If you know what to expect in the installation of your deck or patio, then you might be able to prevent mishaps or misunderstandings from occurring. Below is a brief, step-by-step process of the installation of interlocking concrete pavers. This process can be applied toward most paving applications.

Layout and excavation of a site

The layout of an interlocking concrete pavement is where the drawing is translated into reality. In addition to knowing the size of the project and excavated area, the layout forces the contractor to consider the sequence of job functions and crew involvement. Considering all factors in advance helps ensure a smooth operation.

Preparing the soil subgrade

As with the layout and excavation, proper preparation of the pavement foundation is one of the most important elements of the job. Soil subgrade and base preparation should consume up to 70 percent of the labor. For example, if the job will be completed in five days, you can expect the soil subgrade and base to be prepared in three days. Preparing the subgrade is setting the table for the rest of the pavement. Attention must be given to understanding the type of soil, and the amount of compaction.

Soil type

A properly prepared soil subgrade will support the base above it and allow the base to perform its role of distributing the loads and stresses from above. The soil type should have been identified before starting the job, during the bid proposal. It can affect the estimate on labor hours and the type of equipment required for the job.

Compaction

Once the soil type is identified, the contractor will need to compact it. Compaction increases the weight per unit volume (or density) of soil. When a soil is compacted, the air spaces between the voids decrease. Compaction achieves four main purposes: it will increase the soil’s load bearing strength; prevent pavement settlement/rutting; reduce seasonal movement and help ensure that any movement is uniform.

Installing Geotextiles (optional)

Geotextiles are recommended over clays or silts. They are also a good choice over soils saturated for a large portion of the year. The fabric separates the soils from the base and prevents them from migrating upward into the base.

Base installation

ICPI recommends minimum base thickness for different applications. For pedestrian areas, including patios and walkways, a minimum 4 inches of thickness is recommended. For residential driveways over well-drained soils, a minimum of 6 inches of thickness is recommended. These thicknesses will be increased in colder climates or over continually wet or weak soils. Most driveways in freezing climates are at least 10 inches thick.

Installation of edge restraints

Edge restraints are a critical component of all interlocking concrete pavements. They hold the pavers in place for the life of the pavement.

Bedding sand

Sand is installed over the base to a consistent thickness. ICPI guidelines note that bedding sand can be installed between ¾ inches and 1½ inches thick. With the compacted base and uncompacted bedding sand installed to these tolerances, the pavers are ready for installation.

Choosing the right paver for the job

It is important to choose the right pavers for the application. As a rule of thumb, pedestrian areas and residential driveways will achieve interlock with 2 3/8-inch-thick pavers. Another important consideration is the size of the paver. It is important that you ask your contractor whether the pavers they are using are the recommended size for the application.

Cutting pavers

All jobs with concrete pavers will involve cutting. There are three basic tools for cutting pavers: the mechanical splitter, the powered table saw and the hand-held gas powered quick saw. Professional contractors should take care to control the dust from cutting pavers but you should always expect that there will be dust during this process. Cutting pavers is also noisy.

Understanding pavement installation – a step-by-step process

Compacting the pavers in place

Pavers are first compacted without joint sand to create initial interlock. All pavers should have two passes of the plate compactor over them prior to filling the joints with joint sand. After this is complete, dry joint sand is spread and swept and the pavers compacted again until the joints are completely full. At the end of the day all pavers should be compacted in place within 6 to 8 feet of any unfinished edge.

Below is a list of information you should be aware of regarding paver installation.

Make sure the excavated area will be a minimum of six inches wider than the actual paved area. The extra width will help ensure stability of the base at the edges, and provide space for the required edge restraints.

For proper draining, the slope from the paved area will be at a minimum of 2 percent.

If compacted properly, the aggregate base will not absorb or hold water and its density will minimize deformation and/or heaving of the paved surface during freezing or thawing.

