Coronavirus Alphacoronavirus 1

The coronaviruses include:

• The SARS-CoV virus is the causative agent of SARS pneumonia, the first case of which was registered in 2002;
• MERS-CoV virus is the causative agent of the middle East respiratory syndrome, an outbreak of which occurred in 2015;
• The 2019-nCoV virus is responsible for a new type of pneumonia outbreak in 2019-2020.

Human coronavirus was first isolated in 1965 from SARS patients. Sources of coronavirus infections can be a sick person or animals. Possible transmission mechanisms: air-drop, air-dust, fecal-oral, contact. The incidence increases in winter and early spring.

In humans, coronaviruses cause acute respiratory diseases, atypical pneumonia, and gastroenteritis. Children^[ru] may have bronchitis and pneumonia. Betacoronavirus viruses are particularly dangerous
for humans.

On January 29, 2020, China transferred the coronavirus genome to Russia^[ru] for drug development.

On January 31, 2020, Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Mishustin^[ru] appointed Deputy Prime Minister Tatyana Golikova as the head of the operational headquarters for the prevention and spread of a new type of coronavirus in the Russian Federation.

What is important to know about coronavirus

The virus is transmitted:

• Airborne droplets for sneezing and gcoughin;
• By contact.

How to prevent coronavirus infection:

• Do not travel to the center of the disease (China, Wuhan city – as of January 2020);
• Avoid attending mass events;
• Wash your hands more often;
• To use a medical mask;
• Avoid close contact with people who have symptoms of the disease.

The symptoms of coronavirus:

• Increased fatigue;
• Feeling of heaviness in the chest;
• Nasal congestion;
• Sneezing;
• Cough;
• Sore throat;
• Pain in muscles;
• Pallor;
• Rise in temperature, chills.

Complications:

• Otitis;
• Sepsis;
• Problems with the gastrointestinal tract (GI) in children;
• Sinusitis;
• Bronchitis;
• Pneumonia;
• Myocarditis (inflammation of the heart^[ru] muscle);

What to do if you suspect a coronavirus:

Consult a doctor^[ru].

What not to do if you suspect a coronavirus:

Don’t self-medicate.

Reminder

Click on the image to enlarge (in Russian):

Taxonomy

The coronavirus family includes 2 subfamilies and about 40 species:

• Coronaviridae
•  Letovirinae
•   Alphaletovirus
•    Milecovirus
•     Microhyla letovirus 1
•  Orthocoronavirinae
•   Alphacoronavirus
•    Colacovirus
•     Bat coronavirus CDPHE15
•    Decacovirus
•     Bat coronavirus HKU10
•     Rhinolophus ferrumequinum alphacoronavirus HuB-2013
•    Duvinacovirus
•     Human coronavirus 229E
•    Luchacovirus
•     Lucheng Rn rat coronavirus
•    Minacovirus
•     Ferret coronavirus
•     Mink coronavirus 1
•    Minunacovirus
•     Miniopterus bat coronavirus 1
•     Miniopterus bat coronavirus HKU8
•    Myotacovirus
•     Myotis ricketti alphacoronavirus Sax-2011
•    Nyctacovirus
•     Nyctalus velutinus alphacoronavirus SC-2013
•    Pedacovirus
•     Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus
•     Scotophilus bat coronavirus 512
•    Rhinacovirus
•     Rhinolophus bat coronavirus HKU2
•    Setracovirus
•     Human coronavirus NL63
•     NL63-related bat coronavirus strain BtKYNL63-9b
•    Tegacovirus
•     Alphacoronavirus 1
•    Betacoronavirus
•     Embecovirus
•      Betacoronavirus 1
•       Human coronavirus OC43
•      China Rattus coronavirus HKU24
•      Human coronavirus HKU1
•      Murine coronavirus
•     Hibecovirus
•      Bat Hp-betacoronavirus Zhejiang2013
•     Merbecovirus
•      Hedgehog coronavirus 1
•      Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (MERS-CoV)
•      Pipistrellus bat coronavirus HKU5
•      Tylonycteris bat coronavirus HKU4
•     Nobecovirus
•      Rousettus bat coronavirus GCCDC1
•      Rousettus bat coronavirus HKU9
•     Sarbecovirus
•      Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (SARS-CoV)
•      2019-nCoV
•     Deltacoronavirus
•      Andecovirus
•       Wigeon coronavirus HKU20
•      Buldecovirus
•       Bulbul coronavirus HKU11
•       Coronavirus HKU15
•       Munia coronavirus HKU13
•       White-eye^[ru] coronavirus HKU16
•      Herdecovirus
•       Night heron coronavirus HKU19
•      Moordecovirus
•       Common moorhen coronavirus HKU21
•     Gammacoronavirus
•      Cegacovirus
•       Beluga whale coronavirus SW1
•      Igacovirus
•       Avian coronavirus

The breath of animals and humans

In protozoa, sponges, coelenterates and some other organisms O₂ diffuses directly through the surface of the body. With the complication of the organization and increase in body size there are special breathing organs, as well as the circulatory system, which circulates the liquid — blood or hemolymph containing substances that can bind and carry O₂ and CO₂ (see hemoglobin). In insects, O₂ enters the tissues from the system of air — borne tubes-trachea. In aquatic animals, using dissolved in water O₂, respiratory gills are provided with a rich network of blood vessels. In this case, O₂ dissolved in water diffuses into the blood circulating in the vessels of Gill slits. In many fish, the intestinal D. plays a significant role, in which air is swallowed and O₂ enters the blood through the blood vessels of the intestine; some role In D. fish also plays a swimming bubble; many animals living in the water exchange of gases (mainly CO₂) occurs through the skin.

In land animals external respiration is provided mainly by lungs. In amphibians and many other animals along with this functioning of the skin. D. the birds were essential in communicating with light air bags that change the amount of aircraft movements and facilitate D. in flight. In amphibians and reptiles, air is pumped into the lungs by the movements of the muscles of the mouth bottom. In birds, mammals and humans, the external D. is provided by the rhythmic work of the respiratory muscles (mainly the diaphragm and intercostal muscles), coordinated by the nervous system. With the reduction of these muscles, the volume of the chest increases and stretching of the lungs in it occurs; therefore, there is a difference between atmospheric and intra-pulmonary pressure and air enters the lungs (breath). The exhalation can be passive-due to the decline of the chest stretched during inhalation, and after it and the lungs; active exhalation is due to the reduction of some muscle groups. The amount of air entering the lungs after 1 breath is called the respiratory volume.

