19:05:00 +0000

Prehistory Predynastic Period (late 6th-late 4th millennium B.C.)

From early agricultural communities to urban settlements. Distinct differences between Upper (southern) and Lower (northern) Egypt, with the latter, in the earliest phases, showing affinities with North African cultures on the one side and western Asiatic on the other.

From Predynastic Period

Two broad phases of history in Predynastic Egypt are observed, and they are named after the town of Naqada, in Upper Egypt between Abydos and Thebes, where artifacts from both phaseswere found in distinct excavations. Naqada I culture has small-scale village agriculture and not a very complex large-scale social system. This culture had developed well-made stone tools and fine earthenware pottery, but no evidence indicates relations with people outside the Nile valley.

Naqada II culture, on the other hand, shows signs of relations and “cultural boundaries” with the Nubians to the south, and it is during this phase that the Two Lands developed as aggregates of the smaller nomes. There is also much evidence of trade, both between the Two Lands and with the inhabitants of Sinai, Palestine, and even Mesopotamia. It is in late Naqada II culture that we find the invention of the serekh, the first formal way of writing the name of the king. A cemetery at Abydos is believed to contain the tombs of late Naqada II rulers, which may explain the prominence of Abydos in later Egyptian religion.

Map of Ancient Egypt (Predynastic History)

During the predynastic period, the “pit-burial” developed for the common people of Egypt, and it remained in vogue for much of pharaonic history. The deceased was curled up in fetal position and buried in a simple pit dug in the sand in the desert to the west of civilization. Some very simple goods—generally some pots and rudimentary toiletries—were interred along with the person. Some planks of wood were put over the pit when they could be spared (wood was always a valuable commodity in Egypt), the pit was covered with a mound of sand and loose stones, and that was that. This simple mode of burial was elaborated over time for the royalty, as we shall see.

The limestone head of a ceremonial mace (a hammer-like weapon consisting of a heavy weight at the end of a stout handle) was found in 1894 at Nekhen. This object depicts a Naqada II king of Upper Egypt labeled as “Scorpion” (Serk) inaugurating the construction of a canal. This object is the primary inspiration for the very different Hollywood character of “The Scorpion King”.

The Two Lands each had patron deities. Lower Egypt paid homage to Set, originally seen as a fierce storm god, but largely benevolent; he used his might to keep the forces of chaos at bay and to guard the frontiers of Egypt. Upper Egypt’s chief god was Horus, a falcon god, whose domain included the sun and the sky. While there is evidence of rivalry between the two states, they did use a common written language and were culturally very similar.

Collection pics for (Naqada I , II , III), El- Badari , Der Tasa

From Naqada I

Naqada I Vase ( red-on-white ware)

From Naqada II

vase decorated with gazelles

Naqada II Vase (woman dancing)

2 maceheads (naqada I & II)

Vase ( El-badari)

From Gerzean Period

Pot with ship theme from Gerzean Period

Stone Vase

Decorated ware with boats with standards

From Der Tasa

Stone Tools from Der Tasa

Vase from Der Tasa

List of pyramids

List of Ancient Egyptian Sites

Egypt, Travel Guide

Old Kingdom (CA. 2650-2150 B.C.)

noreply@blogger.com (secblog) — Fri, 30 Nov 2007 19:03:00 +0000

In the dynasty 3 The first major stone monument of Egypt, King Djoser’s step pyramid (designed by architect Imhotep), built at Saqqara.

In the dynasty 4 Pyramids of Snefru at Meidum and Dahshur. Pyramids of Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure built at Giza. The sphinx cut from living rock at the side of Khafre’s valley temple.

Pyramids of Giza

In the dynasty 5 Mastaba tombs for royal officials at Saqqara and Giza continue from Dynasty 4, decorated with reliefs depicting scenes from daily life. Kings build pyramids (at Abusir) and sun temples. Trade with the Levant (Byblos) in sea-going ships.

In the dynasty 6 Pyramids of kings at Saqqara; burial chambers since King Unas (last king of Dynasty 5) are inscribed with spells (“pyramid texts”) to help king achieve rebirth in the afterlife.

Dynasty 7 to early Dynasty 11 (CA. 2150-2040 B.C.)

