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Claim a new life experience: Ever seen birds suicide in masses? Come and an see rare natural wonder: Read below for contacts and holiday trip plan.

2013-03-08T21:48:00.004+05:30

Have you ever seen a bird commit suicide?

Welcome to Notun Leikul Village,The First Eco-Tourism Destination With Homestay In Assam

N. Leikul village sits on the foot of the high and mighty ‘Hempupet Peak’, the second highest peak in Assam (1736 mts above sea level), locally known as “Simit Bung” to the Thadou-Kuki inhabitant because of the concrete platform that once lies on top of it. The village lies at an altitude of about 800 mts, takes pride in its natural beauty manifested by the landscape dotted with perennial streams and water falls, lush green forests, rare orchids, orange and coffee gardens. The scenic village, natives in traditional dresses, rich culture, indigenous architecture and a crime free society added to the natural beauty of the village.

You can also experience a homestay with a local family (who are well trained). You can stay and share with the people their local lifestyle close to nature and culture. You can visit the nearby waterfalls, go for bird watching in the world renowned Jatinga, famous for the phenomenon of birds “committing suicide” is just 6 kms away from the ethnic village, or you can just take a walk to the coffee, tea, orange, aloe Vera Gardens. More adventurous tourist can go for a hike to simit bung with a well-trained guide and porter, which can be arrange. One can also take a tour to neighboring tribal villages of other tribes. N. Leikul is a tourist paradise with a share of interest for all ages. In addition to its natural beauty, the rare traditional cultural, dances and lifestyle of the adventurous yet loving people of the Thadou-Kuki inhabitants of this village would surely leave a lasting fond memory for rest of your life. It will be a unique adventure to experience the village and social life of the mysterious hill tribes of this beautiful land. Best time to visit is September to December, however, to avoid rush early registration is recommended. Details of accommodation and guides from the four metros i.e Mumbai, Delhi, Chennai and Kolkatta to the village can be discussed with the coordinator given below.

Details contact for holiday plan:

Name: Paosem Singson

Email: siemsingson@gmail.com

Mobile: +918011380130

Factors responsible for low production of horticulture crops in Garo Hills, Meghalaya:

2012-10-11T00:51:00.000+05:30

Over the years, horticulture, which includes fruits, vegetables, spices, plantation crops, flowers and aromatic plants has assumed an important position in the food and nutrition security besides providing employment opportunities, sustainable income and increasing export opportunities both in rural and urban areas. In India, Agriculture contributes for 25 % of the national GDP and horticulture contributes 29.65 % of agriculture GDP and has proved beyond doubt its potentiality for gainful diversification. As a result, it has been receiving increased attention of the Government of India in respect of budget allocation, creating research and development infrastructure, training of manpower and even marketing support. Several initiatives taken by the Government and other stakeholders also have great impact on the development of Horticulture in terms of increased production, productivity and also availability of horticultural crops. One of the significant developments is that horticulture has moved from rural confined to commercial production, and this changing scenario has boost up the horticulture industry. This trend has been marked as “Golden Revolution” with India emerging as the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables and occupying first position in several horticultural crops. Production and export of flowers have increased manifold and the country has a major stake in global trade of spices and cashew nuts. Export of medicinal plants, fruits and vegetables have also exhibited rising trend. This sector thus has been moving dynamically and is in a crucial phase of development. In spite of the significant achievements, however, the potential is still enormous.

The North Eastern Region of India has been blessed with agro-climatic conditions naturally suited for wide variety of horticulture crops. It is the centre of origin of many horticulture crops species, has a wealth of orchid species and varieties and plenty of rare herbs. It is considered to be the center of origin of some species of mango, citrus, banana, beans, colocasia, ginger, orchids, yam, wild species of cucumber, brinjal, gourds and medicinal plants like Cymbopogon, Cinnamomurn, Aconitum, Embelica, etc. Various interventions in the sector have enabled to harness some of the existing potential in horticulture. The introduction of Technology Mission for Integrated Horticulture Development in North East region in 2002 and National Horticulture Mission has created awareness across the region which provided an insight for horticulture-led transformation utilizing the technology.

The West Garo Hills district covers an area of 3714 Sq. Km. and lies on the western part of the state of Meghalaya. The district lies between the longitudes 90° 30' and 89° 40' East, and the latitudes of 26° and 25° 20' North. As per Census 2001, the district is home to 5, 18,390 people. West Garo Hills with a wide variety of agro-climatic conditions, soil and rainfall provide opportunities for growing varied range of Horticultural and plantation crops. The important fruit crops of the district are oranges, pineapple, litchi, banana, jackfruit and other citrus fruits. Important plantation crops are areca nut, cashew nut, coconut, tea, black pepper, bay leaf, betel leaf and rubber. Spices like ginger, turmeric, chilies, large cardamom and cinnamon are also grown; however, very few studies have been done to determine the suitable and high yielding cultivars of the important horticulture crops.

Though West Garo Hill has high potential for the development of horticultural crops, efforts have not been made to develop it as a commercial venture. Factors inhibiting horticultural development in the area are as follows:

Poor cultivation practices and low yield

General neglect and non-adoption of scientific cultivation practices are the major constraints for poor return from most of the horticultural crops in this region. Thus despite conducive environment, the rate of production and growth of all horticultural crops are far below the all India average.

Lack of desirable planting material

The disease free, true to type genuine planting material is lacking in a number of horticultural crops. It is imperative to produce disease free propagules.

Identification of area specific major horticultural crops:

There is need to identify important horticultural crops for different areas of the region. The infrastructure facilities for commercial cultivation, marketing, export and processing / value addition for identified crop should be developed.

Identification of suitable and high yielding cultivars of the major horticulture crops:

There is also need to identify the high yielding varieties and hybrids available in the country in selected crops suitable for the area.

Conduction of on-farm trials / frontline demonstration (FLD):

The farmers of the region are not aware with the recent technologies of horticulture. Therefore, there is need to conduct demonstration / FLD as much as possible at farmers’ field in the identified crops to convince the farmers about the efficacy of measures in enhancing the productivity of identified crops. Apart from this the extension personnel should try to bring the maximum number of farmers to demonstration plots, organize farmers’ day, fair and yield competition, distribute leaflets / bulletins to the farmers.

Strengthening of horticultural farms and nurseries:

The different horticultural farms and nurseries of the region which are meant for supply of disease free, healthy, true to type planting materials of fruits, vegetables and ornamental crops should be strengthened so as to meet the increasing demand for planting materials. The important rootstocks / mother tree stock should also be maintained at these horticultural farms/nurseries.

Training to farmers/extension functionaries:

Non-availability of trained manpower is one of the major problems of the region, as horticulture requires highly skilled personnel for grafting, pruning and orchard management. The farmer as well as extension functionaries should be given training from time to time regarding recent advances in horticulture. The entrepreneurship should also be generated by providing training to entrepreneurs for overall development of horticulture.

The above mentioned factors results the farmer of the area to produce lesser yields as compared to other fruit growing areas of India. With this background, it is proposed to study the performance of some varieties of fruit crops, so that, cultivars which are high yielding and suitable for the area can be identified as this would further the horticulture development of the area and bring higher yields and incomes to the farmers.

METHODOLOGY FOR MEASUREMENT OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

2012-06-17T18:32:00.001+05:30

METHODOLOGY FOR MEASUREMENT OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Human Development: The Concept

The concept of human development focuses on the ends rather than the means of development and progress. The real objective of development should be to create an enabling environment for people to enjoy long, healthy and creative lives. Though this may appear to be a simple truth, it is often overlooked as more immediate concerns are given precedence.