An aggregate base, which is composed of crushed rock or sand, will be compacted in 4-inch layers to achieve the maximum density and load bearing capacity. Each layer will require several passes of a compactor to achieve this. The loosely placed, even layer of washed, coarse sand provides a setting bed for the pavers. Its depth will be no thicker than one and one-half inches thick. When the pavers are placed on the sand and compacted, the sand moves up into the joints. This causes the pavers to interlock and become level after compaction. Note: limestone screenings and stone dust should not be used for bedding sand.

If you have a chance to watch the installation process, make sure the pavers are taken from multiple bundles or pallets simultaneously to ensure an even mixture of color.

An edge restraint will be installed around the perimeter of the pavers to eliminate horizontal creeping of the pavers and loss of bedding sand.

Sealant is not necessary, however, it may enhance the colors and may prevent staining. Allow a minimum of 60-90 days after completion of the installation before sealing. Consult your supplier for recommendations on cleaning and sealing.

Below are just a few of the questions you should ask yourself when considering the design and function of your new bath.

What features would make the bath more comfortable for you?

How would you like to use your bath?

Is this a family bath or master bath?

How many people will be using it?

Are there enough sinks and counter space for everyone?

Are there enough baths in the house or should you consider adding another room? (This is usually a concern as children reach their teen years and also with expanding families.)

Lifestyle Questions for the Bath

Do you prefer to take showers or baths? If you like baths, would you prefer a tub and shower combination unit or separate facilities? Have you always wanted a claw foot tub or would you rather install a whirlpool?

Do you have adequate storage? (Make a list of all the items you need to store in the bath to ensure proper storage space in the plan. This list also should include cleaning agents, toiletries, linens, first aid items and medications. Indicate on this list where in the room you would like to store each of these items. For example, you may want some of the toiletries in the shower area, while others will be used by the sink or dressing area. Storage is one of the biggest concerns in any design, particularly in rooms as small as the typical bath. Carefully consider this aspect of the room during your pre-planning phase.)

Have you considered the lighting in your bath?

What kind of lighting do you want in your bath?

(You can still obtain a water rich environment with water-saving features.)

If the bath in question is a shared bath for the family, would a separation of the sinks from the rest of the room be helpful?

Have you considered newer water-saving fixtures? (You can still obtain a water rich environment with water-saving features.)

Working on your home and furnishings can be both fun and rewarding if you follow simple safety guidelines. For the best results and your own safety, remember to read and follow all label warnings and instructions carefully. If you feel the task might be overwhelming, never be afraid to consult with an expert in sanding and refinishing your wood.

To preserve that glowing quality wood gets with age, we suggest you not sand refinished wood. Refinishing floors is one exception. And of course, you may have to sand a piece that has been stripped with materials that have raised the grain or to remove imbedded wax or stearates.

Understanding staining techniques

Make sure all hardware is removed, including hinges. Mask mirror with tape if it cannot be removed.

Sand off glue on any spot to be stained; otherwise, stain will not penetrate.

Wipe wood surface with a tack rag or cloth dampened with mineral spirits.

To assure the highest quality results from your staining work, closely follow these guidelines:

Mix the stain thoroughly before you begin and frequently while you’re staining. This helps keep the color consistent throughout the project.

Before proceeding, apply the stain on a discreet area of wood to test the color.

Apply stain by brushing or wiping it in the direction of the grain, using smooth, even strokes. Wipe off any excess.

Avoid unattractive lap marks by applying stain from an unpainted area back into the last wet stain. In other words, don’t let a section of stain dry before you blend it in with stain from an adjoining section.

Let dry completely (usually 24 hours).

Apply a second coat if you want a darker look. Also, apply a second coat if staining badly weathered or unfinished wood.

Helpful Staining Tips

Use the right brush. Use a natural-bristle brush for oil stains and a synthetic-bristle brush for latex stains.

Apply stain only at the proper temperature. For most stains, 70 degrees Fahrenheit is the optimum, with the safety range from 50 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit. Stains do vary, so check the label first.

Avoid high humidity when applying stain. All finishes, including stains and paint, have trouble drying in moist conditions.