Power of provincial administrators increases. Relief decorated and painted cut-rock tombs at many provincial sites. Expeditions into Upper Nubia for central African goods. And Weakening period because the central government was became very weak. Period of climatic change to more arid environment. Food shortages. Provinces struggle individually. Herakleopolis Magna (at Faiyum entrance) in the north and Thebes in the south emerge as main centers of power.

List of the pyramids

Travel to Egypt

Egypt, Travel Guide

Middle Kingdom (CA. 2040-1640 B.C.)

noreply@blogger.com (secblog) — Fri, 30 Nov 2007 19:01:00 +0000

Begin of The Middle Kingdom:

In the Late of dynasty 11 King Mentuhotep II of Upper Egypt reunites the country with capital at Thebes. Monumental building projects resume in Upper Egypt, as does trade with nearby lands.

In the dynasty 12 one of the great periods of Egyptian art and literature (“portraits” of kings and texts such as “The Story of Sinuhe,” "The Eloquent Peasant,” wisdom texts,” etc.). First king, Amenemhat I, relocates capital to the north at El Lisht. His pyramid and that of his son (Senwosret I) built at Lisht according to Old Kingdom prototypes.

Later pyramids at Dahshur, Illahun, and Hawara. In the Faiyum new land made available for cultivation through irrigation. Lower Nubia conquered and forts built at the second cataract. Important gods are Osiris (at Abydos) and Amun (at Thebes). Imports from Minoan Crete.

Pyramid of Senfru at Dahshur

In the dynasty 13 During most of the dynasty administration continues as set up in Dynasty 12. Position of kings weakened by very short reigns. Asiatic foreigners settle in eastern delta and an important center for trade grows at Avaris (Tell el-Dab'a). Many imports from Canaan. Nubian forts are abandoned after middle of the dynasty.

In the dynasty 14 local rulers in the delta rule contemporaneously with rulers of late Dynasty 13.

Dynasties 15 and 16 (CA. 1640-1550 B.C.)

Western Asiatic kings originating from foreign community at Avaris with strong ties to southern Canaan gain power over most of Egypt. They are called “chiefs of foreign lands” (in Egyptian heka khasut, or Hyksos). They adopt the Egyptian title of pharaoh, usurp earlier monuments, and make contacts with the kingdom of Kerma in Nubia. (More about the Hyksos invasion)

Dynasty 17 (Period of Hyksos )

Ruling dynasty of Thebes contemporaneous with the Hyksos. They acknowledge Hyksos as their overlords, but at the end of the dynasty King Kamose starts movement to expel the Hyksos. From this time onward, Egyptian military power is based on the use of horse-drawn chariots. (Egypt conditions under the Hyksos)

A small wheeled funerary boat from the early 18th Daynasty

Magic in Ancient Egyptian

Travel to [Egypt]

New Kingdom (CA. 1550-1070 B.C.)In the dynasty 18 king Ahmose reconquers Memphis and destroys Avaris, ending the Hyksos rule. Thutmosis I reconquers N

noreply@blogger.com (secblog) — Fri, 30 Nov 2007 18:59:00 +0000

In the dynasty 18 king Ahmose reconquers Memphis and destroys Avaris, ending the Hyksos rule. Thutmosis I reconquers Nubia, which becomes a colony of Egypt. Hatshepsut, important female ruler, sponsors fine works of art and architecture (Temple of Deir el-Bahri). Beginning with Thutmosis III, Egypt becomes an empire controlling large parts of the Near East as well as Nubia. Time of a luxurious royal court with international tastes, especially under Amenhotep III.

Statue of Ahmose I

In the Amarna period Akhenaten and Nefertiti break with the traditional religion in favor of the sole worship of the Aten (light). During their reign distinctive art is created and literature reflects a version of the language nearer to that actually spoken.

Tutankhamun restores worship of traditional gods. He leaves no royal heir. Haremhab becomes the last king of the dynasty. He completes the return to traditional religion and art and possibly names as successor Ramesses I, first ruler of Dynasty 19.

In the dynasty 19 great era of temple building. Campaigns in the Near East against the Hittites; peace treaty made with Hittites in reign of Ramesses II.

Ramesses smiting the enemy

In the dynasty 20 Ramesses III repels the “sea peoples” (dislocated tribes ainly from Asia Minor). Political decline and economic ifficulties. Traditional time of the Israelites’ exodus from gypt.