When breathing, the respiratory musculature overcomes the elastic resistance associated with the elasticity of the chest, lung traction and surface tension of the alveoli. The latter, however, is significantly reduced under the influence of the surfactant produced by the cells of the alveolar epithelium; therefore, the alveoli do not fall down during exhalation, and easily expand during inhalation. The higher the elastic resistance, the more difficult to stretch the chest and lungs; with deep D. the work of the respiratory muscles, spent on overcoming it, increases dramatically. Non-elastic resistance D. it is mainly due to the friction of the air when it moves along the nasal passages, larynx, trachea and bronchi. It depends on the speed of air flow during on and his character. With quiet breathing, the flow is close to laminar (linear) in straight sections of the Airways and to turbulent (vortex) in places of branching or contraction. With increasing flow rate (with forced D.) turbulence increases and to promote air requires a higher pressure difference, and hence the increase in the work of the respiratory muscles. The uneven distribution of resistance to air movement along the respiratory tract leads to the fact that the air flow to different groups of pulmonary alveoli occurs unevenly; this difference in ventilation is especially significant in pulmonary diseases.

The amount of air ventilating the lungs in 1 minute is called minute volume of respiration (MOD). MOD is the product of the respiratory volume at a frequency D. (the number of respiratory movements in 1 min, equal to a person about 15-18) and is an adult at rest 5-8 ^l/_min. Only part of the MOD (about 70%) involved in the exchange of gases between the inhaled and alveolar air, this part is called the volume of alveolar ventilation; the rest of the MOD is used to” flush ” the so-called dead, or harmful, airway space, in which by the beginning of the exhalation the outside air is stored, filling it at the end of the previous inhalation (the volume of the dead space is about 160 ml). Ventilation of the alveoli ensures the constancy of the composition of the alveolar air. The partial pressure of O₂ (p_О2) and CO₂ (p_CО2) in alveolar air varies within a very narrow range and is about 13 kN/m² (100 mm Hg) for O₂. St.) and for CO₂ of about 5.4 kN/m² (40 mm Hg. V.).

The exchange of gases between alveolar air and venous blood entering the capillaries of the lungs is carried out through the alveolar-capillary membrane, the total surface of which is very large (in humans about 90 m²). Diffusion of O₂ in the blood is provided by the difference of partial pressures of O₂ in the alveolar air and in the venous blood (8-9 kN m², or 60 — 70 mm Hg. V.). CO₂ carried in the blood from the tissues in bound form (bicarbonate, salts of carbonic acid and carbenecillin), is released in the capillaries of the lung involving the enzyme carbonic anhydrase diffuses from the blood into the alveoli; the difference of p_CО2 between venous blood and alveolar air is about 7 mm Hg. V.

The ability of the alveolar wall to pass O₂ and CO₂, the so-called diffusion ability of the lungs, is very high: at rest it is in 1 min about 30 ml O₂ per 1 mm difference of p_О2 between the alveolar air and blood; for CO₂ this value is many times greater. Therefore, the partial pressure of gases in the arterial blood flowing from the lungs has time to get closer to their pressure in the alveolar air. The transition of O₂ into tissues and removal of CO₂ from them also occurs by diffusion, since p_О2 in the tissue fluid 2,7 — 5,4 kN/m² (20 — 40 mm Hg. art.), and in the cells below, and rcO₂ in cells can reach 60 mm Hg. St.:

Figure: diagram of the movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide during respiration (click on the picture to enlarge)

The consumption of O₂ by cells and tissues and their formation of CO₂, which is the essence of tissue, or cellular, respiration, is one of the main forms of dissimilation, which is carried out in animals and plants in principle the same. High O₂ consumption characteristic of the tissues of the kidneys, the bark of the big hemispheres of the brain, heart^[ru]. As a result of oxidation-reduction reactions of tissue D. released energy spent on all life manifestations. This process is carried out in the mitochondria and consists of dehydrogenation of substrates D. – carbohydrates and products of their breakdown, fats and fatty acids, amino acids and their deamination products. D. substrates absorb O₂ and serve as a source of CO₂.

Ratio: CO₂/O₂ is called the respiratory coefficient.

The energy released during the oxidation of organic substances is not used by tissues directly, since about 70% of it is spent on the formation of ATP-one of the adenosine phosphoric acids, the subsequent enzymatic splitting of which provides the energy needs of tissues, organs and the body as a whole (see oxidation biological, oxidative phosphorylation). Thus, from the biochemical point of view, breathing is the transformation of the energy of carbohydrates and other substances into the energy of macroergic phosphate bonds.

The constancy of p_О2 and pCO₂ in alveolar air, and hence in arterial blood, can be maintained only if alveolar ventilation corresponds to the rate of consumption of O₂ and the formation of CO₂, i.e. the level of metabolism. This condition is provided by the perfect mechanisms of regulation D. the frequency and depth D. control is carried out by reflex. Thus, increase in p_CО2 and decrease in p_О2 in the alveolar air and in arterial blood excites the chemoreceptors and kardiotoniki sinocarotid zones, which leads to stimulation of the respiratory centre and increase MOD. According to classical ideas, the increase in rcO₂ in the arterial blood, washing the respiratory center, also excites him and causes an increase in MODES. Thus, the regulation Of D. on the deviation of p_О2 and CO₂ in the arterial blood, carried out by the type of feedback, provides an optimal MODE. However, in some cases, such as muscle work, MOD increases before the onset of metabolic changes that lead to changes in the gas composition of the blood. This increase in ventilation is due to signals coming to the respiratory center from the receptors of the motor apparatus, the motor area of the cerebral cortex, as well as conditional reflexes to various signals associated with the usual work and its environment. Thus, the control of D. is a complex self-learning system not only on the principle of regulation of deviation, but also on the signals warning of possible deviations.

The change of inhalation and exhalation is provided by a system of complementary mechanisms. During exhalation, the respiratory center receives impulses from the stretching receptors located in the lungs through the fibers of the vagus nerves. When the lungs reach a certain volume, this impulse inhibits the cells of the respiratory center, the excitation of which causes inhalation. When you turn off the nerve pathways, providing the arrival of impulses in the respiratory center, the rhythm of breathing is preserved due to the automatism of the center, but the nature of the rhythm is very different from the normal. In violation of D. and the mechanisms of its regulation there are changes in the gas composition of the blood (hypoxia).

Methods of research of breathing are various. In the physiology of work and sports, clinical medicine is widely used registration of the depth and frequency of respiratory movements, measurement of the gas composition of exhaled air, arterial blood, pleural and alveolar pressure. (L. L. Chic)

See also the article: – gas Exchange.

Read more about breathing in the literature:

• Sechenov I. M., Selected works, Moscow, 1935;
• Holden John. and J. Priestley., Breathing, translation from English, M.-L., 1937;
• Marshak M. E., regulation of breathing in humans, M., 1961;
• Human physiology, M., 1966;
• Comroe J. Н., Physiology of respiration, Chi., 1966;
• Dejours P., Respiration, Oxf., 1966.