Tax time is around the corner and if you’ve moved during 2010 you may be eligible for some tax breaks. Uncle Sam will pay you back if:

• You are moving to a new location to start a job or a business or attend courses full-time at a post-secondary school or college.

• The location of your new job must be at least 50 miles farther from your previous residence than your last job. So if you lived 10 miles from your old job, you have to live 60 miles from your old home before you can deduct moving costs.

You can deduct:

• Traveling expenses including vehicle expenses, meals and lodging
• Transportation and storage of personal items
• Cost of canceling a lease at your previous residence
• Up to 15 days of meals and accommodation near either residence if your moving dates do not coincide
• Selling costs of your old residence including real estate commission
• Legal fees on sale of previous residence and purchase of new residence
• Mortgage penalty
• Advertising
• Legal fees and land transfer tax for purchase of new residence
• Utilities disconnection/reconnection costs
• Mortgage interest, insurance, property taxes and utilities associated with old residence while attempting to sell it, to a limit of $5,000 for maximum 3 month period

You can’t deduct:

• Loss on the sale of your previous home
• Expenses for house-hunting trips before your move
• Cost of work done to your former residence to make it more sell-able

Keep in mind, however, that you can carry forward unclaimed moving expenses into the year following the move, to apply against that year’s earnings. You are not allowed to deduct moving expenses that are paid by your employer.

If you’re married and file jointly, only one spouse needs to meet both the time and distance tests. You can’t combine the weeks your spouse worked with the weeks you worked to satisfy the time-employed component.

If you deduct moving expenses and then don’t meet the time requirements, you must file an amended tax return or include the moving expenses in your income the next year.

Details on moving expenses and tax deductions can be found in IRS Publication 521, Moving Expenses.

1. How do I know I selected the right mover?

A reputable mover will be licensed and insured and will have an established place of business for at least three years. Visit a prospective mover’s facility to see if he can serve you properly.

2. How can I be sure I have an accurate estimate?

Final prices paid may vary from the cost for binding and non-binding estimates. An accurate survey, including an accurate box count, is the first step in receiving a realistic price quote.

3. What can change the price of my move?

Additional charges may be incurred for the following reasons:

• Your shipment is delivered into an elevator building.
• Access to your residence is more that 75 feet from the mover’s parked truck to your front door.

• Your shipment must be carried up one or more flights of stairs.

4. How will I be charged for packing?

Packing charges are based on the number of boxes packed by the mover. This is the most variable portion of your cost of moving. To get an accurate packing estimate it is necessary to have a concise list of what you want packed.

5. How do I pay for my move?

Be certain to have cash, a certified check or a credit card to pay the driver for your move. Personal checks are not an acceptable form of payment.

6. What is not covered for damage?

Movers generally do not assume responsibility for the following:

• Documents, currency, jewelry, precious stones, furs and articles of extraordinary value, unless specifically listed on the Bill of Lading prior to moving.
• Loss or damage due to breakage of china, glassware or similar fragile items, unless packed and unpacked by the mover or unless visible exterior damage is done to the container and documented on delivery.
• Mechanical operating condition of appliances and electronics.
• Missing items not specifically inventoried by the driver and documented as missing on delivery.
• Items previously broken, repaired or glued.

• Damage to items not documented on delivery.

7. If there are any damages, how long do I have to file a claim?

Although you have nine months to file a claim, you are most likely to receive an equitable settlement if you document damage on delivery and file immediately.

8. How much notice do I need to give a mover to book a moving date?

A mover can accommodate most moves if he has at least two weeks notice, with a firm date. More time is preferable, particularly in the busy season (May to September). If you have less notice, call before agreeing to a firm date and he will do everything he can to accommodate you.

9. Are there any items I should not ship?

Do not pack or ship flammable items, propane tanks, liquid detergents, aerosol cans or any items that may cause damage to your shipment. This could void insurance coverage if there is an unforeseen accident.

10. How do I keep communications open on moving day?

Telephone and utilities should not be turned off until the day after you move.