Human development denotes both the process of widening people's choices and improving their well-being. The most critical dimensions of human development are: a long and healthy life, knowledge and a decent standard of living. Additional concerns include social and political freedoms. The concept distinguishes between two sides of human development. One is the formation of human capabilities, such as improved health or knowledge. The other is the enjoyment of these acquired capabilities, for work or for leisure.

Human development is often being misconstrued and confused with the following concepts and approaches to development.

Economic growth is a means and not an end of development. Moreover, high GDP growth does not necessarily translate to progress in human development. Global experience has shown that income and human development are not always perfect companions, where some countries display relatively high levels of human development for their income and vice versa.
Theories of human capital formation and human resource development view human beings as means to increased income and wealth rather than as ends. These theories are concerned with human beings as inputs to increasing production;
The human welfare approach looks at human beings as beneficiaries rather than participants in the development process;
The basic needs approach concentrates on the bundle of goods and services that deprived population groups need - food, shelter, clothing, health care and water. It focuses on the provision of these goods and services rather than their implications on human choices.

Thus the concept of human development is a holistic one putting people at the centre of all aspects of the development process.

Human Development Index (HDI):

The Human Development Index (HDI) compiled by the UNDP, is a summary composite index that measures a country's average achievements in three basic aspects of human development: health, knowledge, and income. It was first developed by the late Pakistani economist Mahbub ul Haq with the collaboration of the Nobel laureate Amartya Sen and other leading development thinkers (Paul Streeten, Frances Stewart, Gustav Ranis, Keith Griffin, Sudhir Anand and Meghnad Desai) for the first Human Development Report in 1990. It was introduced as an alternative to conventional measures of national development, such as level of income and the rate of economic growth.

. The HDI was created to emphasize that people and their capabilities should be the ultimate criteria for assessing the development of a country, not economic growth alone. The HDI can also be used to question national policy choices, asking how two countries with the same level of GNI per capita can end up with such different human development outcomes. For example, the Bahamas and New Zealand have similar levels of income per person, but life expectancy and expected years of schooling differ greatly between the two countries, resulting in New Zealand having a much higher HDI value than the Bahamas.

Three dimensions in the HDI

Starting with the 2010 report the HDI combines three dimensions:

-A long and healthy life: Life expectancy at birth

-Access to knowledge: Mean years of schooling and Expected years of schooling

-A decent standard of living: GNI per capita (PPP US$)

The three dimensions combined by HDI up until its 2009 report

-Life expectancy at birth, as an index of population health and longevity

-Knowledge and education, as measured by the adult literacy rate (with two-thirds weighting) and the combined primary, secondary, and tertiary gross enrollment ratio (with one-third weighting).

-Standard of living, as indicated by the natural logarithm of gross domestic product per capita at purchasing power parity.

The breakthrough for the HDI was the creation of a single statistic which was to serve as a frame of reference for both social and economic development. The HDI sets a minimum and a maximum for each dimension, called goalposts, and then shows where each country stands in relation to these goalposts, expressed as a value between 0 and 1.

Fig. A Diagrammatic representation of HDI.(Source - UNDP)

The education component of the HDI is now measured by mean of years of schooling for adults aged 25 years and expected years of schooling for children of school going age. Mean years of schooling is estimated based on duration of schooling at each level of education. Expected years of schooling estimates are based on enrolment by age at all levels of education and population of official school age for each level of education. The indicators are normalized using a minimum value of zero and maximum values are set to the actual observed maximum values of the indicators from the countries in the time series, that is, 1980–2010. The education index is the geometric of two indices.

The life expectancy at birth component of the HDI is calculated using a minimum value of 20 years and maximum value of 83.2 years. These are the observed maximum value of the indicators from the countries in the time series, 1980–2010. Thus, the longevity component for a country where life expectancy birth is 55 years would be 0.554.

For the wealth component, the goalpost for minimum income is $163 (PPP) and the maximum is $108,211 (PPP), both observed minimum observed during the same time series.

The decent standard of living component is measured by GNI per capita (PPP US$) instead of GDP per capita (PPP US$) The HDI uses the logarithm of income, to reflect the diminishing importance of income with increasing GNI. The scores for the three HDI dimension indices are then aggregated into a composite index using geometric mean.

Methodology

In its 2010 Human Development Report the UNDP began using a new method of calculating the HDI. The following three indices are used:

Life Expectancy Index (LEI) = LE ─ 20

83.2 ─ 20

___________

Education Index (EI) = √MYSI . EYSI ─ 0

0.951 ─ 0

-Mean Years of Schooling Index (MYSI) = MYS ─ 0

13.2 ─ 0

-Expected Years of Schooling Index (EYSI) = EYS ─ 0

20.6 ─ 0

Income Index (II) = ln(GNIpc) ─ ln(163)_

ln(108,211) ─ ln(163)

Finally, the HDI is the geometric mean of the previous three normalized indices:

LE: Life expectancy at birth

MYS: Mean years of schooling (Years that a 25 year old person spent in schools)

EYS: Expected years of schooling (Years that a 5 year old child will spend with his education in his whole life)

GNIpc: Gross national income at purchasing power parity per capita

Example:

Let’s calculate the HDI for Turkey for the year 2005 with the goal post set by UNDP during 2005.

Calculating the life expectancy index

The life expectancy index measures the relative achievement of a country in life expectancy at birth. For Turkey, with a life expectancy of 71.4 years in 2005, the life expectancy index is 0.773.

Life Expectancy Index = 71.4 – 25 = 0.773

85 – 25

Calculating the education index

The education index measures a country's relative achievement in both adult literacy and combined primary, secondary and tertiary gross enrolment. First, an index for adult literacy and one for combined gross enrolment are calculated. Then these two indices are combined to create the education index, with two-thirds weight given to adult literacy and one-third weight to combined gross enrolment. For Turkey, with an adult literacy rate of 87.4% in 2005 and a combined gross enrolment ratio of 68.7% in 2005, the education index is 0.812.

Adult Literacy Index = 87.4 – 0 = 0.874

100 - 0

Gross Enrolment Index = 68.7 – 0 = 0.687

100 – 0

Education Index = 2/3(adult literacy index) + 1/3(gross enrolment index)

= 2/3(0.874) + 1/3(0.687)

= 0.812

Calculating the GDP index

The GDP index is calculated using adjusted GDP per capita (PPP US$). In the HDI income serves as a surrogate for all the dimensions of human development not reflected in a long and healthy life and in knowledge. Income is adjusted because achieving a respectable level of human development does not require unlimited income. Accordingly, the logarithm of income is used. For Turkey, with a GDP per capita of 8,407 (PPP US$) in 2005, the GDP index is 0.740.

GDP index = log (8,407) – log (100)

log (40,000) – log (100)

= 0.740

Calculating the HDI

Once the dimension indices have been calculated, determining the HDI is straightforward. It is a simple average of the three dimension indices.

HDI = 1/3 (life expectancy index) + 1/3 (education index) + 1/3 (GDP index)

= 1/3 (0.773) + 1/3 (0.812) + 1/3 (0.740)

= 0.775

Disparity Index (GeDI):

It is a measure to illustrate whether overall human development is being shared equitably by women and men. This disparity in literacy rate between female and male can be estimated using the following formula:

Disparity Index = {Percent female litracy} X 100

Percent male litracy

Poverty Measurements:

The Human Poverty Index (HPI) is an indication of the standard of living in a country, developed by the United Nations (UN). For highly developed countries, the UN considers that it can better reflect the extent of deprivation compared to the Human Development Index.