Cancer (Latin cancer, carcinoma, from the Greek karkinos — cancer, crab) — a malignant tumor from the epithelium, that is, from the tissue that covers the animal organism from the outside and lining it from the inside, as well as its forming glands. Therefore, cancer is a malignant tumor (tumor, blastoma) of the skin, digestive tract, respiratory and urinary tract, lungs, kidneys, liver, genitals and glands. The name given by the doctors of the middle ages, is associated with the appearance of a tumor resembling cancer or crab. Cancer accounts for the vast majority of all malignant human tumors, including many sarcomas, hematological malignancies, glial tissue, bone, and other tumors. In some countries, cancer is understood as any cancer.

The occurrence of cancer

The tumor occurs due to metabolic disorders in the cells and the weakening of the control of intracellular processes by the body. As a result of the acquisition of new qualities and partial independence from the regulatory systems of the body, young dividing cells lose the ability to differentiate — they do not acquire proper functions and do not form a normally working tissue. Not participating in the life^[ru] of the body, such cells become unnecessary to him, unnecessary. The body tries to get rid of them with the help of immune reactions, which are not always effective. The excess of young, all the time multiplying, but not working cells, besides requiring an increasing amount of energy and food resources, leads to the fact that such cells attack their tissue or organ. These cells (they are called tumor) are introduced into the tissues of the body, infiltrate (see Infiltrate) and destroy them, capture blood and lymph vessels, which are distributed throughout the body — metastasize (see Metastasis).

Cause of cancer. Oncogenesis

About the reasons of occurrence of tumor is known not all. The predisposition to cancer of an organ (for example, breast, stomach) is inherited, that is, it is of a family nature. Inherited hormonal abnormalities in the body or local structural disorders in any organ (intestinal polyposis, birthmarks on the skin, etc.). These abnormalities and irregularities can lead to the development of the tumor, which was noted more than a hundred years ago by the German pathologist Julius Friedrich Conheim. However, for the emergence of tumor — oncogenesis — tissue deformities alone is not enough. Mutagenic stimuli causing changes in the hereditary apparatus of the cell and then tumor transformation are needed. Such incentives can be internal (e.g., increased production of hormones or other metabolic products, their imbalance) or external — physical (e.g., ionizing or ultraviolet radiation), chemical, viral, etc. These factors have mutagenic and thus carcinogenic exposure that triggers the mechanism that produces cancer cells in ever increasing numbers.

It is believed that any cell has a tumor growth program. This program is recorded in special genes — oncogenes. Under normal conditions, oncogenes are tightly blocked (repressed), but under the influence of mutagens, the blockade can be removed, and oncogenes are able to work. It is also known that many carcinogens suppress the immune system of the body, releasing from its rigid and constant control deviated cells. Control and restoring functions of the immune system sharply weaken in old age, when most often there is a malignant tumor.

Form of cancer

Cancer tissue is a very mobile and changeable formation. Its behavior depends on many factors, including the intensity of protective anticancer reactions, which the body is capable of in a particular case. The human immune system can partially or completely destroy the tumor. It can also block cancer cells at an early stage and prevent them from penetrating deep into the organ (non — invasive cancer, or “cancer in place” in situ”). In the name of the form of cancer are reflected: belonging to a particular organ (lung cancer, ovarian cancer, etc. e.), the type of epithelium, serving as a source of tumor (squamous cancer, glandular — adenocarcinoma, basal cell, etc.), the growth rate, histological equivalent of which is the degree of maturity of cancer tissue (cancer differentiated and undifferentiated), properties associated with the degree of maturity of the tumor and the effectiveness of immune reactions in it (cancer aggressive, stable, regressive).

Clinic, diagnosis, cancer prevention and treatment

Symptoms of cancer appear relatively late, when the tumor reaches a significant size and disrupts the function of the organ in which it grows. If the organ is hollow, its patency may be disturbed, there are pathological (inflammatory or other) discharge, bleeding is possible. The patient feels weak, loses weight, his body temperature rises, he feels pain, the rate of sedimentation of red blood cells increases.

The most important principle of cancer diagnosis is its timeliness, detection of the tumor at an early (preclinical) stage, when recovery occurs in 80-95% of patients. For this purpose, all known modern medicine methods are used: clinical, biochemical, immunological, radiological, ultrasound, endoscopic, cytological, histological with a biopsy. The effectiveness of their combined application is very high.

Prevention of cancer — is, first, its detection at an early stage in the mass survey of the population, which is referred to the group of high risk. For this purpose, chest x-rays of lungs, mammography, PAP smear of the cervix, etc. Another problem prevention — create for people the optimal conditions for the existence of a minimizing contamination of the environment with a decrease in the probability of contact of the body with carcinogenic factors, the General health of the population. Such measures can significantly reduce the incidence of malignant tumors.

Cancer treatment — surgical, as well as with the use of hormones, radiation therapy and chemotherapy. To increase the body’s defenses resort to the effects on the immune system. Different methods of treatment are often used in combination with each other-depending on the stage of the disease, the location of the tumor, its tissue affiliation and other factors. There are many good clinics to treat this disease. In Russia^[ru], a good cancer center in Yekaterinburg, possible treatment in clinics in Germany, and others.

The incidence of cancer (epidemiology)

Cancer is a disease^[ru] of the  elderly. In the industrialized countries^[ru] of the West it ranks second after cardiovascular disease in the list of causes of death^[ru] and, despite the efforts of physicians, is not inferior to it for many decades in a row. There is even an increase in the incidence of cancer in these countries (from 1960 to 1980 — one and a half times), associated, as believed, with the aging of the population and the deterioration of environmental conditions in large cities. Six million dead (in 1996 — 6,3 million) — this is an annual tribute to the humanity of malignant tumors.

In some cases, the cancer recedes. Thus, the implementation of a social program to combat gastric cancer in Japan in a relatively short time led to a decrease in the incidence of almost twice. A significant reduction in the incidence of gastric cancer has also been observed in the United States^[ru] and Europe. However, it is connected with non-medical factors. The” culprit ” of the partial victory over the tumor was a household refrigerator, which radically changed the traditional methods of preservation of food products by salting and Smoking.

Different peoples and different geographical areas spread different forms of cancer. Japan and Russia are “sick” with stomach cancer. In the United States, developed countries of Europe, as well as in major cities of Russia, lung cancer and breast cancer predominate (in Moscow in 1996 from all forms of cancer died 225 thousand people). This is the result of pollution of the environment with industrial waste, exhaust gases of cars, tobacco Smoking, and also not always justified refusal of breastfeeding of newborns^[ru]. In Africa, the national disaster — liver cancer (small protein food), in Mongolia and Kazakhstan — esophageal cancer (scalding hot and fatty foods), in India and Central Asia — oral cancer (the habit of chewing betel). Americans ‘ addiction to easily digestible fiber-free foods (“fast food”) has led to growth in the country of colon and rectum cancer.

The change of place of residence is accompanied by a gradual decrease (in a generation) in the incidence of “native” cancer and the acquisition of a predisposition to cancer prevailing in the new country of residence. The prevalence of various forms of cancer is studied by analyzing the living conditions, habits and eating habits of the population, the mineral composition of the soil and water, the entire set of environmental conditions; special maps are compiled that reflect the number of diseases of various forms of cancer in specific settlements of a certain region.