Money is the one thing that causes more disagreements and stress than just about any other entity. Luckily, creating a budget for your home improvement project does not need to be intimidating or cause World War III in your living room. Just take this simple crash course in everything you need to know about remodeling finance.

How Much Can You Afford?

This question alone is enough to strike fear into anyone’s heart. The truth is not many people enjoy establishing a remodeling budget — and many just don’t. Many homeowners prefer to call a remodeling contractor and expect him or her to create the budget for them, which is not the best way to begin. How do you start off right? You can begin by taking these four easy steps in the right direction:

Step One: Decide how long you plan on staying in your home. The length of time you intend to stay in a home will affect how much money you should invest in it. If you are going to stay in the home for more than 10 years, you should spend as much as you are able to create the home of your dreams. However, if you are planning on moving in the near future, you should take care not to over-build for your neighborhood. Look into the real estate comparisons for your area and keep your investment in line with the average home sales price. You don’t want to invest thousands of dollars you won’t be able to recoup at closing.

Step Two: Make a list of all your debts. You should include any debts you pay on a monthly basis, such as mortgages, car loans, credit cards and any other items with a fixed monthly payment. This list should not include payments for groceries, utilities, telephone services or other general expenses. Call this list your monthly expenses.

Step Three: Determine your total gross monthly income. Include all sources of income that you would list on a loan application.

Step Four: Complete the following worksheet to determine how much you can afford to pay for your remodeling project on a monthly basis. These formulas are used when the remodeling project is going to be financed. Warning: Cash is not always the best option!

Calculations 101

Step One – DTI

Lenders use a simple Debt-to-Income (DTI) ratio to determine if a homeowner can afford the additional debt of a remodeling project:

Enter Your Total Monthly Expenses $

Add the Estimated Monthly Payment for the Remodeling

Project + $

Total = $

Divide the Total by Your Gross Monthly Income … $

DTI % =

Each lender will approve loans at a specific DTI percentage (most lenders will tell you what their set DTI ratio is, if you ask). For example, if the lender accepts DTI ratios of 45 percent and your DTI ratio is 30 percent, your loan would be approved. However, if your DTI ratio is 55 percent, you would need to find other financing options. Perhaps your lender offers debt consolidation loans that could reduce your DTI ratio, which brings us to the next step:

Step Two – The Maximum Payment

The next step is to determine the maximum monthly payment you can afford for remodeling. Multiply your monthly gross income amount by the lender’s maximum DTI allowance, and subtract your current total monthly expenses, excluding the estimated remodeling payment.

Gross Monthly Income $

Lender’s DTI ratio x

Subtotal = $

Total Monthly Expenses – $

Maximum Affordable Payment = $

If the last line is negative, you will not be able to borrow from that lender. See step 3 for further options.

Step Three – Consolidation

If your DTI ratio was above the lender’s accepted percentage, or if your maximum affordable payment was too low, you may want to consider a debt consolidation loan. This would incorporate your current debts into the home improvement loan. Not only does this allow you to roll your debts into what may be a tax deductible loan, it also provides one easy payment for your debts and lowers your DTI percentage. In addition, the interest rate on a debt consolidation loan may be lower, which will save you additional money.

Artificial lighting is a key element in creating a pleasing and safe home. Through various lighting methods, you can recreate a sunrise, the noonday sun or the sultry colors of dusk. You can evoke romantic emotions or illuminate any task at hand.

“The best way to achieve pleasing light is to use mixed combinations of lighting options,” says Joe Rey-Barreau, director of education at the American Lighting Association. “These include a variety of fixtures in a collection of styles.”

Mixed styles are the trend. Since the beginning of the 21st century, lighting fixtures are getting somewhat nostalgic, as are the lighting arrangements. Five to 10 years ago, recessed cans were the choice. While they are still popular, a variety of lighting choices and a trend toward more decorative fixtures are replacing the standard of the 1980s. One reason is that lighting and colors are becoming more complex. Homeowners today want a layered, decorative look that suggests comfort. This comfort level can be accomplished through a combination of ambient, task and accent lighting.

