Midura & Glover (2005) define teambuilding as a “cooperative process that a group of individuals uses to solve both physical and mental challenges” (p. 1). Through teambuilding people share ideas, discover themselves and others and encourage and help one another, this way becoming a team. Teambuilding makes that difference between a regular group and a true team.

The advantages of teambuilding

Midura & Glover (2005) identify among the advantages of teambuilding the following:

• acquiring leadership skills (people learn to express opinion in front of a group, to be organized, to foster a group trust and communication, to be able to encourage others and to praise them for their accomplishments)
• developing self-confidence and
• earning self-esteem.

Maddux & Wingfield (2003) claim that teambuilding has the following major advantages: the team and each individual member set out realistic goals that can be reached; a genuine bond between employee and leaders is established; an open communication can be established, where the exchange of ideas is being encouraged, conflict an competition are means to improve the dynamics of an activity and, instead of them becoming destructive, individuals find them as an opportunity to discover and develop their abilities, becoming strong performers, developing both as a team and as individuals.

The 4C’s

In order for the teambuilding to be effective, it is necessary to regard the four C’s, according to Dyer & Dyer (2007): context, composition, competencies and change. Context refers to the need for team work, the type of team needed tot carry out the work, the culture that the team adheres to and the systems that support teamwork. Composition refers to the team members’ skills, experience and motivation, as well as team size. Competencies are related to the team’s ability to find solutions for problems, to communicate, make decisions, control the tension and manage conflictual situations. Change stands for the team’s ability to monitor performance and to make appropriate changes if the performance level is not as expected.

Conductor and choir

It is absolutely crucial for a compatibility between the leader and the group to exist in order for teambuilding to be effective. Peragine (2007) claims that a leader should have qualities such as an ability to build loyalty, inspire employees, weed out the uncommitted, hold the team together  over a long term period and manage the time effectively. The leader is usually the supervisor or coordinator and takes on the role of conductor, while his team becomes the orchestra. In order for the results to be optimal and the whole piece to turn out perfect, compatibility between the team and the leader is absolutely vital.

Teambuilding processes

Teambuilding is a process that involves a number of steps. Michels (2001) speaks about the psychological teambuilding process (the mentality of the player, the team spirit, the motivation to collectively optimize results etc.) and the tactical teambuilding process (involving work and organization strategies and methods of applying these strategies).

The limits of teambuilding

However, teambuilding is not always the optimal solution for any team or for any task. This is to say that teambuilding has certain limits. Michels (2001) claims that some of these limitations include:

• individual qualities of the team’s members (with the different members having different degrees of motivation, emotional states that are liable to change from one day to the other, different levels of availability to work in a team etc);
• the balance of the team (how well they respond to competition, how willing they are to listen to others etc);
• success level (what standards of success are set out and to what extent the members are capable to work to achieve them)
• unpredictability (unforeseen factors that may arise during the process of completing a task and that will require extra efforts of the part of the team).

Whether it is a football team, a small business or a huge corporation, teambuilding is a vital instrument for performance. The one condition is to choose your coach carefully and trust your team. A team is more than the sum of the individuals making it up, it is an entity in itself and can bring success up to a level that a simple individual can merely dream of.

References:

Dyer, W. G. & Dyer, J. H. (2007) Teambuilding. Jossey-Bass

Maddux, R. B. & Wingfield, B. (2003). Team building: An exercise in leadership. US: Von Hoffmann Graphics Inc

Michels, R. (2001). Teambuilding: the road to success. Data Reproductions, Auburn, Michigan

Midura, D. V. & Glover, D. R. (2005). Essentials and Teambuilding: Principles and practices. US: Humans Kinetics.

Peragine, J. H. (2007). 365 Low or No Cost Workplace Teambuilding Activities. Atlantic Publishing Group, Florida

According to Kakabadse, Bank &  Vinniecombe (2005), a few essential factors are crucial for the well functioning of an organizations:

1)      A gifted manager, passionate towards his domain who also has humanist values and is capable of motivating his employees, of understanding and guiding them in a healthy fashion, while maintaining a sense of authority.

2)      Motivation: even though the extrinsic motivation (financial, for social status, for professional recognition etc) is extremely important, the intrinsic motivation also counts very much. If we spend 8 hours every day doing something that we don’t enjoy at all, all the money in the world won’t be able to buy our happiness. Notions about needs, expectations and rewards constitute the basis of an efficient organizational strategy.

3)      Teamwork – an organization is, by definition, a team sport. Collaboration, competition, group roles and group thinking are factors that lead to the success of an organization, but also to the individual development of the group’s members.

4)      Diversity and individual differences – an heterogeneous group, in which diversity is being encouraged and differences are being cultivated, may seem at first as a bit more difficult to control. However, with good management, with an organizational culture that respects differences and with a strategy that is aware of them, the group can actually be more efficient than a homogenous one. Differences related to age, sex, religion and physical appearance must be understood and integrated within the group so that the people can actually work together as a team and respect those around as individuals.

Working in an organization always implies: mastering certain effective interpersonal communication methods, establishing means of communicating with the group as an entity in of itself, having the capacity to face imminent conflicts and to resolve them constructively, the capacity of setting up and maintaining an organizational policy and also having an understanding of the mechanisms and traps of power.