Dynasty 21 to 23 (CA. 1070-712 B.C.)

Egypt again divided; one dynasty rules in Nile Delta, sharing power with high priests of Amun at Thebes.

Egypt gradually further divided. In Dynasty 22 rulers of Libyan descent coexist with other

The Nubia region

contemporary dynasties. Throughout Dynasties 21-24 Egypt’s international power wanes. Rule over Nubia collapses. Private tombs more modest; high artistic quality maintained most notably in decoration of coffins and in metal casting and inlay.

List of the pyramids

Travel to [Egypt]

Period of Ptolemaic and Roman (332 BC-4th century A.D.)

noreply@blogger.com (secblog) — Fri, 30 Nov 2007 18:58:00 +0000

In the dynasty 25 Kushite rulers from Nubia invade and reunite Egypt. This drive from the south once again revives Egyptian art and architecture: great funeral “palaces” of high officials in Thebes; individualized images of high officials and Kushite kings. Assyrians invade and end Kushite rule over Egypt.

In the dynasty 26 Assyrians withdraw. Kings from Sais in the delta rule Egypt. Greek settlements grow in significance; role of Greek mercenaries in king’s army crucial. Important period of art: classicism and archaism.

In the dynasty 27 Achaemenid Persians (who also threaten Greek city-states) invade Egypt and rule.

Achaemenid Empire

From dynasty 28 to 30 last native rulers repel Persians. Dynasty 30 is brief (380-343 B.C.) but important period for Egyptian assertion of identity; in architecture and art basic concepts are initiated that establish what is Egyptian for centuries to come, influencing both Ptolemaic and Roman Periods. Persians invade again in 343 B.C., initiating the Second Persian Period (sometimes called Dynasty 31). (More about the Achaemenid and Persian invasion)

light a stone statue from the Achaemenid civilization

In 332 B.C. Egypt is conquered by Alexander the Great (Macedonian Dynasty of mainland Greece [332-304 B.C.]). Upon his death, Greek general Ptolemy and his descendants rule. Important temples are built completely in Egyptian style. Many are preserved to this day (Edfu and Dendara).

Last Ptolemaic ruler, Cleopatra VII, and Antony defeated by Augustus Caesar in 30 B.C. Egypt conquered by Rome. Last great phase of temple building under Augustus (Temple of Dendur). Under rule of Roman emperors temples are still enlarged and decorated in Egyptian style. In other forms of art Greco-Roman elements are mixed with Egyptian ones.

Mummy portraits (the “Faiyum portraits”) are painted in Greek manner and technique but fixed to Egyptian-style mummies. Last datable hieroglyphic inscription is A.D. 394 at Philae sanctuary of Isis on island near Aswan.

Philae Temple

List of Egypt pyramids

List of Ancient Egyptian Sites

Gods of Ancient Egypt

noreply@blogger.com (secblog) — Fri, 30 Nov 2007 18:58:00 +0000

The ancient Egyptians believed in many different gods and goddesses, each one with their own role to play in maintaining peace and harmony across the land.

Some gods and goddesses took part in creation, some brought the flood every year, some offered protection, and some took care of people after they died. Others were either local gods who represented towns, or minor gods who represented plants or animals.

The ancient Egyptians believed that it was important to recognise and worship these gods and goddesses so that life continued smoothly.

The origins of Egyptian religion, like the origins of most things Egyptian, can only be deduced second-hand from the statements of classical authors (who were as far removed from those early events as they themselves are from us) and from the scattered remains uncovered by modern archaeologists.

As mentioned above, the Predynastic Period already exhibited some typically Egyptian religious practices in rudimentary form—notably reed-hut shrines devoted to local totemic deities, and separate cemeteries in which the dead were buried facing the west in company with personal possessions or offerings.

This suggests that even in the prehistoric era there was already a widespread worship of distinct local gods and a widespread belief in an afterlife located somewhere toward the setting sun—two features of Egyptian religion which would endure, at least iconographically, until the very end.

The earliest Egyptians seem to have represented their gods by means of fetishes which they carried about as tribal standards—feathers, flags ,arrows, stuffed or modeled birds and animals, even fossilized mollusks. At the same time, or perhaps a little later, these dead forms were supplemented with living ones chosen from among the Nile valley's vast profusion of fauna—crocodiles, jackals, lions, falcons, vultures, beetles, ibises, baboons, bulls, rams, geese, and many more—each, like the inanimate fetishes, associated with a particular tribe or locale.