The science of cancer is called — Oncology (from the Greek onkos — tumor and logos — word, doctrine) — medical and biological science, studying the theoretical, experimental and clinical aspects of oncogenesis in humans, animals, plants and developing methods of recognition, treatment and prevention of tumors.

Oncology was formed in the 20th century on the basis of the achievements of experimental medicine. In the experimental (starting with the works of Russian scientist Mstislav Alexandrovich Novinsky, 1876) and theoretical Oncology has developed 3 main areas: viral (French scientist Amadeus Borrell, 1903; American the pathologist and oncologist — Francis Rous, 1911), chemical (Japanese scientists, K. Yamagiwa and K. Ichikawa, 1915) and radiation (the French scientist and radiologist Antoine Lacassagne, 1932, and others) depending on the inducing agent. In the USSR^[ru], Lev A. silber, a scientist, microbiologist and immunologist, created the viral genetic theory of tumors. The rapid development of clinical Oncology is associated with the achievements of surgery, radiology, chemotherapy and immunology.

However, strictly scientific differentiation of living and nonliving meets certain difficulties items. So, there is still no consensus about whether human viruses that are outside cells of the host organism does not possess any of the attributes of the living: in the virus particle at this time there are no metabolic processes, it is not able to reproduce, etc.

The specificity of living things and life processes can be described as aspect of their financial structure and key features, underlying all manifestations of L. the Most accurate definition of life, embracing simultaneously both of these approaches to the problem, given about 100 years ago, the German philosopher, thinker and public figure, founder of Marxism Friedrich Engels: “Life is the mode of existence of protein bodies, and this method of existence consists essentially in a constant renewal of the chemical component parts of these bodies” (K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 20, p. 82). The term “protein” had not yet been determined quite accurately and it is usually attributed to the protoplasm as a whole.

All objects now known that possess the indisputable attributes of the living, are composed of two main types of biopolymers: proteins and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). Conscious of the incompleteness of his definition, Engels wrote: “Our definition of life, of course, very insufficient, because it is far from being able to embrace all the phenomena of life, but rather is limited to the most common and simplest among them… to get a really comprehensive view of life, we would have to trace all the forms of its manifestation, from the lowest to the highest” (ibid., p.84).

English scientist, naturalist, traveler, Creator of Darwinism, foreign corresponding member Petersburg Academy of Sciences Charles Darwin in the last lines of the “Origin of species” writes about the basic laws which, in his opinion, the basis of the occurrence of all forms L.: “These laws, in the broadest sense of Growth and Reproduction, Heredity, almost must be derived from the playback Variability that depend on direct or indirect action of conditions of life and from exercises and neupaney, the Progression of reproduction is so high that it leads to a Struggle for life and its consequence Natural Selection…” (Soch., vol. 3, Moscow — Leningrad, 1939, p. 666). If we leave aside the role of exercise, which, according to later reports, is factor non-hereditary variability, a synthesis of Darwin remains in force today, and his basic laws of life are reduced to two even more General. It is primarily the ability of the living to assimilate received from outside the substance, i.e. to be transformed into the likeness of their own financial structures, and due to this many times to play them (to reproduce). In this case, if the initial structure is randomly changed (mutation), it continues in a new form.

Ability to excessive self-reference underlies cell growth, reproduction of cells and organisms and, hence, the progression of reproduction (the main condition for natural selection), as well as the basis of heredity and hereditary variability. Soviet biochemist V. Engelhardt Engelhardt was considered the reproduction of their kind as a fundamental property of the living, which now receives the interpretation in terms of chemical concepts on a truly molecular level. The other feature of live is the huge variety of properties acquired due to the variability of the material structures of living objects. Each of these two fundamental properties is mainly connected with the function of one of the two biopolymers. The “record” of hereditary properties, i.e., the encoding of characteristics of the organism, necessary for the reproduction, by using DNA and RNA, although in the process of reproduction necessarily involved proteins enzymes. Thus, living is not a single molecule of DNA, protein or RNA and their system in General.

Implementation of diverse information about the properties of the organism by synthesis according to the genetic code of various proteins (enzymatic, structural, etc.), which due to its diversity and structural plasticity contributes to the development of various physical and chemical adaptations of living organisms. On this Foundation, in the process of evolution has arisen unsurpassed in its perfection live control systems. Thus, life is characterized by a highly ordered material structures containing two kinds of biopolymers (protein and DNA or RNA) that make up a living system, capable as a whole to replicate itself on the principle of matrix synthesis. A characteristic feature of the chemical composition of the known forms L. — asymmetry of optically active substances, presented in live objects levorotatory or dextrorotatory forms.

Life is possible only under certain physical and chemical conditions (temperature, presence of water, some salts, etc.). However, the cessation of life processes, such as drying seeds, or deep freezing of small organisms, does not lead to loss of viability. If the structure remains intact, it is in the return to normal conditions ensures the restoration of vital processes.

Life qualitatively surpasses other forms of existence of matter in relation to the diversity and complexity of chemical components and the dynamics occurring in a living transformations. Living systems are characterized by a much higher order structural and functional, in space and in time. Structural compactness and energy efficiency of a living — the result of higher order at the molecular level. One important consequence of this compactness is a universal effect of the “gain”, characteristic of all living systems. As of 5∙10^-15 g DNA contained in the fertilized egg of the whale, is contained information for the vast majority of signs of the animal, which weighs 5∙10⁷ G. Here, therefore, if you have the necessary conditions, the weight increases by 22 fine. “It is the ability of the living to create order out of the chaotic thermal motion of molecules, — wrote Vladimir Aleksandrovich Engelgardt, is the most profound, fundamental difference between living from non-living. The tendency to organize, to create order out of chaos is nothing like countering the increase of entropy” (“Communist”, 1969, № 3, p. 85).

Living systems exchange with the environment energy, matter and information, i.e., they are open systems. In this case, unlike inanimate systems, and they does not correct the energy differences and the reorganization of the structures in the direction of more probable forms, and there is the opposite: restores the difference of energy potentials, chemical composition, etc., i.e. continuously going to work “against equilibrium” (Ervin Simonovich Bauer). This is based on the erroneous assertion that living systems allegedly do not obey the second law of thermodynamics. However, the local decrease in entropy in living systems is possible only by increasing entropy in the environment, so in General, the process of increasing entropy continues, which is consistent with the requirements of the second law of thermodynamics. In the figurative expression of the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger, living organisms like to feed on negative entropy (negentropy), removing her from the environment and increasing the positive increase of entropy in it.