If human development is about enlarging choices, poverty means that opportunities and choices most basic to human development are denied. Thus a person is not free to lead a long, healthy, and creative life and is denied access to a decent standard of living, freedom, dignity, self-respect and the respect of others. From a human development perspective, poverty means more than the lack of what is necessary for material well-being.

For policy-makers, the poverty of choices and opportunities is often more relevant than the poverty of income. The poverty of choices focuses on the causes of poverty and leads directly to strategies of empowerment and other actions to enhance opportunities for everyone. Recognising the poverty of choices and opportunities implies that poverty must be addressed in all its dimensions, not income alone.

The Human Development Report 1997 introduced a human poverty index (HPI) in an attempt to bring together in a composite index the different features of deprivation in the quality of life to arrive at an aggregate judgment on the extent of poverty in a community.

The three indicators:

Rather than measure poverty by income, the HPI uses indicators of the most basic dimensions of deprivation: a short life, lack of basic education and lack of access to public and private resources. The HPI concentrates on the deprivation in the three essential elements of human life already reflected in the HDI: longevity, knowledge and a decent standard of living. The HPI is derived separately for developing countries (HPI-1) and a group of select high-income OECD countries (HPI-2) to better reflect socio-economic differences and also the widely different measures of deprivation in the two groups.

The first deprivation relates to survival: the likeliness of death at a relatively early age and is represented by the probability of not surviving to ages 40 and 60 respectively for the HPI-1 and HPI-2.
The second dimension relates to knowledge: being excluded from the world of reading and communication and is measured by the percentage of adults who are illiterate.
The third aspect relates to a decent standard of living, in particular, overall economic provisioning.

For the HPI-1, it is measured by the unweighted average of the percentage of the population without access to safe water and the percentage of underweight children for their age. For the HPI-2, the third dimension is measured by the percentage of the population below the income poverty line (50% of median household disposable income).

In addition to the three indicators mentioned above, the HPI-2 also includes social exclusion, which is the fourth dimension of the HPI-2. It is represented by the rate of long term unemployment.

The Human Development Reports summarizes this as "A composite index measuring deprivations in the three basic dimensions captured in the human development index — a long and healthy life, knowledge and a decent standard of living." The formula for calculating it is:

HPI-1 =

P1: Probability at birth of not surviving to age 40 (times 100)P2: Adult illiteracy rateP3: Unweighted average of population without sustainable access to an improved water source and children under weight for age
α: 3

HPI-2 =

P1: Probability at birth of not surviving to age 60 (times 100)P2: Adults lacking functional literacy skillsP3: Population below income poverty line (50% of median adjusted household disposable income)P4: Rate of long-term unemployment (lasting 12 months or more)
α: 3

Gender Development Index:

The Gender Development Index (GDI) is an indication of the standard of living in a country, developed by the United Nations (UN). It is one of the five indicators used by the United Nations Development Programme in its annual Human Development Report. It aims to show the inequalities between men and women in the following areas: long and healthy life, knowledge, and a decent standard of living.

Methodology

Calculating the GDI involves three steps. Step 1: Unit-free indices between 0 and 1 are calculated for females and males in each of the following areas:

life expectancy,
education (the adult literacy rate and the combined primary to tertiary gross enrollment ratio),
estimated earned income (at purchasing power parity US$).

Female Life Expectancy Index =
Male Life Expectancy Index =
Female & Male Education Indices =
Female & Male Income Indices =

Step 2: For each area, the pair of gender indices are combined into an Equally Distributed Index that rewards gender equality and penalizes inequality. It is calculated as the harmonic mean of the two indices.

Equally Distributed index =

Step 3: The GDI is the unweighted average of the three Equally Distributed Indices: Equally distributed life expectancy index, Equally distributed education index, Equally distributed income index.

The UN uses a different standard for male and female life expectancy, basically assuming that it is natural that women should live about 5 years longer than men. If the life expectancy index was set at an equal age of 85 years, the GDI calculated would increase, reflecting the superior life expectancy of women in almost all countries. Just replace 87.5 years and 82.5 years with 85.0 years and replace 27.5 years and 22.5 years with 25.0 years to equalize it. Iceland, for example, would have a GDI of 0.992 instead of 0.962 under this method. The cause of the disparity in life expectancy between men and women is not completely understood.

Criticisms:

The Human Development Index has been criticized on a number of grounds, including failure to include any ecological considerations, focusing exclusively on national performance and ranking, and not paying much attention to development from a global perspective. Two authors claimed that the human development reports "have lost touch with their original vision and the index fails to capture the essence of the world it seeks to portray”. The index has also been criticized as "redundant" and a "reinvention of the wheel", measuring aspects of development that have already been exhaustively studied. The index has further been criticized for having an inappropriate treatment of income, lacking year-to-year comparability, and assessing development differently in different groups of countries.

Economist Bryan Caplan has criticized the way HDI scores are produced; each of the three components are bounded between zero and one. As a result of that, rich countries effectively cannot improve their ranking in certain categories, even though there is a lot of scope for economic growth and longevity left. "This effectively means that a country of immortals with infinite per-capita GDP would get a score of .666 (lower than South Africa and Tajikistan) if their populations were illiterate and never went to school." He argues, "Scandinavia comes out on top according to the HDI because the HDI is basically a measure of how Scandinavian your country is."

The following are common criticisms directed at the HDI: that it is a redundant measure that adds little to the value of the individual measures composing it; that it is a means to provide legitimacy to arbitrary weightings of a few aspects of social development; that it is a number producing a relative ranking which is useless for inter-temporal comparisons, and difficult to compare a country's progress or regression since the HDI for a country in a given year depends on the levels of, say, life expectancy or GDP per capita of other countries in that year. However, each year, UN member states are listed and ranked according to the computed HDI. If high, the rank in the list can be easily used as a means of national aggrandizement; alternatively, if low, it can be used to highlight national insufficiencies. Using the HDI as an absolute index of social welfare, some authors have used panel HDI data to measure the impact of economic policies on quality of life.

Ratan Lal Basu criticizes the HDI concept from a completely different angle. According to him the Amartya Sen-Mahbub ul Haq concept of HDI considers that provision of material amenities alone would bring about Human Development, but Basu opines that Human Development in the true sense should embrace both material and moral development. According to him human development based on HDI alone, is similar to dairy farm economics to improve dairy farm output. To quote: ‘So human development effort should not end up in amelioration of material deprivations alone: it must undertake to bring about spiritual and moral development to assist the biped to become truly human.’ For example, a high suicide rate would bring the index down.

A few authors have proposed alternative indices to address some of the index's shortcomings. However, of those proposed alternatives to the HDI, few have produced alternatives covering so many countries, and that no development index (other than, perhaps, Gross Domestic Product per capita) has been used so extensively – or effectively, in discussions and developmental planning as the HDI.

However, there has been one lament about the HDI that has resulted in an alternative index: David Hastings, of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific published a report geographically extending the HDI to 230+ economies, where the UNDP HDI for 2009 enumerates 182 economies.

Status of India on human development index:

Rapid economic growth of the past decade has ensured India a place among the top 10 movers on GDP growth, but the country ranks a low 119 among 169 countries on the 2010 Human Development Index. China has been ranked much higher at 89 on the index published annually by the United Nations Development Programme.

And the reasons should be obvious. India compares very poorly with countries with high level of human development on all indicators such as life expectancy, education and per capita income. For instance, life expectancy at birth is 64.4 years in India.