Ambient lighting provides overall lighting for a room. It often takes over when the natural lighting is not enough. Ambient lighting can be achieved in a number of ways: torchiere lamps, ceiling fixtures, fluorescent lighting and uplighting above cabinetry. It is the most common form of lighting.

Task lighting is self-explanatory. It is lighting that illuminates targeted areas for specific tasks. It also can be called a form of safety lighting, especially in rooms like the kitchen and bath. Task lighting could include options such as under cabinet lighting in the kitchen for meal preparation or reading lamps beside the bed. Recessed cans are one form of task lighting.

Accent lighting is used to highlight a focal point in a room, such as a work of art or architectural detail. It is used to focus the eye and add visual interest. It is often the most overlooked type of lighting in the home.

You should always use a combination of all three forms of lighting in the home.

In the past decade there have been technological advances that allow you to program multiple lighting settings on a main computer. When you need lights, you simply choose the program you want and push a single button. You can program a room or an entire house for various activities, such as a romantic evening, family time, reading, entertaining, etc.

Consider your lighting needs before you remodel. You may need to wire extra electrical outlets or fixtures to gain that extra bit of light - you don’t want to have to rip out walls later in order to get it. You must also realize that no two rooms will have the same lighting needs - there are too many variables that impact the effectiveness of lighting fixtures. For example, a black room will appear darker than a white room using the same lamp because of the lack of light being reflected back into the room. The black room will reflect only four percent of the light, whereas a white room reflects 80 percent.

You must take your interior decor into consideration when planning your lighting needs. The best place to start is to consider how you use the room, the types of moods you would like to create with your lighting, and how that lighting will reflect given your decorating scheme. Discuss your lighting desires with your remodeler or lighting designer before the work begins. Lighting can be an artistic addition to any home. It should be a main concern in your planning stage

Use these questions to help plan the most efficient kitchen for your lifestyle and cooking habits.

How do you currently use your kitchen?

How would you like to use your kitchen?

What type of pots and pans do you own? (You won’t want to buy a 14,000 BTU commercial range if you have pots and pans from a discount store.)

How do you prepare a meal? Do you use every pot and pan in the kitchen or do you simply tear open a box and toss it into the microwave?

On average, how many cooks use the kitchen at one time? (If you have multiple cooks in the kitchen, you may want to create separate work zones for more efficient use of the space.)

Are you a baker who would benefit from a lower counter or island? Do you require a fair amount of counter space for kneading and rolling out pie crusts and pastries?

How do you shop? If you buy in bulk, do you have enough storage space?

Is there a certain style cuisine you prepare that requires storage for special ingredients, such as varying sizes of pasta or exotic spices and oils, or storage for specialized utensils?

Do you enjoy cooking or is your kitchen more a gathering place than a gourmet retreat?

If it is a gathering spot, is there room for family or friends who are not involved in the meal preparation? Is that space convenient and comfortable for everyone?

Would a family desk be helpful in this space? If so, would you like a computer to be included?

Do you have children or teens that will be using the kitchen? If so, would it be helpful to have a separate area in the kitchen dedicated to sodas and snack preparation?

Have you taken safety issues into consideration? (This would apply not only to children in the kitchen, but also to elderly family members. Would some universally designed features such as multiple counter heights be helpful? Think about other safety concerns keeping your particular family composition and capabilities in mind.)

Is the lighting in the room sufficient? Do you need additional task lighting or more light in general?

Does your family eat together often? If so, do you want an eat-in kitchen? How many would you need to seat? Do you have enough room for all of them?

Do you entertain? How often? Do you prepare the meals yourself or do you have them catered?

What type of entertaining accoutrements will you need to store?

Are you storing any kitchen-related items in closets or rooms outside of the kitchen? Perhaps some china in a hall closet or dining room hutch? If so, do you want to continue storing these items outside of the kitchen or would you like additional storage for these items in the kitchen?

Have you made an inventory of the types of kitchen items you need to store to determine efficient placement and adequate storage space?

Is everything currently in the kitchen in working order?