That the Egyptians were still thinking in these terms even into the dynastic era is confirmed by the very names of the early kings of the Archaic Period—Scorpion, Catfish, Falcon, Snake—as well as by their ceremonial palettes and maceheads, which clearly show the tribal standards being carried into battle and the totemic deities fighting on behalf of their clients.

Examples for Gods:

The god Sekhmet

The god Bes

The God Khnum

Travel to {Egypt}

The Pyramids

noreply@blogger.com (secblog) — Fri, 30 Nov 2007 18:57:00 +0000

Most of the Egyptians pyramids built in the old kingdom and the middle kingdom.

The pyramids developed from earlier buildings known today as mastabas (mastaba is the Arabic word for “step”). A mastaba was a large rectangular structure with steeply sloping sides, under which a Pharaoh would be buried. These were the first large stone buildings in Egypt.

The Great Pyramids of Giza

The next stage of development came with a series of renovations to the mastaba of Zoser. It was originally a large rectangular building of one level, but was extended several times, both by increasing the length of the short sides to make it square, and by adding levels on top. When the renovations were complete, the result was the step pyramid of Zoser. The inspiration for this development was probably Egyptian knowledge of the ziggurats of Sumerian towns, which looked similar.

El-Lahun pyramid

Next was the failed pyramid of Meidum, named for its location. This was the first building intended from the start to be a pyramid, with the burial chamber inside the pyramid, rather than underground. To put a room inside a pyramid required the development of a new masonry technique, called the corbel, a primitive form of arch. But while the corbel was a success, the outer layers of the pyramid collapsed because they weren’t properly bound to the core. The Pharaoh at the time, Sneferu, ordered another pyramid built.

So why did the Egyptians build pyramids? Or at least, why did the Pharaohs choose to be buried in pyramids, as opposed to something else? Egyptians revered the Sun god Ra, and the pyramids were simply tall buildings, getting the dead Pharaoh nearer the Sun. Inspired by Sumerian ziggurats, they used the one method they knew of building a tall building.

Example of Sumerian ziggurats(built in 13th century BC in Iran)

The Great Pyramid contains about 2,300,000 blocks of stone, weighing 2.5 tonnes on average. The stones were placed on sleds, and the sleds dragged along pathways. The pathways were covered with a local clay, and lubricated with water. In such a setting, a 2.5 tonne block of stone provides no great obstacle to a team of eight men - each man is pulling about 300 kilograms. These days, one person can easily pull a car, which weighs one tonne, though admittedly there’s less friction involved.

It’s reasonable to assume that a team of eight men could easily haul one block of stone into position per day. This means one team could place 365 blocks per year, or 7300 over a 20 year construction period. Divide 7300 into 2,300,000 and you get 315. In other words, 315 teams placing one stone per day for 20 years would be able to place 2,300,000 blocks. With eight men per team, theoretically only 2520 stone-haulers would be needed. However, as some stone-haulers were farmers, they were only available for a few months a year. As well, they worked only nine days in ten. (More about building the Pyramids)

It’s also likely that there would’ve been holidays, supply shortages, industrial disputes (yes, even then!) and storms which would’ve prevented work. Even so, the most number of people required to haul stones would be well under 20,000. At this time, Egypt’s population was about a million.

Egyptians Jewelry

noreply@blogger.com (secblog) — Fri, 30 Nov 2007 18:56:00 +0000

Design a piece of jewelry that could have been presented to Nefertiti, Tiy, or Nefertari by her pharaoh husband in recognition of her contributions to his reign and as a token of his affection for her.

Keep in mind important gods/goddesses and images when designing the piece of jewelry. Do a color drawing or diagram of the piece or create a model of the piece using assorted craft supplies. Write a one to two paragraph description of the piece you have designed and how it is representative of the queen for whom it was designed.

Think about some women from modern history who have roles similar to those of Nefertiti, Tiy, and Nefertari. Create a list of these women and their contributions, then make a graphic organizer that illustrates the similarities and differences between the contributions of the ancient Egyptian queens and the women from modern history.

Ancient Egyptians loved makeup, hairstyles and jewelry. Of course, over the 3,000 years of the Egyptian Empire, trends came and went, but the people’s focus on beauty and style was always present.