Any individual working in an organization should benefit from the support of a counselor. Usually, organizations have a counseling service for personal or organizational matters, so that an optimal efficient communications between the different structures of the organization can be facilitated. People working in such places spend at least half of their waking state at the work-place and need to identify it with a place where they enjoy spending their time. Any problem, from minor issues such as where a desk should be positioned to issues like relations with colleagues or people outside of the organization can affect the productivity of an individual and his/her contributions to the fulfillment of the organization’s goals. For this reason, a great deal of emphasis is placed in the organizational culture on organizational psychology and on the tasks of those who practice it (psychologists, counselors, trainers, coaches etc).

The purposes or organizational psychology are: (1) raise performance, (2) improve processes and relationships, (3) enhance fairness and equity and (4) increase subjective well-being. (http://gsappweb.rutgers.edu/programs/org/definition.php)

The interventions that psychologists can make in order to fulfill these objectives are based on various theories and psychological concepts, however they all follow, in principle, a progression of stages – diagnosis, design and implementation of intervention strategy, evaluation of results.

What’s most important to remember – both for those who lead the organization as well as for those who are aspiring to be a part of it – is that organizational culture influences the individual’s life much more than exclusively professional. For this, a certain initial compatibility between the individual’s personality and organizational culture must be established (Lejeune & Vas, online).

The process of adapting to an organization will always be different from one person to the other (depending on one’s own rhythm, resistance to change, motivation, expectations etc) and the staff qualified to ease this process of adaptation must not be missing from any type of organization. However, if you are facing difficulties related to the organization that you are involved with (you no longer feel good there, work relations have transformed, the organizational policy is not in tune with your beliefs, you feel the need for something new etc) and you don’t have a department of psychological and vocational counseling to help you, don’t be afraid to search for answers by yourself. Choose a counselor who is capable of listening to you and discover together with him/her what needs to be done. What happens at the work place can affect our lives completely, so it would be best to not hesitate to ask for help when we feel the need to do so.

References:

Kakabadse, A., Bank, J. & Vinniecombe, S. (2005). Working in organisations. Penguin Books Ltd, London

Lejeune, C. & Vas, A (online). Comparing the processes of identity change: A multiple-case study approach, retrieved from www.alba.edu.gr

(http://gsappweb.rutgers.edu/programs/org/definition.php)

Organization in Business dictionary, retrieved from www.businessdictionary.com

Episodes of depression can sometimes be excruciatingly intense, sometimes accompanied by the feeling that the sadness of the loss will never go away. This is why the support of a counselor or psychotherapist can prove to provide real help, together with the support of the family and friends. Living through the mourning process adequately, passing through all of its stages and moving beyond it are things that require time, dedication, understanding and support. A therapist can offer these in a professional manner, so that the grieving person can be able to integrate the experience and continues his/her existence.

The grieving process:

Most often, people address the therapist in order to ease the mourning process.

Being in mourning often completely transforms a person’s whole lifestyle, affecting his/her work rhythm, the ordinary pleasure that one would find in regular activities, one’s emotions, thinking patterns, behavior and even sensations being drastically altered. In the case of normal mourning processes (uncomplicated grief), people exhibit: somatic or bodily distress at times, a preoccupation with the image of the deceased, guilt towards the deceased or the circumstances under which he/she died, hostility and an inability to function at normal parameters, as one would have before the tragic event (Lindemann, 1944). A sixth symptom is also sometimes observed in some grieving people: the borrowing of behavioral traits from the deceased.

Going through the mourning process is time and energy consuming because, “viewed from a constructivist perspective, grieving is a process of reconstructing a world of meaning that has been challenged by loss” (Neimeyer, Burke, Mackay & van Dyke Stringer, 2009).

Stages of the grieving process:

Kubler-Ross (1969) suggests that the stages are denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance. These stages are experienced both by people who are about to die and by their close ones. Sometimes, reactions such as shock, numbness or physical pain may appear.

Worden (1999) believes that people who are going through the mourning process must pass through the following stages:

1. acceptance of the loss – implies accepting the idea of loss both cognitively, as well as emotionally. If the initial shock is powerful and people often deny the situation, the funeral can be perceived in a way as the first step taken on the road of acceptance.
2. acceptance of pain – it is absolutely normal and even recommended to allow pain to manifest itself. Repressing pain feelings can affect the whole latter course of the individual’s life, leading to unauthentic experiences (with other, in relation to one’s own life events, etc)
3. changing the context – the individual learns to accept his/her environment once again, this time without the presence of the person who has passed away
4. letting go of the past – the individual emotionally relocates the deceased and continues his/her life. Moving on beyond the moment helps them depart from the past in a healthy manner, allowing them to concentrate on the present, on the important people in their present and on their future life plans.

Methods and types of psychotherapy for grief:

The methods that are being applied in therapy and that have been proven to give results are meaning making in bereavement (understanding why it happened helps in accepting that it happened), therapeutic writing (goodbye letters), narrative retelling (describing the situation when the loved one died and reliving that situation in a safe context), metaphor and evocative visualization  (Neimeyer, Burke, Mackay & van Dyke Stringer, 2009).