Life on Earth originated at least 1.5 — 2 billion years ago (see origin of life), presented with a huge number of organisms. Each organism can exist only under the condition of constant close contact with the environment, with other organisms and inanimate nature, and this relationship is bilateral. L. in all its manifestations has produced profound changes in the evolution of our planet, at least the outer shells. In perfecting the process of evolution, living organisms have been increasingly spread across the planet, taking an increasing part in the redistribution of energy and substances in the earth’s crust, and in air and water environments of the Earth.

The emergence and spread of vegetation has led to a radical change in the composition of the atmosphere originally contained very little free oxygen and consisting mainly of carbon dioxide and probably methane and ammonia. Plants assimilating carbon from CO₂, has led to the creation of an atmosphere that contains free oxygen and only traces of CO₂. Free oxygen in the atmosphere was not only active chemical agent, but also a source of ozone, block the path of the ultraviolet rays to the surface of the Earth (“ozone shield”). At the same time the carbon for centuries siplivaya in plant residues formed in the earth’s crust vast energy reserves in the form of deposits of organic compounds (coal, peat).

Vegetation cover changed the physical and chemical characteristics of the planet; changed, in particular, the reflectance of the land surface of various parts of the solar spectrum. The development of life in the oceans led to the creation of sedimentary rock composed of the skeletons and other remains of marine organisms. These deposits, their mechanical pressure, chemical and physical transformations changed the surface of the crust. Active selective absorption of substances by the organisms caused the redistribution of substances in the upper layers of the cortex. All this testifies to the presence on Earth of a special shell called the Soviet scientist, geochemist, Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky the biosphere, which was developed and continues to this day the phenomena of life.

In the course of evolution of living organisms is being continuously improved processes of regulation and their adaptation to external conditions, in freely moving animals has contributed to the development of the Central nervous system. Development is influenced by social labor the most advanced forms of higher nervous activity in human ancestors created the preconditions for life transition to a new social level associated with a new form of movement, human and qualitatively different from the biological, inherent in other forms of L., After the transition to this level, with the emergence of social consciousness, it becomes possible prediction of the development and creation of new forms of regulation and adaptations that are able to provide benefits that are impossible in the purely biological process of development. (Alexander A. Malinovsky, «Great Soviet Encyclopedia»)

Learn more about life read in the literature:

• F. Engels, Dialectics of nature, Marx Karl and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., so Twenty;
• its the same Anti-dühring, ibid.;
• Lenin Vladimir Ilyich, Materialism and empiriocriticism, Full. Coll. soch., 5th ed., so Eighteen;
• In Vernadsky. I., the Biosphere, V. 1 — 2, l, 1926;
• Bauer E. S., Theoretical biology, Moscow — Leningrad, 1935;
• Schroedinger E., What is life from the point of view of physics?, translation from English., Moscow, 1947;
• Schmalhausen, Ivan Ivanovich, Cybernetic questions of biology, Novosibirsk, 1968;
• Malinovsky, A. A., Some questions of the organization of biological systems, in journal: Organization and management, Moscow, 1968;
• In Engelhardt., The problem of life in modern natural science, “Communist”, 1969, No. 3;
• L. fon bertalanfy. Problems of life, N. J., [I960].

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When the fruit is right, when the size of his head does not exceed the size of the maternal pelvis, when the first deliveries taking place in a woman is not old, but at a young age, they occur most part almost painless, or with a little soreness, which is easily a woman carries.

If a woman obsessed with the fear of pain, even slightly bout it takes for the beginning of pains and preparing for something terrible, starts screaming. The next day she was unable to transmit their feelings, since forgotten about them, and her cry was just waiting for something terrible. In most cases, pain during childbirth is developing a sense of fear of childbirth, which is the result of secular education on the idea that a woman “gives birth in pain.” This view is embedded in the consciousness of a woman with a child and waiting for the meal, she was experiencing them in advance.

To get rid of the fear of childbirth, a woman should from the beginning to the end of pregnancy attending antenatal clinics. There she will tell all about the pregnancy, the physiology of childbirth, to soothe her. A woman should go to the maternity hospital with full confidence in the doctors ^[ru] and support staff who at the time of delivery will be with her, surrounding her with attention.

Under normal physiological labor contractions are usually transferred easily, especially if a woman in labor does not remain alone. Most pains are during the opening of the cervix, when the cervix is ??fully open, pain is significantly reduced and temporarily disappears acquire bearing-down nature of the bout. When strong contractions applied anesthesia. Methods of its many and varied. There was widespread method psychoprophylaxis anesthesia, based on the teachings of Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (Иван Петрович Павлов) on the higher nervous activity.

The moment of separation of the placenta is accompanied by a feeling reiterates fight. When passing the placenta from the uterus into the vagina tighter there is a need, then there is a full selection of placenta. This delivery ends.

The child is doing the appropriate toilet and injected into the eye ^[ru] special drops to prevent the development of infection. On the remains of the umbilical cord bandage.

The postpartum period is about 6 weeks. During this time, all the changes in the mother’s body caused by pregnancy and childbirth, gradually disappear. The uterus shrinks in size, reaching a normal level by the end of the 6th week.

Along with the reduction of the inner surface of the healing takes place and recovery of the uterus mucous membrane, which is accompanied by the release of lochia. In the first days after birth release are bloody, they gradually replaced sukrovichnymi that continues 3-4 days, and finally acquired a whitish color. In the postpartum period there are changes in other organs of the reproductive system of women. Gradually restored the elasticity of ligaments and muscles of the perineum, vagina narrows. Along with the processes of involution developing excretory function of the mammary glands. They swell and stiffen. Isolation of the milk usually starts on day 3-4 after birth.

In the postpartum period, especially in the early days, she feels tired, needs rest and sleep. Often in the first days after birth observed urinary retention, tendency to constipation, but this is a temporary phenomenon and will soon pass.

Circulatory system by cells and tissues of the body supplied with nutrients and oxygen, and removed from the products of metabolism. Therefore, the circulatory system is sometimes called the transport or distribution, system.

In humans, the heart is located in the thoracic cavity asymmetrically: ¹/₃ it is the right of the median plane of the body, ²/₃ – on the left. The base of the heart facing up, back and to the right; tip – down, forward and to the left.

The rear surface of the heart adjacent to the diaphragm. Since it is surrounded on all sides with light, except for the front surface immediately adjacent to the chest wall (Fig. 1):

Fig. 1. Projection of the heart, the valves and large vessels on the anterior chest wall (semi-schematic): 1 – the trachea; 2 – right common carotid artery; 3 – brachiocephalic trunk; 4 – subclavian artery; 5 – subclavian Vienna; 6 – opening of the aorta (aortic semilunar valves); 7 – right atrioventricular orifice (tricuspid valve); 8 – external carotid artery; 9 – internal jugular Vienna; 10 – the thyroid gland; 11 – left brachiocephalic Vienna; 12 – aortic arch; 13 – pulmonary trunk; 14 – bronchi; 15 – hole pulmonary trunk (pulmonary artery valve); 16 – left atrioventricular orifice (mitral valve); 17 – apex of the heart.