Have you considered the energy savings afforded by newer, energy-efficient appliances?

Before selecting a skylight for your home, you need to determine what type of skylight will work best and where to improve your home’s energy efficiency.

Energy Performance

First, it’s a good idea to understand the energy performance ratings of skylights if you don’t already. You can then determine what energy performance ratings you need for your skylight based on your climate and home’s design.

For labeling energy-efficient skylights, ENERGY STAR has established minimum energy performance rating criteria by climate. However, this criteria doesn’t account for a home’s design. Therefore, if you’re constructing a new home or doing some major remodeling, you should also take advantage of the opportunity to incorporate your skylight design and selection as an integral part of your whole-house design-an approach for building an energy-efficient home.

Size and Position

The physical size of the skylight greatly affects the illumination level and temperature of the space below. As a rule of thumb, the skylight size should never be more than 5 percent of the floor area in rooms with many windows and no more than 15 percent of the room’s total floor area for spaces with few windows.

You should also consider a skylight’s position if you want to maximize daylighting and/or passive solar heating potential. Skylights on roofs that face north provide fairly constant but cool illumination. Those on east-facing roofs provide maximum light and solar heat gain in the morning. West-facing skylights provide afternoon sunlight and heat gain. South-facing skylights provide the greatest potential for desirable winter passive solar heat gain than any other location, but often allow unwanted heat gain in the summer. You can prevent unwanted solar heat gain by installing the skylight in the shade of leaf-shedding trees or adding a movable window covering on the inside or outside of the skylight. Some units have special glazing that can help control solar heat gain.

Skylight Glazing

When selecting a skylight for your home, it’s important to consider what type of glazing you should use to improve your home’s energy efficiency. Based on various skylight design factors-such as its orientation and your climate-you may even want different types of glazing for different skylights throughout your home.

Skylight glazing usually consists of either plastic or glass. Other glazing technologies may also be used for solar heat control.

Plastic Glazing

Plastic glazing is usually inexpensive and less liable to break than most other glazing materials. However, these plastic surfaces scratch easily, and they may become brittle and discolored over time. Many plastics also allow most of the ultraviolet (UV) rays in (unless the glazing is coated with a special film), which increases fading damage to furnishings. Acrylics and polycarbonates are the most commonly used plastic glazing. Acrylics are weaker than polycarbonates, but cost less. Although polycarbonates offer high impact resistance, some yellow with age.

Glass

Glass is usually found on the more expensive skylights. Glass is more durable than plastics and does not discolor. All glass used for skylights must be made of “safety glazing,” a generic term for both tempered and laminated glass. Tempered glass is the most impact resistant. Laminated glass is fabricated with a thin layer of plastic embedded near the center of the glass. Both keep the glass from breaking into large, sharp pieces. Skylights are often made with a tempered glass on the exterior side and a laminated pane on the interior side. This arrangement gives maximum impact resistance while protecting occupants from falling shards of glass.

Solar Heat Control Glazing

Because skylights are located on the roofs, they can result in large amounts of unwanted summer time solar heat gains and winter time heat losses. Manufacturers use various glazing technologies to reduce these impacts. The most common technologies include those also used for window glazing:

• Heat-absorbing tints
• Insulated glazing (double-glazed, triple-glazed)
• Low-emissivity (Low-E) coatings.

Some manufacturers even install a translucent insulation material between several glazing layers to create a more thermally efficient assembly.

Daylighting

Recent “high tech”" developments maximize skylights for daylighting. An “element” on the roof becomes an aperture for collecting sunlight. It may be a sun-tracking, open-sided cylinder; a large lens-like element; or merely a conventional skylight with a mirrored reflector mounted adjacent to it. This aperture may then connect to a mirrored pipe, or “light pipe,” which has a diffusing lens that mounts on or is recessed into the ceiling of the room below. Most tubular skylights have this feature.

These skylight designs, relative to equivalent traditional skylights, effectively reduce daytime overheating and nighttime heat loss, but they do not provide views or ventilation.