In the same time, art-therapy seems very useful in overcoming the moment of loss. The images that are created, being products very close to the realm of the unconscious, can provide starting points for discussions that the conscious would have normally never brought forth in a conversation (Irwin, 1991).

Group therapy is also very useful, having the advantage of hastening the grieving process and of promoting coping skills, allowing the individual to remember and commemorate the deceased, allowing for the creation of healing rituals, helping to organize and regain a sense of containment and promoting the exploration and expression of feelings in a safe, larger context (Simon, 1981).

For a lot of people, the loss of a loved one may correspond with a total transformation of one’s own life. People begin to feel an overbearing importance in major questions regarding one’s life, as well as concerning more ample contexts, such as human existence in itself and the world and its natural course. In these cases, they can oftentimes make use of long term therapies, such as analytical or existential therapies. Every individual has the chance to find a way in which to keep the memory of the loved one alive and to continue his/her life. With the help of the right therapist, the loss of a loved one will still be an extremely painful experience, but it will have a much greater potential for self development.

References:  

Neimeyer, R.A,  Burke, L.A., Mackay, M.M. & van Dyke Stringer, J.G.  (2009) Grief Therapy and the Reconstruction of Meaning: From Principles to Practice, Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, DOI 10.1007/s10879-009-9135-3

Kubler-Ross, E. (1969). On death and dying. New York, NY: MacMillan

Lindemann, E. (1944). The symptomatology and management of acute grief. American Journal of Psychiatry, 101, 141-148

Worden, J.W. (2009) Grief Counseling and Grief Therapy: A Handbook for the Mental Health Practitioner, 4th Edtion. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company

Irwin, H.J. (1991). The depiction of loss: Use of clients drawings in bereavement counseling. Death Studies, 15, 481-497

Simon, R. (1981). Bereavement Art. American Journal of Art Therapy, 20, 135-143.

            The obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) is one of the most common mental disorders, being ranked as the fourth most common psychological problem to be diagnosed on record. With this in mind, it is still possible for the number of those suffering from OCD to be far larger in reality. Stein (2002) claims that obsessive-compulsive disorder is a frequent, chronic, costly, and disabling disorder that presents in several medical settings, but is under-recognized and undertreated.

Causes and diagnostics

The exact causes are difficult to determine, with several hypotheses being circulated. One of them is based on the idea of behavioral modifications in the case of the human species due to life conditions that forced the individuals to take precautionary measures against the imminence of constant threats for one’s physical safety (Bracha, 2006). Another theory, the biological version, claims that people suffering from OCD exhibit modifications in the serotonin receptors and even neurological imbalances that can be transmitted genetically (Menzies, Chamberlain, Fineberg, Chen & Del Campo, Sahakian et al, 2007; Berthier, Kulisevsky, Gironell et al, 1996).

Onset: Usually takes place during adolescence or youth (young adulthood), being an extremely rare occurrence during childhood or for people over 40. Even though for 5% of the cases the disorder goes into remission or the individuals only experiences obsessive-compulsive episodes once every few years, it’s important to know that without a correct diagnosis and a proper treatment, the condition may get worse, as far as to affect the individual’s life with factors like extreme fatigue, a general lack of functionality, losing relationships with loved ones and culminating with physical symptoms (for instance, some people obsessively wash their hands over and over until they inadvertently develop skin conditions).

Obsessions and Compulsions:

• Obsession: Obsessions are ideas, thoughts, impulses or persistent images that are experienced as being intrusive and inadequate and that cause profound anxiety. The individual usually believes that the content of his/her obsessions is external to him/her and being usually perceived as undesired and uncontrollable. The most frequent obsessions are repetitive thoughts concerning contamination (for example, contamination by shaking other people’s hands), repeated doubting (for instance, wondering if he/she did a random action, such as leaving the door open), the necessity of having things in a certain order (such as arranging everything in symmetry), aggressive or horrible impulses (for example, that of harming one’s own child or yelling obscenities in a church) and sexual imagery (for example, a recurring pornographic image).
• Compulsions: Compulsions are repetitive behaviors (for example, washing the hands, putting things in order, checking things over and over) or mental acts (such as praying, counting, repeating certain words over and over mentally) that have the purpose of preventing or reducing anxiety rather than causing a certain pleasure. In most cases, the person feels compelled to act on the compulsion in order to reduce the stress that comes as a result of an obsession or in order to prevent a given event or situation that he/she fears. The most frequent compulsions involve washing and cleaning, counting, verifying things, asking for or soliciting constant reassurance, repeated actions and putting things in perfect order.

In order for a person to be diagnosed with OCD, he/she must exhibit (A) obsessions and compulsions and (B) an understanding, at one point in time, of the irrational nature of these obsessions. Furthermore, (C ) the aforementioned obsessions are hugely time-consuming (taking a minimum of one hour every day) or interfering significantly with the person’s normal routine, his/her professional functionality or with one’s usual activities and social relations. (D) If the individual exhibits other health issues, the content of the obsessions or compulsions is not strictly limited to them (for example, the obsession with food when an eating disorder is present). Finally, (E) the disturbance is not related to the ingestion of certain substances (drugs, medicine) or to any other physiological disorder.