In adults, the heart is the length of 12-15 cm, the transverse dimension of 8-11 cm anteroposterior size of 5-8 cm. The weight of the heart 220 – 300 g, is ¹/₂₁₅ of the body weight in men and ¹/₁₅₀ part – in women. Atrium – cavities, perceiving the blood from the veins. In the right atrium fall lower and upper vena cava carrying venous blood from the systemic circulation and the veins of the heart (including coronary sinus), the left – 4 pulmonary veins, which flows arterial blood from the lungs, oxygenated. Both are connected to the ventricles atrium atrioventricular openings which are closed in reducing ventricular flap valve. The inner surface of the crossbar and the ventricles are conical projections, called papillary muscles. From the tops of these muscles to the free edges of the flaps atrioventricular valves stretch tendon strings, preventing vyvёrtyvaniyu valve leaflets toward the atria.

At the base of the pulmonary trunk and aortic valve located pulmonary trunk and aortic valve. These valves consist of three semilunar cusps’s opening towards the respective vessels (Fig. 2), resulting in reductions of blood from the right ventricle of the heart enters the pulmonary trunk and the left of – the aorta (Fig. 3).

Fig. 2. Right (tricuspid) and left (mitral) atrioventricular valves. The valves of the aorta and pulmonary trunk (cross-sectional removed pulmonary trunk and aorta atrium; top view): 1 – pulmonary valve stem (crescent-shaped pockets); 2 – left annulus; 3 – left ventricle; 4 – left atrioventricular valve (mitral); 5 – aortic valve; 6 – Right annulus; 7 – right ventricle; 8 – right atrioventricular valve (tricuspid).

Fig. 3. Aortic valve (part of the wall of the left ventricle and the aorta bulbs cut and deployed): 1 – right coronary artery; 2 – aortic valve; 3 – the left ventricle (opened and deployed); 4 – papillary muscle; 5 – aorta (opened and deployed); 6 – left coronary artery; 7 – left atrioventricular valve; 8 – tendon strings.

The wall of the heart consists of three layers: the inner – endocardium, medium – infarction and outdoor – epicardium. Endocardium lines the cavity of the heart, is built of connective tissue containing collagen, elastic fibers and smooth muscle, blood vessels and nerves. On the free surface is covered with endocardium endothelium. Heart valves are the folds of endocardium. Myocardium – the thickest shell, divided into 2-3 layers. In atrial thickness reaches 2.3 mm in the right ventricle – 5.8 mm, left – 10-15 mm. The difference in thickness is associated with different functional load.

The myocardium is composed of striated muscle cells – myocytes. Their length varies from 50 to 120 microns, the width is equal to 15-20 microns. In the central portion 1-2 located myocyte nucleus. Contractile elements – myofibrils occupy the peripheral part of the sarcoplasmic. The ability of the heart to the continuous operation associated with mitochondria contained in myocytes – native enzymes involved in redox processes that provide cells with energy. Between adjacent myocytes are intercalated discs in which are combined into myocytes muscle fibers (Fig. 4):

Fig. 4. Schematic representation of the intercalated disks of cardiac muscle of mammals: A – a place close contact cell membranes of myocytes (nexus); B – the lateral edge portion of the muscle fiber, which have intimate contact between the membranes myocytes: gap separating membrane, according to the extracellular space.

Through the intercalated disks held excitation from one cell to another. Muscle fibers as atrial and ventricular start fibrotic heart rings surrounding the atrio-ventricular openings. Muscles of the atria, ventricles detached from the muscles, consists of 2 layers: the outer circular and deep longitudinal fibers which in folded cover the mouth of the vena cava draining into the atrium.

Muscles of the ventricles has three layers: the outer and inner – longitudinal, transverse between them – circular (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Muscle layers of the heart; left (deleted portions of the myocardium to show the location of its layers, pulmonary trunk and the aorta removed at their base): 1 – the external oblique layer; 2 – middle circular layer; 3 – deep longitudinal layer.

Partition between the ventricles constructed mainly of muscular tissue and it leaves the endocardial lining, except for the upper portion, where the ventricles are separated by only two sheets with a layer of fibrous endocardial tissue therebetween. At the heart of education contained atypical muscle tissue, the cells of which are poor and rich sarcoplasm myofibrils. The tissue forms the so-called cardiac conduction system made up of the sinoatrial node, located in the wall between the right atrium and the superior vena cava right eye; atrioventricular node, located in the wall between the atria of the right atrioventricular valve; atrioventricular bundle branch coming from the atrioventricular node in the interventricular septum. Bundle of His divides into right and left legs branching in the ventricular myocardium as the Purkinje fibers. The cells of the conduction system generate rhythmic excitation pulses and transmit them to the first atrial myocardium, and then on the myocardium of the ventricles, causing a reduction in series of chambers of the heart. Tightly to the epicardium and myocardium consists of connective tissue. Free its surface is covered mesothelium. At the base of the heart epicardium wrapped and goes into the pericardial sac – pericardium. Between the epicardium and pericardium is slit-like cavity containing a small amount of serous fluid friction reducing heart wall while it is running.

Blood supply to the heart is done right and left coronary arteries extending from the ascending aorta. Large veins of the heart are collected in coronary sinus, which flows into the right atrium, which coincide, moreover, and small veins. In the heart there is a dense capillary network, each muscle fiber is accompanied by capillaries. Lymph from the heart and mediastinal drains into the left tracheobronchial nodes.

Innervate the heart of wandering and sympathetic nerves. Located within the heart intracardiac ganglia containing the so-called efferent nerve cells that transmit impulses from them suitable fibers of the vagus nerve on the myocardium and coronary vessels. Furthermore, in the ganglia and heart are sensitive (afferent) nerve cells shoots which form closure sensitive devices (receptors) on the coronary vessels and the myocardium. These cells are in contact with intracardiac efferent neurons, forming intracardiac reflex mechanisms. (O.N. Aksenova)

On April 6, 1985, American^[ru] William Schroeder became the first person in the world to be discharged from the hospital with an artificial heart.

29 September is celebrated the world heart day (World Heart Day). It was first organized in 1999 on the initiative of the world heart Federation. This action was supported by the World health organization (WHO), UNESCO and other relevant organizations. Initially, the Day was held on the last Sunday of September, and since 2011 it has a fixed date-September 29.

Human health is determined by a complex biological (genetic and acquired) and social factors; the past are so important in maintaining health or to the origin and development of the disease that the preamble of the Charter of the World Health Organization says: “Health – a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.” However, such a broad sociological definition of health is somewhat controversial, as the social usefulness of a person does not always coincide with his biological condition.

In general, the concept of health is somewhat arbitrary and objectively established jointly anthropometric, clinical, physiological and biochemical parameters determined by taking into account gender, age factors, as well as climatic and geographical conditions.