In comparison, people living in countries such as Norway, Australia, New Zealand and many countries across Europe are expected to live beyond 80 years. The world average is 69.3 years. The Chinese are expected to live about 73.5 years. Similarly, the number of years a person has spent in school is a dismal 4.4 years for India as compared to global average of 7.4 and 4.6 for South Asia.

The only bright spot here is the mean years of schooling children are expected to complete. The HDI 2010 pegs that at 10.3 years, which compares reasonably well with world average of 12.3 years. However, in the rich nations represented by Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) group that number is a high 15.9 years.

Lastly, the gross national income (GNI) per capita measured on purchasing power parity terms for Indian was less than a third of the world average at $3,337 in 2008. Now that does not mean that India has not made much progress on each of these indicators.

Over 30 years beginning 1980, India’s HDI values has increased from 0.320 to 0.519, an increase of 62%. In the same period, life expectancy at birth increased almost 9%, mean years of schooling by close to three years, and expected years of schooling by four years and per capita GNI by 254%.

Yet India is a laggard, as many others have moved faster on the measured indicators, some more rapidly on non-income ones while others such as China and many south east Asian nations on income indicators.

At the global level, the HDI tell a optimistic story, the report noted. “Overall, poor countries are catching up with the rich countries... the HDI gap between developing and developed countries narrowed by about a fifth between 1990 and 2010 and about a fourth since 1970,” it said.

The latest Human Development Report (HDR) has also tried to look deeper into the indicators to establish various inequalities. These inequalities arise due to disparity in distribution of incomes, gender inequality and mutli-dimensional poverty. Thus, India’s score could fall by a steep 30% due to multi-dimensional inequalities, HDR 2010 notes.

High prevalence of gender inequality too could pull down India’s rank on HDI as would multi-dimensional poverty. As much as 55% of the population suffers multiple deprivations while an additional 16% are vulnerable to multiple deprivations, according to the report. The breadth of deprivation in India, which is the average percentage of deprivation experienced by people in multi-dimensional poverty, is 54%.

References:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Poverty_Index

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender-related_Development_Index

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Development_Index

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Factors responsible for low production of horticulture crops in Garo Hills, Meghalaya:

2012-04-06T22:32:00.001+05:30

Poor cultivation practices and low yield

Lack of desirable planting material

The disease free, true to type genuine planting material is lacking in a number of horticultural crops. It is imperative to produce disease free propagules.

Identification of area specific major horticultural crops:

Identification of suitable and high yielding cultivars of the major horticulture crops:

There is also need to identify the high yielding varieties and hybrids available in the country in selected crops suitable for the area.

Conduction of on-farm trials / frontline demonstration (FLD):

Strengthening of horticultural farms and nurseries:

Training to farmers/extension functionaries:

IMPORTANCE MANDARIN ORANGES: in Meghalaya

2012-04-06T07:36:00.001+05:30

Sikkim Mandarin

Khasi Mandarin

Citrus world trade was already important during the second half of the nineteenth century and has grown tremendously later on in size, number of varieties and countries of production. The main citrus producing countries in the world are China, Brazil, the Mediterranean countries and United States of America. The world total production of citrus is about 11763628 tonnes during 2010 . The area and production of citrus in India is 987.461 thousand hectare and 9,637.813 thousand tonnes respectively. The leading citrus producing states of India are Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab and Assam.

The total production of mandarin oranges in the world was 21311892 tonnes during 2010 , while in India, it was about 1633.95 tonnes. The average productivity of mandarin oranges in India is 6.7 tonnes per hectare . The North-eastern states of India, viz. Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura is considered to be the natural home of many citrus species and it is considered as a reservoir of various citrus species including mandarin orange . Various forms have been found growing wild in Garo Hills of Meghalaya and Siang districts of Arunachal Pradesh . Among the north eastern states of India, Assam recorded highest production and productivity of mandarin orange (i.e. 93. 39 tonnes and 11 t/ha respectively) from an area of 8.5 thousand hectares . On the other hand, Meghalaya produced 3.3 tonnes from an area of 8.0 thousand hectare and the productivity was only 4.2 t/ha . Although agro-climatic conditions prevailing in Meghalaya is conducive for cultivation of mandarin oranges but the total production and productivity is relatively low.

Loranthus longiflorus E Higngs: A menace to Mandarin cultivation in Garo Hills, Meghalaya

2012-04-04T22:44:00.000+05:30

Mandarin orange is a popular fruit crop of Garo Hills which comprises of three districts viz. West Garo Hills, East Garo Hills and South Garo Hills. The farmers of these three districts cultivate mandarins extensively and produce 3,132 tonnes from an area of 1, 716 Ha. The Mandarins of Garo Hills are either cv. Khasi Manadrin or unknown cultivars. The Khasi Manadrin seedlings are mostly procured from Horticulture Departments of the three districts, Government of Meghalaya through various schemes and subsidy and some are through self-propagation which started after the formation of Meghalaya state in 1972 onwards. Some of the very old orchard are said to be propagated by seeds from Burma brought by Britishers during the last years of the 19^th century. Other orchards are considered to be propagated by seeds from Assam and Kolkata during the middle part of the 20^th century. The orchards of Garo Hills are not planted and managed scientifically. The seedlings are planted mostly on old shifting cultivation lands without proper layout and are left to grow as it is without applying any fertilizers, however, weeding is done twice a year. Pesticides, fungicides and herbicides are not used in the orchards and are purely organic in nature. In some orchards inter-cropping is done with arecanut, tea, coffee and banana. In such cases diseases, pest and parasites is a common problem in the area. Loranthus spp is one of the most common troublesome parasites found in Garo Hills. It reduces the productivity of the plants.

Description of the plant: Loranthus longiflorus E Higngs is a glabrous shrub with green leaves but without a true root system. The stem is thick, erect and flattened at the nodes and appears to arise in clusters at the point of attachment. It produces long and tubular flowers. Birds and other animals disseminate the seeds through their droppings. The plant grows strongly on ageing trees particularly somewhere in the middle of old branches. Once established, it steals minerals and water, as well as block sunlight by covering the encroached place.

Symptoms:

It gets attached to the host branches by means of bulged haustoria which serve as absorbing organs.
This in turn feeds on the host and leads to die-back and death of branches.

Control:

The parasite should be removed at the early stage when it is easy to detach from the host plant.

The infected branch and twigs should be cut well below the last hustorium and destroyed.

The parasite should be destroyed before the maturity of the berries.

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Marketing Channels: Meaning and types

2012-04-04T19:36:00.000+05:30

Meaning: Farmers producing agricultural produce are scattered in remote villages while consumers are in semi-urban and urban areas. This produce has to reach consumers for its final use and consumption. There are different agencies and functionaries through which this produce passes and reaches the consumer. A market channel or channel of distribution is therefore defined as a path traced in the direct or indirect transfer of title of a product as it moves from a producer to an ultimate consumer or industrial user. Thus, a channel of distribution of a product is the route taken by the ownership of goods as they move from the producer to the consumer or industrial user.
Factors affecting channels: There are several channels of distribution depending upon type of produce or commodity. Each commodity group has slightly different channel. The factors are :

Perishable nature of produce .e.g. fruits, vegetables, flowers, milk, meat, etc.
Bulk and weight–cotton, fodders are bulky but light in weight.
Storage facilities.
Weak or strong marketing agency.
Distance between producer and consumer. Whether local market or distant market.