Treatment:

In order to keep the individual under normal functioning parameters, treatment and medication are a must. In the same time, behavioural therapies need to be accompanied by medication, with serious proof indicating that this type of therapy aids one considerably in rebuilding one’s equilibrium and harmony (Schwartz, 1998). Another treatment method for extremely serious cases is electroconvulsive therapy (Cybulska, 2006). Experimental treatment methods are still being tested (administering vitamins, psychedelics, nicotine etc), but their effectiveness is up for debate. The disorder shows great signs of amelioration when treatment and therapy are being administered, however interrupting the treatment may trigger serious OCD episodes.

Even though it can be kept under control and managed, OCD remains a disorder that can greatly affect people’s lives, the life of the patient as well as the lives of the ones who are close to him/her. There is no gender differentiation, men and women being equally exposed to the development of this condition. However, a connection between this type of condition and a high IQ level has been established (Peterson, Pine, Cohen & Brook, 2001).

References:

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (Revised 4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author

Berthier, M.L., Kulisevsky, J., Gironell, A., et al. (1996). Obsessive compulsive disorder associated with brain lesions: clinical phenomenology, cognitive function, and anatomic correlates. Neurology, 47, 353–361.

Bracha, H. (2006). Human brain evolution and the “Neuroevolutionary Time-depth Principle”: Implications for the Reclassification of fear-circuitry-related traits in DSM-V and for studying resilience to warzone-related posttraumatic stress disorder”. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 30 (5), 827–853. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2006.01.008

Cybulska, E. M. (2006). Obsessive Compulsive disorder, the brain and electroconvulsive therapy. British Journal of Hospital Medicine, 67(2), 77-82.

Menzies, L., Chamberlain, S., Fineberg, S. R., Chen, C.-H., Del Campo, N., Sahakian, B. J,; Robbins, T. W. et al. (2007). Neurocognitive endophenotypes of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Brain 130 (12), 3223–3236. doi:10.1093/brain/awm205.

Peterson, B.S., Pine, D., Cohen, S. P.  & Brook, J. S. (2001). Prospective, longitudinal study of tic, obsessive-compulsive, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders in an epidemiological sample. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 40 (6), 685–695.

Riggs, D. S. & Foa, E. B. (2006). Comprehensive handbook of personality and psychopathology, Michel Hersen, Jay C. Thomas (ed), John Wiley & Sons, New Jersey, Canada

Schwartz, J.M. (1998). Neuroanatomical aspects of cognitive-behavioural therapy response in obsessive-compulsive disorder. An evolving perspective on brain and behaviour. British Journal of Psychiatry Supll., 35, 38-44.

Stein, D. J. (2002). Obsessive-compulsive disorder, The Lancet, 360, 397-405.

History

            According to Beck, Rector, Stolar & Grant (2009), the condition has a long standing history, with manifestations of a schizophrenic nature being noted by James Tilly Matthews and accounts being given by Philipe Pinel in the publications of 1809. However, the recognition of schizophrenia as a psychological disorder that affects young adults and late adolescents has been made in 1853 by Benedict Morel, the one who also deemed it with the term “early dementia”. Arnold Pick and Emil Kraepelin have used the term dementia praecox in describing a psychological disorder that affects the brain, is a form of dementia, yet in the same time is completely different from the one that occurs with Alzheimer’s disease (usually specific to the old age).

The term “schizophrenia” (translated as “splitting out the mind”) was first used by Eugen Bleuler. Bleuler was a Swiss psychiatrist, who intensely studied the problem of this psychosis and has come to characterize it through the four A’s: Affect, Autism, impaired Association of ideas and Ambivalence.

Ever since the ’50s and up to the present day, with the discovery of new drugs and new types of psychotherapy designed to help the patient with regaining balance after delirium episodes, schizophrenia has slowly but surely become a much better tolerated condition from a social point of view, even though it still bears a stigma that affects the people diagnosed with it. Socially reintegrating people who suffer from this chronic condition and improving their life quality with the latest medication are factors that give the patient the hope that his/her condition is not the end of the world for him/her or for his/her loved ones.

Today, real examples show that it’s possible to live with schizophrenia and even perform at the highest levels despite it (for instance, the case of John Nash, the famous mathematician awarded with a Nobel prize, who also suffered from schizophrenia).

Causes and diagnostics

The causes for this condition vary greatly and there is always a myriad of factors contributing to its development. The first and most spoken of cause is genetic, the risks of developing schizophrenia for someone who has first degree relatives diagnosed with it being greater than for someone who has no family history with the disease. Researchers also speak of environmental factors, such as life conditions (social adversity, racial discrimination, family dysfunctions, unemployment and poor housing conditions (Selten, Cantor-Graae & Kahn, 2007)), drug use (cannabis, cocaine, alcohol and amphetamines (Picchioni & Murray, 2007)) or prenatal stressors (infections, hypoxia, malnutrition of the mother during pregnancy (van Os & Kapur, 2009)).

The diagnosis is usually made considering the DSM-IV (2000) criteria:

1. Characteristic symptoms: Two or more of the following, each present for much of the time during a one-month period (or less, if symptoms remitted with treatment).