Beauty was a very important thing to Egyptians. Many paintings show us that they wore wigs and beautiful jewelry.

When a child was born, it spent the first few years of life living with its mother and other women in the home. Children were given toys such as balls, dolls and board games. They played outside most of the time and had pet dogs, cats and monkeys.

When they were very young, most kids wore no clothes because the weather in Egypt was hot and dry all the time. As they got older, boys would wear a cloth of white linen around their waists, and girls would wear white linen dresses. Many Egyptians, even kids, liked to wear jewelry made of colorfully painted clay beads, stones or gold.

Collections from Pharaohs Jewelries

Diadem of SAT-HATHOR-YUNET

Pectoral of TUTANKHAMON

Cermonial Dagger of King AHMOSE

Daily Life In Ancient Egypt

noreply@blogger.com (secblog) — Fri, 30 Nov 2007 18:55:00 +0000

Specialized Jobs

· Food surpluses let people do jobs other than farm
· Scribes wrote and kept records
· Some artisans built stone and brick houses and temples
· Others made pottery, furniture, clothing
· Some Egyptians traded with other Africans on upper Nile
· scrolls, linen, gold, jewelry changed with woods, skins, animals
More about farmers in ancient Egypt

Daily life in Ancient Egypt

· Government divided empire into 42 provinces, created army
· Priest was one of highest jobs—performed rituals, cared for temples
· Together priests and the ruler held ceremonies to please the gods
· Believed if gods happy, Nile would flood, crops would grow

· Slaves were at bottom of society but generally treated well and had some freedom.
· Except slaves working in mines, who often died from labor (in age lacked to the figures of labor law)
· People enslaved if had debts, committed crimes, were captured in war usually freed after time

Women in Ancient Egypt

· Women in ancient Egypt had almost equal rights, could own property
· Most cared with sons and daughters, home; others wove cloth, worked in fields
· Some rose to government positions

Women in Ancient Egypt

Childhood in Ancient Egypt

· Children had dolls, board games, marbles; played ball games
· Almost all married in their early teens
. Those of the rich families can go to schools to learn how to write and read.

Hieroglyph

noreply@blogger.com (secblog) — Fri, 30 Nov 2007 18:53:00 +0000

THE idea long prevailed that the hieroglyphic characters were ideographic i.e. that they represented ideas, not sounds; and any attempt at decipherment was hopeless. Before the end of last century, however, a hint had been thrown out that the characters might prove to be ' phonetic i.e. representing sounds like the letters of our ordinary alphabets.

Part of Ani's papyrus

And a further suggestion had been offered that the words enclosed within ovals might be the names of royal personages. But unless some means existed of comparing those names with the same names written in a known language, not a single hieroglyph could be read. The discovery of the Rosetta stone in 1799 supplied the means required.

On that stone was engraved an inscription in three characters the hieroglyphic, the demotic or popular Egyptian, and the Greek. Scholars, however, turned their attention at first rather to the comparison of the demotic and the Greek, as the idea still prevailed that the hieroglyphs were not phonetic. It happened, also, that the beginning of the hieroglyphic and the end of the Greek inscription were wanting, which added greatly to the difficulty of comparing the texts.

The secrets of Hieroglyph still closed until Champollion began his campaign against this unknown language.

List of the pyramids

Travel to Egypt

Gates of Egypt

Female Pharaohs

Children in Ancient Egypt

Tourist Guide to Egypt

The Fatimid (The Fatimid Caliphate)

The Mamluks

The Assyrians

The Babylonians

The Sumerians (Near East)

Kheprer or Khepri

Women in Ancient Egypt

Monastery of Saint Catherine

Archive

History of Ancient Egypt

Period of Predynastic

Old Kingdom (CA. 2650-2150 B.C.)

Middle Kingdom (CA. 2040-1640 B.C.)

New Kingdom (CA. 1550-1070 B.C.)In the dynasty 18 king Ahmose reconquers Memphis and destroys Avaris, ending the Hyksos rule. Thutmosis I reconquers N

Period of Ptolemaic and Roman (332 BC-4th century A.D.)

Gods of Ancient Egypt

The Pyramids

Egyptians Jewelry

Daily Life In Ancient Egypt

Hieroglyph