Health should be characterized not only qualitatively but also quantitatively, as there is a concept of its extent, determined by the breadth of adaptation (adaptive) of the body. Although health is a state opposite to the disease^[ru], it may be associated with it various transition states and not have clear boundaries.

Health status does not exclude the presence in the body has not yet manifested pathogenic start or fluctuations in subjective well-being. Due to these features, the notion “almost human health”, at which the pathological changes in the body do not affect the well-being and not reflected in human performance. However, lack of manifesting health disorders may not indicate the absence of the disease state, as overvoltage protective-adaptive mechanisms, without breaking health can lead to the development of the disease on the body when exposed to extreme irritants.

The factors determining the health of the population, include the value of real wages, working hours, the degree of intensity and working conditions, the presence of occupational hazards, the level and nature of food, housing, lifestyle, state of health and the health of the country. Unambiguous criterion by which one could judge the state of health of the inhabitants of a country, virtually non-existent; even such a complex index, as life expectancy, by itself, without taking into account the complex socio-biological research, is not sufficient to assess the west population. Scientific organization of health of individuals and human communities must be based on improving the protective properties of the body of people, as well as on creating conditions that prevent the possibility of human contact with different pathogenic stimuli, or to reduce their effects on the body.

Soviet health every effort to develop, maintain and strengthen human health. This was facilitated by a preventive nature of Soviet medicine, free, accessible and efficient treatment, a wide network of medical institutions, sanatoriums and rest homes, mass organization of physical culture and sports.

The structure of the eye

The eyeball has a spherical shape. The central point of the front surface of the eye called the anterior pole, a point located on the rear surface, in the place of origin of the optic nerve – the posterior pole. The line connecting the poles of the eye is taken for an anatomical axis, it coincides with the geometrical axis. In the front, facing the light of the eye is located diopter (light-refracting) apparatus (refractive media system, which includes the cornea (See. The cornea), a transparent lenticular lens – the lens, aqueous humor and filling the cavity of the eye vitreous, as well as serving to accommodate the ciliary body and iris, or the iris), transmitting the image on a photosensitive retina (See. Retin-A), or retina.

The wall of the back of the eyeball consists of three shells, tightly adjacent to each other. The dense outer shell – the sclera – has a supporting and protective value; it gives the eye shape being like a skeleton. At the open front side of the eye, the sclera becomes thin and transparent cornea. Under the sclera is richly endowed with blood vessels choroid, the front of which is in the form of a thin plate forms the iris, which has a hole in the middle – the pupil. In the tissue of the iris in most vertebrates are special muscles – sphincter and dilator that, expanding and narrowing the pupil to regulate entry into the eyes of the light rays, and the iris, ie. A., Plays the role of the diaphragm.

Of pigmentation of the iris containing pigment cells – chromatophores – and transmission through the transparent cornea, eye color depends. If there are no chromatophores, or outer layer of the retina is devoid of pigment, the iris shine through the blood vessels of the choroid and eyes are red (see. Albinism). Painting of the iris sometimes varies depending on the age, sex and animal habitats (dark color eyes of many young birds and bright in old or milky-white color of the iris in young and orange-yellow in older, for example, in goshawk). Behind the iris ciliary body located – ring roller containing muscle fibers. To him using fiber bundles Zinn suspended bag lens. Reduction of ciliary body causes in most vertebrates change in curvature of the lens, ie. E. The accommodation (See. Accommodation) (adaptation of the eye to the distant or near vision).

The inner shell photosensitive eye – the retina. At the posterior pole of the eye is yellow spot; somewhat closer to the center line of it is land, devoid of sensitivity to light – a blind spot. At this point is collected from the entire retinal nerve fiber of the optic nerve as extending further into the brain. Different classes of vertebrate eye has a number of characteristics.

The fish eye cornea is totally flat and spherical lens:

Eye of fish (pike longitudinal section of the eye): 1 – the retina; 2 – pigment layer; 3 – choroid; 4 – the optic nerve; 5 – the lens; 6 – supporting ligament of the lens; 7 – muscle to move the lens; 8 – the tendon of the lens; 9 – Iris; 10 – cornea; 11 – the sclera; 12 – silver shell.

In the cavity of the eye juts from the choroid special crescent process containing smooth muscle fibers that attach to the bag of the lens. Thus, the accommodation of the eye in fish is achieved by moving the lens. In the back of the choroid often contains a special layer of cells filled with crystals of light pigment so-called silver shell. Some fish have a shiny layer – mirror (tapetum) that reflects light rays back to the retina, resulting in an apparent glow eyes of some fish in almost complete darkness (eg sharks). In some deep-sea fish eyes are reduced, while others are well adapted to capture faint light underwater depths – huge, telescopic eyes.

Four-eyed fish pupils have elongated in the vertical direction; cornea is divided by a horizontal bar in the upper and lower sections. When the fish floating on the surface, the upper part of her eye is able to survey the air environment, the bottom – water.

Amphibians cornea differs big bulge:

Eye amphibian (frog eye longitudinal section): 1 – the lower oblique muscle of the eye; 2 – inferior rectus muscle of the eye; 3 – the lower eyelid; 4 – muscle, attracting the lens; 5 – the optic nerve; 6 – nictitating membrane; 7 – pupillary muscles; 8 – scleral cartilage; 9 – superior oblique muscle; 10 – upper rectus; 11 – the upper eyelid; 12 – Zinn fiber.

In the iris and ciliary body has an underdeveloped musculature; Accommodation of the eye by moving the lens by means of a special muscle, attracting the lens forward to the cornea, as well as by the pressure of ciliated muscle.

In reptiles (Fig. 1), excluding the Gutter and the turtles, and birds (Fig. 2), except for kiwis, vitreous juts from the entrance of the optic nerve outgrowth characteristic, abundantly supplied with blood vessels, – crest. Visual apparatus of birds in many respects superior to the eyes of other animals. The eyeball has a very large size and unique structure, thereby increasing the field of view. Birds that have particularly keen eyesight (vultures, eagles), the eyeball is elongated “telescopic” form. In the retina, there are up to three yellow spots.

Fig. 1. Eye reptile (snake eyes longitudinal section): 1 – the muscles of the iris; 2 – the front wall of the lens; 3 – cornea; 4 – ciliary body with muscles; 5 – suborbital scales; 6 – the sclera; 7 – supraorbital scales; 8 – fused eyelids; 9 – Zinn bunch.

Fig. 2. Eye of a bird of prey (longitudinal section): 1 – the cornea, sclera in passing; 2 – choroid; 3 – ciliary body; 4 – vitreous; 5 – Iris; 6 – the lens; 7 – the optic nerve; 8 – ridge; 9 – retina; 10 – the sclera; 11 – front camera.

The mammalian eye in its form approaches to the eyes of amphibians. In aquatic mammals (eg, whales) it is the convexity of the cornea and a high refractive index resembles the eyes deep-sea fish. In carnivores, pinnipeds and kitoooraznyh the inner surface of the choroid forms, as well as a number of fish, the brilliant pigment layer – mirror.