• Delusions
• Hallucinations
• Disorganized speech, which is a manifestation of formal thought disorder
• Grossly disorganized behavior (e.g. dressing inappropriately, crying frequently) or catatonic behavior
• Negative symptoms: Blunted affect (lack or decline in emotional response), alogia (lack or decline in speech), or avolition (lack or decline in motivation)

If the delusions are judged to be bizarre, or hallucinations consist of hearing one voice participating in a running commentary of the patient’s actions or of hearing two or more voices conversing with each other, only that symptom is required above. The speech disorganization criterion is only met if it is severe enough to substantially impair communication.

1. Social or occupational dysfunction: For a significant portion of the time since the onset of the disturbance, one or more major areas of functioning such as work, interpersonal relations, or self-care, are markedly below the level achieved prior to the onset.
2. Significant duration: Continuous signs of the disturbance persist for at least six months. This six-month period must include at least one month of symptoms (or less, if symptoms remitted with treatment).

Treatment

Currently, the diagnosis for schizophrenia automatically includes the prescription of specific, anti-psychotic medication. Gradually, psychotherapy methods have been implemented alongside the medication (Lynch, Laws, McKenna, 2010): cognitive behavioral therapy (for the purpose of reducing the symptoms and preventing a relapse into delirium), social therapy (for the purpose of social reintegration), family therapy (addressing the patient, as well as the patient’s family for gaining a better and more accurate understanding of his/her condition), occupational therapy (for the purpose of reintegrating into the work-place), as well as drama therapy and art therapy.

The curative approach involves medication, but also psychological stabilization through psychotherapy as well as social integration. In the present day, hospitalization is being kept to a minimum and the individual can live in society under normal conditions.

Reducing the social stigma of this condition through social campaigns meant to raise awareness and understanding what the people who are diagnosed with it are going through are also ways of helping them and of providing them with a normal life experience.

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (Revised 4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author

Beck, A. T., Rector, N. A., Stolar, N., Grant, P. (2009) Schizophrenia: Cognitive Theory, Research and Therapy. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Lynch, D., Laws, K.R., McKenna, P.J. (2010). Cognitive behavioural therapy for major psychiatric disorder: does it really work? A meta-analytical review of well-controlled trials. Psychol Med., 40(1), p. 9–24. doi:10.1017/S003329170900590X

Picchioni, M.M. & Murray, R.M (2007). Schizophrenia. British Medicine Journal, 335(7610), p. 91–95. doi:10.1136/bmj.39227.616447.BE

Stotz-Ingenlath, G. (2000). Epistemological aspects of Eugen Bleuler’s conception of schizophrenia in 1911. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy, 3(2), p. 153–9. doi:10.1023/A:1009919309015

Selten, J.P., Cantor-Graae, E., Kahn, R.S. (2007). Migration and schizophrenia. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 20(2), p.111–115. doi:10.1097/YCO.0b013e328017f68e

van Os ,J., Kapur. S (2009). Schizophrenia. Lancet, 374 (9690), p. 635–45. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60995-8

Sleep disorders are usually accompanied by psychological dysfunctions (depression, schizophrenia, anxiety disorders etc.), but they may also come as a stand-alone dysfunction. In order to determine what type of sleep disorder a person has, polisomnography is used as a tool for diagnosing the patient by monitoring his physiological symptoms during sleep (eye moments, muscle activity, brain activity and heart rate).

Types:

According to DSM-IV, there are three major types of sleep disorders:

1)      primary sleep disorders, including:

• hypersomnia – a person manifests excessive amounts of sleepiness during daytime. There is a difference between this and simple fatigue, in that patients often have great difficulty in handling their normal tasks from their work place, tasks which usually require minimal focus. There are various causes for this, from brain lesions to obesity and hypothyroidism.
• Insomnia – the inability of an individual to fall asleep, despite the amount of accumulated fatigue and prolonged efforts (Roth, 2007). Insomnia may be transitory, acute or chronic.
• Narcolepsy – excessive and prolonged sleep that can culminate with falling asleep spontaneously in the middle of daily activities
• breathing related sleep disorders – sleep apnea, snoring.
• circadian rhythm sleep disorder – Delayed sleep phase syndrome, advanced sleep phase syndrome, non-24-hour sleep-wake syndrome.

2)      Parasomnias, including:

• nightmare disorders – n increased frequency in nightmares, which leads to a disturbance in the sleeping pattern and fatigue
• sleep terror disorder – usually encountered with children (2 to 6 years); the child wakes up in  a state of unmotivated terror, which is apparently not caused by nightmares, usually during the first 4 hours of sleep
• sleepwalking disorder

3)      Other types (sleep problems caused by certain medical conditions):

• bruxism – teeth grinding during sleep-time
• restless leg syndrome – an imperious need of moving one’s leg during sleep.
• Somniphobia – the fear of falling asleep
• Nocturia – the need to wake up very often in order to use the bathroom without having a bladder disorder.
• Sleep paralysis – the sensation of not being able to move for prolonged periods of time before falling asleep or immediately after waking up, despite a great desire to do so.