Ventilation

Skylights can provide ventilation as well as light. Ventilating a building through a skylight opening releases the hot air that naturally accumulates near the ceiling. Ventilating skylights usually open outward at the bottom, some more than others. Some units vent through a small, hinged panel. One design uses a swing-down inner sash with a protected vent strip above. This can reduce the potential for rain or snow entering the room if the vents are open. Skylights may be opened manually with a pole, chain or crank. Automated units with electric motors or pneumatic devices are also available. Some models incorporate moisture sensors to automatically close the skylight when it rains.

Larger skylights that can be used as doors are sometimes called “roof windows.” Roof windows are always located within a few feet of the floor.

Moisture Control

In very cold weather, skylights are often prone to water vapor condensing on the glazing. The accumulation of water may then drip into the room. Better skylights usually have an interior channel to collect the condensate so it can evaporate later. The most thermally efficient skylights are less prone to condensation problems.

Skylight Shapes

Skylights are available in a variety of shapes and sizes. The most common shapes include rectangular, circular, oval, diamond, triangular, multi-sided and tubular. Non-rectangular units usually use plastic glazing, but higher quality ones use glass. The glazing can be flat, arched, domed, pyramidal, or “warped plane”-flat on the low side and concave in section on the high side. Of these, the pyramidal, arched and domed shapes offer flexibility for positioning. Their raised design allows light to enter from more extreme angles than flat or warped plane units. This allows more positioning options.

The slope or curvature of the glazing also helps to shed moisture and leaves. These skylight designs also do not require the additional framing needed to slope a flat skylight for proper drainage on flat or low-slope roofs.

Tubular skylights are smaller than most other skylights. They consist of roof-mounted light or solar collectors, which increase their daylighting potential without the need to increase their size. Because the rooftop solar collector has a small surface area, tubular skylights minimize heat loss in the winter and heat gain in summer. Their small size also minimizes their impact on a home’s architecture.

Passive solar design uses the way heat naturally functions (whereby heat moves from warmer materials to cooler ones until there is no temperature difference) in order to generate energy for a home.

There are two types of radiation important to passive solar design: solar radiation and infrared radiation. When radiation strikes an object, it is absorbed, reflected or transmitted, depending on certain properties of that object.

Opaque objects absorb 40-95 percent of incoming solar radiation from the sun, depending on their color-darker colors typically absorb a greater percentage than lighter colors. This is why solar panels, for instance, tend to be dark colored. Bright-white materials or objects reflect 80-98 percent of incoming solar energy.

Clear glass transmits 80-90 percent of solar radiation, absorbing or reflecting only 10-20 percent. After solar radiation is transmitted through the glass and absorbed by the home, it is radiated again from the interior surfaces as infrared radiation. In this way, glass traps solar heat entering the home.

Five Elements of Passive Solar Home Design

The following five elements constitute a complete passive solar home design. Each performs a separate function, but all five must work together for the design to be successful.

Collector

Usually a window through which sunlight enters the building. Typically, the collector, or apertures, should face within 30 degrees of true south and should not be shaded by other buildings or trees from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m. each day during the heating season.

Absorber

The hard, darkened surface of the storage element. This surface, which could be a masonry wall, floor, panel or water container, sits in the direct path of sunlight. Sunlight hits the surface and is absorbed as heat.

Thermal mass

The materials that retain or store the heat produced by sunlight. The difference between the absorber and thermal mass, although they often form the same wall or floor, is that the absorber is an exposed surface whereas thermal mass is the material below or behind that surface.

Distribution

The method by which solar heat circulates from the collection and storage points to different areas of the house. A strictly passive design will use the three natural heat transfer modes-conduction, convection and radiation-exclusively. In some applications, however, fans, ducts and blowers may help with the distribution of heat through the house.

Control

Roof overhangs can be used to shade the aperture area during summer months. Other elements that control under- and/or overheating include electronic sensing devices, such as a differential thermostat that signals a fan to turn on; operable vents and dampers that allow or restrict heat flow; low-emissivity blinds; and awnings.