Types of Market Channels:
Some of the typical marketing channels for different product groups are given below:

Channels of rice:

Producer–miller->consumer (village sale)
Producer–miller->retailer–consumer (local sale)
Producer–wholesaler->miller–retailer–consumer
Producer–miller–cum-wholesaler-retailer-consumer
Producer–village merchant–miller–retailer–consumer
Producer–govt. procurement–miller–retailer–consumer

Channel of other foodgrains:

Producer – consumer (village sale)
Producer–village merchant–consumer (local sale)
Producer–wholesaler-cum-commission agent retailer–consumer
Producer–primary wholesaler–secondary wholesaler– retailer– Consumer
Producer–Primary wholesaler–miller–consumer (Bakers).
Producer->govt.procurement–retailer–consumer.
Producer–government–miller–retailer–consumer.

Channels of cotton:

Producer–village merchant–wholesaler or ginning factory– wholesaler in lint–textile mill (consumer)
Producer–Primary wholesaler–ginning factory–secondary wholesaler–consumer (Textile mill)
Producer– Trader– ginning factory– wholesaler in lint– consumer (Textile mill)
Producer–govt. agency–ginning factory–consumer (Textile mill).
Producer–Trader–ginning factory–wholesaler–retailer– consumer (non-textile use).

Channels of Vegetables:

Producers–consumer (village sale)
Producer–retailer–consumer (local sale)
Producer–Trader–commission agent–retailer–consumer.
Producer–commission agent–retailer–consumer
Producer–primary wholesaler–secondary wholesaler– retailer– consumer (distant market).

Channels of Fruits:

Producer–consumer (village sale)
Producer–Trader–consumer (local sale)
Producer–pre-harvest contractor–retailer–consumer
Producer–commission agent–retailer–consumer.
Producer–pre-harvest contractor–commission agent– retailer–consumer
Producer–commission agent–secondary wholesaler– retailer–consumer (distant market).

These channels have great influence on marketing costs such as transport, commission charges, etc. and market margins received by the intermediaries such as trader, commission agent, wholesaler and retailer. Finally this decides the price to be paid by the consumer and share of it received by the farmer producer. That channel is considered as good or efficient which makes the produce available to the consumer at the cheapest price also ensures the highest share to the producer.

Citrus cultivation in India

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Introduction

Citrus spp. is grown in almost all the states of India. Although the citrus industry in India has faced many challenges, there has been a consistent increase in area and production owing to the awareness for sustained production. Citrus fruits, consisting of mandarin orange (Citrus reticulata Blanco), sweet orange [C. sinensis (L.) Osbeck] and lime [C. aurantifolia Swing le] are grown commercially in tropical, subtropical, arid irrigated and mountainous regions in varying soil and weather conditions. Citrus is grown practically all over India. However the states of Andhra Pradesh, and Maharashtra have the largest share. Although citrus trees on the whole do well in dry climate, with a rainfall between 75 and 125 cm, certain species, such as pummel and certain mandarin oranges, thrive in heavy-rainfall areas of Konkan, Assam and Coorg. Citrus trees the grown in almost all kinds of soil, varying from heavy black soils to shallow open soils. Some of the varieties of citrus seem to adapt them-selves to soil conditions better than others. They thrive in free-draining alluvial or medium black soils of loamy texture. A hard substratum or a sticky impervious layer is very injurious. Soils having a high water-table should be avoided.

Varieties

In India, gene pool of citrus totaling more than 500 varieties or species and genera are collected and conserved in field gene bank at different locations. Citrus varieties or species were evaluated for nucellar embryony. Number of embryos/seed and number of seedlings vary from species to species and genera to genera. Mandarins, acid lime, grapefruit (C. paradisi Macf.) have high polyembryony, whereas pummelo [C. grandis (L.) Osbeck] citron and lemon are monoembryonic. Through the evaluation of germplasm degree of sterility, incompatibility in gene pool was identified. Germplasm was screened against insect pest and disease to identify the source of resistance. Resistance to leaf miner is associated with phenology of flushing and presence of phenolic compounds. From the screening of more than 180 accessions against citrus nematode (Tylenchulus semipenetrans) trifoliate orange (Poncirus trifoliata Rafin) and their hybrids were found resistant. High degree of variability for the resistance against Phytophthora sp was observed in gene pool of citrus. Trifoliate orange and sour orange exhibited high degree of resistance against phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora nicotianeae var parasitica). Among Trifoliages, high degree of resistance was observed in Flying Dragon and Argentina trifoliate. None of the cultivars was found resistant to greening, although degree varied. Differential uptake of nutrients among the cultivars of citrus was also observed. Tolerance against salt is associated with differential uptake. The tolerant species had capacity to exclude chloride uptake from the system. Rangpur lime and Cleopatra mandarin were most tolerant to salt. Rangpur lime exhibited high tolerance to drought. The cultivars were assessed for shelf-life and various processed products.

Varietal Improvement

Advanced research on citrus in India has led to the adoption of excellent cultivars. It is the result of introductions and testing that Kinnow mandarin, Jaffa and Valencia oranges have gained so much popularity in different regions of the country. Various selections have been made especially in lemon, which is being commercialized. These are Pant lemon, Baramasi and PAU selection. Systematic approach for the selection of better clones in acid lime was initiated in Marathwada, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The 3 promising selections, viz. Vikram, Pramalani and Sai Sarbati, were released in Maharashtra and PKM (Jai Devi) in Tamil Nadu. Tenali is highly promising in Andhra Pradesh. Aurangabad Seedless in lemon and Mudkhed Seedless in mandarin were identified. At the IIHR, Bangalore, attempts made to combine canker resistance through hybridization have resulted in selection of promising hybrids having resistance to canker. The following superior cultivars were released:

Fertilizer and Nutrition Management

Citrus need adequate nutrients for better productivity, as the fruits are adapted to a wide range of soil types under varying climatic conditions. Lack of nutrients leads to decline. Leaf analysis of citrus orchards in different regions of the country was extensively done to understand the capability of soil to supply nutrients and also to use the leaf-nutrient status as an index for monitoring fertilizer use. The zinc is most critical nutrient among the micronutrients, although nutrients like manganese and iron are found deficient and need attention. In heavy rainfall area calcium and nitrogen nutrition need check. Thus, nitrogen, potassium, calcium and zinc nutrition is an integral part of nutritional management. Assessment of nutritional requirement for mandarin, sweet orange and acid lime under different agro-climatic conditions indicates that citrus require 600-800 g N, 300-400 g P₂O₅ and 600-800 g K₂O plant/year for bearing trees. Experts advise that these nutrients should be applied in the form of cake and inorganic nutrients. Research findings have revealed that application of 20 kg farmyard manure + 7.5 kg Neem cake and 50% dose of inorganic nutrients enhanced the yield and quality of fruits. Most appropriate time of foliar zinc application appears to be the stage when leaves are completing its expansion, i.e. 30-45 days old shoots. Response to manganese, iron, copper and borax was also observed but the results are not consistent which may depend upon the status of these nutrients in the soil. It is invariably observed that trifoliate orange as rootstock, is less efficient in nutrient absorption than Rangpur lime or rough lemon. Troyer citrange and carrizo citrange accumulate less manganese and appear to be useful in acid soils. The maximum root activity is found within the depth of 25 cm and at radial distance of 120 cm in mandarin. Similarly, in Kagzi lime also 80% roots are confined to radial distance of 120 cm. Thus application of fertilizer in this zone is beneficial for better fertilizer-use efficiency. Application of nutrients coinciding with time of flushing is better than the application when the plants are dormant. According to the Department of Agricultural Research and Education, ICAR, Government of India, in 1999-2000, application of 1,200 g N, 400 g each of P₂O₅ and K₂O/plant in mandarin recorded highest yield at Akola. A dose of 800 g N, 200 g P₂O₅ and 300 g K₂O/plant gave a yield of 23.9 kg/tree/year in acid lime. In sweet orange, a dose of 800 g N, 300 g P₂O₅ and 600 K₂O/plant/year gave an yield of 68.6 kg/tree/year at Tirupati.