Treatment:

According to Poceta & Milter (1998), there are two kinds of treatment: one that relies on medication, is prescribed by a doctor, whose indications must be strictly and rigorously followed, as well an alternative one (based an teas, aromatherapy, relaxation techniques, breathing techniques, meditation, psychotherapy, biofeedback, etc.)

The most common used psychotherapies in treating sleep disorders are cognitive behavioral therapy, adlerian therapy, gestalt therapy and rational-emotive therapy. The approach can be oriented on treating or elimination the causes (for instance, quitting alcohol or certain drugs can lead to the restoration of a normal sleeping pattern) or on results (especially with behaviorist therapy that promotes assuming a certain routine that can allow the psyche to learn new behavioral patterns and, implicitly, new sleeping behaviors).

References:

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (Revised 4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author

Poceta, J. S. & Mitler, M. M. (1998). Sleep disorders: Diagnosis and treatment. Totowa, New Jersey/US: Humana Press.

Using a Bobo doll, he managed to demonstrate that children immediately adopt an aggressive behavior when they witness such a behavior in a social context. Thus, a child observing an adult while he/she abuses the doll will repeat the same kind of abuse as soon as the adult clears the room (Bandura, 1969).

Main concepts in social learning theory (Ormrod, 1999):

1)      Observation: People learn certain behaviors by observing them manifested by members of their social group and seeing what types of outcomes these behaviors bring.

2)      Imitation: In order to develop a certain behavior merely being exposed to it is not sufficient – one needs the intention to realize it in one’s own life, of reproducing it.

3)      Cognition: Even though imitating a behavior is important when actually performing it, it’s important to know that the individual has the cognitive capacity of modifying that particular behavior in such a way that it caters to the individual’s particular needs and purposes. In other words, Bandura credits the cognitive nature of the individual who adopts behaviors and is capable of judging them beforehand or modifying them once he/she has adopted them.

4)      Reinforcement: In order for a behavior to be considered appropriated it is necessary for the individual to be able to manifest it in contexts that he/she deems as compatible with the specific behavior. Thus, the reinforcement and punishment mechanisms cannot be minimized when it comes to social learning. The reinforcement can be realized by the individual who stands as the model for a certain behavior (an adolescent may start smoking because the “leader” of the group smokes), a third person, not the model itself; the behavior itself (smoking produces a certain pleasure for the sensation seeker or raises self esteem for a submissive teenager, for instance).

5)      Modeling: In order for an individual to learn a behavior he/she needs a model to raise his/her awareness on the matter and to elevate his/her interest to learn the specific behavior that the model displays. Even though oftentimes it has been speculated that people learn from human models by way of direct experience, Bandura’s own studies, as well as later studies, have shown that individuals can learn from more abstract or fictional models, such as models being depicted in the media (movies, music, radio, TV, video games etc) (Mae Sincero, 2011).

What types of behavior can be learned by means of social learning?

Even though the majority of Bandura’s studies have treated the way in which people learn violence and aggression through exposure to environmental factors and to models that promote such behaviors, it seems that the learning of a much broader spectrum of behaviors can be explained through social learning:

• dieting: media models that support diets and present their thinness as the beauty ideal and standard can influence body image in some viewers. As a logical progression, these viewers will turn to diets, excessive physical exercise etc. in order reach that specific body image (Grabe, 2008)
• violence learned through video games (Bushman & Anderson, 2002)
• sexism and male chauvinism (Council on Communication and the Media, 2009)
• drug use (Robinson, Chen & Killen, 1998)
• and also the pleasure for reading and moral behaviors (Ormrod, 1999).

The effects of social learning:

• the development of new behaviors
• the development of self-efficacy
• self-regulation – reaching certain goals through a lesser energetic effort (without soliciting attention and motivation too much, it somehow happens “on its own”)
• an easier alternative to learning through operant conditioning
• self-improving

• Neuro: any psychological process has a neurological substrate, our behavior being profoundly connected with the world around us specifically due to our perception of it (the processing of stimuli on a neurological level).
• Linguistic: language is being used both internally, in order for us to understand and explain the psychological processes that we are experiencing as well as externally, to communicate the findings to those around.
• Programming: stemming from cybernetic sciences and showing that, just like a computer, our brain can be programmed in such a manner to order our thoughts, emotions or the actions that we want to engage in.

By studying the behavior models of people that excel in certain fields, researchers have reached the conclusion that the strategies employed by these true performers in their particular field can also be learned and applied by regular people who want to improve their lives. Thus, they can program their brain to function optimally for their specific purpose, in other words to think positive and to become oriented on solutions rather than on problems and their causes, as they are being advised, for instance, by classical psychology.

Therefore, the purpose of Neuro Linguistic Programming is that of describing the fundamental interaction between mind (neuro) and language (linguistic) and how their reciprocal action is affecting the body and behaviors (programming) (Dilts & DeLozier, 2000).

History

The history of NLP already goes back 40 years, to its beginning in California and the fruitful collaboration between John Grinder and Richard Bandler at the University of Santa Cruz. Both having a keen interest in psychotherapy, they have studied the working methods and strategies of three major therapists from three different schools and orientations (Fritz Perls, Virginia Satir, Milton Eickson) and reached the conclusion that there are similarities between the working methods of the three, even though they were treating different problems in different ways. (Dilts & DeLozier, 2000). Following their research, they set up a new psychological discipline, titled NLP. Shortly, NLP grew in popularity, being successfully applied to domains not having much to do with psychotherapy such as sales, management, education, organizational psychology, negotiations etc.