Direct Gain

Direct gain is the simplest passive solar home design technique. Sunlight enters the house through the aperture (collector) – usually south-facing windows with a glazing material made of transparent or translucent glass. The sunlight then strikes masonry floors and/or walls, which absorb and store the solar heat. The surfaces of these masonry floors and walls are typically a dark color because dark colors usually absorb more heat than light colors. At night, as the room cools, the heat stored in the thermal mass convects and radiates into the room.

Some builders and homeowners have used water-filled containers located inside the living space to absorb and store solar heat. Water stores twice as much heat as masonry materials per cubic foot of volume. Unlike masonry, water doesn’t support itself. Water thermal storage, therefore, requires carefully designed structural support. Also, water tanks require some minimal maintenance, including periodic (yearly) water treatment to prevent microbial growth.

The amount of passive solar depends on the area of glazing and the amount of thermal mass. The glazing area determines how much solar heat can be collected. And the amount of thermal mass determines how much of that heat can be stored. It is possible to undersize the thermal mass, which results in the house overheating. There is a diminishing return on oversizing thermal mass, but excess mass will not hurt the performance. The ideal ratio of thermal mass to glazing varies by climate.

Another important thing to remember is that the thermal mass must be insulated from the outside temperature. If the thermal mass is not insulated, the collected solar heat can drain away rapidly. Loss of heat is especially likely when the thermal mass is directly connected to the ground or is in contact with outside air at a lower temperature than the desired temperature of the mass.

Even if you simply have a conventional home with south-facing windows without thermal mass, you probably still have some passive solar heating potential (this is often called solar-tempering). To use it to your best advantage, keep windows clean and install window treatments that enhance passive solar heating, reduce nighttime heat loss and prevent summer overheating.

Indirect Gain (Trombe Walls)

An indirect-gain passive solar home has its thermal storage between the south-facing windows and the living spaces.

Using a Trombe wall is the most common indirect-gain approach. The wall consists of an 8/16-inch-thick masonry wall on the south side of a house. A single or double layer of glass is mounted about 1 inch or less in front of the wall’s surface. Solar heat is absorbed by the wall’s dark-colored outside surface and stored in the wall’s mass, where it radiates into the living space.

The Trombe wall distributes or releases heat into the home over a period of several hours. Solar heat migrates through the wall, reaching its rear surface in the late afternoon or early evening. When the indoor temperature falls below that of the wall’s surface, heat begins to radiate and transfer into the room. For example, heat travels through a masonry wall at an average rate of 1 hour per inch. Therefore, the heat absorbed on the outside of an 8-inch-thick concrete wall at noon will enter the interior living space around 8 p.m.

Isolated Gain (Sunspaces)

The most common isolated-gain passive solar home design is a sunspace. A sunspace-also known as a solar room or solarium-can be built as part of a new home or as an addition to an existing one.

Sunspaces may often be called and look a lot like “greenhouses.” However, a greenhouse is designed to grow plants while a sunspace is designed to provide heat and aesthetics to a home. Many elements of a greenhouse design that are optimized for growing plants, such as overhead and sloped glazing, are counterproductive to an efficient sunspace. Moisture-related mold and mildew, insects and dust inherent to gardening in a greenhouse are not especially compatible with a comfortable and healthy living space. Also, it is difficult to shade sloped glass to avoid overheating, while vertical glass can be shaded by a properly sized overhang.

Passive Solar Home Design for Summer Comfort

It makes little sense to save money on winter heating just to spend it on summer cooling. So in most climates, a passive solar home design must provide summer comfort as well. The solar heat in the summer must be blocked by an overhang or other devices, such as awnings, shutters and trellises.

Overhangs

The physical dimensions of an overhang are an important element because overheating will occur unless the overhang provides enough shade. Many variables-including latitude, climate, solar radiation transmittance, illuminance levels and window size and type-need to be considered for properly sizing an overhang in a specific locale. Therefore, it’s best to have an experienced solar designer or builder calculate the proper overhang dimensions.

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