Intercropping

Intercropping should be done to utilize the vacant land to generate income till the citrus plants become productive. However, orchards may start to decline if exhaustive intercropping is used indiscreetly. The choice of intercrop depends upon local conditions and climate. Based on benefit: cost analysis potato, cabbage and peas were found beneficial in mandarin orchards in Darjeeling. Under Coorg conditions, mixed cropping with Robusta coffee was found to be more remunerative then monoculture, though plant vigour of Coorg mandarin was comparatively suppressed.

Water Management

Citrus plants responds well to irrigation. Water management constitutes an important input in citrus orchard, which determines productivity and longevity. Normally no irrigation is practiced in heavy rainfall areas of North-Eastern states. Plants that receive 1 or 2 irrigation during dry period have healthy growth and produce heavier fruits in these areas. At the same time consecutive irrigation without definite period of soil-moisture stress is detrimental to crop yield, as such as situation leads to more vegetative growth. Monitoring of soil moisture is effective for regulating flowering and fruiting in acid lime under tropical situation. Of late drip irrigation is becoming very popular in water-scarce area of Maharashtra, parts of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Many young citrus orchards were planned and planted wit drip system of irrigation. The economic analysis of these 2 systems favoured for the use of drip irrigation, which is viable. The system improved the yield, uniformity in fruits and gave brilliant quality of fruits in respect of shape, colour and edible quality. The growers apply the nitrogenous fertilizer through the drip which further economize on the fertilizer use.

Weed Management

Heavy weed infestation depletes the soil and competes for moisture and harbours pest and diseases during rainy season, which cause anoxia resulting in decline of the tree. Mechanical weeding using hoe or spade or plough is common but to economize on use of manpower; experts advise integrated weed management

Pest Management

Although a large number of pests and diseases attack citrus crops, only a few are important and cause regular heavy loss and require control measures. Psylla, Diaphornia citri, 2 species of blackfly, viz. Dialeurodes citri and Aleurocanthus woglumi, scales and mealy bugs are the major pests of citrus in India. For avoiding most pest problems, conditions that lead to stress on plants should be avoided such as close planting and water logging. The affected plant parts should be pruned and destroyed. Excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizer and irrigation should also be avoided. Good orchard sanitation, removal of weeds and destruction of ants which help in protecting harmful sap sucking insects have been found useful in reduction of pest infestation. Field release of predatory ladybird beetle, Cryptoleamus montrouzieri @ 10 beetles/plant and inoculative release of exotic parasite, Leptomastrix dactylopii have been recommended in coccid infestation is high.

Nematodes

Among nematodes, citrus nematode (Tylenchlus semipenetrans), Paratylenchus coffee, Hopolaimus indicus and Melodogyne javanica are pathogenic to citrus. Out of more than 15 species present infesting citrus orchards, citrus nematode (Tylenchulus semipenetrans) appeared widely distributed in different regions. Application of neem-cake recorded 35.7% reduction in nematode population compared with the control. A fungal parasite, Paecilomyces lilacinus greatly reduces the nematode population under glasshouse conditions.

Disease Management

During last few decades diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, virus or viorids or mycoplasma have assumed in alarming proportion in different agro-ecological regions. Among the fungal diseases, foot rot, root rot, gummosis, leaf fall and fruit rot (Phytophothora spp), twig blight (Colletotrichum gloesporioides, Diplodia natelansis and Fusarium sp), powdery mildew (Acrosporium tingitanium), pink disease (Pellicularia salmonicolour), leaf spot (Alernaria citri), scab (Elsinoe fawcetti) and sooty mould (Capnodium citri) have been reported from the different parts of the country with varying intensity. Root rot is one of the serious diseases occurring in India. The fungus associated with root rot is Phytophthora palmivora, P. citrophthora and P. parasitica. However, isolates from the Coorg were identified as Phytophthora nocotiance var parasitica. Use of tolerant rootstock is recommended to combat the disease, although chemical control has also been found effective. Drenching with Ridomil and Foltaf effectively reduces the incidence of the disease.

The bacterial canker, caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv citri, is one of the most serious diseases of acid lime prevalent all over the country. The disease is highly infectious spread from tree to tree through the water splashes and affects all the aerial parts of plants (leaves, twigs, petioles, branches, fruit stalks, fruits and thorns). Affected fruit crack is liable to be damaged during the transit. Due to the presence of cankerous tissue the fruit has poor appeal to the consumers. To prevent the disease, only disease-free planting material should be used. Removal of leaf and spraying with copper oxychloride is also beneficial. In India more than 15 virus like diseases occur, of which tristeza and greening are widespread and responsible for significant losses. Transmission citrus tristeza virus (CTV) and host-vector relationship was studied but control of CTV could not be achieved till mild strain was found. Mild strain protects the severe strains of the citrus tristeza virus on acid lime.

Presence of mild and severe strains in few mild strain-inoculated plants, infection of uninoculated plants and severe stem pitting in cross-protected plants raised the doubt on the usefulness of cross protection. The effectiveness of mild CTV strain in protecting the plants against the severe strain was not proved in the country, but the benefit of technique is successful in foreign countries. However, this technique shows significance in protecting citrus crop from the citrus tristeza virus. Thus the cross protection using mild strain appears to be a practical method to reduce the losses. Presently the techniques were developed for the identification of mild strain using the sero and molecular diagnostic techniques. It would definitely clarify the situation and help in selection of suitable strains. Another fastidious disease is greening, caused by bacterium, causes substantial loss in production. The antibiotic injection could not control this disease. But chemo- and thermothereaphy were successful up to some extent. Use of disease-free planting material is advocated, but the presence of vector (Diaphorina citri) does not reduce the risk. The work on cross protection against greening was initiated at Ludhiana where inoculum and vectors were present.

Considering the problem of virus and virus like diseases and their management, supply of virus-free planting material through the ICAR-sponsored schemes was started. There are evidences of definite yield advantages, prolonged bearing life and increased longevity of plants from virus-free budwood. New orchards using virus-free planting material have greater advantages. Foundation stock of disease-free budwood source and cleaning of virus from time to time are certainly basic requirements of virus-disease management in citrus. Though virus-free planting material may also get infected in field in due course, nevertheless a stage at which the first infection takes place has a definite bearing on the losses caused by virus diseases. Once the plant is established. It can sustain the losses in a good system of management while infected plants may not attain the stage. Micropropagation technique using shoot-tip grafting standardized may help for production of virus-free planting material through effective monitoring system.