NLP’s popularity soon grew outside of American borders, being rapidly adopted in Western Europe and becoming massively popular in the UK through the contributions of the anthropologist Bateson, who collaborated in his research with the two founders of NLP. Today, trainings in NLP continue to be hugely popular, even though more and more controversy is arising regarding the validity of the scientific research for this therapeutic method.

The principles of NLP

• The map is not the same as the territory. We don’t know the world as it really is, we only have a subjective representation over it. What makes this representation subjective are the filters that separate us from the exterior world: sensations, perceptions, memories, values etc. By changing these filters that are affecting our experience with the world, we can change our general perception of the world, meaning the way we map out reality and, implicitly, our own personal reality.
• There are no failures, only feedbacks – any response from the environment to our behavior can be used to regulate our behavior and we don’t have to be negative even when receiving unpleasant answers.
• The purpose of communication is the received answer: The communication between two people supposes a battle of the filters that stand between their messages and there is a need for constant sustained effort from both of them to make sure that what’s being communicated by the emitter is what actually reaches the receiver.
• If someone can successfully realize something, than so can I… as long as I trust my own resources and I establish goals that I chase systematically.
• The mind and the body are parts of the same cybernetic system and the changes in one also determines changes in the other. The harmonizing of the communication of the two parts can lead to a general state of harmony in behavior.
• The orientation towards the result, and not the problem – as long as I know where I want to go, how I get there is less important.

Three key techniques stand out in NLP: the clear establishing of objectives, sensory acuteness in order to develop methods of reaching the objectives and flexibility in order to juggle with the various methods, as well as with objectives, if they turn out to be unrealistic (not persisting in the error).

Uses of NLP

NLP can be used as a secondary method in certain therapies (behavioral, as well as humanistic), but also as a self standing therapy, called neuro-linguistic psychotherapy (Bridoux & Weaver, 2000). Researchers in the area of psychotherapy claim that NLP has maximum efficiency and is very fast acting in the treatment of severe problems, such as phobias, depression, learning problems, as well as psychosomatic illnesses (Einspruch & Forman, 1988). In the same time, NLP is used as a technique for improving performance and obtaining excellent results in several domains such as sports, coaching, team building, public speaking, business communication etc.

References:

Bridoux, D., Weaver, M., (2000) “Neuro-linguistic psychotherapy.” In Therapeutic perspectives on working with lesbian, gay and bisexual clients. Davies, Dominic (Ed); Neal, Charles (Ed). (pp. 73–90). Buckingham, England: Open University Press (2000) xviii, 187 pp. ISBN 0-335-20333-7

Dilts, R. B. & DeLozier, J. A. (2000).  Encyclopedia of Systemic Neuro-Linguistic Programming and NLP New Coding, NLP University Press, US.

Einspruch, E. L. & Forman, B. D. (1988). Neuro-Linguistic Programming in the Treatment of Phobias. Psychotherapy in Private Practice, 6(1), p. 91-100.

O’Connor, J. & Seymour, J. (1993). Introducing NLP, Aquarian Press, UK.

The way a patient with DPD thinks:

Others are more prepared than I am to deal with life’s everyday demands, they are stronger and braver in facing life’s problems. Without them, I would not make it, I would feel just like a child lost from his parents in the madness of the outside world.

I am not a strong person, I am good for nothing, my life is not in my own hands and the world is an evil place, a much too competitive place where I can never strive through my own forces alone. However, I am not completely lost because there still is someone to protect me and make the best decision for me (partner, family, relatives etc).

My relationships with those who can protect me are the most important things in the world for me and it’s only thanks to them that I can actually live a normal life. I would do anything for the people who remain in a relationship with me, I would rather accept things that I don’t really like and sacrify myself in order to be accepted in a relationship (even with the price of being abused). The thought that I could be left alone is the worst thing imaginable.

I don’t feel great in large groups of people, especially if I don’t know them well enough and if they criticize me. Being generally less capable than others, I run the risk of getting criticized more often, a fact that makes me be more reserved, less able to perform, more fearful in coming up with initiative and in working on my own.

Causes and diagnosis:

The causes for this disorder are not very clear. Even though it is believed that genetics play an important role in the development of this disorder, the psycho-dynamic orientations in psychology claims that the greater importance is that of the parental treatment that has been applied to the child in the first years of life. A very strict parent, who did not leave much room with the child for decision-making or who offered the child all that he/she wanted without encouraging him/her to put some effort into getting the object of their desire greatly contributes to the development of a dependent personality (Nagata, 2003).

The diagnosis is being made according to DSM-IV (2000) if at least 5 of the 8 symptoms are present:

1. Every-day decision-making is an excruciating process, that would be altogether impossible without help or advice from those around

2. The responsibility for one’s life is also the duty of those around him/her, even though the patient is a grown up person

3. The patient finds it difficult to express disapproval towards other people’s behaviors out of a fear of being judged or rejected.