Reduced eyes are in cave fish and amphibians (eg Proteus); living in underground mammals (eg, moles) they differ or deep bedding under the skin, or the lack of the lens, iris and some layers of the retina.

On April 21, 1969, the first human eye transplant took place. The transplant took place in Houston, Texas. Doctors^[ru] transplanted an eye from a donor who died^[ru] from a brain tumor to 54-year-old John Madden. But, unfortunately, the eye did not take root and after 9 days the bleeding started, as the donor organ did not take root.

Song «Your eye» — Alexander Malinin:

(Article from the Russian “Great Soviet Encyclopedia”, punctuation in the original):

Physicians are trained medical school. Persons who have graduated from foreign medical school, physicians have the right to work in the USSR after the state examinations and examinations for those courses that are not taught in foreign schools. Persons who have experience of medical work, as well as persons with a scientific degree are admitted to medical work by special permission of the Ministry of Health ^[ru] (no exams).

Activities of physicians in a socialist state consists of curative and preventive work aimed at improving the environment, working and living conditions of the population. The doctor is guided by medical ethics, which includes the concept of the physician’s duty. Working in a hospital, the doctor must maintain patient confidentiality. It is the duty of the doctor – first aid. Soviet legislation criminalizes the failure to assist a patient unexcused persons obliged to provide such assistance under the law (the RSFSR Criminal Code, Art. 128). If the person did not have a medical staff necessary patient care in the performance of their duties, they are held accountable both for malfeasance. Doctors involved also in private practice, are required to register in a special book an overview of the patients, as well as all-purpose and manufactured manipulation.

Doctors in the field are divided into physicians (internal medicine), Pediatrics (pediatricians), surgeons, gynecologists (for women’s diseases), radiologists, neurologists (on nervous diseases), psychiatrists (for mental illness), dermatologists (for skin and venereal diseases ), dentists (for diseases of the mouth and teeth), otolaryngologists (ear disease, nose and throat), TB specialists (for tuberculosis), oncologists (for tumor diseases), trauma (for various injuries), orthopedic (on diseases of musculoskeletal motion), and others.

For proper use of physicians and improve their skills in the USSR practiced certification of doctors. Qualification is determined by a special commission. Higher qualification is assigned a doctor with experience in the profession for at least 10 years old, having a high theoretical and practical training. Depending on qualifications and seniority doctors set wages.

In capitalist countries, medical care is provided mainly by private practitioners; in some countries, certain types of medical care provided free of charge in hospitals owned or charities. (Y.I. Rodov.)

March 30 – National Doctor’s Day in the USA^[ru]

For the first time, the celebration of the (National Doctor’s Day) in the United States, which is now celebrated annually on March 30, in 1991 after the approval of the lawful approval of this holiday was approved by Congress and the Senate in 1990.

The resolution on its creation was signed on October 30, 1990 by US President George W. Bush. For the first time the Doctor’s Day was celebrated on March 30, 1933, in Winder, Georgia. The idea of “celebrating Doctor’s Day” belongs to Ehodore Elmond – the wife of Dr. Charles Elmond. The first celebration of Doctor’s Day was marked by sending out greeting cards for doctors and laying flowers on the graves of the departed doctors.

The symbol of the Doctor’s Day in America is the red carnation. To celebrate the holiday on this day was proposed to mark the anniversary of the first application of general anesthesia by an American physician and pharmacist Crawford Long (1815-1878) in 1842. On March 30, 1958, the US House of Representatives approved a resolution establishing the Doctor’s Day.

Oath of the doctor of the Russian Federation

When I receive the high rank of doctor and begin my professional career, I solemnly swear:

• Honestly fulfill their medical duty, to devote their knowledge and skills to the prevention and treatment of diseases, preservation and promotion of human health;
• To be always ready to render medical aid, to keep medical secret, to treat carefully and carefully the patient, to act exclusively in his interests irrespective of sex, race, nationality, language, origin, property and official position, a residence, the relation to religion, beliefs, belonging to public associations, and also other circumstances;
  Show the highest respect for human life, never resort to the implementation of euthanasia;
• To keep gratitude and respect to the teachers, to be exacting and fair to the pupils, to promote their professional growth;
• To treat colleagues kindly, to ask them for help and advice if the interests of the patient require it, and to never refuse to colleagues help and advice;
• Constantly improve their professional skills, protect and develop the noble traditions of medicine.

Celebrity quotes about love:

Jean de La Bruyere:

A good doctor is a person who knows the remedies for certain ailments or, if the disease is unknown to him, calls to the patient those who can help him.

Osho:

When you are ill, call a doctor. But most importantly, call those who love you, because there is no medicine more important than love^[ru].

March 30-national doctor’s day in the United States

The first celebration of National doctor’s day in the United States^[ru], which is now celebrated annually on March 30, took place in 1991 after the Congress and the Senate approved the legal approval of this holiday in 1990.

The resolution on its establishment was signed on October 30, 1990 by US President George Bush. The first doctor’s Day was celebrated on March 30, 1933, in Winder, Georgia. The idea of celebrating the day of the doctor belongs to Eodora Almond-the wife of Dr. Charles almond. The first doctor’s day celebration was marked by sending greeting cards to practitioners and laying flowers on the graves of deceased doctors.

The symbol of doctor’s Day in America is a red carnation. Celebrate the holiday on this day was proposed to commemorate the anniversary of the first use of General anesthesia by the American doctor and pharmacist Crawford long (1815-1878) in 1842. On March 30, 1958, the U.S. House of representatives approved a resolution establishing doctor’s Day.

March 30-national doctor’s day in the United States
The first celebration of National doctor’s day in the United States (national Doctor’s Day), which is now celebrated annually on March 30, took place in 1991 after the Congress and the Senate approved the legal approval of this holiday in 1990.

The resolution on its establishment was signed on October 30, 1990 by US President George Bush. The first doctor’s Day was celebrated on March 30, 1933, in Winder, Georgia. The idea of celebrating the day of the doctor belongs to Eodora Almond-the wife of Dr. Charles almond. The first doctor’s day celebration was marked by sending greeting cards to practitioners and laying flowers on the graves of deceased doctors.

The symbol of doctor’s Day in America is a red carnation. Celebrate the holiday on this day was proposed to commemorate the anniversary of the first use of General anesthesia by the American doctor and pharmacist Crawford long (1815-1878) in 1842. On March 30, 1958, the U.S. House of representatives approved a resolution establishing doctor’s Day.

See also — the Text of the Hippocratic oath in Russian.

For more information about the specialty read^[ru] in the literature:

• Artemyev FA, legislation on health management of the USSR^[ru], Moscow, 1955;
• N.A. Semashko, On Ethics Soviet doctor, “Hygiene and Sanitation”, 1945, № 1 – 2;
• Gruber G. V., Arzt und Ethik, B., 1956.