Citrus Processing

Maturity of citrus fruits depends upon the climatic condition, scion rootstock and management practices. The extensive work was done on influence of climate, nutrition and rootstock on quality of fruit. The period of maturity is shortest in acid lime (5-6 months), longest in mandarin and sweet oranges (9 to 10 months) which is further influenced by heat unit and moisture. Attempt made to develop maturity standard based on TSS: acid ratio and external colour of fruit are index for harvesting of fruits which goes with the experience of the orchardist. Pre-harvest sprays of chemicals and growth-regulator increase the shelf life of fruits. Calcium chloride or nitrate or spray of hormones (2, 4, 5-T) reduces weight loss and enhances the TSS of fruits in storage, when applied 2 weeks before harvesting. Post-harvest diseases, caused by Penicillium digitatum, P. italicum, Phomopsis citri, Diplodia natalensis and Alernaria citri were found to be major cause for deterioration of fruits during post-harvest handling and storage. Treatment of fruits with 1,000 ppm Bavistin can reduce post-harvest loss appreciably and extend the shelf life to 25-26 days even at ambient temperature. Waxol along with Benomyl or growth-regulators was found beneficial to extend the shelf life of Kinnow. Wrapping of fruits with grease-proof paper or perforated polyethylene bags, packing in wooden crate and storage at 0-3°C temperature and 86-90% relative humidity were found optimum. Best storage temperature for Darjeeling mandarin was also found 1.5-3°C. Degreening at 26-28°C and 90-95% relative humidity with 500 ppm ethylene was achieved in Nagpur santra without affecting internal quality. Shelf-life of Nagpur santra was extended by 3 weeks on wrapping the fruits with heat-shrinkable polythene and Cryovate film (D9 55 and BDF 2001). These developments helped in export of mandarin. Only small percentage of fruits is being processed and there is an immense scope for the rapid development of processing industries with increasing growth of citriculture vis-à-vis. The economy of citrus processing can be improved by waste utilization and the citrus growers can get their due share. There is a scope for high production despite the challenge for which concerted efforts are on the way.

Cashewnut in Garo Hillls Meghalaya India

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Cashew (Anacardium occidentale), a native of Brazil, was introduced in India during the latter half of the 16th Century for the purpose of forestation and soil conservation. Cashew has now emerged as a major foreign exchange earner next only to tea and coffee. Among various nuts such as hazelnuts, almonds, etc., cashew nut enjoys a significant position and it is an unavoidable snack in all important social functions especially in the western countries.

The cashew nutshell liquid (CNSL) is mostly composed of anacardic acids.These acids have been used effectively against tooth abscesses due to their lethality to a wide range of Gram-positive bacteria. Anacardic acid is also used in the chemical industry for the production of cardinal, which is used for resins, coatings, and frictional materials. Many parts of the plant are used medicinally. The bark is scraped and soaked overnight or boiled as an antidiarrheal; it also yields a gum used in varnish. Seeds are ground into powders for antivenom for snake bites. The nut oil is used topically as an antifungal and for healing cracked heels. The nuts contain 45 percent fat and 26 percent carbohydrates.

National scene: Commercial cultivation of cashew in India is taken up in eight states in India. It is also cultivated on small areas in other states of the country. India has an area of about 7.30 lakh hectare under cashew with an estimated annual production of about 4.60 lakh tonnes of raw cashew nut. India is the largest producer, processor, consumer and exporter of cashew in the world. The current production accounts for 45 percent of the global production. A large number of small and marginal farmers, especially living on the coastal belts of India, depend on cashew for their livelihood. Nearly 2.00 lakh workers, more than 90 percent of whom are women, are directly employed in cashew processing factories which are concentrated mostly in Kerala. It is estimated that nearly two million people are involved, directly and indirectly in cashew cultivation, processing and marketing. The important cashew growing states of India are Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Meghalaya.

Meghalaya scene: The latest data available on cashew in Meghalaya in 2006-07 records the area under cashew plantation as 8623 hectare, production as 11300 metric tonnes and yield per hectare as 1656 kg. While in West Garo Hills district during the same period the area under cashew cultivation was 3216 hectare, production was 7770 metric tonnes and yield per hectare was 2416 kg.

What is Social Audit or Accounting?

2012-04-04T10:03:00.000+05:30

Social accounting or auditing is a way of measuring and reporting social and ethical performance of an organization, or a programme or scheme. Social audit is a planning and evaluation method which makes it possible to obtain an overview of internal and external factors that are not included in financial audit of an organization or an activity. It attempts to structure the organization of work in order to achieve the designated goals. In other words, social audit is a systematic and objective procedure by engaging the members in identifying needs and solutions, plan activities, monitor progress and measure its social performance in a comprehensive and participatory manner. The existence of formal mechanisms of accountability does not guarantee actual accountability on the ground. Social audit provides the venue to demand transparency and accountability in all the initiatives from the public system which was otherwise closed to the citizens.

According to Wikipedia, social accounting (also known as social and environmental accounting, corporate social reporting, corporate social responsibility reporting, non-financial reporting, or sustainability accounting) is the process of communicating the social and environmental effects of organizations' economic actions to particular interest groups within society and to society at large. Social accounting is commonly used in the context of business, or corporate social responsibility (CSR), although any organization, including NGOs, charities, and government agencies may engage in social accounting. Social accounting emphasizes the notion of corporate accountability. D. Crowther defines social accounting in this sense as "an approach to reporting a firm’s activities which stresses the need for the identification of socially relevant behaviour, the determination of those to whom the company is accountable for its social performance and the development of appropriate measures and reporting techniques".

As a part of social accountability in MGNREGA, social audit has been made mandatory, since its introduction in 2005. There is no literature showing solid definition of ‘social audit’, the terms ‘social audit’ and ‘social accountability’ or ‘social accounting’ are interchangeably used. However, social audit can be understood as a means of continuous public vigilance. The basic objective of which is to ensure public accountability in the implementation of projects, laws and policies. One simple form of social audit is a public assembly where all the details of a project are scrutinized. It is a process in which details of the financial and non-financial resources used by public agencies for development initiatives, how effectively the target population benefit from the scheme and how the benefits are shared with the people are evaluated, often through a public platform like social audit forum. Social Accountability allows people to enforce downward accountability and transparency, providing the ultimate users an opportunity to scrutinize development initiatives. To avoid confusion, the term ‘Social Audit Forum’ will be used in this study to refer to the periodic assemblies convened by the Gram Sabha or any other grassroots level institutions as part of the process of social audit. In this perspective, a social audit is an ongoing process through which the potential beneficiaries and other stakeholders of an activity or project are involved at every stage: from the planning to the implementation, monitoring and evaluation. This process helps in ensuring that the activity or project is designed and implemented in a manner that is most suited to the prevailing (local) conditions, appropriately reflects the priorities and preferences of those affected by it, and most effectively serves public interest.

Thus, social audits can be seen as a means of promoting some basic norms in public matters:

1. Transparency: Complete transparency in the process of administration and decision making, with an obligation on the government to suo moto give people full access to all relevant information. The information about works should be displayed in the local language at the worksite and in at a prominent place in Gram Panchayat.

2. Participation: An entitlement for all the affected persons (and not just their representatives) to participate in the process of decision making and validation.

3. Consultation and Consent: In cases where options are predetermined out of necessity, the right of the affected persons to give informed consent, as a group or as individuals, as appropriate.

4. Accountability: The responsibility of elected representatives and government functionaries to answer questions and provide explanations about relevant action and inaction to concerned and affected people.

5. Redressal: A set of norms through which the findings of social audits and other public investigations receive official sanction, have necessary outcomes, and are reported back to the people, along with information on action taken in response to complaints.

India’s ‘Frogman’ terms region a hotspot of amphibian life

2012-04-03T16:29:00.001+05:30

Meghalaya in general and Garo Hills region in particular has been known for many known and unknown species like the Shillong Buggle-nest frog, named after the Meghalaya capital, with some of them already extinct and new ones being discovered or ‘resurfacing’ including an entirely new family of amphibians – called Chikilidae – endemic to the region but with ancient links to Africa.

The Chikilidae (commonly named Tailless burrowing caecilians) which has existed from before the Jurassic Age, remained beneath the monsoon-soaked soils of the Garo Hills and other parts of North East India – unknown to Science and mistaken by villagers as a deadly, miniature snake. But this legless amphibian’s time in obscurity has ended, thanks to an intrepid team of biologists led by India’s ‘Frogman’ Professor Sathyabhama Das Biju of the University of Delhi. The scientific name Chikilidae is derived from the Garo language.