4. The patient cannot start new activities or work on his/her own out of a fear of not being able to cope with the task (feelings of being incapable, unprepared rather than unmotivated)

5. The patient feels such a need for approval from others that he/she ends up offering to do even things that are profoundly unappealing to him/her just to be treated with care and be accepted.

6. Loneliness can produce feelings of general incapability and even anxiety towards the thought that he/she needs to take care of him/herself

7. The patient cannot live outside of relationships, a reason for which separation from someone following a break-up or even the death of one partner is quickly followed by the replacing of that partner with a new caregiver

8. The patients spends a great deal o time thinking about what he/she would do in case of being left and, consequently, experiences a powerful fear of abandonment.

Treatment

Being a chronic illness, medication is needed for extended periods of time. In the same time, psychotherapy is a good method for minimizing the effects of this disorder. Psycho-dynamic therapies are behaviorist therapies are usually the first recommendations (Nagata, 2003). Also, good family support is needed in order for the person to engage in social activities that will increase their self esteem, help them to mature emotionally and consolidate their personality.

Group activities and therapies (where no competition or leadership actions are implied, but rather the focus goes on collaboration) are ways of helping a person suffering from DPD to create new relationships, to come to know more people, and thus giving up slowly the need to focus on just one or two significant relationships in their lives.

In the same time, encouraging children to be independent and to rely on their own powers, encouraging their freedom as well as their responsibilities according to their age can help them in becoming healthy adults, capable of leading a happy and fulfilling life.

References:

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington DC: Author

Beitz, K. & Bornstein, R. F. (2006). Dependent personality disorder. Practitioner’s Guide to Evidence-Based Psychotherapy, 230-237. DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-28370-8_22.

Nagata, T. (2003). Dependent personality disorder, American Psychological Association, 23 (39), p. 364-367.

 Short history:

Group psychotherapy has a long standing history starting at the beginning of the 20^th century, being founded by Pratt, Burrow and Schilder. After the Second World War, group psychotherapy developed and diversified with the aid of Jacob Moreno (psychodrama), Samuel Slavson, Hyman Spotnitz (psycho-analytical group therapy), (Irvin Yalom (existential psychotherapy), Foulkes (group analysis) and Wilfred Bion (a type of early social therapy) in Europe.

Today, group psychotherapy is highly popular due to its wide range of uses: support groups, skills training groups, educational groups, problem solving groups, relaxation groups etc.

 Key principles:

Even though it is not carried out strictly between therapist and one single patient, as individual therapy, group therapy respects ethical and functioning principles just as any other type of psychotherapy. Thus, the therapeutic setting must be kept and respected both by the members of the group, as well as by the therapist. According to Yalom, the most important principles of functioning for group therapy are:

• Hope: seeing people that have overcome difficulties or are confronting the same difficulties as yourself will give you the hope of not dealing with them on your own.
• Universality: the feeling that what you are going through is not unique and impossible to overcome;
• Information sharing: in groups, people learn to share, both emotions and experiences, as well as concrete information that can help the other members of the group to reach a better understanding of what they are going through and why;
• Altruism: members are helping each other, but are also helping themselves because they are raising their self-esteem as they’re observing the ways in which they can be useful to those around.
• The corrective recapitulation of the primary family group:  Because of the close relationships that build among members, they can relive childhood experiences and rebuild family relationships that have been malfunctioning and, as a result, caused them pain and suffering.
• Development of socialization techniques: without the fear of being judged, people are predisposed to trying new things in group settings, they also display a tendency to learn new behaviors and an ability to build up new relationships.
• Imitative behavior: in the therapeutic group setting, people influence each other and are more likely to adopt positive behaviors .
• Catharsis: Sharing experiences and personal suffering can lead to the release of built up tension and guilt and can facilitate the healing process.

What is it for? Is it for me?

Group therapy can treat a diverse spectrum of issues, from depression (Dies, 1993) to chronic trauma-related stress disorders (2005) and addictions (Parker & Guest, 1999). Support groups (for parents that have children suffering from ADHD, for people suffering of AIDS, for people with anger management issues or for abused people) have, as well, a major therapeutic effect. Many groups that are based around art-therapy, drama therapy, psychodrama or relaxation techniques are both useful and pleasant and lead people on the path to self-development.

If you are going through a stressful situation or, on the contrary, if you only want to know yourself better and develop your creativity, your artistic abilities or your social skills, group therapy can be the perfect option. All you have to do is a little research for finding a qualified therapist and build up the courage to meet people like yourself, together with whom you may learn to live a better life.

References:

Dies, R.R. (1993). Research on group psychotherapy: Overview and clinical applications. In Anne Alonso & Hillel I. Swiller (Eds.), Group therapy in clinical practice. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press

Kanas, N (2005) Group Therapy for Patients with Chronic Trauma-Related Stress Disorders. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 55 (1), 161-6

Parker, J. & Guest, D. L. (1999), The clinician’s guide to 12-step programs: How, when, and why to refer a client, Greenwood Publishing Group, Westport.

Yalom, I. D., & Lesczc, M. (2005). The theory and practice of group psychotherapy. New York, NY: Basic Books