This discovery, published on Wednesday in a journal of the Royal Society of London, gives yet more evidence that Garo Hills and other parts of the North East is a hotbed of amphibian life with habitats worth protecting against the country’s industry-heavy development agenda.

It also gives exciting new evidence in the study of prehistoric species migration, as well as evolutionary paths influenced by the Continental Shift.

Prof Biju’s first effort in conserving the Chikilidae was to give it a scientific name mirroring what the locals use in their Garo language. The Chikilidae is a caecilian, the most primitive of the three amphibian groups that also include frogs and salamanders.

“We hope when the locals see the name and their language being used across the world, they will understand this animal’s importance and join in trying to save it,” Prof Biju said, while adding, “India’s biodiversity is fast depleting. We are destroying these habitats without mercy.”

Prof Biju – a botanist-turned-herpetologist (one who studies amphibians), now celebrated as India’s ‘Frogman’ – has made it his life work to find and catalog new species. There are too many cases of ‘nameless extinction’, with animals disappearing before they are ever known, he said. “We don’t even know what we’re losing,” he added.

Prof Biju has discovered 76 new species of plants, caecilians and frogs – vastly more than any other scientist in India – and estimates that 30-40 per cent of the country’s amphibians are yet to be found. Within the Chikilidae family, his team has already identified three species, and is on its way to classing three more, he said.

The Chikilidae’s discovery, made along with co-researchers from London’s Natural History Museum and Vrije University in Brussels, brings the number of known caecilian families in the world to 10. Three are in India while the others are spread across the Tropics in Southeast Asia, Africa and South America.

Because they live hidden underground, and race off at the slightest vibration, much less is known about them than their more famous, and more vocal amphibious cousins, the frogs.

Only 186 of the world’s known amphibious species are caecilians, compared with more than 6,000 frog species – a third of which are considered endangered or threatened.

People living in Northeast mostly misunderstand the caecilians, and rare sightings can inspire terror and revulsion, with farmers and villagers chopping them in half out of the mistaken belief that they are poisonous snakes. “But the Chikilidae is harmless, and may even be the farmer’s best friend – feasting on worms and insects that might harm crops and churning the soil as it moves underground,” Prof Biju said.

Much remains to be discovered in further study, as many questions remain about how the creatures live, the Frogman said.

So far, Prof Biju’s team has determined that an adult Chikilidae will remain with its eggs until they hatch, forgoing food for some 50 days. When the eggs hatch, the youngs emerge as tiny adults and squirm away.

They grow to about 4 inches (10 centimeters), and can ram their hard skulls through some of the region’s tougher soils, shooting off quickly at the slightest vibration. “It’s like a rocket,” Biju said. “If you miss it the first try, you’ll never catch it again.”

A possibly superfluous set of eyes is shielded under a layer of skin, and may help the chikilidae gauge light from dark as in other caecilian species.

DNA testing suggests the chikilidae’s closest relative is in Africa – with the two evolutionary paths splitting some 140 million years ago when dinosaurs roamed what was then a southern supercontinent called Gondwana, since separated into today’s continents of Africa, Antarctica, Australia, South America and the Indian Subcontinent.

Khasi Mandarin

2012-04-03T16:27:00.000+05:30

It is the chief commercial variety of Assam and has many local names after the places of production. Three is generally medium to tall with an erect habit densely foliaged both thorny and thornless.

Fruits depressed globose to oblate orange yellow to bright orange surface smooth glossy base even or obtuse occasionally short necked slightly ribbed rind thin soft adherence very slight or none segments 8 10 rag little to medium pulp vesicles uniformly orange coloured coarse very melting flavour agreeable juice abundant orange coloured. Sweetness and acidity well blended. Seeds 9 25 (usually 10 15). The most important mandarin in India undoubtedly is the Santra (Citrus reticulata) which includes varieties such as Nagpur santra CoorgSantra and Khasi orange.

Scientists felt that species standing was justified in the cases of Rangpur lime Rough lemon sweet lime galgal KharnaKhatta Kichili gajanimma attani Indian wild orange and Khasipapeda but were doubtful of the justification of granting species rank to adajamir of Assam amilbed sadaphal and sat Kara. They opined it would be justified if adajamir of Assam is treated as botanical variety of gajanimma of South India C. pennivesiculata. varassamensis and sat Kara as botanical variety of C. macroptera C. macropetera var. annamensis.

In Assam Khasi orange is grown in valley lands of submountane areas where the soils are of alluvial types and on the hills where the soils are mostly lateritic. Major citrus growing belts of Assam are sandy loam or clayey loam soil with pH 4.5 to 6.0 and with high organic matter content.

THE HISTORY OF Citrus

2012-04-03T16:25:00.000+05:30

Citrus is considered to originate from south-eastern Asia, China and the east of Indian Archipelago (Swingle, 1943; Webber et al., 1967). The true Citrus species are native to the "Citrus belt" which is extending from the Himalayan foothills of Pakistan and India to North Central China and the Philippines in the East; Burma, Thailand, Indonesia, New Guinea, Northeastern Australia, and New Caledonia in the Southeast. Citrus species have been subjected to natural hybridization and cultivation which makes it difficult to ascertain the origin of the main commercial Citrus species.

Cooper and Chapot(1977) considered that almost all known Citrus fruit cultivars originated in China, with the exception of grapefruit and lemon. Fortunella is native to southern China, Poncirus to central and northern China. The pummelo (C. grandis) and mandarin have been mentioned in Chinese writings as far back as during the Ta Ya reign (2205-2197 B.C). The Citron (C. medica) is native to southern China and India and it was the first Citrus fruit to be introduced into Europe and used by the ancient Romans as a flavoring agent. Citrons reached Europe in about 300 B.C. and they were mentioned by Theophrastus who called them PERSIAN or MEDIAN APPLES. It was Pliny who gave them the name CITRON, which Linnaeus adopted and used for the whole genus. The Citron was probably cultivated in Egypt 1500 B.C., in Babylonia 4000 B.C., and in Media, from which it was introduced to the Near East and Greece during the time of Alexander the Great (Webber et al, 1967). The Citron is still found in India under wild conditions particularly in Nilgiris, Assam and lower Himalayas (Chaudhry et al. 2004).

The sour orange (C. aurantium) probably native to Southeast Asia, while the sweet orange (C. sinensis) is indigenous to Southern China. The sour orange was known to the Romans and Asians, and was introduced later on by Arabs to many countries, including Spain in the tenth century. The sweet orange was not reported to be introduced in Europe until the fifteenth century. The lemon (C. limon) was originated in Southeast Asia and was brought to Europe during the Middle Ages (in the twelfth or thirteenth ccntury); it was known by the Arabs in the tenth century A.D. It was introduced into America by Columbushimself, who took it to Haiti on his second Voyage of discovery in 1493 (Brouk, 1975). The lime (C. aurantifolia) is native to the East Indian archipelago. The grapefruit (C. paradisi) appeared in the West Indies, presumably, during the end of the eighteenth century as a natural hybrid between puininelo and sweet orange (Robinson; Albach and Redman, 1969; Barrett and Rhodes, 1976 and Swingle, 1943).The name grapefruit first appeared in records of 1814 from Jamaica (Brouk, 1975). Orange, Lemon, and Pummelo reached South Africa in the mid-seventeenth century and Australia at the end of the eighteenth ccntury. The famous Japanese variety Unshu has been in existence for more than 300 years (Webber et al, 1967).